MODULE8

SLUDGEPROCESSINGANDDISPOSAL
Themainobjectiveofwastewatertreatmentistoreducethepollutionloadonreceiving
waters.Thetreatmentprocessesconcentratesomeoftheimpuritiesinasludgealong
withthemicrobialexcessbiomass. Watertreatmentalsoproducesasludgefromthe
chemicalcoagulationandseparationofimpurities.Thetreatmentanddisposalofthese
sludgesshouldbeconsideredasanintegralpartofthetreatmentprocess.Thetreatment
processes should be regarded therefore as a lowsolids stream (effluent or drinking
water)andahighsolidsstream(sludge).
Itshouldbeappreciatedthatthesludgesconsistmainlyofwaterandthatdewateringis
thefirstandmostimportantrequirementinsludgeprocessing.Thecostoftreatingthe
sludges, particularly for wastewaters, is a major component of the total cost of
treatment,andtheeffectsofthefinaldisposalmethodsandreturnflowsfromsludge
treatmentcanhavesignificantimplicationsfortheprecedingprocesses.

CHARACTERIZATIONANDSOURCESOFSLUDGESFROM
WASTEWATERTREATMENT
Humansdepositabout70gpercapitaperdayofsolidsintowastewater.With'garbage
grinders',thiscanreach100gperday.Theimpuritiespresentinthewastewatermust
eitherbetransformedintoinnocuousendproductsorbeeffectivelyseparatedfromthe
effluentstream. Impuritieswhichareremovedaredrawnoffassidestreamstothe
mainflowandpartiallyconvertedintogaseousproducts. Treatmentanddisposalof
sidestreamsisanessentialpartoftheoveralltreatmentprocess,andfrequentlythey
contributesignificantlytothetotalcostoftreatment.
Inconventionalwastewatertreatmentworks,themainsidestreamproducts,apartfrom
screeningsandgrit,arethevariousformsofsludge,comprising theunderflowfrom
sedimentationtankswhicheffectseparationofthegreaterproportionoftheremoved
impurities. Treatmentanddisposalofthesesludgesisdependentonthevolumeand
characteristicsofthesludgesproduced,whichinturnarerelatedtothetypeoftreatment
givingrisetothesludge.
Thesimplestclassificationofwastewatersludgesisbasedontheprocessfromwhich
theyareproduced.
Raw or primary sludge This is drawn from the primary sedimentation tanks. It
containsallthereadilysettleablematterfromthewastewater;plusanother1%collected
asscum;ithasahighorganiccontentmainlyfaecalmatterandfoodscrapsandis
thushighlyputrescible. Initsfreshstate,rawsludgeisgreyincolourwithaheavy
faecal odour. Both colour and odour intensify on prolonged storage under anoxic
conditions,leadingrapidlytoonsetofputrefactionandextremelyunpleasantodours.
Module9

Thisisoftenevidentinsmallworkswhensludgeisdrawnfromthesedimentationtanks
intoopenpitsfortransfertothedigestiontanks.
Primary sludge accounts for 5060% of the suspended solids applied. Primary
precipitates can be dewatered readily after chemical conditioning because of their
fibrousandcoarsenature. Typicalsolidsconcentrationsinrawprimarysludgefrom
settlingmunicipalwastewaterare6%8%. Theportionofvolatilesolidsvariesfrom
60%to80%.
Tricklingfilterhumusfromsecondaryclarificationisdarkbrownincolour,flocculent,
andrelativelyinoffensivewhenfresh.Thesuspendedparticlesareofbiologicalgrowth
sloughedfromthefiltermedia.Althoughtheyexhibitgoodsettleability,theprecipitate
doesnotcompacttoahighdensity.Forthisreasonandbecausesloughingisirregular,
underflowfromthefinalclarifiercontainingfilterhumusisreturnedtothewetwellfor
mixingwiththeinflowingrawwastewater.Thushumusissettledwithraworganicsin
theprimaryclarifier.Thecombinedsludgehadasolidscontentof4%to6%,whichis
slightlythinnerthanprimaryresiduewithraworganicsonly.
Wasteactivated sludge is a darkbrown, flocculentsuspension of active microbial
massesinoffensivewhenfresh,butitturnssepticrapidlybecauseofbiologicalactivity.
Mixedliquorsolidssettleslowly,formingaratherbulkysludgeofhighwatercontent.
Thethicknessofreturnactivatedsludgeis0.4%1.5%suspendedsolidswithavolatile
fractionof0.70.8. Excessactivatedsludgeinmostprocessesiswastedfromthe
return sludge line. A high water content, resistance to gravity thickening, and the
presenceofactivemicrobialflocmakethisresiduedifficulttohandle.Routingofwaste
activatedtothewetwellforsettlingwithrawwastewaterisnotrecommended.Carbon
dioxide,hydrogensulphide,andodourousorganiccompoundsareliberatedfromthe
settlings inthe primary basinas aresult ofanaerobic decompostion,andthesolids
concentration is rarely greater than 4%. Wasteactivated sludge can be thickened
effectivelybyflotationorcentrifugation;however,chemicaladditionsmaybeneededto
ensurehighsolidscaptureintheconcentratingprocess.
Anaerobically digested sludge is a thick slurry of dark coloured particles and
entrained gases, principally carbon dioxide and methane. When well digested, it
dewatersrapidlyonsanddryingbeds,releasinganoffensiveodourresemblingthatof
gardenloam. Substantialadditionsofchemicalsareneededtocoagulateadigested
sludgetomechanicaldewatering,owingtothefinelydividednatureofthesolids.They
dryresidue is30%60%volatile, andthesolidscontent ofdigestedliquid sludge
rangesfrom6%to12%,dependingonthemodeofdigesteroperation.
Aerobically digested sludge is a dark brown, flocculent, relatively inert waster
producedbylongtermaerationofsludge. Thesuspensionisbulkyanddifficultto
thicken,thuscreatingproblemsofultimatedisposal.Sincedecantingclearsupernatant
canbedifficult,theprimaryfunctionsofanaerobicdigesterarestabilisationoforganics
and temporary storage of waste sludge. The solids concentration in thickened,
aerobicallydigestedsludgeisgenerallyintherange1.0%2.0%asdeterminedby
digesterdesignandoperation.Thethicknessofaerobicallydigestedsludgecanbeless
thanthatoftheinfluent,sinceapproximately50%ofthevolatilesolidsareconvertedto
2

Module9

gaseousendproducts.Stabilisedsludge,expensivetodewater,isoftendisposedofby
spreading on land for its fertiliser value. For these reasons, aerobic digestion is
generallylimitedtotreatmentofwasteactivatedfromaerationplantswithoutprimary
clarifiers.
Mechanicallydewateredsludges varyincharacteristicsbasedonthetypeofsludge,
chemicalconditioning,andunitprocessemployed. Thedensityofdewateredcakes
rangesfrom15%to40%.Thethinnercakeissimilartoawetmud,whilethelatterisa
chunkysolid. Themethodofultimatedisposalandeconomicsdictatethedegreeof
moisturereductionnecessary.
Wastesolidsproductioninprimaryandsecondaryprocessingcanbeestimatedusing
thecalculationbleow.
Ws=Wsp+Wss
where

(1)

Ws=totaldrysolids,kg/day
Wsp=rawprimarysolids,kg/day
=fxSSxQ

where

f=fractionofsuspendedsolidsremovedinprimarysettling
SS=suspendedsolidsinunsettledwastewater,mg/L
Q=dailywastewaterflow,ML/d
Wss=secondarybiologicalsolids,kg/day
=(kxBOD+0.27SS)Q

where

k=fractionofappliedBODthatappearsasexcessbiological
growthinwasteactivatedsludgeorfilterhumus,assumingabout30
mg/LofBODandsuspendedsolidsremaininginthesecondaryeffluent
BOD=concentrationinappliedwastewater,mg/L
Q=dailywastewaterflow,ML/d

Thecoefficentkisafunctionofprocessfood/microorganismratioandbiodegradable
(volatile) fraction of the matter in suspension. For trickling filter humus, k is
assumedtobeintherange0.30.5,withthelowervalueforlightBODloadingsand
thelargernumberapplicabletohighratefiltersandrotatingbiologicalcontractors.
Thek forsecondaryactivatedsludgeprocessescanbeestimatedusingFigure1 by
enteringthediagramalongtheordinatewithaknownfood/microorganismratio.
Excesssolidsproductionforactivatedsludgeprocessestreatingunsettledwastewater
can be estimated without considering suspended solids input, by increasing the
calculated quantity by 100%. The k factor is the value determined from Figure 1
multipliedby2.0.

Module9

Thedesignofasludgehandlingsystemisbasedonthevolumeofwetsludgeaswell
asdrysolidscontent.Oncethedryweightofresiduehasbeenestimated,thevolumeof
sludgecanbecalculatedasshowninEquation1.
The foregoing formulations are reasonable for sludge quantities from processing
domesticwastewaterataveragedailydesignflow.

Figure1Hypotheticalrelationshipbetweenthefoodtomicroorganismratioandthe
coefficientkinEquation1.

CHARACTERIZATIONOFWATERTREATMENTSLUDGES
Water treatment plant wastes are suited to pressure filtration since they are often
difficult to dewater, particularly alum sludges and softening precipitates containing
magnesiumhydroxide.Gravitythickenedalumwastesareconditionedbytheaddition
oflimeslurry.Aprecoatofdiatomaceousearthorflyashisappliedpriortoeachcycle,
andconditionedsludgeisthenfedcontinuouslytothepressurefilteruntilfiltrateceases
andthecakeisconsolidatedunderhighpressure.Apowerpackholdsthechambersas
theequalisationtankprovidesuniformpressureacrossthefilterchambersasthecycle
begins.Priortocakedischarge,excesssludgeintheinletportsofthefilterisremoved
byairpressuretoacoreseparationtank.Filtrateismeasuredthroughaweirtankand
recycledtotheinletofthewatertreatmentplant. Cakeistransportedbytrucktoa
disposalsite.
4

Module9

Alumsludgesareconditionedusinglimeand/orflyash.Limedosageisintherange
10%15%ofthesludgesolids.Ashfromanincinerator,orflyashfromapowerplant,
is applied at a much higher dosage, approximately 100% of dry sludge solids.
Polyelectrolytesmayalsobeaddedtoaidcoagulation.Flyashanddiatomaceousearth
are used for precoating; the latter requires about 50.2 kg/m 2 of filter area. Under
normal operation, cake density is 40%50% solids and has a dense, dry, textured
appearance.
Alum sludge from surfacewater treatment is amenable to centrifuge dewatering.
Performancemustbeverifiedbytestingateachlocation,sincesludgecharacteristics
varyconsiderably.Ingeneral,aluminumhydroxideslurriesfromcoagulationsettlings
andgravitythickenedbackwashwaterscanbeconcentratedtoatruckablepastysludge
ofabout20%solids.Theremovalefficencyinascrollcentrifugerangesfrom50%to
95% based on operating conditions and polymer dosage, and the centrate is
correspondinglyturbidorclear. Abasketcentrifugethickeningthesamewastecan
providehighersolidscaptureandacleareroverflowevenwithoutpolymeraddition,but
thecakeisoftenlessdenseandcycletimelongerthanthatofascrollmachine.
Limesofteningprecipitatescompactmorereadilythanalumflocinascrollcentrifuge.
Asettledsludgeimputwith15%25%solidscanbedewateredtoasolidifiedcakeof
65%.Suspendedsolidsrecoveryisoften85%90%withpolyelectrolyteflocculation.
Theperformanceofthickenershandlingwatertreatmentplantwastesvarieswiththe
characterofthewaterbeingtreatedandthechemicalsapplied.Alumsludgesfrom
surfacewatercoagulationsettletoadensityintherangeof2%6%solids.
Coagulationsofteningmixturesfromthetreatmentofturbidriverwatersgravity
thickenapproximatelyasfollows:alumlimesludge,4%10%;ironlimesettlings10%
20%;alumlimewashwater,about4%;andironlimebackwashupto8%.Thedensity
achievedingravitythickeningrelatesto8%.Thedensityachievedingravity
thickeningrelatestothecalciummagnesiuminthesolids,quantityofalum,natureof
impuritiesremovedfromtherawwater,andotherfactors.
Calciumcarbonateresiduefromgroundwatersofteningconsolidatesto1525%solids.
Inmostcases,specialstudieshavetobeconductedataparticularwaterworksto
determinesettleabilityofsolidsinwastesludgesandwashwater.Flocculationaidsare
usedtoimproveclarificationinmostcases.

MASSANDVOLUMERELATIONSHIPS
Theconcentrationofsuspendedsolidsinaliquidsludgeisdeterminedbystraininga
measured sample through a glass fibre filter. Nonfilterable residue, expressed in
milligramsperlitre,isthesolidscontent.Sincethefilterableportionofasludgeisvery
Module9

small,sludgesolidsareoftendeterminedbytotalresidueonevaporation(ie.thetotal
depositremaininginadishafterevaporationofwaterfromthesampleandsubsequent
dryinginanovenat103oC).
Totalsolidsresidue(TSR)istheusualmethodofmeasuringthegrosssolidscontent.It
isdeterminedbyevaporatingtoconstantmassameasuredamountofsludge,weighing
theresidueandexpressingthisasapercentageoftheoriginalwetsludgemass.
Sludge moisture content (PM), equal to (100 TSR) per cent, is an alternative
parameter,commonlyquotedasameasureofgrosssludgecomposition.
Volatilesolidscontent(VS),measuredasthemasslossonignitionofthedriedsludge
solidsfromtheTSRtestatastandardtemperature(usually550600oC),isameasureof
theorganiccontentofthesludge. Itisthusrelatedtothepossiblereductioninthe
sludgemassbyincineration.Volatilesolidscontentisusuallyquotedasapercentageof
thetotalsolidsresidue.
Solids content remaining after ignition (ash) is termed the fixed residue (FR) and
definesthemassofinorganicmatterinthesludgeandthusthemassofsolidswhich
wouldremainforultimatedisposalafterincineration.

Volumeofsludge
Sincesludgescommonlycontainonlybetween1and10percentsolidsbymass,their
majorcomponentiswater. Filterbackwashwatercontainsevenmuchlowersolid
fractions. Furthermore,sincesludgesolidsareofsimilardensitytowater,thewater
contentaccountsformostofthevolumeofwetsludges. Sludgemoisturecontentis
thereforethesingleparameterwhichhasthegreatesteffectonthevolumeofsludgeto
beprocessedatagivenplant.Itisthereforeusefultoexaminesludgemoisturemass
volumerelationships.
Forasludgewhichcontains1percentdrysolids(moisturecontent,P M=99percent),
10kgofdrysolidsisassociatedwith990kgofwater.Theaveragedensityofwater
sludgesolidsis1400kg/m3andthedensityofwateris1000kg/m 3.Therefore10/1.4=
7Lofdrysolidsareassociatedwith990Lofwater;or,for10kgofdrysolidsina1per
centcontentsludge,thetotalvolumeoccupiedis997L. Similarly,fora2percent
solids,thevolumeoccupied,with20kgofdrysolids,is994L. Inbothcasesthe
amountofdrysolidshasonlyasmallinfluenceuponthetotalvolumeofthesludge.If
thetotalvolumeisassumedtobe1000L(oronecubicmetre),theerrorislessthan1
percentforsludgeconcentrationsupto3%.
Foranysludge,thevolume,V,isgivenby
V=Mass
Density
Ifthesludgehasadrysolidscontentlessthan20percent(thatisPM80percent),then

Module9

Densityofwetsludge DensityofWATER=1000kg/m3
Sludgevolume,V(m3)
=Totalmassofwetsludge Massofdrysolids
Massofdrysolids1000
=100 Massofdrysolids(kg)
100PM1000

(2)

Forexample,forasludgeof2percentsolidscontent,10kgofdrysolidswouldbe
containedinwetsludgewithavolumegivenby
V=100 10=0.5m3
100981000
Ifasludgeisconcentratedsothatthemassofdrysolids,Ss,remainsconstant,butthe
moisturecontentisdecreasedfromPM1toPM2,theratiobetweentheinitialvolume,V1,
andthefinalvolume,V2,isgivenby
V1=100 Ss 100PM2 1000
V2100PM11000100Ss
=100PM2
100PM1

(3)

Thus,removingwaterfromasludgeoflowsolidscontentaffordsadramaticreduction
involume.Doublingthesolidscontentfrom1to2percenthalvesthevolumeofwet
sludge.InTable9.1thedensityofdrysolidshasbeenassumedtobe1400kg/m 3for
sludgesofgreaterthan10percentsolidscontentandtheliquidisassumedtobewater
(density1000kg/m3).

