Fundamentals of Vibrations

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration
Fundamentals of Vibrations
Introduces mathematical methods commonly applied to the analysis of
vibrations problems. These methods equally apply to acoustics problems
also.
1. MECHANICAL POWER
A harmonically-varying
dependencies
force
and
velocity
have
respective
time
F (t ) = F1 cos(t ) + F2 sin(t ) = F cos(t + F ) = Re( Fe i (t + F ) )
(1)
v (t ) = v1 cos( t ) + v 2 sin( t ) = v cos( t + v ) = Re( ve i (t + v ) )
(2)
From fundamental mechanics, the instantaneous mechanical power can be

calculated from
W (t ) = F (t )v(t ) = Re(F(t )) Re( v (t )) =

=
1
1
(F(t ) + F (t ) * ) ( v(t ) + v (t ) * ) =
2
2
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
(3)
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= (F(t ) v(t ) + F(t ) * v(t ) * + F(t ) v(t ) * + F(t ) * v(t ))/ 4,
(3)
which can be expressed in the form
W (t ) = (Re( F (t ) v (t )) + Re( F (t ) v (t ) * )) / 2 =
= Re( F ve i 2t +i F +i v ) / 2 + Re( F ve i F i v ) / 2 =
(4)
= Fv(cos(2t + F + v ) + cos( F v ))/ 2

Typically, it is the time average of the power that is of interest, and which
corresponds to the power that is fed into a mechanical system.
The time average of the first term, above, is zero, so that the timeaveraged power can be expressed as
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T
1
1
W = W (t )dt = Fv cos( F v )
T
2
(5)
where the overbar indicates time-averaging. Thus,
W=
1
1
Re(Fv * ) = Re(F * v )
2
2
(6)
From equation (6), it is evident that maximal power is delivered when force
and velocity are in phase, i.e., F = v , whereas no power, at all, is
delivered when the phase shift between those quantities is 90.
In that latter case, one can speak of the force being 90 ahead of the
velocity, F - v = 90, or 90 behind the velocity, v - F = 90.
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2. LINEAR SYSTEMS
Often in Vibrations our interest resides in the calculation of what effect a
certain physical quantity, called the input signal, has on another physical
quantity, called the output signal.
F ( t ) ,v ( t)
p ( t ) ,u ( t )
In p u t S ig n a l
L in e a r
tim e - in v a r ia n t
s y s te m
F ( t ) ,v ( t )
p ( t) ,u ( t )
O u tp u t S ig n a l
Figure 1 A linear time-invariant system describes the relationship between

an input signal and an output signal. For example, the input signal could be
a velocity v(t), and the output signal a force F(t), or the input signal an
acoustic pressure p(t) and the output signal an acoustic particle velocity u(t).
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From a purely mathematical standpoint, a linear system is defined as one in
which the relationship between the input and output signals can be described
by a linear differential equation.
If the coefficients are, moreover, independent of time, i.e., constant, then the
system is also time invariant.
A linear system has several important features.
The superposition principle implies that if the input signal a(t) gives rise to
an output signal b(t), and the input signal c(t) gives rise to an output signal d(t),
then the input signal a(t)+c(t) yields the output signal b(t)+ d(t).
The homogeneity principle states that if the input signal a(t) is multiplied
by a constant a, then the output signal is b(t).
A linear system is also frequency-conserving, in the sense that only those
frequency components that exist in the input signal can exist in the output
signal.
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Example
The figure shows an example in which the forces that excite an automobile are
inputs to a number of linear systems, the outputs from which are vibration
velocities at various points in the structure.
The vibration velocities are then, in turn, inputs to a number of linear systems,
the outputs from which are sound pressures at various points in the passenger
compartment.
By adding up the contributions from all of the significant excitation forces, the
total sound pressures at points of interest in the passenger compartment can be
found.
In this case, the linear system is described in the frequency domain by so-called
frequency response function.
The engine is fixed to the chassis via vibration isolators.
If the force F1 that influences the chassis can be cut in half, then, for a linear
system, all vibration velocities v1 vN caused by the force F1 are also halved.
In turn, the sound pressures p1 pN, which are brought about by the velocities
v1 vN, are halved as well.
With the simplifying assumption that all of the forces acting on the car are
uncorrelated, and that those forces are the only sound sources acting, it implies
that if all of them can be reduced by 5 dB, then both the linear sound pressure
level Lp and the A-weighted sound pressure level LA, are reduced by 5 dB
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ik
Z ji
(Picture: Volvo Technology Report, nr 1 1988.)
Here linear oscillations in mechanical systems are considered, implying

