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Comprehensive Guide To Understanding Motor Fundamentals: Instruction Manual
Comprehensive Guide To Understanding Motor Fundamentals: Instruction Manual
Guide to
Understanding
Motor
Fundamentals
Instruction Manual
II. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 - 1
II. MOTOR BASICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 - 1
Stator Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Rotor Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Simplified Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Rotor Current and Slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
The Working Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Torque Vs. Stator Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Rotating Magnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Stator Poles Vs. Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Speed of Rotating Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Motor Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
The Rotor Under Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
High Frequency Rotor Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Torque Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
NEMA Design Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
The Motor as a Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-20
Motor Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-21
Effects of Voltage Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-22
Reduced Voltage Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Motor Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26
Voltage Unbalance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-28
Effects of Frequency Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-29
wound over a permeable iron core. A typical motor may have 6, 12,
or 18 individual windings placed on a common core. The core is a
collection of stamped disks with slots for mounting the wire
windings (see Figure 2-l).
Stamped Steel Disks
STATOR
CORE
Windings
Channels Filled
ROTOR CORE
num
Figure 2 - 1
2-1
Al
Figure 2-3
Although the rotor bars are in direct contact with the steel
laminations, their resistance is much lower. Practically all rotor
current therefore flows in the bars, not in the laminations. Some
rotor designs employ a copper-brass alloy instead of aluminum.
This creates a lower resistance rotor circuit and thereby changes
motor performance. Sin-ce there are no wire windings, the squirrel
cage rotor is very rugged.
2-2
ie r
Figure 2-5 is a simplified view of an induction motor. It
details only two pairs of rotor bars (with end rings) and one set of
stator poles, labeled Al and A2. For clarity, Al and A2 are
permanent magnets instead of electromagnets. The motors shaft
is represented by the rotors centerline. In a squirrel cage motor,
the rotor voltage is induced by moving the stator's magnetic field
past the rotor bars. The rollers and hand crank in Figure 2-5
merely illustrate a means of rotating the magnetic field.
Figure 2-5
otor Acceleration
Let us assume that the stator field is rotated at 1800 RPM
by 60 Hertz AC applied to the windings. Before the rotor begins to
turn, there is a slip of 1800 RPM. Relative motion between field
and conductors is maximum, inducing a very high voltage in the
rotor. Rotor current is maximum and a strong magnetic field
results. Figure 2-12 plots the motor current in relation to rotor
speed.
The rotor accelerates from rest (point A), following the
stator. Slip decreases as the rotor accelerates. A rotor speed of
500 RPM (point B) means a slip of 1300 RPM. It also means less
relative motion between field and conductor and therefore a lower
induced voltage with less rotor current and a weaker rotor field.
The rotor continues to accelerate, drawn by the stator field. When
the rotor reaches 1795 RPM (point E), its field is very weak. The
rotor bars are cutting very few lines of flux in a given time period.
If the rotor continued to accelerate, its current (and magnetic field)
2-10
per unit of time. The rotor field strengthens and more torque is
produced. The rotor will continue to slow down (or slip back) until
adequate torque is produced to power the load and maintain
rotation. This might correspond to point D in Figure 2-12 (see
page 2-11). where slip has increased to 50 RPM, and current has
increased to 100%. If the load is removed, the torque being
produced will cause the rotor to accelerate back to its no load speed
of 1795 RPM (point E).
If the load is increased, again the motor will slow down to
produce greater torque by the rotor bars cutting more lines of flux.
Speed stabilizes when the motor torque matches the load torque,
this time perhaps at point C. The motor will maintain this speed
as long as the load is constant. Further load increases cause
greater current flow; beyond the safe limits of motor operation. An
overpowering load may cause the motor to stall completely, causing
extremely high currents to flow (point A). Overcurrent protection
must be installed to protect the motor in such an event. Under
normal circumstances this magnitude of current occurs only
during starting, (which lasts less than one second) while the rotor
attains its running speed.
When the rotor is stationary, either when stalled by a load
or during starting, rotor frequency is equal to stator frequency. If
the stator is excited by 60 Hz, then rotor frequency is also 60 Hz or
if the stator is excited by 50 Hz the rotor frequency is also 50 Hz.
This is true regardless of the number of stator poles a motor has.
A 2 pole stator turns at 3600 RPM (@ 60 Hz) or 3000 RPM (@ 50
Hz) and induces 1 cycle of rotor voltage as each pole pair passes a
rotor bar. A 4 pole sator turns at half the speed but has twice the
pole pairs cutting each rotor bar. It induces 2 cycles of rotor
voltage per revolution, matching the rotor frequency of a 2 pole
machine.
2-12
When the rotor field shifts (during high slip) it not only
affects motor current, but torque as well. Recall that torque
results from the magnetic attraction between rotor and stator.
Increased inductive reactance causes the rotor current (and
resultant field) to lag rotor voltage. Since the rotor voltage is
in-phase with the stator field, the rotor field must be out of phase
with the stator field. Figure 2-13a shows the rotor field lagging
the stator field and rotor voltage by the angle m (the cosine of x is
a measure of power factor). Notice that positive motor torque is
produced only during the periods when stator and rotor fields are
in-phase. Compare this with Figure 2-13b, where voltage and
current are both in-phase. The out-of-phase rotor field (in
Figure 2-13a) actually produces negative torque, or a retarding
force. As power factor decreases further, torque suffers more.
Figure 2-13c shows a condition of maximum current lag ( m - 90>
resulting in negative torque completely cancelling positive torque.
Although maximum voltage and current flow in such a circuit, no
power is produced.
The torque equation of a squirrel cage induction motor is
similar to that for a DC shunt motor as shown in the following
equations. The major difference is the term cos m ". This
stipulates that only the in-phase rotor current produces positive
torque. Inductive reactance causes this phase shift, so it would be
expected that motor torque would be worst when inductive
reactance is greatest.
DC Shunt Motor Torque = K,0 1,
Where:
KT = Motor Torque Constant
0 = Field Flux
IA = Armature Current
(Equation 2-2)
Where:
KT = Motor Torque Constant
8 = Field Flux
I/q = Rotor Current
cos c-c = Phase Displacement of Rotor Current
(Equation 2-3) 2-3)
2-14
are at the same speed, rotor current and torque are zero.
At running speed, the motor will operate between points F
and D, depending on load. However, temporary load surges may
cause it to slip all the way back near point C on the knee of the
curve.
Beyond point C, the power factor decreases faster than
current increases, causing torque to drop-off. On the linear part of
the motor curve (points C to G), rotor frequency is only 1 to 3 Hertz
- almost DC. Inductive reactance is essentially zero and rotor
power factor approaches unity. Torque and current now become
directly proportional - 100% current produces 100% torque. If a
motor has a nameplate current of 3.6 amps, then when it draws 3.6
amps (at proper voltage and frequency) it must be producing 100%
of its nameplate torque. Torque and current remain directly
proportional up to approximately 10% slip. This relationship is
very useful when troubleshooting the motor and driven machine.
Notice that as motor load increases from zero (point F) to
100%, (point E) the speed drops only 45-55 RPM, about 3% of
synchronous speed. This makes the squirrel cage induction motor
very suitable for most constant speed applications (such as
conveyors) where, in some cases, 3% speed regulation might be
acceptable. This compares favorably with shunt wound DC
motors. If better speed regulation is required, the squirrel cage
motor may be operated from a closed loop regulator. As an
alternative, a reluctance synchronous induction motor (see pages
2-12 and 2-13) may be used instead of a squirrel cage induction
motor.
$ STATOR
ROTOR
The Motor is very similar to a Transformer
Figure 2-19
2-20
between stator and rotor Figure 2-9 (page 2-7). The stator must
draw extra current to increase the flux density of its magnetic field
and bridge the air gap. A narrow air gap requires less no-load
current than a wide air gap, so motor designs incorporate the
narrowest air gaps possible. This improves efficiency and power
factor.
However, if the air gap is too small there is a danger that
the rotor may actually contact the stator, short circuiting it.
Maintaining a precise air gap requires precision rotor bearings and
careful machining.
There are other no-load losses besides the air gap. The
rotor must produce enough torque to spin the shaft-mounted fan to
cool itself. This loss is known as Windage. The rotor must also
overcome friction from the bearings which support it. There are
also iron (Hysteresis and Eddy Current) and copper (12R> losses to
consider. The sum of these losses result in the unloaded motor
drawing as much as 40% of rated current. It is more important,
therefore, to carefully size induction motors. An oversized motor
might never operate at rated horsepower, resulting in poor
efficiency and power factor.
Figure 2-20 (see page 2-22) shows the relationship
between efficiency, power factor and load for an average squirrel
cage motor. A fully loaded motor is more efficient than the same
motor running at quarter load. Also, a large HP motor is more
efficient than a small motor. High speed motors are more efficient
than low speed motors. Medium and low voltage motors (230 to
460V) are more efficient than high voltage (2300V) motors and
normal slip motors (NEMA A, B, C) are more efficient than high
slip (NEMA D) motors.
2-21
100
85
EFFICIENCY
0 25
Power Factor
IllI IIll III1
75 100 125
LOAD %
Figure 2-20
4NTOARRTMINAGL
TORQUE)
122
100
81
25
SPEED
Figure 2-21
2-22
motor torque.
Speed Fluctuations - A momentary drop in line voltage
will cause a proportional dip in speed. Compare the 100% curve
and 90% curve of Figure 2-21. Notice that at rated load the 90%
curve requires more slip. The resulting drop in speed may cause
problems in the driven machine or process.
Reduced Speed - A prolonged drop in voltage may result
in the motor never reaching its nameplate rated base speed. Also,
speed regulation would be poor; since greater slip is required for
normal load changes.
Reduced Peak Torque - A 10% voltage decrease will
reduce Peak Torque (Breakdown Torque) by 19%. If the
application involves momentary load surges, there may not be
adequate Peak Torque to ride through the surge. Severe speed
fluctuations or even a complete stall may result.
2-23
3-3
Operation Above
A motor rated for 60 Hz operation may be run at higher
frequencies when powered by an AC drive. The top speed depends
upon the voltage limits of the motor and its mechanical balancing.
230V and 460V motors normally employ insulation rated for 600V,
so the voltage limit is not usually a problem. An average 2 pole
industrial motor can safely exceed base speed by 25%. Many
manufacturers balance their 3 pole and 4 pole rotors to the same
speed - 25% over the 2 pole base speed. A 4 pole motor may
therefore operate up to 125% over base speed before reaching its
balance limit. A 60 Hz 4 pole motor might run up to 135 Hz,
whereas a 60 Hz 2 pole motor would reach its balance limit at 75
Hz. Both motors would run at the same RPM. Naturally, it is
sound advice to consult the motor manufacturer before exceeding
any motors base speed by more than 25%.
voltage applied to the motor, the Volts per Hertz of the drive is no
longer 7.6 but rather 3.83. The same Volts per Hertz ratio results
when a line started motor is operated at 60 Hz with only 50%
voltage applied (for reduced voltage starting). As might be
expected, the effect on torque is the same. Recall that torque
varies as the square of the applied voltage (Equation 2-4). As
such, maximum motor torque at 120 Hz is only 25% of the
maximum torque at 60 Hz.
3-6
not as severe as the motors l/N2 torque drop-off. Figure 3-6 (see
page 3-8) displays the motor maximum torque and a nameplate
rated constant horsepower load.
3-7
I Oversize Motor
Motor
Base 1.25 1.5 1.75 2
60 75 90 105 120 Hz
Figure 3-6
3-9
Peak
TORQUE
Torque at Rated Current
1.25 1.5 2
SPEED
Figure 3-8
312
3-14
%
LOAD
--w---- $/!$
+
Resistant
\
Current
15 ;o $0 160
FREQUENCY (HZ)
Figure 4-l
Running
V. SPECIAL MOTORS
The Wound Rotor Motor is an induction motor that permits
variable speed operation without the use of an AC drive. The
motors stator is identical to that of the standard polyphase
squirrel cage motor, but its rotor differs considerably. The rotor is
not of cast aluminum or copper bars, but rather consists of
insulated coils of wire connected in regular succession to form
definite poles (the same number as the stator poles). The ends of
these rotor windings are brouht out to slip rings mounted on the
motor shaft. Carbon brushes ride the slip rings to connect the
rotor windings to an external resistor network.
Figure 5-l shows the controller, which allows adjustment
of the rotor resistance. By varying rotor resistance, the torque and
current characteristics can be changed. For example, high
resistance would produce high starting torque at low current,
similar to a NEMA D motor. As the motor accelerates, resistance
can be reduced to simulate a NEMA A motor. The result is
high starting torque, smooth acceleration, and optimum efficiency
at running speeds.
External
T1 T2 T3
on Rotor
Figure 5-l
130
LOAD 120
TORQUE 110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
SPEED % OF SYNCHRONOUS
Figure 5-2
Flux
Barriers
Aluminum
Figure 5-3
Figure 5-4