Sludgesolidscontent
kgsludgeper
%
kgdrysolids
1
100
2
50
5
20
10
10
15
6.7
20
5.0
30
3.3
40
2.5
Table1Densityandvolumeofsludges

m3sludgeper
tonnedrysolids
100
50
20
9.7
6.4
4.7
3.0
2.2

TESTSFORDEWATERABILITYOFSLUDGES
Module9

Whereversludgeshavetobedisposedofinrestrictedlandareasortransportedover
long distances for ultimate disposal, some form of volume reduction is usually
necessary. From the above discussion, it is apparent that sludge dewatering is an
effectivemethodofvolumereductioninsuchcases.Itisalsoanessentialpretreatment
whereincinerationisrequired.Dewateringprocessesincommonuse,suchaspressure
filters,vacuumfilters andcentrifuges,requirefortheirdesignsomemeasureofthe
sludgedewateringcharacteristics. Twoalternativemethodsareusedtomeasurethe
easeofdewateringspecificresistanceandcapillarysuctiontime.
Specific resistance to filtration, r, is the most commonly used measure of sludge
dewatering characteristics. Itisdetermined bymeans ofalaboratoryapparatus for
filteringasampleofsludgeunderanappliedvacuum(Fig2). Duringthetest,the
volume,V,offiltrateisnotedatregulartimeintervals.Thesedataarethenplottedin
theformt/VagainstV.Theslopeofthestraightlineofbestfittothedataisthenused
tocalculatethevalueofspecificresistancetofiltration,asdescribedinthefollowing
development.

Fig2Apparatusforthedeterminationofspecificresistancetofiltration
Sludgefiltrationratehasbeendescribedbythefollowingrelationship
dV=PA

2.
dt(rCV+RMA)

(4)

whereVisthevolumeoffiltrate(m3);tisthetime(s);Pisthevacuum(Pa);Aisthe
filtration area (m2); is the filtrate viscosity (Pa.s); r is the specific resistance to
filtration(m/kg);Cisthesuspendedsolidsconcentration(kg/m 3);andRMistheinitial
resistanceoffiltermedium.
IntegrationofEq.4andrearrangementgives
t=
rCV+RM
V2PA2PA
Hence,fromaplott/VagainstV,theslope,b,ofthelineofbestfitisgivenby
b=
rC
8

Module9

(5)

andhence

2PA2

(6)

r=2PA

2b
C

(7)

whichcanbecalculatedfromthemeasuredappliedvacuum(49kPaisrecommended),
thefilterarea,filtrateviscosityandthesuspendedsolidsconcentrationofthesludge.
Thevalueofrobtainedbyusingsludgesuspendedsolidsissometimesreferredtoasthe
apparentspecificresistance,r,ratherthantruespecificresistancecalculatedfromthe
suspendedsolidsinthefiltercake.
Asludgeofhighspecificresistanceismoredifficulttodewaterthanoneoflowspecific
resistance. Sludgeswithaspecificresistanceof 1014 m/kgaredifficulttodewater.
Conventionaldewateringbymethodssuchasfilterpressingisfeasibleforr~2x10 12
m/kg.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatthevalueofrdependssocloselyonthenature
ofthesludgesolidsandthemechanismbywhichwaterisretainedwithinthesolids
matrixthat,fordesigningdewateringfacilities,itisnecessarytodeterminethevalueof
rfortheparticularsludgeconcerned.
Capillarysuctiontime(cst)
Sludgefilterabilitycanbedeterminedbytimingthemovementofwaterfromasludge
samplelongitudinallythroughfilterpaper.TheapparatusisshownschematicallyinFig
9.2.Sludgeisplacedinthesludgewellandthewatermovesradicallyoutwardsfrom
thesludge.Therateofadvanceofthesolventfrontistimedmanuallyorelectronically
asitmovesbetweentwopresetpointsonthefilterpaper. Thismethodprovidesa
simpletechniqueforestimatingdewaterabilityand,onacomparativebasis,canbevery
useful.Themethodreliesuponthevaryingpressureappliedbythemovementofwater
throughfilterpaper,sothatatheoreticallycompletemathematicaltreatmentofcstisnot
possible.
Thecstvaluesusuallycorrelatewellwithrdeterminations.However,itisbestifsuch
correlationisconfirmed experimentally. Thecstvalues donotallow forthesolids
contentandthereforeitisnecessarytospecifythesolidscontentofthesludge. Itis
possible for a sludge with a low cst value and a high solids content to be easily
dewatered.

Fig3Apparatusforthedeterminationofcapillarysuctiontime.

Module9

OBJECTIVESANDMETHODOLOGYINSLUDGE
TREATMENTANDDISPOSAL
Objectives
Themainobjectivesofsludgetreatmentare
a.

Reductioninthevolumeofsludgefordisposalbyremovingsomeofthe
water.

b.

Collectionofbyproductswhichmaybeusedorsoldtooffsetsomeof
thecostsofsludgetreatment.Unfortunately,thisisanidealrarely
achievedinpracticeexceptinthecaseofmethanegas,whichisproduced
inanaerobicdigestion.Themethaneisoftencollectedandusedasafuel
toprovideheatforcontrollingthetemperatureofthedigestingsludge
and,occasionally,fordrivingdualfuelengineswhichmaybeusedto
generatepowerforthetreatmentplant.Theproductionofacompostand
theuseofsludgesforagriculturalpurposescanbeviewedasause.

c.

Disposalofthesludgeinasafeandaestheticallyacceptablemanner.

d.

Destructionofpathogenicorganisms.

e.
.

Stabilisationoftheorganicmattercontainedinthesludge.

Methods
Sludgetreatmentanddisposalatanyparticularlocationmaycompriseanyorallofthe
stepsasoutlinedbelow.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Concentrationreductioninthevolumeofsludgetobetreatedby
encouragingthesludgetocompacttoahighersolidscontent.
Treatmenttostabiliseorganicmatter,destroypathogensand/oryield
byproducts.
Dewateringanddryingremovalofwater,thusreducingsludgevolume.
Sludgeswithlessthan80percentmoisturecontentareusually
spadeable.
Disposaltheonlyplaceswheresludgecanbedisposedofareintothe
air,ontolandorwater.Whetherornottheimpactonthereceiving
environmentislegally,aestheticallyandecologicallyacceptabledepends
onboththedegreeoftreatmentprovidedandthemethodofdispersing
thesludgeintotheenvironment.

Incomparingthevariousalternativemethodsofsludgetreatmentanddisposal,itis
importanttoconsiderallstepsnecessaryforthefinaldisposalofthetreatedsludge.

10

Module9

Aschemewhichincludesthemajorityofavailableprocessesforwastewaterandmainly
applicabletowatertreatmentsludgesisgiveninTable2.Notallthesemethodswould
bepractisedatanyonesiteandnotallofthemethodsarenecessarilycompatible.For
eachsite,therangeofoptionsrequiresconsideration.
Thickening

Stabilization

Dewatering

Gravity

Dryingbeds
Filterpress

Pyrolysis

Centrifuge

Anaerobic
digestion
Aerobic
digestion
Lagooning

Partial
disposal
Incineration

Centrifuge

Elutriation

Heattreatment

Wetair
oxidation
Composting

Flotation

Ultimate
disposal
Sanitary
landfill
Cropland
Ocean

Vacuumfilter
Beltpress
Lagooning
Table2Treatmentanddisposaloptionsforwastewatersludges

Mechanical dewatering reduces sludge volumes and is a necessity for incineration.

Ultimatedisposalofanyresidueorsludgeistolandorsea.Ifnondigestedsludgesare
beinghandled,particularattentionhastobepaidtoodour,insectandrodentinfestation
andhygiene.Subsequentsectionsdealingreaterdetailwithparticularprocesses.

GRAVITYTHICKENING
Gravitythickeningisthesimplestandleastexpensiveprocessforconsolidatingwaste
sludges. Thickeners in wastewaster treatment are employed most successfully in
consolidatingprimarysludgeseparatelyorincombinationwithtricklingfilterhumus.
Occasionally,rawprimaryandwasteactivatedsludgesareblendedandconcentrated,
butresultsareoftenmarginalbecauseofpoorsolidscapture.

Descriptionofgravitythickeners
AtypicalwastesludgethickenerisillustratedinFigure4.Thetankresemblesacircular
clarifierexceptthatthedepth/diameterratioisgreaterandthehopperedbottomhasa
steeperslope. Abridgefastenedtothetankwallssupportsatrusstypescraperarm
mountedonacentralshaft. Sludgeentersatthecentrebehindacircularbafflethat
directsitdownward,andsupernatantoverflowsaperipheralweir. Settledsolidsare
gentlyagitatedbyslowrotationofthescrapertodislodgegasbubbles,preventbridging
ofthesolids,andmoveslurrytowardacentralwellforwithdrawal.Feedisprovided
continuouslywhiletheunderflowmaybeextractedintermittentlyforfurtherprocessing.
Three settling zones in a thickener are the clear supernatant on top, feed zone
characterised by hindered settling, and compression near the bottom where
Module9

11

consolidationoccurs. Settlingdatamaybecollectedfrombatchtypelaboratorytests
conducted in small cylinders. These are influenced by such factors as cylinder
diameter,initialheight,temperature,effectofstirring,andsoon.Vesilindsuggeststhat
batchthickeningtestsusean20cmdiametercylinder,initialheightofatleast1m,
fillingthecylinderfromthebottom,andslowstirringofthesamplethroughoutthetest.
Continuousflowbenchscaleexperimentscanalsobeconducted,buttheyaredifficult
and often yield questionable results. Because of the problems in scaleup from
laboratoryunitstorealsystems,designersrelyextensivelyonexperienceacquiredfrom
studiesatfullsizeinstallations.
Evaluatingtheperformanceofathickenerofteninvolvesmassbalancecalculations.
Overflowplusunderflowsolidsequalsinfluentsolids.Also,thesumofoverflowand
underflow volumes is equal to the quantity of applied sludge and supplementary
dilutionwater.

Figure4Crosssectionalviewofagravitysludgethickener.
Example1
Awasteactivatedsludgewith0.4%solidscontentisgravitythickenedto2.0%witha
removalefficiencyof95%. Calculatethequantityofunderflowper1.0m 3 ofslurry
appliedandtheconcentrationofsolidsintheoverflow.Assumeaspecificgravityof
1.05forthedrysolids.
Solution
solidsapplied
underflowsolids

=
=

1.0m3x1000kg/m3x0.004
0.95x4

relativedensity,u,ofunderflowis
=98+2
____________________________________________

(98/1.0)+(2/1.05)

volumeofunderflow(eqn2)=massofdrysolids(kg)

12

Module9

=4.0kg
=3.8kg

=1.001

(100PM)/100xdensityofwater(kg/m3)xu
=3.8

0.0039m3

0.9961m3

___________________________________________

0.98x1000x1.001
volumeofoverflow=

1.00.0039

Theconcentrationofsolidsintheoverflowis
0.05x4x100

0.02%

200mg/L

____________________________________________

0.9961x1000x1.0

Designofwastewatertreatmentsludgethickeners
Theprincipaldesigncriterionissolidsloadingexpressedinunitsofkilogramsofsolids
appliedpersquaremeterofbottomareaperday(kg/m 2.d).Typicalloadingvaluesand
thickenedsludgeconcentrationsbasedonoperationalexperiencearelistedinTable3.
These data assume good operation and chemical additions, such as chlorine, if
necessarytoinhibitbiologicalactivity.Solidsrecoveryinaproperlyfunctioningunitis
9095%,withperhapstheexceptionofaunithandlingprimarypluswasteactivated
where it is difficult to achieve this degree of solids capture. Most continuous flow
thickenersaredesignedwithasidewaterdepthofapproximately3.5mtoprovidean
adequateclearwaterzone,sludgeblanketdepth,andspacefortemporarystorageof
consolidatedwastesludge.Sludgeblanketdepths(feedpluscompactionzones)should
be1morgreatertoensuremaximumcompaction,usingasuggestedsolidsretention
timeof24hrs.Thisisestimatedbydividingthevolumeofthesludgeblanketbythe
daily sludge withdrawal; values vary from 0.5 to 2 days, depending on operation.
Overflowratesshouldbe1637m3/m2.dandaredefinedbythequantityofsludgeplus
supplementarydilutionwaterapplied.
TypeofSludge

Averagesolidsloading
UnderflowConcentration
2
(kg/m .d)
(%solids)
Primary
97.6
810
Primaryplusfilterhumus
48.8
69
Primaryplusactivatedsludge
39
46
Table3Gravitythickenerdesignloadingsandunderflowconcentrationsforwastewater
sludges
Gravity thickeners are normally sized to handle the maximum seasonal or monthly
sludge yield anticipated. Peak daily sludge production often requires storage in the
thickener or other sludge processing units. Low liquid overflow rates result in
maladours from septicity of the thickener contents. A common remedy is to feed
dilutionwatertothethickeneralongwiththesludgetoincreasehydraulicloading.An
alternativeistoapplychlorinetoreducebacterialactivity.Thedesignofpumpsand

Module9

13

pipingshouldbesufficiently flexible toallow regulation ofthequantity ofdilution

waterandhavethecapacitytotransportviscous,thickenedsludges.
Example2
Thedailyquantityofprimarysludgefromawatertreatmentplantcontains500kgof
solidsataconcentrationof4.5%.Sizeagravitythickenerbasedonasolidsloadingof
50kg/m2/d.Calculatethedailyvolumesofappliedandthickenedsludges,assumingan
underflowof8.0%and95%solidscapture.Iftheblanketofconsolidationsludgeinthe
tankhasadepthof1m,estimatethesolidsretentiontime.
Solution
tankarearequired

500kg/d
50kg/m2/d

10m2

diameter

(10x4)0.5

3.5m

500
0.45x1000

11m3/day

overflowrateofappliedsludge =

11m

3/d
3.5x2

=0.5m3m1d1

volumeofthickenedsludge

500x0.95 =
(8.0/100)1000

5.94m3/d

solidsretentiontime

1x10x24
5.94

40hours

Useadepthof3m
volumeofappliedsludge

FLOTATIONTHICKENING
Airflotationismostapplicableinconcentrationwasteactivatedsludgesand
pretreatmentofindustrialwastestoseparategreaseorfineparticulatematter.Fine
bubblestobuoyupparticlesmaybegeneratedbyairdispersedthroughaporous
medium,byairdrawnfromtheliquidundervacuum,gasesreleasedbyelectrolysis,or
byairforcedintosolutionunderelevatedpressurefollowedbypressurerelease.The
latter,calleddissolvedairflotation,istheprocessemployedmostfrequentlyin
thickeningsludgesbecauseofitsreliableperformance.