that the relation between the input signal and the output signal can be
described by linear differential equations with constant coefficients.
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Single Degree of Freedom Systems
Figure 2 shows a mechanical
single
degree-of-freedom
(sdof) system consisting of a
rigid mass m, a spring with
spring rate k, and a viscous
damper
with
a
damping
coefficient dv. The spring and
the viscous damper are located
between the mass and the
foundation, and are considered
to be massless. That implies
that the forces on the opposing
endpoints of each are equal
and oppositely directed, for
both elements.
F (t)
x(t)
m
dv
Figure 2 Single Degree-of-Freedom System.
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Newtons Second Law gives the equation of motion of the system
d 2 x (t )
dt
= F x ( x ( t ),
dx ( t )
, t)
dt
(7)
Fx contains the spring force, the damper force, and external exciting force
Fx = x(t ) d v
dx(t )
+ F (t )
dt
(8)
where m is mass of the body, is the spring constant, dv is the viscous

damping coefficient, F(t) is the external excitation, x is the displacement of
the mass, dx / dt its velocity, d 2x / dt2 its acceleration.
These two equations lead to a second order linear differential equation with
constant coefficients
d 2 x(t )
dx (t )
+ 2
+ 02 x(t ) = g (t )
(9)
2
dt
dt
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in which the following simplifications have been incorporated:
0 = m
= d v 2m
g (t ) = F (t ) m
(10)
where 0 is the eigenfrequency of the system, and is the damping constant.

The solution to the differential equation consists of both a homogeneous part
xh(t) that corresponds to the homogeneous differential equation, i.e., with the
right hand side equal to zero, and a particular solution xp(t) that corresponds
to the non-homogeneous differential equation, i.e., with the right hand side
non-zero.
x(t ) = x h (t ) + x p (t )
(11)
Because the system is linear, its particular solution, when the exciting force
is described by the rotating vector Eq.(12), represents an oscillation at the
excitation frequency, but with a different phase and amplitude. A reasonable
assumption for xp is given by Eq.(13),
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g (t ) = ge it
(12)
x p (t ) = x p e i e it = x p e it
(13)
That assumed form, substituted into Eq.(9), provides the following result:
2 x p e it + i 2 x p e it + 02 x p e it = ge it
The phase and magnitude of the complex amplitude
x p =
x p is given by
g
( 02
(14)
) + i 2
x p = x p e i
(15)
(16)
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x p =
g
( 02
= arctan
2 2
) + (2 )
2
02
+ n ,
(17)
n = 0, 1, 2,
(18)
From Eqs.(10) and (15), it is apparent that for 0, the stiffness determines the
displacement. Thus, the low frequency response is stiffness-controlled.
On the other hand, for 0, the mass m determines the displacement response;
the high frequency response, therefore, is mass-controlled.
Finally, for 0, the value of the viscous damping coefficient d is decisive for
the displacement; the response at frequencies around the natural frequency is
therefore said to be damping-controlled.
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The magnitude of the amplitude x p varies with circular frequency .
A normalized response, called the amplification factor , can be defined as
x p ( )
x p ( = 0)
(1 ( 0 ) 2 ) 2 + 4( 0 ) 2 ( 0 ) 2
(19)
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Two degree-of-freedom systems
The simple single degree-of-freedom system can be coupled to another of
its kind, producing a mechanical system described by two coupled
differential equations; to each mass, there is a corresponding equation of
motion.
To specify the state of the system at any instant, we need to know time t
dependence of both coordinates, x1 and x2, from which follows the
designation two degree-of-freedom system.
1
F 1 (t)
3
m2
m1
d v1
F 2 (t)
d v3
d v2
x 1 (t)
x 2 (t)
Figure 3 Two degree--of-freedom system.
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Newtons second law for each mass gives
m1
d 2 x1 (t)
m2
dt
dx (t) dx (t)
= F1x x1 (t), x2 (t), 1 , 2 , t