Descriptionofdissolvedairflotation

14

Module9

Themajorcomponentsofatypicalflotationsystemaresludgepumps,chemicalfeed
equipmenttoapplypolymers,anaircompressor,acontrolpanel,andaflotationunit.
Figure5isaschematicdiagramofadissolvedairsystem.Influententersnearthetank
bottomandexitsfromthebaseattheoppositeend.Floatiscontinuouslysweptfrom
theliquidsurfaceanddischargedovertheendwallofthetank.Effluentisrecycledata
rateof30150%oftheinfluentflowthroughanairdissolutiontanktothefeedinlet.In
thismanner,compressedairat7001000kPaisdissolvedinthereturnflow. After
pressurerelease,minutebubbleswithadiameterabout80mformandattachtosolid
particles and become enmeshed in sludge flocs, floating them to the surface. The
sludgeblanket,varyingfrom200600mmthick,isskimmedfromthesurface.Flotation
aidsareintroducedinamixingchamberatthetankinlet.
Theoperatingvariablesforflotationthickeningareairpressure,recycleratio,detention
time,air/solidsratio,solidsandhydraulicloadingrates,andapplicationofchemical
aids.Theoperatingairpressureinthedissolutiontankinfluencesthesizeofbubbles
released. Iftoolarge,theydonotattachreadilytosludgeparticles,whiletoofinea
dispersionbreaksupfragilefloc. Generally,abubblesizelessthan100 misbest;
however, the only practical way to establish the proper rise rate is by conducting
experimentsatvariousairpressures.
Recycleratioisinterrelatedwithfeedsolidsconcentration,detentiontime,andair/solids
ratio. Detentiontimeintheflotationzoneisnotcritical,providingthatparticlesrise
rapidlyenoughandthehorizontalvelocitydoesnotscourthebottomofthesludge
blanket.Anair/solidsratioof0.0110.03kgofair/kgofsolidsissufficienttoachieve
acceptablethickeningofmostsludges.Optimumrecycleratiomustbedeterminedby
onesitestudies.

Figure5

Schematicdiagramofadissolvedairflotationsystem.

Operatingdatafromplantscaleunitsindicatesolidsloadingsof1020kgm 2h1 with

hydraulicloadingsofabout2.4m3m2h1,canproducefloatsof4%8%solids.Without

Module9

15

polyelectrolyte addition, solids capture is 7090%. However, removal efficiency

increasestoameanof97%,withapolymerdosageofapproximately4.5kg/tofdry
suspendedsolids.Thisisthereasonmostwastewaterinstillationsuseflotationaids.

Designofdissolvedairflotationunits
Whereverpossible,laboratoryandpilotscaletestsarerecommendedtohelpdetermine
specific design criteria for a given waste. Notwithstanding, the suggested design
criteriaforflotationthickeningoftypicalwasteactivatedsludgesarelistedinTable9.3.
Aconservativesolidsdesignloadingis10kgm2 h1 withtheuseofflotationaids.
Fromactualoperatingdata,atleast15kgm2h1 canbeexpected,andmostthickeners
haveabuiltincapacityfor2025kg/m2.h1 asspecifiedfordesignpurposes,and5%
6%solidscannormallybeexpected.Flotationwithoutpolymersgenerallyresultsina
concentrationthatisaboutonepercentagepointlessthanwithchemicalaids.Removal
efficiencyvariesfrom9098%withpolyelectrolyteaddition.Themaximumhydraulic
loadingfordesignissetat2m 3 m2 h1;thisisequivalenttoapplyingawastewitha
solidsconcentrationof5000mg/Lataloadingof10kgm 2 h1.Lessersolidslevelsor
higherloadingsresultinlowerremovalefficienciesand/ordensities.
ThetypicaldesignvaluesrecommendedinTable4applytoanticipatedaveragesludge
production.Thisprocedureprovidesasignificantsafetyfactorandpermitsflexibilityin
operations. Peak solids loads at municipal treatment plants can usually be
accommodated,sincetheseconservativedesigncriteriaallowamaximumloadingof
nearly100%greaterthantheaveragewithoutaseriousdropinperformance.Perhaps
themostcriticalconditionisduringaperiodofsludgebulkingwhenthewastemixed
liquorismoredifficulttothickenandmaximumhydraulicloadingisappliedtothe
flotationunit.

Table4Designparametersfordissolvedairflotationofwasteactivatedsludgewith
additionofpolyelectrolyteflotationaids
Parameter
TypicalDesignValue
AnticipatedResults
10
1525
Solidsloading(kgm2h1)
Floatconcentration(%)

56

9095

97

Polyelectrolyteaddition
(kg/tonneofdrysolids)

24

Air/solidsratio
(kgofair/kgofsolids)

0.02

Effluentrecycleratio
(%ofinfluent)

4070

Removalefficiency

16

Module9

Hydraulicloading
m3m2h1

2(max)

Sizingofflotationunitsforanexistingplantcanbecalculatedfromavailabledataon
sludgequantities,characteristics,andsolidsconcentrations.Fornewplantdesign,raw
wasteisoftenassumedtocontain0.1kgofdrysolids/capita/day.Aproportionofthe
solids is removed in primary settling, and a conservative estimate for secondary
activatedsludgeproductionis0.05kg/capita/day.Theactualamountismorelikelyto
beclosertoonehalfofthisvalue,becauseofbiologicaldecomposition.Solidsyieldin
an activatedsludge process without primary settling may be safely assumed to be
0.1kg/capita/dayfordomesticwastewater. Ifthewastesludgefromsuchasystemis
aerobicallydigested,theconcentrationofsolidsisreducedbyabout35%.
Operatinghoursofaflotationunitdependonsizeofplantandtheworkingschedule.
Althoughaunitdoesnotrequirecontinuousoperatorattention,periodicchecksofa
systemarescheduled.Generally,a48hour/weekisadequateforplantswithcapacities
of less than 7.5 mgd. For systems of 7.519 Ml/d, two shifts 5 days per week
establishesanoperatingperiodsof80h/week. Treatmentplantshandlingmorethan
80ML/d have operators on duty continuously, and thickening units are run on a
scheduleappropriateforsludgedewateringanddisposal.

Example3
A dissolvedair flotation thickener is being sized to process wasteactivated sludge
basedonthedesigncriteriagiveninTable4.Theaveragesludgeflowis125m 3/dat
15000mg/L(1.5%)suspendedsolids,andthemaximumdailyquantitycontains50%
more solids at a reduced concentration of 10 000 mg/L. What is the peak daily
hydraulicloadingthatcanbeprocessed?Baseallcomputationsona14h/dayoperating
schedule.
Solution
Theflotationtanksurfacearearequiredfortheaveragedailyflowatadesignloadingof
10kgm2h1fora14hr/dayscheduleis

=
125x0.015x1000 = 1875=13.4m2
10x14
140
Checkthesolidsloadingandoverflowrateatmaximumdailysludgeproduction:
maximumsolidsloading
=
1.5x1875
= 15m2h1
13.4x14
maximumsludgevolume
=
1.5x1875
= 281m3
0.01x1000

Module9

17

maximumhydraulicloading =

281
13.4x14

peakhydraulicloadingbasedon2.1m3m1h1

1.5m3m2h1

=
=

2.1x13.4x14
394m3/d

VACUUMFILTRATION
Rotaryvacuumfiltersarerarelyusedfordewateringsludgesfromplantswithdesign
flowsgreater than20ML/d. Adoption inhandling watertreatment plantwastes is
limitedtothickeninglimesofteningprecipitates.Alumcoagulationsludge,beingmore
gelatinous, does not dewater readily by suction; thus; pressure filtration is more
successful.

DescriptionofRotaryVacuumFiltration
TheprincipalcomponentsofavacuumfiltersystemareillustratedinFig.6.Positive
displacementpumpsdrawsludgefromclarifiersofholdingtanksanddischargeitintoa
conditioning tank. Here the waste is mixed with chemical coagulants metered by
solutionfeedersandisthenappliedthroughafeedchutetoavatunderthefilter.The
cylindricaldrum,coveredwithaporousmedium,ispartiallysubmergedintheliquid
sludge. Asis slowlyrotates, vacuumapplied immediately underthefilter medium
drawssolidstoformacakeonthesurface. Suctioncontinuestodewaterthesolids
adheringtothebeltasitrotatesoutoftheliquid;thenvacuumisstoppedwhilethebelt
ridesoverasmalldiameterrollerforremovalofthecake,andthemediumiswashedby
waterspraysbeforereenteringthevat.Collectingchannelsbehindthebeltinthedrum
surfaceareconnectedbypipestoacombinationvacuumreceiverandfiltratepump.
Theprincipalpurposeofthereceiverisairliquidseparation.Airtakenfromthetopis
dischargedthroughawettypevacuumpump,whilewaterfromthebottomisremoved
byafiltratepump.
Threecategoriesofrotaryvacuumfiltersaredefinedbythetypeofmediumusedand
mechanismforcakedischarge. Abelttypeunit(Fig6)canbefittedwithavarietyof
synthetic and naturalfibre filter cloths of differing porosities, such as wool, nylon,
Orlon,orDacron.

18

Module9

Figure6Rotaryvacuumfiltersystem.(CourtesyofEimcoProcessEquipmentCo.)
Acoilfilter hasamediumconsistingoftwolayersofstainlesssteelhelicallycoiled
springsabout0.4in.indiameter.Theyareplacedaroundthefilterdrumincorduroy
fashionwiththeupperlayerrestingonthebottomsprings,whichareheldinplaceby
grooveddivisionstripsattachedtothedrumsurface.
Adrumfilter differsfromtheprevioustwotypesdescribedinthattheclothcovering
doesnotleavethedrumforsolidsdischargeorwashing. Cakeisscrapedfromthe
fabriconthecylindersurfaceafterbeingloosenedbycompressedairblownthroughthe
mediumfromtheinside.Inhandlingwastesludges,dewateringmayhavetobestopped
periodicallytowashthedrumclothtopreventblinding.Forthisreason,beltandcoil
filtersarepreferred.
Theobjectivesofvacuumfiltrationaretoobtainanacceptablefilteryield,relatively
clearfiltrate, andhighsolids concentration inthecake andtominimise operational
costs.Filteryield,expressedinkgofdrysludgesolidsdischargedperm 2offilterarea
per hour, varies from 10 75 kg m 2 h1. Output increases with rising dosage of
coagulants;foragivenchemicalconditioning,yieldincreaseswithsolidsconcentration
inthefeedsludge.Solidscapturevariesfrom85%to95%,dependingonthetypeof
filter covering, the character and density of the applied sludge, and chemical
conditioning.Thecakesolidscontentisaffectedbythesamefactors,aswellasbythe
machine variables of vacuum pressure, drum submergence, and speed of rotation.
Optimum suctionrelates tocakecompressibilityarelativelyincompressiblesolids
layer dewaters better under high vacuum, while compressing an organic cake may
decreaseitsporosityandfilterability.Higherchemicalconsumptioncanincreaseyield
andreduce operating time, thus raising chemical costs while decreasing labour and
power. Disposal costs may be directly related to cake density. For example, the
expenseofhaulingarelativelywetsludgetoadistantlandfillmaybemorecostlythan
operatingthefiltertoproduceadriercake.

Module9

19

TheoryofVacuumFiltration
Thetheoreticalequationis
dV=PA2

dt

(8)(asinthetheoryofspecific

(rCV+RfA)

resistancetofiltration)

where V=volumeoffiltrate,m3(ml)
t=time,s(s)
P=pressuredifference,N/m2(dyn/cm2)
A=filterarea,m2(cm2)
=viscosityoffiltrate,Ns/m2(P)

r=specificresistanceofsludgecake,m/kg(s2/g)
C=massofdrysolidsperunitvolumeoffiltrate,kg/m3(g/cm3)
Rf=resistanceoffiltermedium(s2/cm2)
Thisbasicformulaassumeslaminarflow,uniformsolidsdepositionduringfiltration,
and a increases in filtrate flow resistance as the cake increases in thickness. For
constant pressurethroughoutfiltration, integration ofEq. 8yields (as showninthe
theoryofspecificresistancetofiltration).
t=rCV+Rf
V2PA2PA

(9)

andtheuseproceedsfurtherasshowninsectiononthetheoryofspecificresistanceto
filtration.
Thespecificresistancevarieswiththefilterarea,solidsconcentration,liquidviscosity,
andpressure.Forcompressiblesludgesolids,rhasbeenfoundempiricallytovaryas
r=r0(P)s
(P )
0

(10)

where r=specificresistanceatpressureP

r0=specificresistanceatpressureP0
s=coefficientofcakecompressibility
Thecoefficientofcompressibilityisdeterminedbyconductingaseriesoffiltrationtests
atvariouspressures.ThevalueofsequalstheslopeofthelinethroughrversusPdata
plottedonloglogpaper.

20

Module9

LaboratoryBuchnerfunnelfiltrationanalysesandresultingspecificresistancedataare
usedtomeasuredifferencesinsludgefilterability.Thebestchemicalconditioningfor
specifiedconditionscanbedeterminedbyaseriesoftestsconductedonsludgeportions
flocculated withincreasing chemical additions. A plotofspecific resistance versus
chemical dosage yields a dipping curve. Optimum dosage is at the point of least
resistance,whilesmallerorgreaterconditioningdecreasesfilterability.Althoughfilter
yield data can be derived from these tests, they are not recommended for design
purposes.

Example4
AwastesludgewastestedforfilterabilityusingaBuchnerfunnelapparatuswithafilter
diameterof7.5cmanda10psivacuumdrawnonthesample.For
50 ml of
filtrate,thedriedcakesolidscollectedonthefilterwere3.15g. Theslopeofthe t/V
versus Vdataplottedongraphpaperwas0.72s/ml 2,andthefiltratetemperaturewas
10C.Calculatethespecificresistance.
Solution
P=10psi=703dyn/cm2=6.90x104N/m2
A=(3.75)2=44.2cm2=0.00442m2
b=0.72s/ml2(100cm/m)6=72x1010s/m6
Thevalueofat10Cequals0.0013Nsm2
C=3.15g=0.063g/ml=63kg/m
50mL

SubstitutingintoEq.6,onefinds
4
2
x72x10
10=2.4x1013m/kg
r=2x6.90x10x(0.00442)
0.0013x63

SizingVacuumFilters
Vacuumfilter installations may be designed based on experience, pilotplant tests,
filterleaf testing, or a combination of these. In sizing equipment for dewatering
wastewatersludges,experienceindicatesthatfilteryieldwillbeabout5kgm 2h1for
eachpercentageofsolidsinthefeedsludge.Consequently,commondesignyieldsare
5kgm2h12939kg/m2hforrawsludgedrawnfromprimaryclarifiersand5kgm
Module9

21

2h1 2434kg/m2hforanaerobicallydigestedwaste. Thinsludgescontainingless

than4%solidsshouldbeconcentratedforeconomicalfilteroperation.

Equipmentmanufacturersleaseportablepilotplantvacuumfilters.Thesescaleddown
units,withadrumareaofabout1m2,canbeoperatedonsiteforsludgedewatering
evaluations.Pilotplantstudiesaresuperiortolaboratoryanalysessincebothmachine
andoperationalvariablesareconsidered.
AleaffilterapparatusforlaboratoryevaluationofsludgefilterabilityisshowninFig.7.
Thefilterholderisacirculardevicewithadrainagegridtofirmlysupportafittedcloth
mediumwithaneffectiveareaof0.01m2havingcharacteristicssimilartoafullscale
filtermedium.Aftertheapplicationofsuction,theunitisimmersedupsidedowninthe
sludge sample to simulate cake formation for 0.5 1.5 min. It is then carefully
withdrawnandhelduprightfordewateringforthesamelengthoftime. Formand
dryingtimesrelatetothespeedofdrumrotationandsubmergenceoffullscaleunit.
Immediatelyafterdewatering,thecakeisremovedfromthefaceofthefilter,andboth
cakeandfiltratecanbetestedforsolidscontent.

Figure7Filterleafapparatusforlaboratoryevaluationofsludgefilterability.
Thefilteryieldiscomputedusingthefollowingrelationship:
yield kgm2h1=drysludgesolids(kg)xcyclesperhour
filterleafaream2

(11)

Filterleafanalysisareconductedatvaryingchemicaldosagesandselectedoperating
conditions,sludgesolidsconcentration,vacuumpressure,andcycletime.Foragiven
setofconditions,valuesoffilteryield,sludgesolidscontent,andsuspendedsolidsin
thefiltrateareplottedversuschemicaldosageforgraphicalpresentation.Theairflow
usedindewateringthecakepercyclecanbecalculatediftheairflowthroughthefilter
leafismeasured.

22

Module9

Example5
Awastewatersludgewastestedforfilterabilityatvariouspolymerdosagesusingaleaf
filterapparatus(Fig7).Laboratoryanalysesincludedcakesolidsconcentration,filtrate
suspendedsolids,andtotalsolidsaccumulationonthefilterleaf.Equation11wasused
tocalculatetheyieldforeachtest.Theresultsfollow:

Polymer
Filter
Cake
Filtrate
Dosage
Yield
Solids
SS
(%) kgm2h1(%)
(mg/L)

0
2.8
20
2000
0.2
4.0
26
1000
0.4
5.8
28
600
0.6
7.0
29
500
0.8
7.8
28
400
Plotthetestdata.Selectthepolymerdosageandcakedensityforayieldof6.0kgm 2h1
Calculatethechemicalconsumptionpertonofdrysolids.Forthisyield,alsocalculate
theweightofcakeproducedandvolumeoffiltrateperm3of0.8%sludgeapplied.
Solution.
FromthegraphsplottedinFigure8,thepolymerdosagerequiredfora6.0kgm 2h1
yieldis0.43%,andthecakedensityis28%solids.
polymerdosage=0.0043x1000=4.3kg/tonneofdrysolids
drysolids/m3=.008x1000=8kg
Wetmassofcakeproduced/m3sludgefeed=
volumeofcake=

8
=28.6kg
0.28

28.6
3
1.05x1000 =0.027m

volumeoffiltrate/m3=10.027=0.97m3

Module9

23

Figure8PlotoffilterleafdataforExample5.

VacuumFiltrationofWastewaterSludges
Efficientdewateringrequiresaminimumsludgeconcentrationofabout4%solidsfor
acceptable yield and reasonable chemical conditioning. Many tricklingfilter plants
pump settled sludge directly from primary clarifiers to vacuum filtration. Gravity
thickening,althoughnotcommononsmallplants,maybeusedinlargeinstallationsto
increasetheperformanceofvacuumfilters.Unthickenedwasteactivatedsludgeisnot
dewateredseparatelybecauseofitslowsolidsconcentrationandhighpercentageoffine
particles. Itmaybevacuumfilteredaftermixingwithrawprimary,buttheblended
sludges should preferably be thickened for economical operation. One successful
schemeforpretreatmentofwastesfromanaerationplantisseparateflotationthickening
ofthewasteactivatedsludgefollowedbyblendingwithprimarywastesinamixed
holdingtank.
Vacuumfiltersaremanufacturedwithsurfaceareasrangingfrom10tomorethan30
m2.Basedontypicaldesigncriteria,thesmallestunitcandewatersludgefrom4ML/d
ofdomesticwastewaterinanoperatingperiodof68hr/day.Sizingoffiltersisbased
onananticipatedyield,whichisrelatedtosludgecharacteristicsandnumberofhoursof
operation. Thirtyhoursperweekarecommonly assumedforsmallplants,whilea
largeronesoperationsmayextendfortwoshiftspluscleanup,foratotalof20hr/day.
Fornewinstallations,itispopulartoassumeaconservativedesignloadingsuchas0.1
kg/dofdrysolidsperpopulationequivalentdesignloadonthetreatmentplant.
Chemicalconditioningofwetsludgeisnecessarytoachievesatisfactoryyieldanda
clear supernatant. Fine particles in untreated sludge tend to blind the medium by
pluggingthepores. Coagulation agglomerates theveryfineparticles thusreducing
filterresistanceandclarifyingthefiltrate. Minimumchemicalconditioningrequires
greaterthan90%solidscaptureindewatering.Recyclingofmatterinthefiltratecan

24

Module9

leadtoexcessivesolidscirculatingwithinthetreatmentplant,sotheircontinuousand
adequateremovalisessentialtoefficientoperation.
Commonchemicalsinconditioningarepolyelectrolytes.Allaremixedwithwaterand
appliedbysolutionfeeders.
Chemicaldosagesareexpressedaspercentagesofthedrysolidsfiltered;forexample,
2%conditionermeans2kgofcoagulantper100kgofdrysolidsinthefiltercake.The
tabulatedvaluesillustratetherelativechemicalconditioningforvariousresiduesandare
notintendedtobeusedfordesignoroperation.
Thechoiceofpolymersisbasedoneconomics,thedesiredoperatingconditions,andthe
methodofultimatecakedisposal. Anewdesignshouldhavetheflexibilitytoapply
different forms ofpolyelectrolytes. A minimum cakedensity of2025%solids is
generallysatisfactoryforhaulingtolandfill.Nevertheless,iflongdistancetruckingis
involved, a lower moisture content reduces the total weight of cake transported.
Incinerationrequiresalowmoisturecontentforburningwithaminimumofauxiliary
fuel.
Laboratory Buchner funnel and filterleaf analyses are advantageous in determining
suitablechemicaldosages.Specialfullscalestudiesmaybeconductedperiodicallyto
ensure economical performance and selection of the best coagulant, particularly if
variousbrandsofpolyelectrolytesarebeingcomparedforpossibleadoption.

Example6
Awatertreatmentplantproduces 2000m3/dofsludgecontaining5.5%solids.What
size vacuum filters are required, assuming a yield of 5.0 kgm 2h1 and 12 hr of
operationperday?Chemicalconditioningiswith1%polyelectrolyte.
Calculate the chemical dosages per ton of dry solids and mass of filter cake
producedperday.
Solution
drysludgesolids=2000x1000x0.055=110,000kg/d
110000

2
filterarearequired= 5x24 =917m

Polyelectrolytedosage=0.01x110000kg/d=1100kg/d
Wetmassoffiltercake=

110000 1100
=483tonne.(The0.23value
0.23

fromFigure8).

Module9

25

PRESSUREFILTRATION
Sludgescanbedewateredbypressurefiltrationusingeitherabeltfilterpressoraplate
andframefilterpress.Thebeltfilterpressconsistsoftwocontinuousporousbeltsthat
pass over a series of rollers to squeeze water out of the sludge layer compressed
betweenthebelts.Incomparisontovacuumfilters,beltpresseshavetheadvantageof
producingadriercakewithmuchlessenergyconsumption.Afilterpressconsistsofa
seriesofrecessedplateswithclothfiltersandinterveningframesheldtogethertoform
enclosed filter chambers. Sludge pumped under high pressure into these chambers
forceswateroutthroughtheclothfilters,fillingthechamberwithdewateredcake.At
theendofthefeedandpressurecycles,theplatesareseparatedtoremovethesludge
cake.Thistypeofpressurefilterisnotedforproducingadrycake.

DescriptionofBeltFilterPressDewatering
Abeltfilterpresscompressesthesludgebetweentwoendlessporousbeltstensioned
overaseriesofrollerstosqueezeoutthewater. Thebasicoperationalstepsofthe
processareillustratedinFig.9.Beforewetsludgeisdistributedonthetopoftheupper
belt,itisconditionedwithpolymertoaggregatethesolids. Initialdewateringtakes
placeinthegravitydrainagezone,wherethebeltissupportedhorizontallyonanopen
frameworkorgridthatallowsseparatedwatertodrainfreelythroughthebeltintoa
collectionpan. Mostmachinesuseadjustableplasticvanessupportedjustabovethe
beltsurfaceintheupperdrainagezonetoopenchannelsinthesludge,aidingtherelease
offreewater.Ratherthananopenframework,domemanufacturersusecloselyspaced,
smalldiameterrollerstosupportthebeltinthedrainagezone.Approximatelyonehalf
ofthewaterisremovedinthegravityzone;thus;thesolidscontentisdoubledandthe
sludgevolume halved. Afterdropping ontothe lowerbelt, the sludgeis gradually
compressedbetweenthetwobeltsastheycometogetherinthelowpressure,cake
formingzone.Thiswedgezoneterminateswiththetwobeltswrappingoverthefirstof
aseriesofrollers.Somemachineshaveuniformdiameterrollers,whileonothersthe
subsequentrollersdecreaseindiametertograduallyincreasepressureonthecake.As
the belts pass over these rollers, the confined sludge layer is subjected to both
compressionandshearingactioncausedbytheouterbeltbeingagreaterdistancefrom
thecentreoftherollerthantheinnerbelt.Dependingonthemanufacturertherollers
may be perforated stainless steel cylinders or plain carbon steel with a coating for
protection against corrosion. The belt tension, alignment, and drive rollers have a
rubber coating to increase frictional resistance and prevent slippage. The cake is
scrapedfromthebeltsbydoctorbladesheldagainstthebelts.
Beltsaremadefromseveralfabricsofsyntheticfibres.Monofilamentpolyesterwoven
fabricswithvisibleclearopeningsareusedindewateringwastewatersludges. Asa
result,solidspressedtightlyonthesurfacecanpenetratetheporesofthefabricand
beltsrequirewashingwithahighpressurewaterspray.

26

Module9

Figure9Schematicdiagramofabeltfilterpress.
(CourtesyofAshbrookSimonHartley).

ApplicationofBeltFilterDewatering
Themostsignificantvariablesthataffectdewateringperformanceofabeltfilterpress
are the sludge sludge characteristics, polymer conditioning, sludge feed rare, belt
tension, and belt speed. The characteristics of greatest importance in wastewater
sludgesarethesolidsconcentration,thenatureifthesolids,andpriorbiologicalor
chemical conditioning. A press is limited to a hydraulic capacity essentially
independentofsolidsconcentrationlessthanabout4%.Mostmanufacturerssuggesta
maximumhydraulicloadingof11.4m3/hpermeterofbeltwidth.Atsolidscontents
greaterthanabout6%,thecapacityofapressisrestrictedbysolidsloading.Thenature
ofthesolidsinfluencebothpolymerflocculationandmechanicaldewatering.Fibrous
solids,commonlyassociatedwithprimaryclarifiersettlings,aremucheasiertodewater
than the fine, bulky biological solids wasted from secondary activatedsludge
processing.
Themainperformanceparameters ofabeltfilterpressarethehydraulicandsolids
loadingrates,polymerdosage,solidsrecovery,cakedryness,washwaterconsumption,
andwastewaterdischarge.Hydraulicloadingisexpressedincubicmetressludgefeed
permetreperhour.Solidsloadingisexpressedasthepoundsoftotaldrysolidsfeed
permetreperhour(kilogramspermetreperhour).Thepolymerdosageiscalculatedas
kilogramspertonneoftotaldrysolidsinthefeed. Althoughthefractionofsolids
recoveryisthequantityofdrysolidsinthecakedividedbythedrysolidsinthefeed
sludgeitisoftencalculatedbasedonthesuspendedsolidsinthewastewater(filtrate
pluswashwater)asfollows:
solidsrecovery=

(totalsolids)
(suspendedsolids)
(infeedsludge)
(inwastewater)

totalsolidsinfeedsludge

Module9

27

Cakedrynessisexpressedasthepercentageofdrysolidsbyweightinthecake.For
easy comparison with hydraulic sludge loading, washwater consumption and
wastewaterdischargeareusuallyexpressedinunitsofcubicmetreperhourpermetreof
beltwidth.Theexampleillustratesthecalculationoftheseparameters.
Example7
Abeltfilterpresswithaneffectivebeltwidthof2.0misusedtodewaterawaterworks
sludge. Themachinesettingsduringoperationareasludgefeedrateof18.2m 3/h,
polymerdosageof1.8m3/hcontaining0.20%poweredpolymerbyweight,beltspeed
of6.1m/min,belttensionof4.7kN/mofroller,andwashwaterapplicationof15.4
m3/hat550kN/m2.Basedonlaboratoryanalyses,totalsolidsinthefeedsludgeequal
3.5%,totalsolidsinthecakeare32%,wastewaterfrombeltwashingcontains2600
mg/Lsuspendedsolids,andfiltrateproductionmeasures17.7m 3/hwithasuspended
solidsconcentrationof500mg/L.Fromthesedatacalculatethehydraulicloadingrate,
solidsloadingrate,polymerdosage,andsolidsrecovery.Commentontheproduction
waterusageandwastewatergeneratedrelativetothehydraulicsludgefeed.
Solution
hydraulicloadingrate

solidsloadingrate

9.1m3/mh

3
3
=18.2m

/hx1000kg/m
x0.035
2m

=320kg/mh

polymerdosage

=18.2

3
3
=0.5x1.8m

/hx1000kg/m
x0.002
(320kg/mh)/(1000kg/t)
=5.7kg/t

wastewatersuspendedsolids=washwatersolids+filtratesolids
3
3
3
3
+17.7m
/hx500g/m
)=24kg/m
h
=(15.4m/hx2600g/m
2mx1000g/kg
(notethatapproximately80%ofthewastesolidsareinthewashwater).
solidsrecovery

28

(32024)100=
(320)

Module9

93%

Washwaterconsumptionequals7.7m3/mhandthepolymerfeedis0.9m3/mhfora
total of 8.6 m3/mh, and hence the process water added very nearly equals the
9.1m3/mh sludge feed. Wastewater production is 16.5 m 3/mh, composed of 7.7
m3/mhwashwaterand8.8m3/mhfiltratefromthesludgeandpolymersolutionwater.
Thisequals1.8timesthesludgefeedrateof9.1m3/mh.