dt
dt
d 2 x2 (t)
dt
dx (t) dx (t)
= F2x x1(t), x2 (t), 1 , 2 , t

dt
dt
(20)
(21)
dx1(t)
dx1(t) dx2(t)
F1x = 1x1(t) 2(x1(t) x2(t)) d1
d2
+ F1(t)
dt
dt
dt
(22)
dx (t)
dx (t) dx (t)
F2x = 2 (x1(t) x2 (t)) 3 x2 (t) + d 2 1 2 d 3 2 + F2 (t)
dt
dt
dt
(23)
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Equations (20) - (23) give
m1
d 2 x1 (t )
dt 2
+ d 1
dx1 (t )
dx (t ) dx (t )
+ d 2 1 2 +
dt
dt
dt
+1x1(t) + 2 (x1(t) x2 (t)) = F1(t)

d 2 x 2 (t )
dx 1 ( t ) dx 2 ( t )
d 2
m2
2
dt
dt
dt
(24)
dx 2 ( t )
+ d 3
dt
2 (x1(t) x2 (t))+3x2 (t) = F2 (t)
(25)
Matrix and vector notation can be incorporated into Eqs. (24) and (25),
which is useful for generalizing to an arbitrary number of degrees-offreedom.
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Equations (24) and (25) are therefore expressed as
[M]
r
d 2x
dt
r
r r
dx
+ [D] + [K ] x = F
dt
(26)
where
[M ] =
m1
0
d 1 + d 2
d 2
[D] =
1 + 2
2
[K ] =
0
m 2
(27)
d 2
d 2 + d 3
(28)
2
2 + 3
(29)
x (t )
r
x (t ) = 1
x 2 (t )
(30)
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r
F (t )
F (t ) = 1
(31)
F
t
(
)
2
Once again, let the excitation forces and the particular solutions be
expressed by rotating vectors
F1 (t ) = F1eit
(32)
F2 (t ) = F 2 e it
(33)
x1p(t) =x1peit
(34)
x 2p (t ) = x 2p e it
(35)
Putting (32,33,34,35) into (26) gives
{ }
{ }
{ }{}
2[M] x p +i[D] x p +[K] x p = F
(36
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Solving to the homogeneous equations with the force vector set equal to zero
leads to the systems eigenfrequencies. Setting, moreover, the damping matrix
equal to zero, in order to obtain the undamped eigenfrequencies, the latter are
found to be real. Damping, on the other hand, brings about complex-valued
eigenfrequencies; the complex values contain information on both the undamped
eigenfrequencies and the system damping. The eigenfrequencies 1 and 2 are
given by the homogeneous equation
2 [M ] {x } + [K ] {x } = {0}
(37)
The condition for the existence of solutions to Eq. (37) is that the
system determinant is identically zero, i.e.,
det( 2 [M ] + [K ] ) = 0
(38)
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For a two degree-of-freedom system, Eq. (38) has two solutions
corresponding to two eigenfrequencies. A system with n degrees-offreedom has n eigenfrequencies. The eigenfrequencies of the two degreeof-freedom system are
1,2 =
1 + 2 2 +3
2m1
2m2
(1 +2 )2 (2 +3 )2
4m12
4m22
22 1 2 13 23
2m1m2
(39)
From linear algebra, it is known that there is an eigenvector corresponding

to each eigenvalue (eigenfrequency). These eigenvectors are mutually
independent (orthogonal), and contain information on how the system
oscillates in the vicinity of their respective eigenfrequencies.
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The mode shapes, x1 and x2, are obtained by substituting the
eigenfrequencies, i.e., the solutions of Eq. (38), into Eq. (37), yielding
12 [M] {x 1}+ [K] {x 1} = {0}
(40)
22 [M] {x 2 }+ [K] {x 2 } = {0}
(41)
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System with an arbitrary number of degrees-of-freedom
The results from the two degree-of-freedom system can be generalized to a
system with an arbitrary number of masses cascaded, i.e., coupled in series,
as in Figure 4.
F 1 (t)
m2
m1
d v1
F n (t)
F 2 (t)

d v2
x 1 (t)
x 2 (t)
n+1
mn
d vn+1
x n (t)
Figure 4 System with n cascaded masses
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The equations of motion become
m1
m2
d 2 x1 ( t )
dt 2
d 2 x 2 (t )
dt 2
+ d 1
dx 1 ( t )
dx ( t ) dx 2 ( t )
+ d 2 1
+
dt
dt
dt
+ 1 x1 (t ) + 2 ( x1 (t ) x 2 (t ) ) = F1 (t )
dx (t ) dx (t )
dx (t ) dx (t )
d 2 1 2 + d 3 2 3
dt
dt
dt
dt
2 ( x1 (t ) x2 (t )) + 3 ( x2 (t ) x3 (t )) = F2 (t ),
mn1
d 2 xn1(t)
dt2
(42)
(43)
dx (t) dx (t)
dx (t) dx (t)
dn1 n2 n1 + dn n1 n
dt
dt
dt
dt
n1(xn2 (t) xn1(t)) + n (xn1(t) xn (t)) = Fn1(t),
(44)
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mn
x n (t )
dt
+ d n +1
dx n ( t )
dx n ( t ) dx n 1 ( t )
+ d n
+
dt
dt
dt
+ n +1 x n (t ) + n ( x n (t ) x n1 (t ) ) = Fn (t ).
(45)
The mass matrix, damping matrix, and stiffness matrix, respectively,

become
m1
0
[M ] =
M
0
m2
0
L
L
0
O
0
0
M
0
mn
(46)
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d 1 + d 2
d
2
0
[D] =
1 + 2

2
0
[K ] =
d 2
d 2 + d 3 d 3
d 3
2 +3
3
n 1
0
n 1 + n
n
dn1 dn1 + dn
dn
0
dn
dn + dn+1
n + n +1
(47)
(48)
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where non-zero elements not shown in the equations are marked with a ,
and zero-valued elements are marked with a . One can even allow
masses to be coupled in parallel, as in Figure 5.
2
1
F 1 (t)
4
F 4 (t)
m2
dv2
m1
dv1
F 2 (t)
F 3 (t)
x 2 (t)
dv4
6
m4
dv6
m3
x 1 (t)
dv3
x 4 (t)
x 3 (t)
dv5
Figure 5 System with parallel coupling
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The equations of motion become
d 2 x1 (t )
dx 1 ( t )
dx 1 ( t ) dx 2 ( t )
m1
+ d 1
+ d 2
dt
dt
dt
dt 2
dx ( t ) dx 3 ( t )
+ 1 x 1 ( t ) + 2 ( x 1 ( t ) x 2 ( t ) ) +
+ d 3 1
dt
dt
+ 3 ( x1 (t ) x 3 (t ) ) = F1 (t ),
m2
d 2 x 2 (t )
dt 2
(49)
dx (t ) dx (t )
dx (t ) dx (t )
d 2 1 2 + d 4 2 4
dt
dt
dt
dt
2 ( x1 (t ) x 2 (t )) + 4 ( x 2 (t ) x 4 (t )) = F2 (t ),
(50)
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m3
d 2 x 3 (t )
dt 2
dx ( t ) dx 3 ( t )
dx ( t ) dx 4 ( t )
+ d 5 3