SizingofBeltFilterPresses
Beltwidthsofpressesrangefrom0.5to3m,withthemostcommonsizesbetween1.0
and2.5m.Somemanufacturerssupplyonly1.0and2.0mmachineswhileothersbuild
1.5 and2.5 munits. Theselectionduringdesignofasludgedewatering facility
dependsonsuchfactorsasthesizeoftheplant,thedesiredflexibilityofoperations,
anticipated conditions of dewatering, and economics. Typical results from filter
pressingofwastewatersludgesarelistedinTable5.Thesolidsloadingratesdepend
upon the feed solids concentration and hydraulic loading. Also, the cake solids
percentage decreases and the polymer dosage increases with greater dilution of the
sludges.Sinceperformanceoffilterpressingdependsonthecharacterofthesludge,
sizingofpressesfornewtreatmentplantswithoutanexistingsludgetotestmustbe
based on operating experience at other installations. New installations should be
conservativelysizedtoaccountfortheprobableinaccuracyinprojectingperformance.
Designofabeltfilterpressinstallationatanexistingfacilitycanbereliablydoneby
conductingfieldtestingusinganarrowbeltmachineenclosedinamobiletrailer.Most
manufacturersuseafullscale0.5or1.0mpressthatisrepresentativeoftheirlarger
machines. Duringthepreliminarydesignphase,arentedtrailerunitcanbeusedto
determine the dewaterability of the sludge and to establish testing criteria for the
performancespecifications.Aftersizinganddesignofthepressfacility,selectionofthe
pressmanufacturercanbebasedonbothcompetitivebiddingandqualificationtesting
usingtrailerunits,eitherindividually,withthelowerbidder'spressfirst,orasagroup
ofseveralproprietarymachinesoperatinginparallel.Thisprocedurereducestheriskin
designbydemonstratingthattheselectedmanufacturer'spresscanachievetheresults
requiredbytheperformancespecifications. Thistestingdoesnotreplaceacceptance
testingafterconstruction,whentheinstalledpressesareevaluatedtoensurecompliance
withthespecifications.
Table5

Typicalresultsfrombeltfilterpressdewateringofpolymerflocculated
wastewatersludges

Type
Feed
Hydraulic Solids
Cake
Polymer
ofSludge
Solids
Loading Loading Solids
Dosage
(%)
(gpm/m) (lb/m/hr) (%)
(Ib/ton)

Anaerobicallydigested
primaryonly
48
4050
10001600 2535
36
Anaerobicallydigested
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29

primarypluswaste
activated
25
4050
5001000 1526
612
Aerobicallydigested
withoutprimary
13
3045
200500 1122
814
Rawprimaryand
wasteactivated
36
4050
8001200 1625
410
Thickenedwaste
activated
35
4050
8001000 1420
68
Extendedaeration
wasteactivated
13
3045
200500 1122
814
Heattreatedprimary
pluswasteactivated
14
3550
10001800 3040
12

DescriptionofFilterPressDewatering
The two types of plateandframe filter presses are the fixed volume press and the
variablevolumediaphragmpress. Removalofdewateredcakefromafixedvolume
pressisdonebymanuallyseparatingthepressframesandlooseningthelayersofcake
fromtherecessedplateswithawoodenpaddleiftheydonotdropbyforceofgravity.
Thediaphragmpressisdesignedforautomaticoperation.Afteropening,thecakesare
forcefullydischargedandthefilterclothsautomaticallywashedbeforethepresscloses
for another cycle. Although the manual labour in operation is reduced, this
modificationincreasesthemechanicalcomplexity.
Comparedtovacuumfiltersandbeltpresses,filterpressesaremoreexpensive,have
higher operating costs, and are substantially larger machines for the same sludge
processingcapacity.Dewateringofwastewatersludgerequireslimeandferricchloride
conditioning;polymerflocculationisnotsuitable. Highcakedrynessistheprincipal
advantageofpressurefiltrationwithcakesolidscontentgreaterthan35%andupto
40%50%possible.
Chemicalconditioningimprovessludgefilterabilitybyflocculatingfineparticlessothat
thecakeremainsreasonablyporous,allowingpassageofwaterunderhighpressure.
Dosagesforconditioningwastewatersludges,expressedaspercentagesofdrysolidsin
thefeedsludge,arecommonly1020%CaOand58%FeCI3.Precoatingthemedia
withdiatomaceousearthorflyashhelpstoprotectagainstblindingandensureseasy
separationofthecakefordischarge. Filteraidfortheprecoatisplacedbyfeedinga
watersuspensionthroughthefilterbeforeapplyingsludge.Insomecasestheaidmay
beaddedtotheconditionedsludgemixturetoimproveporosityofthesolidsasthey
collect.
Solidscaptureinpressurefiltrationisveryhigh,commonlymeasuring9899%. The
organicsludgesolidscontentinatypicalcakeis35%.Iftheapplicationofconditioning
chemical were 20%, the cake would have a total solids concentration including
chemicalsof40%.

30

Module9

ApplicationofPressureFiltration
Water treatment plant wastes are suited to pressure filtration since they are often
difficult to dewater, particularly alum sludges and softening precipitates containing
magnesiumhydroxide.Gravitythickenedalumwastesareconditionedbytheaddition
oflimeslurry.Aprecoatofdiatomaceousearthorflyashisappliedpriortoeachcycle,
andconditionedsludgeisthenfedcontinuouslytothepressurefilteruntilfiltrateceases
andthecakeisconsolidatedunderhighpressure.Apowerpackholdsthechambersas
theequalisationtankprovidesuniformpressureacrossthefilterchambersasthecycle
begins.Priortocakedischarge,excesssludgeintheinletportsofthefilterisremoved
byairpressuretoacoreseparationtank.Filtrateismeasuredthroughaweirtankand
recycledtotheinletofthewatertreatmentplant. Cakeistransportedbytrucktoa
disposalsite.
Alumsludgesareconditionedusinglimeand/orflyash.Limedosageisintherange
10%15%ofthesludgesolids.Ashfromanincinerator,orflyashfromapowerplant,
is applied at a much higher dosage, approximately 100% of dry sludge solids.
Polyelectrolytesmayalsobeaddedtoaidcoagulation.Flyashanddiatomaceousearth
are used for precoating; the latter requires about 50.2 kg/m 2 of filter area. Under
normal operation, cake density is 40%50% solids and has a dense, dry, textured
appearance.
Wastewatersludgesareamenabletodewateringbypressurefiltration.

CENTRIFUGATION
Centrifugesareemployedforbothdewateringsludgesandthickeningwasteslurriesfor
further processing. Applications include sludges difficult to dewater by gravity
separation, such as alum coagulation residues and wasteactivated sludge and lime
softeningprecipitatespriortorecalcining.

DescriptionofCentrifugation
Allcentrifugeshavethesamebasicoperatingprinciple.Solidsareremovedfromthe
wastestreamflowingthroughthemachineundertheinfluenceofacentrifugalfieldof
100600timestheforceofgravity. Particlesaredepositedagainstthespinningsolid
bowlwhiletheoverflowisaclearliquidsupernatant. Thefundamentaldifferencein
centrifugesisthemannerofsolidscollectionanddischargethemethodofdischarge
determinesthesizeandnatureoftheparticlesremovedbyaparticularunit.Material
encountered in wastes includes a broad range of granular, fibrous, flocculent, and
gelatinoussolidsthatdifferinsettlingandcompactioncharacteristics. Therefore,the
typeofcentrifugeadoptedisdeterminedbytheparticularwasteaswellasdischarge
requirementsofsupernatantclarityandcakedryness.Thetwomostpopulartypesfor
handling sanitary wastes are the scroll or conveyor centrifuge and the imperforate
basket.
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31

Scrollcentrifugescanhandlelargequantitiesoffairlycoarsesolids(Fig.10). Two
principal elements arearotating solidbowlintheshapeofacylinder withacone
sectionononeendandaninteriorrotatingscrewconveyor. Feedslurryentersatthe
centreandisspunagainstthebowlwall.

Fig.10Solidbowl,scrollcentrifuge
(CourtesyofSharplesStokesDivisionPenwaltCorporation)
Settledsolidsaremovedbytheconveyortooneendofthebowlandoutoftheliquid
fordrainagebeforedischargewhileclarifiedeffluentdischargesattheotherendovera
damplate.Thissystemisbestsuitedforseparatingsolidsthatcompacttoafirmcake
andcanbeconveyedeasilyoutofthewaterpool.Ifsolidscompactpoorlymovinga
soft cake causes redispersion, resulting in poor clarification and a wet concentrate.
Flocculent solids can generally be made scrollable by chemical conditioning of the
sludge,andtheredispersingactionthatoccursinascrollmachineisadvantageousin
classificationofparticlesbycentrifugation.
Amajoradvantageofscrolldewateringisoperationalflexibility. Machinevariables
includepoolvolume,bowlspeed,andconveyorspeed.Thedepthofliquidinthebowl
andthepoolvolumecanbecontrolledbyanadjustableplatedam.

32

Module9

Poolvolumeadjustmentvariestheliquidretentiontimeandchangesthedrainagedeck
surfaceareainthesolidsdischargesection.Thebowlspeedaffectsgravimetricforces
onthesettlingparticles,andconveyorrotationcontrolsthesolidsretentiontime.The
driestcakeresultswhenthebowlspeedisincreased,thepooldepthistheminimum
allowed,andthedifferentialspeedbetweenthebowlandconveyoristhemaximum
possible. Flexibilityofoperationallowsarangeofdensitiesinthesolidsdischarge
varyingfromadrycaketoathickenedliquidslurry. Feedrates,solidscontent,and
prior chemical conditioning can also be varied to influence performance. Solids
removalandcakeconsolidation canbothbeenhances byaddingpolyelectrolytes or
othercoagulantswiththefeedsludge.
The performance of centifugal dewatering for given feed and machine operating
conditionsdependsonthedosageofchemicalcoagulants. Suspendedsolidsremoval
andusuallycakedrynessincreasewithgreaterchemicaladditions,whilecarryoverof
solids in the centrate decreases. There is, however, a saturation point at which
flocculentdosagedoesnotsignificantlyimprovecentrateclarity. Optimumchemical
conditioningwithoutoverdosingcanbedeterminedmostreliablybyfullsclaeorpilot
planttests.Forsomewastes,centraterecyclingcanimproveoverallsuspendedsolids
removal,butforothersitmaycauseupset,owingtoanaccumulationoffineparticles.

ApplicationsofCentrifugation
Alum sludge from surfacewater treatment is amenable to centrifuge dewatering.
Performancemustbeverifiedbytestingateachlocation,sincesludgecharacteristics
varyconsiderably.Ingeneral,aluminiumhydroxideslurriesfromcoagulationsettlings
andgravitythickenedbackwashwaterscanbeconcentratedtoatruckablepastysludge
ofabout20%solids.Theremovalefficiencyinascrollcentrifugerangesfrom50%to
95% based on operating conditions and polymer dosage, and the centrate is
correspondinglyturbidorclear. Abasketcentrifugethickeningthesamewastecan
providehighersolidscaptureandacleareroverflowevenwithoutpolymeraddition,but
thecakeisoftenlessdenseandcycletimelongerthanthatofascrollmachine.
Limesofteningprecipitatescompactmorereadilythanalumflocinascrollcentrifuge.
Asettledsludgeinputwith15%25%solidscanbedewateredtoasolidifiedcakeof
65%.Suspendedsolidsrecoveryisoften85%90%withpolyelectrolyteflocculation.
Scrollcentrifugesareemployedfordewateringwastewatersludges,althoughtheyare
notaspopularasfilters.Anaerobicallydigestedsolidsseparateeffectivelybecauseof
theirparticulatenature.Amoistcakeof20%30%solidscanbeproducedwith80%
95%recoveryandareasonablelevelofchemicalconditioning.Rawprimarysludgeis
more difficult to dewater efficiently, since it contains organics that are difficult to
clarifyandscroll. Foranaveragecakedensityof30%,solidsrecoveryis50%70%
withoutchemicaladditionbutincreasestothe70%90%rangewithproperchemical
coagulation. Thechoicebetweencentrifugationandmechanicalfiltrationisbasedon
bothperformanceandeconomics.

Module9

33

Basketcentrifugesmaybecompetitivewithdissolvedairflotationforthickeningwaste
biologicalsludgesincetheycanbeoperatedwithhighefficiency. Solidscapturein
excessof90%ispossiblewithoutchemicaladditionwhileproducingaconcentrated
slurry up to 10% solids. However, wasteactivated sludge thickening by scroll
centrifugationisgenerallyconsideredunfeasible,owingtocomplicationsinproducinga
clearcentrate.

SuspendedSolidsRemovalEfficiency
Centrate from dewatering sludge is returned to the head of a treatment plant
contributingsuspendedsolidstotherawwaterinfluent. Inadditiontocentratefrom
centrifuges, other recycled flows from sludge processes are, overflow from gravity
thickeners and filtrate from belt, pressure, and vacuum filters. Consequently, poor
solidscaptureinsludgethickeninganddewateringcontributetotheloadontheplant
andcyclingofsolidsaroundandwithinthesystem.Beingcolloidalinnature,manyof
thefinersolidspassthroughprimarysedimentationforcaptureinbiologicalaeration
andreturninthewastesecondarysludgeforthickeninganddewateringagain.Cycling
solidscanleadtooverloadingandupsetofalltreatmentprocesses.
A relatively easy method of estimating solids capture by a sludgethickening or
dewatering unit is to measure solids concentrations in the process flows. The
relationshipisdevelopedasfollows.ThesolidsmassbalanceisgiveninEq.9.12and
9.13:
MS
QS

=
=

MR+MC
QR+QC

where MS,QS
MR,QR
MC,QC

(12)
(13)

=massofsolidsandquantityofflowoffeedsludge
=massofsolidsandquantityofreturnflow
=massofsolidsandquantityofflowofthickenedsludgeorcake

Withoutintroducingsignificanterror,thespecificgravityofallflowscanbeassumedto
be1.0.Hence,themassofsolidsMinaprocessflowstreamistherateofflowQtimes
thesolidsconcentrationS.
M

QxS

(14)

Combiningtheseequationsresultsinthefollowingrelationships:
M C SC S S S R

M S S S SC S R

(15)

where MC/MS=fractionofsolidsremoval(solidscapture)
34

Module9

SC=solidsconcentrationinthickenedsludgeorcake
SS=solidsconcentrationinfeedsludge
SR=solidsconcentrationinreturnflow
QR S C S S

QS S C S R

(16)

where QR/QS=fractionoffeedsludgeappearingasreturnflow
Thesolidsconcentrations, S,canbewithintotalsolids(residueuponevaporation)or
suspendedsolids(nonfilterableresidue).Testingforsuspendedsolidsbythestandard
laboratorytechniqueoffiltrationthroughaglassfilterisfeasiblefordilutesuspensions
wheredissolvedsolidsareamajorportionofthetotalsolids.Incontrast,wasteswith
highsolidscontentsaredifficulttotestaccuratelybylaboratoryfiltration.
Therefore,suspendedsolidsanalysisofasludgesampleisperformedbyatotalsolids
testthatiscorrectedbysubtractinganestimateddissolvedsolidsconcentration. The
procedure does not create significant error since the filterable solid content usually
amountstolessthan5%ofthetotalsolidsinthesludgesamples.
Example8
Ascrollcentrifugedewatersanalumlimesludgecontaining8.0%solidsatafeedrate
of 5m3/m. The cake produced has a solids concentration of 53% and the centrate
contains9000mg/L.Calculatethesolidsremovalefficiencyandthecentrateflow.
Solution

FromEq.15,

solidsremoval=MC=53(8.00.9)=0.87=87%
MS 8.0(550.9)
SubstitutingintoEq.16yields
55 8.0

QR=5m3x
=4.34m3/h
55 0.9
Example9

The operation of a vacuum filter dewatering wastewater sludge was analysed by

samplingandtestingthefeedsludgeandcakefortotalsolidscontentandthefiltratefor
bothtotalsolidsandsuspendedsolids concentrations. Thepresenceofconditioning
chemicalswasignoredsincethepolyelectrolyteadditionamountedtoonly3%ofthe
solids content in the sludge.Based on the following laboratory results estimate the
suspendedsolidscaptureandthefractionofflowoffeedsludgeappearingasfiltrate.

Module9

35

TotalSolids
SuspendedSolids
(mg/L)
(mg/L)

Sludge
36,600
Cake
158,000
Filtrate
10,800
8700

Calculatethedissolvedsolidsinthefiltrate;
DS=TSSS=108008700=2100mg/l
Applying this value to the sludge and cake, one sees that suspended solids
concentrationsforallthreeflowsare
Sc=1580002100=156000mg/l
Ss=366002100=34500mg/l
SR=8700mg/l
Substitutingintoeqns15and16yields;
solidsremoval=Mc=156000x(345008700)=0.79(79%)
Ms34500x(1560008700)
Filtrateflow=Qr=15600034500=0.82(82%)
sludgefeedQs1560008700
The final stepof removing undesirable suspended matter is accomplished by either
gravityclarificationorfiltration.Recoveredalumsolutionisheldintanksandmetered
topointsofapplicationinthetreatmentplant.Wasteresiduefromprocessingistreated
withlime,dewatered,anddisposedofbylandburial.
Themostcriticalprobleminalumregenerationistheelimination ofimpurities that
cannotbeseparatedbygravity.Recoveredalumsolutionmaycarryoverresolubilised
ironandmanganese,inert solids suchasclay, carbonaddedforodourcontrol,and
colloidal organics charred by the sulfuric acid. One proposed scheme is pressure
filtrationofthereclaimedalumsolutionusingflyashasafilteraid.Neartheendof
eachfiltercycle,limeisappliedtoneutralisethecake. Gravityclarificationrecovers
onlyabout70%oftheoriginalalumfed,whilepressurefiltrationallowsnearly100%
recovery.Treatmentplantsshouldbeequippedtosupplynewalumincaseoffailurein
thealumrecoveryprocess.Forexample,highturbidityintherawwaterduringspring
runoffmayresultincontaminatedsludgethatcannotbeprocessedtorecoverthealum.

BIOLOGICALSLUDGEDIGESTION

36

Module9

Biologicaldigestionofsludgefromwastewatertreatmentiswidelypractisedtostabilise
the organic matter prior to ultimate disposal. Anaerobic digestion is used in plants
employingprimaryclarificationfollowedbyeithertricklingfilteroractivatedsludge
secondarytreatment.Aerobicdigestionstabiliseswasteactivatedsludgefromaeration
plantswithoutprimarysettlingtanks.Theendproductofaerobicdigestioniscellular
protoplasm,andgrowthislimitedbydepletionoftheavailablecarbonsource.Theend
products of anaerobic metabolism are methane, unused organic substances, and
relatively small amounts of cellular protoplasm. Growth is limited by a lack of
hydrogenacceptors.Anaerobicdigestionisbasically adestructive process,although
completedegradationoftheorganicmatterunderanaerobicconditionsisnotpossible.

Anaerobicsludgedigestion
Anaerobicdigestionconsistsof2distinctstagesthatoccursimultaneouslyindigesting
sludge.Thefirstconsistsofhydrolysisofthehighmolecularmassorganiccompounds
and conversion to organic acids by acid forming bacteria. The second stage is
gasificationoftheorganicacidstomethaneandcarbondioxidebytheacidsplitting
methaneformingbacteria.
Methane bacteria are strict anaerobes and very sensitive to conditions in their
environment. The optimum temperature and pH for maximum growth are limited.
Methane bacteria can be adversely affected by excess concentrations of oxidised
compounds, volatile acids, soluble salts, and metal cations and also show a rather
extreme substrate specifity. Each species is restricted to the use of only a few
compounds,mainly alcohols andorganicacids,whereasthenormalenergysources,
such as carbohydrates and amino acids, are not attacked. An enrichment culture
developedonafeedofaceticorbutyricacidcannotdecomposepropionicacid.
Thesensitivityexhibitedbymethanebacteriainthesecondstageofanaerobicdigestion,
coupledwiththeruggednatureoftheacidformingbacteriainthefirststage,createsa
biological system where the population dynamics are easily upset. Any shift in
environmentadversetothepopulationofmethanebacteriacausesabuildupoforganic
acids,whichinturnfurtherreducesthemetabolismofacidsplittingmethaneformers.
Pendingfailureoftheanaerobicdigestionprocessisevidencedbyadecreaseingas
production,aloweringinthepercentageofmethanegasproduced,anincreaseinthe
volitileacidsconcetration,andeventuallyadropinpHwhentheaccumulatedvolatile
acidsexceedthebufferingcapacitycreatedbytheammoniumbicarbonateinsolution.
Digesterfailuremaybecausedbyanyofthefollowing:asignificantincreaseinorganic
loading, a sharp decrease in digesting sludge volume (ie when digesting sludge is
withdrawn),asuddenincreaseinoperatingtemperature,ortheaccumulationofatoxic
orinhibitingsubstance.

SingleStageFloatingCoverDigesters
ThecrosssectionofatypicalfloatingcoverdigestiontankisshowninFig11.Raw
sludgeispumpedintothedigesterthroughpipesterminatingeithernearthecentreof

Module9

37

thetankorinthegasdome.Pumpingsludgeintothedomehelpstobreakupthescum
layerthatformsonitssurface.
Digestedsludgeiswithdrawnfromthetankbottom.Thecontentsareheatedinthezone
ofdigestingsludgebypumpingthemthroughanexternalheaterandreturningtheslurry
through the inlet lines. The tank contents stratify with the scum layer on top and
digested, thickened sludge on the bottom. The middle zones consist of a layer of
supernatant (water ofseparation) underlain bythezoneofactively digested sludge.
Supernatantisdrawnfromthedigesterthroughanyoneofaseriesofpipesextending
outofthetankwall.Digestiongasfromthegasdomeisburnedasfuelintheexternal
heaterorwastedtoagasburner.
Theweightofthecoverissupportedbysludge,andtheliquidforcedupbetweenthe
tankwallandthesideofthecoverprovidesagasseal.Gasrisesoutofthedigesting
sludge,movesalongtheceilingofthecover,andcollectsinthegasdome.Thecover
canfloatonthesurfaceofthesludgebetweenthelandingbracketsandtheheightofthe
overflow pipe. Rollers around the circumference of the cover keep it from binding
againstthetankwall..
Table6GeneralConditionsForSludgeDigestion.
Temperature
Optimum
Generalrangeofoperation
pH
Optimum
Generallimits

35oC
29oC
7.07.1
6.77.4

GasProduction
Perkgofvolatilesolidsadded
Perkgofvolatilesolidsdestroyed

0.50.8m3
11.1m3

GasComposition
Methane
CarbonDioxide
Hydrogensulfide

65%69%
31%35%
Trace

Volatileacidsconcentrationasaceticacid
Normaloperation
Maximum

200800mg/L
Approx.2000mg/L

AlkalinityconcentrationsasCaCO3
Normaloperation

20003500mg/L

Threefunctionsofasinglestagefloatingcoverdigesterare(1)anaerobicdigestionof
thevolatilesolids,(2)gravitythickening, and(3)storageofthedigestedsludge.A
floatingcoverfeatureofthetankprovidesforastoragevolumeequaltoapproximately
onethirdthatofthetank.Theunmixedoperationofthetankpermitsgravitythickening
38

Module9

ofsludgesolidsandwithdrawaloftheseparatedsupernatant.Anaerobicdigestionofthe
sludgesolidsispromotedbymaintainingnearoptimumtemperatureandstirringthe
digesting sludge through the recirculation of heated sludge. However, the rate of
biologicalactivityisinhibitedbythelackofmixing;ontheotherhand,goodmixing
wouldpreventsupernatantformation.Therefore,insingletankoperation,thebiological
processiscompromisedtoallowbothdigestionandthickeningtooccurinthesame
tank.Sludgeandsupernatantarewithdrawnintermittently,usuallyonadailybasis.The
latterisreturnedtothewastewaterintake.
Digestedsludgeisstoredinthetankandwithdrawnperiodicallyfordisposal.Spreading
ofliquidsludgeongrasslandorcroplandiscommonpracticeinagriculturalregions.In
someplants,itisdriedonsandbedsorinlagoonsandhauledtolandburial.Ineither
case, weather often dictates the schedule for digested sludge disposal. In northern
climates,thecoverisloweredascloseaspossibletothecorbels(landingbrackets)in
thefalloftheyeartomaximumvolumeforwintersludgestorage.

Figure11Crosssectionofatypicalfloatingcoverdigester

HighRate(CompletelyMixed)Digesters

Module9

39

Thebiologicalprocessofanaerobicdigestionissignificantlyimprovedbycomplete
mixingofthedigestingsludgeeithermechanicallyorbyuseofcompresseddigestion
gases.Mechanicalmixingisnormallyaccomplishedbyanimpellersuspendedfromthe
coverofthedigester(Fig.12a).Threecommonmethodsofgasmixingaretheinjection
ofcompressedgasthroughaseriesofsmalldiameterpipeshangingfromthecoverinto
thedigestingsludge(Fig.12b);theuseofadrafttubeinthecenterofthetank,with
compressedgasinjectedintothetubetoliftrecirculatingsludgefromthebottomand
spillitoutontop(Fig.12c);andsupplyingcompressedgastoanumberofdiffusers
mountedinthecenteratthebottomofthetank(Fig.12d).
Acompletelymixeddigestermayhaveeitherafixedorfloatingcovertank.Digesting
sludge is displaced when raw sludge is pumped into a fixedcover tank. Digesting
sludgeisdisplacedwhenrawsludgeispumpedintoafixedcoverdigester.Byuseofa
floating cover, tank volume is available for the storage of digesting sludge, and
withdrawalsdonothavetocoincidewiththeintroductionofrawsludge.

Figure12 Highratedigestermixingsystems.(a)Mechanicalmixing.(b)Gasmixing
usingaseriesofgasdischargepipes.(c)Gasmixingusingacentraldrafttube.(d)Gas
mixingusingdiffusersmountedonthetankbottom.
Mixingpreventsseparationtherefore,thickeningcannotbeperformedinacompletely
mixeddigester.Highratedigestionsystemsnormallyconsistoftwotanksoperatedin
40

Module9

series(Fig.13).Thefirststageisacompletelymixed,heated,floating,orfixedcover
digesterfedascontinuouslyaspossible,whosefunctionisanaerobicdigestionofthe
volatilesolids.Thesecondstagemaybeheatedorunheated,anditaccomplishesgravity
thickeningandstorageofthedigestedsludge.Twostagesystemsmayconsistoftwo
similarfloatingcovertankswithprovisionsformixinginonetank.

VolatileSolidsLoadingsandDetentionTimes
Typicalrangesofladingsanddetentiontimesemployedinthedesignandoperationof
heatedanaerobicdigestiontankstreatingdomesticwastesludgearelistedinTable7.
Valuesgivenforvolatilesolidsloadinganddigestercapacityforconventional,single
stage digesters are based on the total sludge volume available in the tank (ie., the
volumewiththefloatingcoverfullyraised).Figuresgivenforhighratedigestionapply
onlytothevolumeneededforthefirststagetank. Therearenoestablisheddesign
standards for the tank capacity required in secondstage thickening and supernatant
separation.

Figure13Twostagedigestersystem,showingpipingincontrolroomandexternal
sludge heater.
Table7Loadingsanddetentiontimesforheatedanaerobicdigesters.

Conventional
FirstStage
SingleStage
HighRate

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41

(Unmixed)

(CompletelyMixed)
Loading(kgm3d1ofVS)
0.30.8
1.53
Detectiontime(days)
3090
1015
Capacityofdigester
(m3/population/equivalent)
Primaryonly
0.030.06
0.0110.015
PrimaryandSecondary
0.120.18
0.020.04
Volatilesolidsreduction(%)

5070

50

AnaerobicDigesterCapacity
Amaximumof0.6kgm3d1(1.3kgm3d1)volatilesolidsforhighratedigestion
and a maximum of VS loading for single stage operation is recommended. These
loadingsassumethattherawsludgeisderivedfromdomesticwastewater,thedigestion
temperatureisintherangeof29C30C,volatilesolidsreductionis40%50%,and
thedigestedsludgeisremovedfrequentlyfromthedigester.
Anaerobicdigestersaremuchmoredifficulttostartoperatingthanareaerobicsystems.
Thisisbecauseoftheslowgrowthrateandsensitivityofmethaneformingbacteria.If
asubstantialamountofdigestingsludgefromanoperatingdigesterisusedasseed,a
newdigestercanbeinoperationwithinafewweeks.However,ifonlyrawsludgeis
available,startupmaytakemonths.Normalprocedureforstartupofadigesteristofill
thetankwithwastewaterandapplyaonetenthsludgefeedrate.Limemaybeadded
withtherawsludgetomaintainthepHnear7.0.Afterthedigestionprocesshasbeen
establishedthefeedrateisgraduallyincreasedbysmallincrementstofullloading.
Theoperationofadigestercanbemonitoredbyanyofthefollowingmethods:plotting
thedailygasproductionperunitrawsludgefed,thepercentageofcarbondioxideinthe
digestion gases, or the concentration of volatile acids in the digesting sludge. A
reductioningasproduction,anincreaseincarbondioxidepercentage,andarisein
volatileacidsconcentrationallindicatereducedactivityoftheacidsplittingmethane
formingbacteria.

AerobicSludgeDigestion
The function of aerobic digestion os to stabilise waste sludge solids by longterm
aeration,therebyreducingtheBODanddestroyingvolatilesolids.Themostcommon
application of aerobic digestion is in handling wasteactivated sludge. Customary
methodsfordisposalofthedigestedsludgearespreadingonfarmland,lagooning,and
dryingonsandbeds.

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Aerobicdigestionisaccomplishedinoneormoretanksmixedbydiffusedaeration.
Sincedilutesolidssuspensionshavealowrateofoxygendemand,theneedforeffective
mixingratherthanmicrobialmetabolismusuallygovernstheairsupplyrequired.The
volumeofairsuppliedforaerobicdigestionisnormallyintherangeof0.91.8m 3/m3
ofdigester.
Designcriteriavarywiththetypeofactivatedsludgesystem,BODloadingandthe
meansprovidedforultimatedisposalofthedigestedsludge. Smallactivatedsludge
plantswithoutprimarysedimentationaregenerallyprovidedwith5785Lofaerobic
digestervolumeperdesignpopulationequivalentoftheplant. Forstabilisingwaste
activated sludgewithasuspendedsolids concentration of1.0%orless,thevolatile
solids loading should be limited to 0.64 kg/m 3.d, and the aeration period 200300
degreedays computed by multiplying the digesting temperature in degrees Celsius
timesthesludgeage.Thisequatestoaminimumaerationperiodof10daysat20Cor
20daysat10C.VolatilesolidsandBODreductionsattheseloadingsareintherange
of30%50%,andthedigestedsludgecanbedisposedofwithoutcausingodoursor
othernuisanceconditions.
Long term aeration of wasteactivated sludge creates a bulking material that resists
gravitythickening.Thesolidsconcentrationofaerobicallydigestedsludgeisusuallyin
therangeof1.0%2.0%.Themaximumconcentrationinawelloperatedsystemisnot
likelytoexceed2.5%.Thispoorsettleabilityfrequentlycreatesproblemsindisposing
ofthelargevolumeofsludgeproduced.Thickeningbyflotation,pressurefiltration,or
othermechanicalmethodsistooexpensiveforincorporationinsmalltreatmentplants.
Therefore,plantdesignshouldtakecareofstorageandeliminationoftherelatively
largevolumeofaerobicallydigestedsludge.
An aerobic digester is operated as a semibatch process with continuous feed and
intermittentsupernatantanddigestedsludgewithdrawals.Thecontentsofthedigester
arecontinuouslyaeratedduringfillingandforaspecifiedperiodafterthetankisfull.
Aerationisthendiscontinued,allowingthestabilisedsolidstosettle. Supernatantis
decantedandreturnedtotheheadoftheplant,andaportionofthegravitythickened
sludgeremovedfordisposal.Inpractice,aerationandsettlementmaybeadailycycle
with feed applied early in the day and clarified water decanted later in the day.
Digestedsolidsarewithdrawnwhenthesludgeinthetankdoesnotgravitythickento
provideasupernatantwithadequateclarity.
Example10

Mambavilleisatownof2000withanaerobicdigesterof150m3 andBODloadon
plant=182kg/d.Calculatethecubicmetersofaerobicdigestervolumeprovidedper
designpopulationequilavent,andestimatethevolatilesolidsloadingontheaerobic
digester.
Solution
Volumeprovided

150x1000
2000

=
75litresofdigestervolume
designpopulationequivalent

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AssumingaBODloadingof0.20gofBOD/gofMLSSappliedtotheaerationtank,the
estimatedexcesssludgeproducedperdayfromFig.5.1is0.42gofSS/gofBOD load.
For the digester volume of 150m 3 and assuming 70% of the SS as volatile, the
estimatedvolatilesolidsloadingappliedtotheaerobicdigesteris
2.0(182x0.70x0.42)/150=0/71kg/m3.d.