d 3 1
dt
dt
dt
dt
3 ( x1 (t ) x 3 (t )) + 5 ( x 3 (t ) x 4 (t )) = F3 (t ),
d 2 x 4 (t )
dx 4 ( t )
dx 2 ( t )
dx 4 ( t )
+ d 6
+ d 4
m4
dt
dt
dt
dt 2
(51)
dx (t ) dx 3 (t )
+ 6 x 5 (t ) + 4 ( x 4 (t ) x 2 (t ) ) +
+ d 5 4
dt
dt
+ 5 ( x 4 (t ) x 3 (t ) ) = F4 (t ).
(52)
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The mass matrix, damping matrix and stiffness matrix, respectively, become
m1
0
[M ] =
0
0
m2
0
0
0
m3
m4
0
0
0
(53)
0
d 2
d 3
d1 + d 2 + d 3
0
d 2 + d 4
d 2
d 4
[D] =
0
d 3 + d 5
d 3
d 5
0
d 4 + d 5 + d 6
d 4
d 5
1 + 2 + 3
2
[K ] =
3
2 + 4
0
3 +5
5
0
4
4 +5 + 6
(54)
(55)
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The general principle for generating these matrices, for systems in which the
directions of forces and velocities are defined as in figures 4 and 5, can
be summarized in the following way:
(i) the mass matrix is diagonal.
(ii) a diagonal element in the stiffness or damping matrix is the sum of the
spring rates or damping coefficients, respectively, of all springs /
dampers connected to the mass indicated by the row number of the
element.
(iii) an off-diagonal element at a specific row and column position in the
stiffness or damping matrix has the opposite (negative) of the value of
the spring rate or damping coefficient, respectively, for the connection
between the mass indicated by the row number and that indicated by the
column number.
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Frequency response functions
A frequency response function is defined as the relation between an output
signal Y() from a linear system, expressed as a function of the circular
frequency w, and the corresponding input signal X(),
H ( ) = Y( ) X( )
(56)
It can be interpreted as the proportionality constant in the linear

relation between the complex input and output amplitudes.
If the input signal is a force on a structure, knowledge of the
frequency response function permits the computation of the
resulting vibration at different points in the structure; if the input
signal is a pressure at a point in a ventilation duct, it permits the
calculation of the sound pressure at the outlet.
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Table 1 Frequency response functions commonly used in vibrations and acoustics.
Quantity
Input quantities
Dynamic flexibility or
Receptance H()
Displacement x()
Force F()
Mobility or mechanical
admittance Y()
Velocity v()
Force F()
Accelerance A()
Acceleration a()
Force F()
Dynamic stiffness ()
Displacement x()
Force F()
Mechanical impedance
Z()
Velocity v()
Force F()
Acoustic impedance
Z()
Acoustic volume flow rate Q()

Acoustic pressure p()
Specific impedance
Z()
Acoustic particle velocity u()

Acoustic pressure p()
Relation
H( ) = x( ) F( )
(57)
Y ( ) = v ( ) F( )
(58)
A( ) = a( ) F ( )
(59)
( ) = F( ) x( )
(60)
Z( ) = F ( ) v ( )
(61)
Z( ) = p( ) Q( )
(62)
Z( ) = p ( ) u ( )
(63)
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The dynamic flexibility Eq. (57), i.e., the relation between the displacement
x() and the force F(), for the single degree-of-freedom -system can, as in
Eq. (15), be described by
1
x()
1
H() =
=
=
2
F() m + i2m + 1 ( 0 ) 2 + i2 ( 02 )
(64)
The frequency response functions can be presented graphically in a

number of different ways. One possibility is to divide them up into real and
imaginary parts
H ( ) = Re( H ( )) + i Im( H ( ))
(65)
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For the single degree-of-freedom system considered,
Re( H ( )) =
(1 ( 0 ) 2 )
(66)
(1 ( 0 ) 2 ) 2 + ( 2 02 ) 2
Im( H ( )) =
2 ( 02 )
2
2
0
(1 ( 0 ) ) + ( 2 )
(67)
Figure 6 shows graphs of the real and imaginary parts of H(),

norm-alized by 1/ and with as a parameter. For = 0, the system
is critically damped, for < 0, it is weakly, or subcritically damped,
and for > 0 it is strongly, or super critically, damped.
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kRe(H(w))
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
0
a)
/o
35/51
kIm(H(w))
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
b)
/o
Figure 6 Dynamic flexibility of a single degree-of-freedom system divided into real

and imaginary parts.
36/51
Another possible representation of the frequency response function is in
terms of its amplitude and phase angle
H ( ) =
1
2 2
02 ) 2
(1 ( 0 ) ) + ( 2
( ) = arctan
2
(
(68)
(69)
37/51
A figure in which the amplitude and phase curves are plotted is
usually called a Bode diagram
H( )
5
= 0
= 0,10
= 0,30
= 0,70
= 0
= 20
1
0
/o
38/51
j [rad]
= 0
= 0,10
= 0,30
= 0,70
= 0
= 20
/o
Figure 7 Bode diagram of the dynamic flexi-bility of a single degree-offreedom system, with separate plots of the amplitude and the phase angle.
39/51
Damping
For a single degree-of-freedom system, we have thus far only used the viscous
damping coefficient dv or the damping constant to describe the losses. For
structures, it is more common to use the so-called loss factor to describe the
influence of different types of damping. In order to demonstrate how the loss
factor is defined, it will be useful to first introduce energy quantities for a single
degree-of-freedom system.
Considering a sinusoidal displacement x = x sin( t + ) , the kinetic and
potential energies can be expressed, respectively, as
m dx
m
Ekin = = 2 x 2 cos2 (t + )
2 dt
2
E
pot
x2 =
x 2 sin
( t + )
(70)
(71)
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The energy dissipated (i.e., spent or lost) in one period, can be
expressed as
Edis = Fd dx= dv
T
2 2
dx
dx
dx= dv dt =dv x cos2(t +)dt =
dt
dt
0
0
= d v x 2 2 T 2 = d v x 2,
(72)
in which we have used the relation T = 2. The lost factor is defined as

the dissipated energy per radian, divided by the maximum potential
energy,
Edis 2
dv
=
=
=2
max(E pot )
0 2
(73)
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For the case of the harmonic excitation of a single degree-of-freedom
system,
x p (t ) = x e it
F (t ) = F e i t
(74)
substitution into Eq.(9) yields
( 2 m + i d v + ) x = F
(75)
Then, from Eq.(73),
( 2 m + (1 + i )) x = F
(76)
As such, losses can be incorporated by defining a complex spring constant
= (1 + i)
(77)
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Analogue mechanical - electrical circuits
similarities to the equations used to describe electrical circuits can be
observed. Those similarities are used to define so-called analogue
mechanical-electrical circuits.
Assume that electric potential, or voltage, U and current I in an electrical
circuit have a harmonic time-dependence.
U(t ) = Ue i t ,
I ( t ) = Ie i t +
(78)
An ideal voltage source delivers a constant voltage, regardless of the

circuit to which it is connected, and an ideal current source delivers a
constant current, regardless of the circuit to which it is connected.
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I
Figure 8 An ideal voltage source and an ideal current source.