OpenAirDryingBeds
Historically,smallcommunitieshavedewatereddigestedsludgeonopenbedsbecause
of their simplicity, rather than operating more complex mechanical systems. Their
disadvantagesincludepoordryingduringinclementweather,manuallabourrequired
forcleaning,potentialodourproblems,andtherelativelylargelandarearequired. A
typicalsandbedconsistsof150225mm.ofcoarsesandsupportedonagradedgravel
bedthatincorporatestileorperforatedpipeunderdrains.Thesearespaces6mapartand
returnseepagetothetreatmentplantinfluent.Individualsections,nominally8x30m,
arecontainedbywatertightwallsextending450mmabovethesurface;concretetracks
areconstructedinthebedtosupportavehicleusedtohaulawaythedriedcake.Apipe
heaterwithagatedopeningtoeachcellisusedtoapplyliquidslurryindepthsof200
250mm.
Rationaldesignforsludgebedsisdifficult,owingtothemultitudeofvariablesthat
affect the drying rate. These include climate and atmospheric conditions, such as
temperature, rainfall, humidity, and wind velocity; sludge characteristics, including
degreeofstabilisation,greasecontent,andsolidsconcentration;depthandfrequencyof
sludgeapplicationandconditionofthesandstratumanddrainagepiping.Thebedare
furnishedfordesiccatinganaerobicallydigestedsludgeisfrom.1.2m 2/BODdesign
populationequivalentofthetreatmentplant.Solidsloadingsaverageabout200kgm 2
y1 inwarmclimates,whileunitloadingmaybeashighas100kgm2 y1 incooler
climates.Dryingtimerangesfromseveraldaystoweeks,dependingondrainabilityof
the sludge and suitable weather conditions for evaporation. Dewatering may be
improvedandexposuretimeshortenedbychemicalconditioning,suchasadditionofa
polyelectrolyte.Traditionally,driedcakehasbeenremovedmanuallyusingashovel
likefork. Attemptstoemploymechanicalequipmentoftenleadtodisturbanceofthe
bedandexcessivelossofsand.
Paved drying areas with limited drainage systems cab be constructed to permit
mechanicalcleaning.Butclimaticconditionsmustbefavourable,sincethemajorwater
lossisthroughevaporation.WedgewirebedshavebeenusedinEnglandtoincrease
therateofsludgedewateringandforeaseofcleaning.Duringsludgeapplication,the
underdrainisfilledwithwaterandthewedgewirebottomissubmerged2.5mmtoserve
asacushion,permittingthesludgetofloatintopositionwithoutcontactingthesurface
ofthewedgewire. Later,thewaterisdrainedandthesludgedriesbyseepageand
evaporation.

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Airdryingofdigestedsludgemaybepracticedinshallowlagoonswherepermittedby
soilandweatherconditions. Waterremovalisbyevaporation,andthegroundwater
tablemustremainbelowthebottomofthelagoontopreventcontaminationbyseepage.
Sludgeisnormallyappliedtoadepthofabout.6mandresidueremovedbyafrontend
loaderafteranextendedperiodofconsolidation.Becauseoflongholingtimes,odour
problemsaremorelikelytooccur.Designdataandoperationaltechniquesaredefined
bylocalexperience.

Composting
Theobjectivesofsludgecompostingaretobiologicallystabiliseputrescribleorganics,
destroypathogenicorganisms,andreducethevolumeofwaste.Theoptimummoisture
content foracompost mixture is 50%60%;less than 40%may limit the rate of
decomposition,whileover60%istoowettostackinpiles.Volatilesolidsreduction
duringcompostingissimilartobiologicaldigestionaveragingabout50%.Thecompost
productisamoist,friablehumuswithawatercontentlessthen40%.Formostefficient
stabilisationandpasteurisation,thetemperatureinthecompostpilesshouldriseto(55
65C)butnotabove80C. Moisturecontent,aerationrates,sizeandshapeofpile,
andclimaticconditionsaffectcompostingtemperature.Thefinishedcompost,although
toolowinnutrientstobeclassifiedafertiliser,isanexcellentsoilconditioner.When
mixedwithsoil,oneadvantageoftheaddedhumuscontentisincreasedcapacityfor
retentionofwater.
Themainproductsofbiologicalmetabolisminaerobiccompostingarecarbondioxide,
water,andheat.Anaerobiccompostingproducesintermediateorganics,suchasorganic
acids,andgasesincludingcarbondioxideandmethane.Sinceanaerobicdecomposition
has a higher odour potential and releases less heat, most systems are designed for
aerobic composting. Nevertheless, all forms of composting have the potential of
nuisanceproblemssuchasodoursanddust.
Dewateredsludgecake,usuallywithamoisturecontentintherangeif70%85%,is
toowettomaintain adequateporosityforaeration. Ifitisnotmixedwithanother
substance,apileofsludgecaketendstoslumpandcompacttoadensemasswithawet,
anaerobicinteriorandadriedexteriorcrust. Figure14isageneraliseddiagramfor
composting organic sludges. Dewatered cake is mixed with either an organic
amendment(e.g.,driedmanure,straw,orsawdust)orarecoverablebulkingagent(e.g.,
woodchips)toreducetheunitweightandincreaseairvoids. Finishedcompostmay
alsobyrecycledandaddedtothewetcake.Althoughcompostingcanbeperformedin
an enclosed reactor, the common processes used outdoor piles wither exposed or
shelteredunderaroofedstructure.Compostmaybeplacedineitherwindrowsagitated
byperiodicturningorremixingandaerationorstaticpileswithforcedaeration.The
choice between these two processes is based on several factors, including climate,
environmentalconsiderations,theavailabilityofabulkingagent,andeconomics.
In the windrow system, mixed compost material is arranged in long parallel rows.
Thesewindrowsareturnedatregularintervalsbymobileequipmenttorestructurethe
compost.Thepilesmaybetriangularortrapezoidalinshapeandmayvaryinheight
andwidth,asdeterminedbytheequipmentusedforturningandthecharacteristicsof
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45

thecompostingmaterial.Theheightofwindrowsisusually1.22.4mandthewidth
2.54m.

Figure14Generaliseddiagramforcompostingdewateredwastewatersludges.
Windrow composting is used in agricultural regions where manure from confined
feedingofcattle isavailableforanamendment. Themanureisagedanddriedby
stackinginthefeedlot. Thewastewatersludgeisunstable(raw)filtercakecollected
immediately after mechanical dewatering with polymer conditioning. Combined in
approximately equal portions, the wet cake and dried manure are mixed using a
modified manure spreader with the back beaters reversed so that the compost is
depositedonthegroundinarowratherthanbeingthrownupwardbythebackbeaters
forwidespreaddistribution. Alargemachinestraddlingtherows,equippedwithan
augertypeagitatorbetweentheoutboardwheels,formstheshapedwindrows;periodic
turningisperformedbythesamemachine.Withweeklyturning,stabilisationrequires
46weeksingoodweather. Innorthernclimates,thewindrowsmayfreezeonthe
outsideandbecoveredwithsnowforseveralweeks,preventingturningandslowingthe
rateofdecomposition.Thefinishedcompostisstoredandappliedtimesongrassland
andcropland.
In the aerated staticpile process, oxygen is supplied by mechanically drawing air
throughthepile. Porosityismaintainedbywoodchipsorsimilarrecyclablebulking
agent,whichalsoreducestheinitialwatercontentbyabsorption.Theratioofsludgeto
woodchipsonavolumetricbasisisintherangeof1:2to1:3.Afterpreparingabaseof
woodchipsoverperforatedaerationpiping,themixtureisplacedonapile810ft.This
islayeredwithfinishedcomposttoformacover.Airisthendrawnthroughthepileof
finishedcomposttoformacover. Airisthendrawnthroughthepileforaperiodof
about 3 weeks by a blower operating intermittently to prevent excessive cooling.
Exhaust air is vented and deodorised through a pile of finished compost. After
stabilisation,themixtureiscuredanddriedforseveralweekseitherintheoriginalpile
ormovingtoastockpile.Thewoodchipsareseparatedfromthecompostbyvibrating
screensforreuse.

46

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ULTIMATEDISPOSALOFSLUDGES
Mostwastewatersludgesaredisposedofonland,withapproximatelythreequarters
beingusedassoilconditionerandtheremainderburiedinlandfill. Otherprincipal
methodsofdisposalareincinerationanddischargingintheocean.Landapplicationis
increasing because of the rising cost of energy required to burn sludge and the
regulatoryrestrictionsonoceandisposal.

LandApplicationofSludge
Mostofthesludgespreadonagricultural landisstabilised byanaerobicoraerobic
digestion.Thehauldistanceclimate,andavailabilityofliquidsludgestoragearekey
factors in considering application of liquiddigested sludges. At small plants, tank
trucksortractordrawnwagonsareoftenadequatefortransportationandthestorage
capacity indigesters orholdingtanks is sufficient toholdsludgeduringequipment
breakdownandbadweather.Favouredatlargeplants,mechanicalfiltrationisusedto
dewaterthesludgetoreducethemassandcostofhauling.Also,digestedsludgecake
canbestoredinpilesonanopensiteandplacedoncroplandatappropriatetimes.
Otherkindsofsludgesolidssuitableforsurfacespreadingonfarmlandaredriedcake
fromdryingbedsandlagoons,compost,limedrawsludge,andthermallyconditioned
solids.Environmentalregulationsinnearlyallregionsrequireburialofrawsludgesand
wastescontainingexcessheavymetalsororganictoxins.
Liquidsludgemaybeappliedbyavehicleequippedwitharearsplashplateforsurface
spreadingorbychiselploughsforsubsurfaceincorporation.Theflexibilityofvehicular
haulingallowsapplicationatavarietyoflocations,oftenprivatelyownedfarmlands.
Sprayingfromfixedorportableirrigationnozzlescanbepracticedwhereodourand
insectsarenotproblems.Subsurfaceinjectionisthemostenvironmentallyacceptable
methodsincethesludgeisincorporateddirectlywiththesoil,eliminatingexposureto
theatmosphere.
Environmental concerns regarding land disposal are surfacewater and groundwater
pollution,contaminationofthesoilandcropswithtoxicsubstances,andtransmissionof
humanandanimaldiseases. Laboratoryanalysesofasludgenormallyconsistofthe
solids concentration; nitrate, ammonium and organic nitrogen; soluble and organic
phosphate; potassium; heavy metals of cadmium, copper nickel, lead and zinc; and
selectedorganiccompoundssuchaspolychlorinatedbiphenyls(PCB).Toeliminatethe
possibility of transmitting contaminants to humans,the preferred vegetation is non
foodchain crops like cotton. Grass is considered acceptable, provided cattle are
restrictedfromgrazingforaspecifiedperiodaftersludgeapplication.Also,feedgrains
foranimalconsumptionarecommonlyfertilisedbytilingsludgesolidsintothesoil
beforeplantingofcrops.Atapreparedsludgedisposalsite,sludge,soil,groundwater,
andanysurfacewaterrunoffaremonitored onaregularbasisforfaecalcoliforms,
nutrients,andcontaminants.
Cadmium is the heavy metal of greatest concern to human health when applying
municipalwastewatersludgestoland,sinceitcanbetakenupbyplantstoenterthe

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47

humanfoodchain.Themovementofcadmiumtogroundwaterisveryunlikelytooccur
atthepHvaluesofgreaterthan6.0commonlyassociatedwithagriculturalsoils.The
primarychronichealtheffectofexcessivedietaryintakeisdamagetothekidney.
Thecadmiumcontentofagriculturalsoilsrangesfromnearzerotoseveralhundred
milligrams per kilogram, of soil contaminated by industrial wastes. In addition to
sludge, many phosphate fertilisers contain substantial concentrations of cadmium.
Predictingplantuptakefromsoilswithaccumulatedcadmiumisdifficultbecauseof
interactivecontrollingcondition.SoilpHisanimportantchemicalfactor,butthekind
ofplantspeciesisjustasimportant. Withinplants,thehighestamountsofcadmium
occurinthefibrousrootsfollowedbytheleaves,andthelowestconcentrationsarein
fruits, seeds, and storage organs. Potential highrisk plants for humans are leafy
vegetables(e.g.,lettuceandspinach).Foddercropsandcerealgrainsappeartopresent
theleastrisk. DavidandCokerhavewrittenacomprehensiveliteraturereviewand
discussionofthedistributionofcadmium,plantuptake,andhazardsassociatedwith
sludgeusedinagriculture.
Guidelinesfortheadditionofcadmiuminsludgetoagriculturallandsuggestawide
rangeofallowableapplicationrates.Themaximumpermissiblelevelrecommendedby
theUSEnvironmentalProtectionAgencyis2.0kg/hayonagriculturalland,with500
g/haysuggestedforaccumulatorcrops.Regulationsmayalsolimittheconcentrationin
thesludgeappliedtoland(oftenlessthan20mg/kgofdrysolids)andthemaximum
allowableaccumulationbasedoncharacteristicsofthesoil(1050mg/kgofdrysoil).
Theconcentrationsofcadmiumrelativetodrysolidsinmunicipalsludgesareusually
20 mg/kg or less, although uncontrolled discharge of industrial wastewaters to the
treatmentplantcandramaticallyincreasethisamount.
Nitrogen is another important factor in determining the allowable rate of applying
sludgetoland.Theconcernispollutionofgroundwaterwithnitrate.Onporoussolids,
therecommendedrateofnitrogenapplicationisanamountequivalenttothenutrient
needofthevegetation.
Thevarietyandnumbersofbacteria,viruses,andparasitic organismspathogenic to
humansandanimalsfoundinwastewaterrelatetothestateofhealthofthecontributing
community. Althoughtreatmentprocessesreducetheirnumbers,oftenconsiderably,
theeffluentandsludgestillcontainthespeciespresentinrawsludgeisthereasonfor
spreadingonlystabilisedsludgesonagriculturalland. Theeffectivenessofrescuing
pathogenic populations during sludge stabilisation is a subject of considerable
controversy. In general, anaerobic or aerobic digestion of sludge is effective in
reducing the number of viruses and bacteria, nut not in reducing roundworm and
tapewormovaorotherresistantparasites. Beingthemostfragilemicroorganisms,
bacteriaareinactivatedbysunlight,drying,andcompetitioninthesoilenvironment.In
contrast,virusesandparasitic ovaaremoreresistantandmaypersistinsoils oron
vegetationforseveralweeksormonths.Eventhoughtheriskofinfectinglivestockis
notgreat,farmersareusuallyadvisedtoallow6weeksormoreaftersludgeapplication
beforegrazinganimalsorharvestingafoddercrop.Regardinghumanhealth,despite
the possibility of communicable disease transmission, the lack of epidemiological
evidencesuggeststhatthecurrentpracticeofsludgedisposaltothelandissafe.
48

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Example11
Amunicipalwastewatercontains200mg/LofBOD,220mg/Lofsuspendedsolids,35
mg/L of nitrogen, and 0/16 mg/L of cadmium. Wastewater processing is primary
sedimentation and secondary activated sludge with the waste sludge anaerobically
digestedpriortospreadingonagriculturalland. Theplanteffluentisdischargedtoa
river.Basedonoperationaldata,25%oftheinfluentcadmiumappearsinthe100mg
ofdigestedsludgesolidsproducedperlitreofwastewater processed. Thefertiliser
valueofthedriedsludgesolidsis4.0%availablenitrogen.
a. Calculatetheconcentrationofcadmiumintheplanteffluentinmilligrams
per
litre.Iftheconcentrationlimitofcadmiumintheriverwasteis0.0013
mg/Lto protectaquaticlife,whatdilutionrationofplanteffluenttocadmiumfree
river
waterisneeded?
b.Calculatetheconcentrationofcadmiuminthedriedsludgesolidsinunitsof
kilogramspertonne. Thedigestedsludgeisbeingappliedtolandcultivated
forgrowingsoybeans. Therecommendedannualnitrogenapplicationis200
kg/ha,andthemaximumallowablecadmiumloadingis0.5kg/hay.Basedon
thesecriteria,computethemaximumsludgeapplicationinunitsoftonnesof
drysolidsperhectare.
c. Ferricchloride(wasteprickleliquor),addedtothewastewaterforincreasing
phosphorusremoval,alsoincreasesthecadmiumremovalto70%.Calculatethe
datarequestedinquestion1through4forthisdegreeofcadmiumremoval.
Solution
a.Thecadmiumineffluentamountsto0.75x0.16=0.012mg/l.Assumethe
dilutionratioisX(i.e.,whentheeffluentflowis1,theriverflowisX).Then
Xx0+1x0.012=(1+X)x0.0013
X=flowofriver/flowofwastewaterdischarge=8.2
b.Theconcentrationofcadmiuminsludgesolidsequals
0.25x0.016mg/Lx1000kg/t
110mg/L

=0.036kg/t

Thenitrogencontentofthesludgesolidsequals
110mg/lx0.04x1000kg/t
100mg/l

=40kg/t

Themaximumallowablesludgeapplicationrateis

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49

basedoncadmium

basedonnitrogen

c.

=0.5
0.036
=220
40

14t/ha

5.5t/ha(Usethisloading)

Thecadmiumineffluentis0.03x0.16=0.0048mg/l
Dilutionratiorequired=2.7
Concentrationofcadmiuminsludge=0.10kg/t
Themaximumallowablesludgeapplicationrateis
basedonnitrogen=5.5t/ha
basedoncadmium=0.5=5.0t/ha(Use).
0.10

Thesecomputationsillustratethattreatmentforremovalofphosphateby
chemical precipitation also increases the removal of cadmium. While the
effluentqualitythenimproves,thecontaminationofthesludgeincreases.

LandBurialofDewateredSludge
Rawordigestedwastewatersludgesandchemicalresiduesfromwatertreatmentmay
beburied ifasuitable siteis available. Except inhighly urbanised area,land and
transportationcostsarelessexpensivethanincinerationorchemicalrecovery.Sludges
areoftenburiedatmunicipalsanitarylandfillsalongwithothersolidwastes,requiring
systematicallydepositing,compacting,andcoveringthewastes. Usuallyofearthare
placedovereach150300mmofcompactedfill.Thetopearthcovershouldhavea
mimimumdepthof600mm(2x)andbegrassedtopreventerosion.
Site selection considers soil conditions, groundwater levels, location relative to
populated areas, and future landuse planning. Conditions must be such that gas
leachate,waterseepage,andrunoffdonotcausepollution,nuisance,orhealthhazards.
Amonitoringprogramshouldbeestablishedtoensurethatanadequateenvironmentis
maintainedatthesite.Projectedlandusemaybeaparkwithrecreationalfacilitiesthat
arenotaffectedbygradualsubsidenceofthegroundsurface.

CombustionofOrganicSludges
Incinerationinvolvesdryingsludgecaketoevaporatethewater,followedbyburning
for complete oxidation of the volatile matter. Drying occurs at a temperature of
approximately 350C, and burning is sustained at 700 800C. A minimum
temperatureof730Cisneededtodeodoriseexhaustgases. Excessairisrequiredto
50

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ensurecompletecombustionoforganicsandminimisetheescapeofodourproducing
compoundsinstackgases.Theamountneedis25%100%overthestoichiometricair
requirementandvarieswiththenatureofthesludgeandtypeofincinerationequipment.
Supplyingexcessairhastheadverseeffectsofreducingtheburningtemperatureand
increasing heat losses from the furnace. Heat emitted from burning volatile solids
minuslosses,isavailablefordryingtheincomingsludgeandheatingtheairsupply.
Selfsustainingcombustionofdewateredrawsludge,aftertheincineratortemperature
hasbeenraisedtotheignitionpointbyburninganauxiliaryfuel,ispossibleifthe
organicsolidscontentisgreaterthanapproximately35%. Theexactsolidscontent
necessary for autogenous burning depends on several factors related to the
characteristics of the sludge and the design and operation of the furnace (e.g.,
preheatingofincomingairandcoolingexhaustgases).
Heatyieldfromsludgecombustionisrelateddirectlytomoisturecontentandvolatile
solids concentration. Several theoretical can be performed for calculating calorific
valuesbasedonelementalcomposition,principallythecarbon,hydrogenoxygenand
sulfur contents. However, experience has shown that calculated results often are
inaccurate.Alaboratorycalorimetertestistheonlyreliablemethodofdeterminingthe
heatvalueofawaste.(SeeEnvironmentalTechnologyENVE5/333.)

SludgeIncinerators
Two major incineration systems employed are the multiplehearth furnace and the
fluidisebedreactor.Themultiplehearthunithasreceivedwidestadoptionbecauseof
itssimplicityandoperationalflexibility. Itsfurnaceconsistsofalinedcircularshell
containingseveralhearthsarrangedinaverticalstackandacentralrotatingshaftwith
rabblearms. Itsoperatingcapacityisrelatedtothetotalheartharea(diameterand
numberofstages)andvariesfrom100to400kg/hofdrysludge.Sludgecakeisfed
ontothetophearthandisrakedslowlyinaspiralpathtothecentre.Here,itfallstothe
secondlevel,ispushedtotheperiphery,anddropsinturntothethirdhearth,whereitis
againrakedtothecentre.Theupperlevelsallowforevaporationofwater,themiddle
hearthsburnthesolids,andthebottomzonecoolstheashpriortodischarge(seeFigure
15).
Thehollowcentralshaftiscooledbyforcedairventedoutthetop.Aportionofthis
preheatedairfromtheshaftsispipedtothelowesthearthandisfurtherheatedbythe
hotashandcombustionasitpassesupthroughthefurnace.Thegasesarethencooled
asheatisabsorbedbytheincomingsludge.Thecountercurrentflowpatternofairand
sludgesolidsreducesheatlossesandincreasesincinerationefficiency.Stackgasesare
dischargedthroughawetscrubbertoremoveflyashandotherairpollutants.Emission
controlrequirementsspecifythattheexhaustcannotcontainparticulatematterinexcess
of70mg/m3orexhibit10%orgreateropacity(shadiness),exceptfor2mininany1h
period. Thepresenceofuncombinedwateristheonlyreasonforfailuretomeetthe
latterrequirement.
Multiplehearth furnaces can also be designed to dry organic sludge or recalcine
calciumcarbonateprecipitate,Thesolidsandairflowsystemforcalcinationissimilar
tothepatternusedforsludgedrying,hotgasesfromanexternalfurnaceflowconcurrent
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51

withthesludgedownthroughthemultiplehearthsinordertodrytheorganicswithout
scorching.
Sludgecanalsobedriedinaflashdryersystem.First,wetsludgecakeismixedwith
recycled dried solids and pulverised in a cage mill. Hot gases from a separate
incineratingfurnacesuspendthedispersedsludgeparticlesupintoapipeduct,where
theyaredried,andacycloneseparatorremovesthedriedsolidsfromthemoistureladen
hotgas.Partofthedriedsludgereturnstothemixerforblendingwithincomingwet
cake,whiletheremainderiswitherwithdrawnforasoilconditionerorburnedinthe
furnaceforfuel.
Afluidisedbedincinerator usesasandbedas aheatreservoirtopromoteuniform
combustionofsludgesolids. thebedisexpandedbyupflowofairthroughthesand.
Dewateredsludgeisinjectedintothefluidisedsandabovethegrid.Violentmixingof
thesolidsandgasesinthehotsandpromotesrapiddryingandburningatatemperature
of750800C.thequantityofexcessairneededisabout25%.Thesandbedactsasa
heatreservoir,enablingreducedstartuptimewhentheunitisoperatedonly48h/day.
Whennecessary,thebeispreheatedbyusinganauxiliaryfuel.Watervapourandash
arecarriedoutofthebedbycombustiongases.
Acyclonicwetscrubberremovesashfromtheexhaustandfinallyseparatesitfromthe
scrubberwaterinacycloneseparator.

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Figure15 Multiplehearth sludgefurnace (Courtesy of Nichols Engineering and Research Corp., a

WheelabratorFryeCo.)

Oceandisposalofsludges
Coastalcitieshavedischargeddigestedsludgeintotheoceanforhalfacentury. Just
likecrayfishhavegotusedtobedumpedintoboilingwaterthroughthecenturies,the
oceans may have adapted to this sludge dumping. Dewatered wastes may be
transportedtooffshoresitesinbargesanddumped,orsludgeslurrymaybedumpedto
deep water through a submarine outfall. In recent years, this practice has been
questioned by regulatory agencies. The principal environmental concerns are
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degradationofrecreationalwaters,buildupofsolidsontheseabottom,andtoxicityto
marinelife.Thecontaminantsinvolvedarethesameasthoserelatedtodisposalofland
heavymetals,pathogens,andorganicpollutants.
Ocean disposal sites should have adequate current velocities for initial dilution and
wastedispersiontopreventconcentrationofpollutants. Somewasteslurrieshavea
lowerspecificgravitythanseawaterandrisetothesurface,whilethesolidsofothers
accumulateonthebottomcreatingsludgedepositsthatdecompose. Thecontentof
heavymetalsinmunicipalsludgescanbelimitedbyinstitutingandenforcingasewer
ordinancetocontrolindustrialwastewaterquality. Aswithlanddisposal,thesludge
shouldbebiologicallystabilisedtoreducepathogens.
AdumpsiteintheAtlanticOceanusedbythecityofPhiladelphiatodischargedigested
sludgehasbeenmonitoredforseveralyearswithlittleornoevidenceofharmfuleffects
foundinthemarineecosystem. Forexample,faecalcoliformlevelswereconsidered
safeforshellfishharvestingandmetalaccumulationsinthesedimentsdidnotshowan
obviouspattern.Anotherextensivestudywasconductedincoastalwatersoffsouthern
CaliforniawhereseveralcitiesdischargewastewatersandtheHyperionplantdischarges
digestedsludgethroughasubmarineoutfall.Exceptforlocalizedareasneartheendsof
theoutfallpipes,environmentalconditionswerenotmeasurablyinfluenced,andwithin
theseareasthemajorevidenceofpollutionwasanincreaseintheorganicmatteronthe
bottom.Theinvestigationwasextensive,incorporatingthesourcesanddistributionof
pollutants.Forcoastalcities,thismethodofultimatedisposalshouldbeconsideredas
oneoptionalongwithincineration,landapplication,andpermanentstorageinlandfill.
Proper site selection for dilution and dispersion in combination with good quality
control over the sludge could make ocean disposal an environmentally safe option.
Sensitivecoastalecosystemsshouldbeconsidered,however,asthereleaseofnutrients
couldupsetdelicatebalances.SludgedisposalwithintheGreatBarrierReefareaorin
TampaBaywouldprobablybehighlyirresponsible.

Reuseofwatertreatmentsludges
Sludges and silts produced by waterworks, even after extensive dewatering, often create
ultimateproblems. Findingauseforsuchmaterialscouldeliminateorreducetheedisposal
problems,eliminatethespoilingoflandorfoulingofwaterways,reducedisposalcostsand
createpossibilitiesoffinancialreturnfromthesaleofproductsproduced.
Work at MATTEK, the Materials Technology Division of the S.African
C.S.I.R.hasidentifiedwaterworkssludgeasasourceofrawmaterialfortheproductionof
bricks and tiles. The building elements developed either meet or are well below usual
productioncosts.Extensionsofthisworktootherwaterworkssludgesshowpossibilities.A
feasibilitystudywascarriedout,basedonanindependentmarketanalysis,forthemanufacture
ofbricks,blocksandtiles.Thisstudyprovedsuchmanufacturetobeaviableproposition.

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Severedifficultieswereexperiencedinallcriticalareasofceramicprocessing,
i.e.forming,dryingandfiring.Fortunatelymostofthesedifficultieshavebeenovercometoa
greater of lesser extent and valuable experience has been gained inprocessing waterworks
sludgeingeneral.
Whilstthepressingoftilesworkedwell,thepressingofbricksprovedtobethe
greatestareaofdifficultyofthewholeinvestigation.Themajoreffortoftheinvestigationwas
focussedonovercomingthisdifficulty. Thebrickspressedwellinthedie,butafterbeing
removedfromthedieforseveralhousetheywerepronetocracking.Thisdifficultyhasbeen
largelyovercomebyoptimisationstudies.
Thedryingofthepressedtilesandbrickswasoriginallythoughttopresentno
difficulties,buteventuallyitwasfoundthatthiswasthecauseofthecrackingoftheunfired
bricks.Thiswasunexpectedandveryunusualbecausethedryingshrinkageofthebrickswas
verylowandinthecaseofextrudedbricksthiswouldnormallynevercausesuchaproblem.
Thisdifficultywasovercomebyperforatingthebricks.
Inthecaseoffiningitwasfoundthatifthebricksortileswerefiredinthe
normal manner up tomaximumtemperature, usuallyintherange of 900 to1000C,they
wouldcrackorwarpbadly.Thisdifficultywasovercomebyintroducingacalcinationstepat
600C,toburnofftheflocculantsandorganicmatter.Thefiringcyclefinallyadoptedwas:
onedaytoreach600Cfromroomtemperature,leftforonedayat600,followedbyan80C
riseperhourtoreachtherequiredmaximumtemperature. Thissolvedtheproblemofthe
crackingandwarpingforthetilesandtherings,butnotforthesolidbricks.Itwasfoundthat
noxiousgaseswereevolvedinthetemperaturerangeof250Cto550C.Ventingorscrubbing
ofthegasescouldovercomethis.
Reference:
Boucher, PSandvanEeden,JJ. Investigationofinorganicmaterialsderivedfromwaterpurificationprocessesforceramic
applications,WaterResearchCommissionReportNo538/1/95,WRCISBN1868451615Pretoria,SouthAfrica.

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