The complex ratio of the voltage to the current is called the impedance
U
Z =
= R + iX
I
(79)
where R is the resistance and X is the reactance.
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I
Figure 9 General passive

circuit element impedance Z.
Impedance
The most common passive circuit elements are resistors, R, inductors, L,

and capacitors, C.
I
a) Resistance
b) Capacitance
c) Inductance
Figure 10 Three common passive circuit elements are the resistor, the capacitor and the inductor.
Characteristic for passive circuit elements is that they do not supply energy to the system.
45/51
For the resistor,
U (t ) = RI (t ) U = RI
(80)
For the capacitor,
1
1
U (t ) =
I (t )dt U =
I
C
iC
For the inductor,
U (t ) = L
dI ( t )
U = i L I
dt
(81)
(82)
That approach to writing the relation between circuit elements, in

complex form, gives simple computational formulas for the
determination of the voltage and current in circuits. It is usually called
the i - method.
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Im
I
U = i L I
U = RI
90
Re
U=
I
i C
Figure 11 Relation between current and voltage for a resistor,

capacitor and inductor, presented in the complex plane.
47/51
For the resistor, the voltage and current are in phase. For the capacitor,
the voltage lags the current by 90. For the inductor, the voltage is 90
ahead of the current. In the case of a single degree-of-freedom system
with a harmonically-varying velocity
v = ve
(83)
the acceleration and displacement are also harmonic
dv
a=
= i veit = i v
dt
x = vdt =
1
i
veit =
1
i
(84)
(85)
48/51
For a mass, Newtons second law states
F (t ) = m
dv ( t )
dt
F = i m v
(86)
By comparison to Eq.(82), it is clear that if the force corresponds to

voltage, and the velocity to current, then the mass corresponds to
inductance (m L).
A spring obeys
F (t ) = v (t ) dt
F =
v
i
(87)
Comparing that to Eq.(81) shows that the spring rate is analogous to

the reciprocal of an electrical capacitance (k 1 / C). A viscous
damper, by definition, follows the law
F (t ) = d v v(t )
F = dvv
(88)
49/51
Comparison to Eq.(80) reveals that the viscous damping coefficient is
analogous to an electrical resistance (dv R).
Table 2 Summary of mechanical-electrical circuit equivalents, for passive circuit
elements
Component
Mass
Spring
Viscous damper
Equation
Equivalence
F = i m v
m L
F = v / i
1 C
F = dvv
dv R
50/51
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Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

F (t ) = F1 cos(t ) + F2 sin(t ) = F cos(t + F ) = Re( Fe i (t + F ) )

v (t ) = v1 cos( t ) + v 2 sin( t ) = v cos( t + v ) = Re( ve i (t + v ) )

From fundamental mechanics, the instantaneous mechanical power can be

W (t ) = F (t )v(t ) = Re(F(t )) Re( v (t )) =

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

which can be expressed in the form

= Fv(cos(2t + F + v ) + cos( F v ))/ 2

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

where the overbar indicates time-averaging. Thus,

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Figure 1 A linear time-invariant system describes the relationship between

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

(Picture: Volvo Technology Report, nr 1 1988.)

Here linear oscillations in mechanical systems are considered, implying

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Figure 2 Single Degree-of-Freedom System.

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

where m is mass of the body, is the spring constant, dv is the viscous

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

where 0 is the eigenfrequency of the system, and is the damping constant.

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Figure 3 Two degree--of-freedom system.

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

= F1x x1 (t), x2 (t), 1 , 2 , t

= F2x x1(t), x2 (t), 1 , 2 , t

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

+1x1(t) + 2 (x1(t) x2 (t)) = F1(t)

2 (x1(t) x2 (t))+3x2 (t) = F2 (t)

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Putting (32,33,34,35) into (26) gives

2[M] x p +i[D] x p +[K] x p = F

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

From linear algebra, it is known that there is an eigenvector corresponding

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

Fundamentals of Sound and Vibration

12 [M] {x 1}+ [K] {x 1} = {0}

22 [M] {x 2 }+ [K] {x 2 } = {0}

Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee