Tεχνητή Nοημοσύνη Και Έμπειρα Συστήματα

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HPOOPIKH

TEXNHTH NOHMOYNH EAPMOE

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EIA KEPAYNOY
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ATPA 2000

HPOOPIKH

TEXNHTH NOHMOYNH EAPMOE
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EIA KEPAYNOY
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IANNH ZAXAPAKH
M

EPIO NIKHOPIH
T I

ANATAIO TPIANTH

TEANO OYNTZH

...

TYPORAMA

/ 19972001
ISBN: 9605381818
K : H 31/1
Copyright 2000

& , 26222 : (0610) 314094, 314206 : (0610) 317244
. 2121/1993,
.

K 1
, ,
E ............................................................................................................... 15
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
T ........................................................................................... 17
1.1.1 Turing ......................................................... 21
I ................................................................................................................ 22
E ..................................................................................................... 25
A ................................................................................................... 26
..............................................................................................................................................................
31
B ..................................................................................................................... 32
K 2
, ,
E ............................................................................................................... 33
2.1
2.2
2.3
............................................................................................. 35
M ..................................................................................................... 40
2.2.1 T ...................................................................................................... 41
2.2.2 E ........................................................................................... 46
............................................................ 50
..............................................................................................................................................................
55
B ..................................................................................................................... 56
K 3
, ,
E ............................................................................................................... 57
3.1
3.2
................................................................................................................................................ 60
3.1.1 , ............................................................. 60
3.1.2 E: ............................................................... 62
E ......................................... 66
3.2.1 ................................................................................................ 67
T N
3.2.2
3.3
.............................................................................................
69
A
......................................................................................................................... 71
.............................................................................................................................................. 74
B ..................................................................................................................... 75
K 4
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E ............................................................................................................... 77
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
............................................................................................. 82
4.1.1 ........................................................... 82
4.1.2 ............................................. 84
4.1.3 ......................................................................................................... 85
4.1.4 K ....................................................................... 86
I ................................................................ 88
4.2.1 I ..................................................................................................................... 89
4.2.2 K ........................................................................................... 90
M .................................. 91
.................... 94
4.4.1 A ................................................................................ 95
4.4.2 E .......................................................................................... 95
4.4.3 A ........................................................ 96
4.4.4 ............................................................................................. 96
E ....................................................................................................... 101
Horn clauses ............................................................... 104
4.6.1 ........................................................................................... 104
4.6.2 Y ............................................................................ 105
...........................................................................................................................................................
106
B .................................................................................................................. 107
K 5
, ,
E ............................................................................................................ 109
5.1 T ....................................................................... 112
EPIEXOMENA
5.2
5.3
5.4
............................................................................................................... 114
5.2.1 A ..................................................................................................... 115
5.2.2 ............................................................. 116
.......................................................................................................................................... 120
5.3.1 ................................................................................................... 120
5.3.2 ................................................................... 124
5.3.3 ........................................................................................... 125
K .......................................................................................................................... 130
5.4.1 A .............................................................................................. 130
5.4.2 ................................................................................. 132
...........................................................................................................................................................
137
B .................................................................................................................. 138
K 6
, ,
E ............................................................................................................ 138
6.1 .......................................................................................................... 140
6.1.1 K ............................................................................................. 140
6.1.2 A ............................................. 144
6.2 O ................................................................................................................... 147
6.2.1 K .............................................................. 147
6.2.2 ............................................................................................................. 151
6.3 A ..................................................................................................... 153
6.3.1 ............................................................................................ 153
6.3.2 E ..................................................................................... 156
6.3.3 E ; ; .............................................................. 159
6.3.4 T ........................................................... 162
6.4 M ...................................................................................................... 162
...........................................................................................................................................................
165
B .................................................................................................................. 167
K 7
H T
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E ............................................................................................................ 169
T N
7.1
7.2
, , ................ 171
B ................................................................................... 177
7.2.1 .................................................................................................................. 178
7.2.2 A ........................................................................................................................ 178
7.2.3 E ......................................................................................................................... 179
...........................................................................................................................................................
181
B .................................................................................................................. 182
K 8
, ,
E ............................................................................................................ 183
8.1 Mycin ............................................................. 186
8.1.1 .................................................................................. 186
8.1.2 ....................................................................................... 197
8.1.3 ........................................................................ 198
8.1.4 .................................................................................................. 202
8.1.5 M .................................................................................. 205
8.2 Prospector .................................................................................................................................... 209
8.2.1 Y ................................................................................. 209
8.2.2 M ................................................................................................ 210
8.2.3 M ..................................................................................... 213
8.3 Internist1 ................................................................................................................................... 217
8.3.1 B .............................................................................................................. 217
8.3.2 .................................................................................. 219
8.3.3 A ................... 221
...........................................................................................................................................................
223
B .................................................................................................................. 224
K 9
, ,
E ............................................................................................................ 225
9.1 ..................................................................................... 227
9.2 Neomycin ...................................................................................................................................... 229
9.2.1 T ..................................................... 230
EPIEXOMENA
9.3
9.2.2 M .................................................. 233

9.2.3 ................................................................................. 237
9.2.4 E .......................................................................................... 240
MDX ................................................................................................................................................ 242
9.3.1 M .................. 242
9.3.2 .............................................................................................. 244
9.3.3 A .............................................. 247
...........................................................................................................................................................
248
B .................................................................................................................. 248
K 10
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E ............................................................................................................ 251
10.1 O ........................................................... 255
10.2 .............................................................................. 258
10.3 T ................................................................................................... 261
10.4 M CommonKADS.................................................................................... 265
10.4.1 ............................................................................................ 267
10.4.2 M ................................................ 272
........................................................................................................................................................... 281
B .................................................................................................................. 282
K 11
...........................................................................................
283
B .................................................................................................................. 287
A A A ..................................................................... 289
E A ..................................................................... 318
.......................................................................................................... 341
............................................................................................................. 372
B ............................................................................................................................................ 383

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3.1
66
3.2
K E A A I O 3 : A
. .
, , 3.1.2.
3.1 ,
,
. .
3.2 E
,
. (power of expression) , ,
(semantic distinctions)
. , ,
, .
, , .

. , , ,
. , ( ) (
).
, .
3.2.1
(logical adequacy),
,
, . , .
,
.
.
, ,
.
, , .
, ,
. ,
, ,
. ,
, ,
.
.
,
, . .
, ,
, ,
. -
67
K E A A I O 3 : A
68
,
. , .

(notational
convenience or acquisitional efficiency)
.
,
. ,
, , . (mediating representation),
. ,
( ),
.

.
.

(heuristic adequacy)
() , ,
. . ,
.
.
.
, , .

: ,
; ;
:
;
:
,
;
,
.
3.2.2
,
. (

), , . , ,
. . .
(soundness)
,
. ,
, .. p p (~p).
.
69
K E A A I O 3 : A
70

(completeness), ,,
,
, .
(decidability), , . ,
.
. ,
. , ,
. ,
. ,
.
, .

.

(). .
.
.

: p ~p.
: p , ,
, .
: .
3.3 A
, (declarative/procedural controversy).

.
,
, , ,
. , ,
.

.
, ,
modus ponens. PROLOG,
.
, , . ,
. ,

, , , .
,
, ,
, .
. , ,
(
) ,
(
71
72
K E A A I O 3 : A
). ,
.
,
,
. , .
,

( ), , , , , .

, , .

.
, . , , , .
.
. ,
(howto knowledge)
, . , ,

. ,
. , -
73

.

,
, .
, .
(reasoning or control knowledge).
. .
.
. , , . , ,
. ,
( )
, (
) .
,
, , . , . .
3.1
K E A A I O 3 : A
74
, . ,
, , ,
, .

. ,
PROLOG, .
, .
. ( ,
, , -
, , , ,
)
.
.

.
, (
;), ( ;)
( ;). , .
( ;), ( ;)
( ;).
, , , ,
,
.
T.J.K. BenchCapon, Knowledge Representation: An Approach to Artificial

Intelligence, Academic Press, 1990.
BenchCapon
.
J. Giarratano G. Riley, Expert Systems: Principles and Programming,
, International Thomson Publishing, 1994.
Giarratano Riley CLIPS
.
CLIPS,
. ,
. ,
CLIPS 46.
75
4 ,
. ,
( ).

. , ,

. PROLOG,
, Horn clauses. ,
, Horn clauses PROLOG.

:
,
,
(conjunctive normal form), (disjunctive
normal form) clausal form,
(, De
Morgan, , , , ),
, modus
ponens ( ), (universal specialization)
(resolution),

,

(unification of sentences),
K E A A I O 4 : K
78
,
(resolution refutation),
, [
(setofsupport) (unitpreference)]
,
,
, Horn
clauses, ,
, Horn clauses
PROLOG.

( )

clausal form
horn clauses
modus ponens (
)

(predicate logic) .
.
,
() (Conjunctive Normal Form
CNF) , .
.
, (resolution). (
) .
, ,
, , . .
, .
, .
, (
). , , ~ (
, ). ,
, , .
, modus ponens ( )
, .
modus ponens . , ~
.
(proof by
contradiction). ,
. (resolution refutation) .
p , ( ). p , (~p) , .
p , . , ~pB,

(resolution) , , c ~c. , -
79
80
K E A A I O 4 : K
p .
~ ,
. , ~
, , ,
~ ( ),
.
p, ,
, ; ,
;. , ,
, , ;.

.
3,
, . , , , ,
( )
. . p , , ~pB, , , , .
, . , ,
. p , p .
. p ;, $x
(,x), , $. , , ~(,x),
. p
;
( ), $x (,x), , skolemization.
, x, -
. {, ,
}. (, )
(, ) (, ).

. , , , .. , .
PROLOG,
, Horn clauses,
. ,
.
(negation as failure),
(closed world assumption). ,
, ,
.
4.1 . 4.2
. 4.3, 4.4
.

4.5.
Horn clauses ( 4.6).
81
K E A A I O 4 : K
82
4.1
,
.
, :
. .
, .
. .
, .
H
x .
"x (x) (x)
A .
()
, .
\ ()
A modus ponens (
).
.
. ,
.
4.1.1
4.1.
, .. , , .. x,
, .. . ,
, .
(terms).
(arguments) , , .. (). .
83
AN

AN(A,x)
~, , ,
(, &, , )

~AN(A,x)
(literals)
", $
4.1
(wff)
"x{AN(A,x) EINAI(x,(A))}
( ) , ,
(atomic formula), .. (A,x).
(literals) .
(well formed formulae wff), .
(logical connectives), ~ ( ) , ( &) , ()
( ) , (quantifiers), ",
(, ), $, (, ). :
1. wff.
2. wff. , ~, "x A $x A, wff.
84
K E A A I O 4 : K
3. wff. , , , wff.

. ({}, [], ())
.
4.1.2
. . , .. __
( ). , , .. __() 20.
(0place predicates)
(propositions), ,
.. __ ( , , ).
(nplace predicates, n1) , .. _,
, _(). ,
, .
,
.. (2,3) = 5, (2,3,5)
, , . ,
. (onetomany relations),
,
.
( 4.2).
, n n+1 , .
. (computable predicates). , -
85
.
, _ , .
(x,y)
(x)
(x)
(x,y)
(x)
;
(x,y,z)
(x,y)
_(x)
4.2
, , ,
(_1)
(_1, )
(, _1, )
wff , .
4.1.3
(quantifiers),
(universal quantifier), ", , ,
"x (x) (x)
(existential quantifier), $,
, , , ., ,
$x (x, __)
, "x A $x ,
K E A A I O 4 : K
86
wff (scope) . x
(quantified over)
(bound variable). (free variables). wff, .
4.1
:
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. , , .
5. .
6. , .
4.2
wff;
1. ~f(A), f
2. ~P(A, g(A,B,A)), P g
3. f(P(A)), f P
4. $x {"y [(P(x,y) Q(y,x)) R(x)]}, P, Q, R
5. Q{f(A), [p(B) Q(C)]}, f p , Q
4.1.4
(~, , , ) , . , . ,
,
,
. ,
. ,
,
. , ( ) .
, . 4.2.

(normal forms) , () (Conjunctive Normal Form CNF), () (Disjunctive Normal Form DNF)
Clausal Form, ( clausal form). wff
.

, (resolution).

.
, , 1 2 n, n 1
1 2 m, m 1
(literal), .
, ,
1 2 n, n 1,
1 2 m, m 1, literal.
Clausal Form ( ) , (clause)
1 2 n B1 B2 Bm, n 0, m 0
( ).
. i
, j .
: ,
.
87
K E A A I O 4 : K
88
~ , Clausal Form,
,
:
1 2 n B1 B2 Bm A1 A2 An ~B1 ~B2
~Bm
clauses:
4.3
B1 B2 Bm
() . .
1 2 n

. .
(!)
.
() , , clausal, ;
1. (~A B) C
2. P Q
3. P Q X Y Z
4. (A ~B ~C) (D ~E)
5. ~P Q R
() clausal form:
1. (~P ~Q R) (~P ~S)
2. (P Q ~R) (P S)
4.2
wff ,
.
.

wff .
(deductive reasoning).
4.2.1
wff .
wff
A B ~A B
~(~A) A
De Morgan
~(A B) ~A ~B
~(A B) ~A ~B
(Distributive Laws)
A (B C) (A B) (A C)
A (B C) (A B) (A C)
(Commutative Laws)
ABBA
ABBA
(Associative Laws)
(A B) C A (B C)
(A B) C A (B C)
(Contrapositive Law modus tollens)
A B ~B ~A

~$x A "x ~A
~"x A $x ~A
"x {A B} "x A "x B
$x {A B} $x A $x B
89
K E A A I O 4 : K
90
4.2.2
wff wff . :

Modus Ponens ( )
"x {(x) (x)} () ()
(Universal Specialization)
"x (x) ()
(Resolution)
~ C C
4.4
;
() . . .
() . .
.
() .
.
() . . .
() . . .
() .
.
4.3 M
wff . .
4.1
wff, , :
"x [(x) ($y [(x,y) ~(y)]
~$y [(x,y) (y,x)]
"y [~(y) ~(x,y)])]
, ,
, ,
. ,
.
. ,
"x "y (x,y) ~(y,x). ,
, .
:
1. ()
~ .
wff
~(x) ($y [(x,y) ~(y)]

"x [~
~$y [(x,y) (y,x)]
~(~(y)) ~(x,y)])]
"y [~
2. . wff

91
92
K E A A I O 4 : K
"x [~(x) ($y [(x,y) ~(y)]

"y [~(x,y) ~(y,x)]
"y [(y) ~(x,y)])]
3. . $x P(x), P(A), x,
, . x, P.
, , . . "x $y P(x,y);
y ,
( ) x. ,
,
, "x
P(x,A). x P, . "x $y (x,y).
. ,
"x (x, M) (
M). y x,
x. , "x $y P(x,y) "x P(x, g(x)), g . g
Skolem. , "x (x, (x)), Skolem.
.
"x1 "x2 "xn $y , n 0, , y, n ( ) . , y n , g(x1, x2, , xn).
, $x P(x),
, n = 0. .
wff
" x [~(x)
(((x,(x)) ~((x)))
"y [~(x,y) ~(y,x)]
"y [(y) ~(x,y)])]
y
(x).
4. ( ) ,
. wff

"x [~(x)
(((x,(x)) ~((x)))
"y [~(x,y) ~(y,x)]
"z [(z) ~(x,z)])]
5. " .
prenex,
(prefix), (matrix).
. wff
"x "y "z [~(x)
(((x,(x)) ~((x)))
[~(x,y) ~(y,x)]
[(z) ~(x,z)])]
93
K E A A I O 4 : K
94
6. . . wff

"x "y "z [(~(x) (x,(x)))
(~(x) ~((x)))
(~(x) ~(x,y) ~(y,x))
(~(x) (z) ~(x,z))]
7. "
(clause).
,
. . , .
wff

~(x) (x,(x))
~(w) ~((w))
~(u) ~(u,y) ~(y,u)
~(v) (z) ~(v,z)
4.5
wff 4.1.
4.4
.
(blocks world),
. 4.3
,
.
B
A
95
"x [(x) ~{$y (y, x)}]

"x "y [(x,y) (x,y)]
(, )
(,)
"x "y "z [(x,y) (y,z)
()
(x,z)]
4.4.1
{"x (x) (x), (), ()}

(consistent). , () ( modus ponens).
. ,
P1, , Pn C , {P1, , Pn, C} . ,
{P1, , Pn, ~C} .
, {P1, , Pn, C} P1,
, Pn C .
4.4.2
(unification) ,
. (x,y) (,
()) x A y
(). /x (A)/y, /. (pattern matching).
,
. ,
Q(x,g(y)) Q(B,y) . /x , g(y)/y.
4.3
K E A A I O 4 : K
96
4.1
4.6

Luger Stubblefield ( 2.3.2) Rich Knight
( 5.4.4).
P(x, f(y), B)
;
.
1. P(z, f(w), B)
3. P(x, f(A), B)
5. P(C, f(A), B)
2. P(g(x,y), f(z), B)
4. P(g(z), f(A), B)
6. P(C, f(A), A)
4.4.3
(clause) . {Li} {Mi}

,
. {li}
{Li} {mi} {Mi} {li}
{~mi} s.
{Li} {Mi}.
{{Li} - {li}}s {{Mi} {mi}}s. {}s s {}.

. .
4.4.4
4.4.1
wff, W, , S, wff, S{~W} . , .
.
97
4.2

1. .
"x [(x) E(x)]
2. .
"x [(x) ~E(x)]
3. .
$x [(x) N(x)]

4. .
$x [N(x) ~(x)]
, {1, 2, 3, ~4}
. 4.4 (resolution refutation tree),
.
.
(!) .
~N(z) (z)
N(A)
A/z
(A)
~(x) E(x)
A/x
E(A)
~(y) ~E(y)
A/y
~(A)
(A)
4.4
K E A A I O 4 : K
98
13 4
:
1.
~(x) E(x)
2.
~(y) ~E(y)
3. ()
3. ()
~4. ~(z) (z)
.
,
4.4.
(goaldriven reasoning), ~(z)
(z) . ,
.
, ...
,
.
.
M A
1. _ S
2.
2.1 _
, ci cj,
.
2.2 , , rij, ci cj
2.3 rij _

_
( .
2), .
, .

, . . 2.1 ,
. , , .
. _
:
. ,
, .. P(x) B(y) ~B(y) P(f(A)) ~P(f(A)).
, ..
P(x) P(y) Q(z), P(x) P(A), P(x) Q(A)
P(f(A)) Q(A) R(y), .
, .. (_1(2), 3)
() ,
() . ,
(6,3) () ().
, :
(set of support). .
,
.
, .
(unit preference). .

,
. n m
, n+m-2. n = 1, -
99
K E A A I O 4 : K
100
m-1. n = m = 1,
( 0).
. ,
, ,
.
1, .
( 2)
. ,
, .

. ,
. ,
,
4.5
4.7
4.8

4.5, , , .
:
. $x {[P(x) P(A)] [P(x) P(B)]}
. {"z [Q(z) P(z)]} {$x [Q(x) P(A)] [Q(x) P(B)]}
. $x $y {[P(f(x)) Q(f(B))] P(f(A)) P(y) Q(y)]}
. $x "y P(x,y) "y $x P(x,y)
E. "x {P(x) [Q(A) Q(B)]} $x [P(x) Q(x)]
:
.
101
4.9
.
.
.

(, _)
(, )
(, )
(_, )
_(, )

"x "y "z {[(x,y) _(z,y)]
_(z,x)}
,
.
4.5 E
,
. ,
, .. ;,
( ) , ..
. ,
,
, .
4.10
K E A A I O 4 : K
102

4.3. :
1. "x "y [(x,y) (x,y)]
2. "x "y "z [(x,y) (y,z) (x,z)]
3. (, )
4. (, )
1 2 , 3 4 .
;,
5. $x [(,x)]
:
1. ~(u,v) (u,v)
2. ~(x,y) ~(y,z) (x,z)
3. (, )
4. (, )
~5. ~(, w)

4.4. 4.5()
. ,
, ,
~WW,
.

, (
4.5()). ,
, .

.
. . , .
103
4.5 1. , 2
. .
.
~YEPAN(B,w)
4.11
~AN(u,v) YEPAN(u,v)
B/u, w/v
~AN(B,w)
AN(B,A)
A/w
() B : E A ;
~YEPAN(B,w) YEPAN(B,w)
~AN(u,v) YEPAN(u,v)
B/u, w/v
~AN(B,w) YEPAN(B,w)
AN(B,A)
A/w
YEPAN(B,w)
4.5
() B : E A;
4.5
;.
4.12
K E A A I O 4 : K
104
4.6 orn clauses
, Horn
clauses, .
Clausal Form 1 2 n B1 B2
Bm, n 0, m 0. i j
. , .
Horn clauses Clausal Form, 0 n 1,
. , 1 2, , ! ! ,
Horn clauses, 1 2 1 2 .
, Clausal Form,
. ,
Clausal Form .
Horn clauses Clausal Form
( ), , .

.
, .
Horn clauses, , PROLOG.
4.6.1

_(x) _(x)
(x)

_(x)
(x) ~_(x)
_ (x)
(x) ~_ (x)
ORN CLAUSES
,
. , . ( ) , .
(negation as
failure). ( ) , . ,
: .
, .
,
, .
4.6.2
,
: E , . (closed
world assumption). ,
.
, ; ()
.
(, )
,
. ,
, , , ;
. :
(x) (x)
(x) (x)
. ,
105
K E A A I O 4 : K
106
; .
, , , , .
.
, ,
, . , .
. ,
.
,
. ,
.
, . (), ()
Clausal Form. .
, ,
.
. .

.
. , ,
Horn clauses.
,
.
, . ,
.
, . , ,
. ,
. , . ,
. 5 ,
, .

1998.
N.J. Nilsson, Principles of Artificial Intelligence, Tioga Publishing Co, 1980.
1991.
. ( . ),
Prolog, , 1992.
Nilsson .
. ,
Luger Stubblefield
PROLOG. PROLOG
BenchCapon. ,

.
107
5 , (associative
networks) (frames).
. , . ,
, ,
.

:

,
,
,

,
, (
) ,
,
,
,
( ) , .

/
K E A A I O 5 :
110

( N Z)

5
, .
, , , .
.
,
,
( ) . , ,
.
,

. . (associative
memory) , , .
. .
().
.
,
, . () . , .
,
_ . . , .

, . ( ).
, (facets) .
(structured object), . .
Marvin Minsky
.
.
,
(instances) ,
.
. (frame system)
, .
. ,
(control frames) (object frames).
5.1
_, . 5.4,
( 5.2) ( 5.3).

, , 2.2 .
111
K E A A I O 5 :
112
5.1 T

,
(: isakindof (isa)) _ (ispart).
[
5.1()], [
5.1()]. 5.1()
.
, , . ,
,
. ___ (is an instance of),
_. , . .
,
() . .
EINAI
EINAI
EINAI
EINAI
EINAI
MEPO
EINAI
MEPO
EINAI
H
5.1
() T
() M
_ .
. , , . ,
. ,
..
, , . , , . , ,
. ,
. . (property inheritance)
. , . , , ..
, . , .
,
. ,
,
( 4.10).
, , /. ,
,
. ,
, .
() , :
,
.
( ), .
,
.
.
113
K E A A I O 5 :
114
5.2
. , , , .
, .
5.1
, (, ,
_1). , ,
(_1, )
(_1, )
(_1, )
(_1, _1)
. ( ), , . , ,
( ) .
. , .
5.2.
YMBAN
BIBIO
EINAI
EINAI
INEI
BIBIO_1
EINAI
ANTIKEIMENO
INEI_1
APAHTH
5.2
IANNH
OTH
EINAI
ANPO
MAIPH
EINAI
115
. ;,
;, ;, .
:
() .
5.1
() .
5.3; T ; ;
ONEE
EINAI
5.2
ENEPEIA
EINAI
EINAI
KTYHMA
ONEE_1
ANTIKEIMENO
IANNH
KOO
APAHTH
KTYHMA_1
OTH
EINAI
ANPO
XEPI
EINAI
EINAI
MAIPH
EINAI
OPANO
XEPI_1
EINAI_MEPO
5.2.1
(intersection search)
.
, ( ),
.

5.3
K E A A I O 5 :
116
, ,
.
5.2

5.2:
.
,
,
.
_1. . .
5.2.2
,

. ()
,
.
.
, , .
, , , .
, . , , :
1: .
2:
.
3: .
117
,
, (partition).
13. , .
$x $y _(x) _(y)
(x,y)
(x,y) ,

x y. . ,
( 4.3),
, . 5.4
OITHTH
YMBAN
EINAI
EINAI
OITHTH_H
MAHMA
APAKOOYHH
EINAI
IEKEPAITH
EINAI
MAHMA_PO
EINAI
ANTIKEIMENO
EINAI
E0
(0).
. , . . , . 0 _,
_,
, . 1, ,
"x {_(x) $y _(y)
(x,y)}
5.4
K E A A I O 5 :
118
y x,
(x, f(x)).
5.5. , , .
E
ENIKE POTAEI
EINAI
E1
OITHTH_H
APAKOOYHH
MAHMA_PO
EMBEEIA
"
EINAI
IEKEPAITH
EINAI
ANTIKEIMENO
EINAI
S1
5.5
1 .
, " ,

.
2
"x {_(x) (x,_)}
5.6.
S2,
.
. .
E
ENIKE POTAEI
EINAI
E2
OITHTH_H
APAKOOYHH
HIAKH_XE
EMBEEIA
"
EINAI
IEKEPAITH
EINAI
ANTIKEIMENO
5.6
3
"x {_(x) "y _ (y)
(x,y)}
S2
XXX
119
. , "
( 5.7).
E
OITHTH_H
APAKOOYHH
EINAI
ENIKE POTAEI
EINAI
EINAI
EINAI
IEKEPAITH
"
YOXPETIKO_M
EMBEEIA
ANTIKEIMENO
M
S3
"
E3
5.7
.

. , .

:
Accounts Fortran. Fortran
. .
. Cobol.

Accounts;.

. .
.
. -
5.3
K E A A I O 5 :
120
,
.

.
.
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(frame) Marvin Minsky, 1975

(Minsky, 1975).
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121
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122
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125
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126
K E A A I O 5 :
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127
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5.10
(complementary links), . , , . ,
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,
K E A A I O 5 :
128
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129
K E A A I O 5 :
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131
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132
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S F. 5.12.

( , ,
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133
K E A A I O 5 :
134
QUAKERT
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C1 () C2
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135
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).
.
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K E A A I O 5 :
136
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,
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137
,
.

, .. 5.1.
, . ,
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.
, . ,
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. , .
, . ,

,
.
.
, ,
. -
5.2
K E A A I O 5 :
138
, .
. , .
. .

. ,
. , , ,
, . 6 .
.
N.V. Findler (), Associative Networks Representation and Use

of Knowledge by Computers, Academic Press, 1979.
N.V. Findler , .

.
M.Minsky, A Framework for Representing Knowledge, in The Psychology
of Computer Vision, P.H.Winston (ed.), McGrawHill, 1975.
, , Marvin Minsky, .
1991.
P.H.Winston, Artificial Intelligence, , Addison Wesley, 1992.

.
, , .

:
,
(production rules),
(production
system),
,
(forward and backward chaining) ,
(goaldriven
reasoning) (backward reasoning) (eventdriven reasoning) (forward reasoning),
(, ) ,
, ; ; ,
, , (blackboard
model)
(opportunistic search).

K E A A I O 6 : K
140
(,
)

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;
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.

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.
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,
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6.3 ,
. ( 6.4),
.
,
, .
6.1
(production system)
. (production
memory).
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() . : P1, ., Pm
Q1, ., Qn, m, n 1. : E
() P1, , Pm ,
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( )
,

( , ).

. .. ( ),
, .
141
K E A A I O 6 : K
142
, .. (, 1, 1), (, 2, 2), , (, n, n), (, 1, 1, 2, 2, , n, n). OPS5 CLIPS,

. .. OPS5 (
^ ^ ), ^, CLIPS
( ( ) ( )).
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(
1 m
1 n)
6.1

.
, 5.0,
.
:
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,
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( ^ ? ^ ?)
(: ? 5.0)
( ^ ? ^ ))
?. . [1] L. Brownson, R. Farell, E. Kant, N. Martin, Programming Expert Systems
in OPS5: An Introduction to RuleBased Programming, AddisonWesley, 1985.
. , , , , .. , :. , . ,
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(pattern
matching process). ,
:
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143
K E A A I O 6 : K
144
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,
. 6.1.
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(working memory). . .
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145
K E A A I O 6 : K
146
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6.1
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147
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K E A A I O 6 : K
148
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150
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3: ( ^ 302 ^ )
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^ 4.5)
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8: ( ^ ^ 300 ^ 1)
. , , 2-4, 1 2
151
8. 2.
9: ( ^ ^ 300 ^ 3)
. , (5) 1,
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,
, (control
structure) . . :
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.
, ,
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K E A A I O 6 : K
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(recency).
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K E A A I O 6 : K
154
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155
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, . (lookahead), , (updatedby), .
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6.4.
6.3
K E A A I O 6 : K
156
1,
1, 2, 3
15
,
15
2, 3
4, 5
6, 7
4, 5, 6, 7
1, 2, 3
4, 5, 6, 7
6.4
6.3.2
, (findout for objects) (monitor for rules). , , Edward Shortliffe

MYCIN,
.
157
1. ;
1.
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2.1
2.2
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2. ;
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. 6.2 , (singlevalued)
,
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K E A A I O 6 : K
158
:

;
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2. 5
1
;
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2. 15
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(4, 5, 6, 7)
: 4
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159
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6.4
K E A A I O 6 : K
160
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6.5.
;
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;
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2. 5
;
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161
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K E A A I O 6 : K
162
6.3.4
, ( 2 ) ( 2.2 3.2 ), . ( 6.2.2) (metarules), .

. , .. , ,
. ,
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, .
, . , ( 6.4) .
. .
. ( ) ,
.
, .
6.4

(blackboard model),
, , . 6.7
, ,
. (knowledge sources).
163
M
7
4
6.7
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
, .. ,
, .. .
(control knowledge sources)
(object knowledge sources).
, , , /
. ,
,
, .. ( .5)
, . .
, ( ) (), (),
6.8.
(
, , , ),
. , ,
K E A A I O 6 : K
164

. , .
.
6.8
( )
( ) .
, , . , . (reduction), ,
(expectation), . M ,
() ,
, ()
. ,
. ,
.
, .
,
, , /, / ,
. .
, . .
, -
,
(, , .). ,
, . (opportunistic search).
, ,
.
.

, ,
, . , , ,
. ,
. (
), ,
. ,
, (intelligent, multiagent models).
,

, . ,
DENDRAL, MYCIN, PROSPECTOR, XCON, . . () ,
, () , () .
() , .
,
.

165
166
K E A A I O 6 : K
/.
, ( )
() .
,
,
( .3). . ,
/ /,
.
. ,
. , ,
, . ,
. , . , .
,
,
, , , . ,
,
.
, ; ;, .

, .
( , )
, ,
, () .
,
. , ,
. , ,
, , , .
. ( ) .
R. Englemore T. Morgan (eds), Blackboard Systems, AddisonWesley,

1988.
J. Giarratano G. Riley, Expert Systems: principles amd programming,
, PWS Publishing Company, 1993.
T (.712)
(production language) CLIPS)
P. Jackson, Introduction to Expert Systems, , AddisonWesley,
1999 (.5 18).
1998 ( 5.3 6.2).
N.J. Nilsson, Principles of Artificial Intelligence, Tioga Publishing Company,
1980.

Nilsson.
. Rich K. Knight, Artificial Intelligence, , 1991 (. 6).
P.H. Winston, Artificial Intelligence, , AddisonWesley, 1993
(. 7 8).
167
7 ,
. , ,
, ,
.

:
,
,
,
, , .

, M II , (expert systems technology).

.
. ,

. (knowledge
base), -
170
K E A A I O 7 :
. . 3 .
, 7.1,
7.2 , , (, ). ,

, .
, ,
171
7.1 , ,
. 1,
(general problem
solvers). ,
, .
(knowledge based
systems).
7.1.
M
E
(Inference Engine)
B
(Knowledge Base)
7.1
,
, .
.
o: ,
, .
,
.
,
. ()
,
172
K E A A I O 7 :
. ,
() .
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, . E, ' .
,
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).
,

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. :
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173
: ,
() .
.
M , , , .
: () , .
, .
.
.

,
;
.

/, /. , .. INTERNIST1,
.
, .. XCON
DEC, .

( DENDRAL, ,
), ( PROSPECTOR
7.1
174
K E A A I O 7 :

), ( XCON,
DEC,
),
( MYCIN, INTERNIST1, CASNET
), .

(standalone) , , LISPmachine. , .
,
, .
(Knowledge Engineering) . 10.
7.2
, ,

;
, (decision support systems).

(consultant, advisor), (critic)
(tutor). . , . . , , .
, ,
175

:
,
.
:
,
,
,
(knowledge debugging)
.

, .. , ,
,
.
,
.
,

, , ;
,
, . . ,

. .
7.3
K E A A I O 7 :
176

:
( )
,
.

.

.
,
.
.
.
.
.
, (competent problem solvers) , .
7.1
;
1.
.
2.
.
177
3.
.
4.

.
5. ,
.
7.2 B
C.S. Peirce[1] ,
(deduction), (abduction)
(induction), (prediction),
(explanation) (learning).
7.2.
() :
( )

() :

() :

, ,

7.2
, . ( . 4). modus ponens

.
, ,
, .
[1] C.S. Peirce (193158), Collected Papers, (eds.) C. Hartshorne, P. Weiss and A. Burks,
8 Vols., Mass.: Harvard University Press.
K E A A I O 7 :
178
"x _(x) (x, )

"x _(x) (x, )
"x _(x) (x, )
"x _ (x) (x,_)
7.2.1
M ( ) (_()), (, ) (, ).
. . 4,
, , ..
/ / .
7.2.2
(hypothetical reasoning). M
,
, . . ,

. / : ,
. ,
. ,
, . ,
. , 1() 2()
"x H1(x) P(x) "x H2(x) ~P(x)
P(A) .
,
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. , . , . (hypotheticodeductive) ,
,
.
7.2.3
. , . :
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(, )
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(, )
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"x _(x) (x, )

, .
.
. H (incremental learning)
,

(bottleneck) . ,
.

, ( )
, ,
179
180
K E A A I O 7 :
.
.
(Case Based Learning CBL)

.

. , ..
( ),
. , ,
. ,
. , , .

. ,
.
()
.
(descriptive learning) (predictive learning). , .
7.2
:

.
.
.

.
181

.

.
.

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.
. () , .

, .
. ,
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.
. ,
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.

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. , -
K E A A I O 7 :
182
, ,
.
CLIPS
C.
. ,

.
.
.

(shell) (empty
system). ,
(reusability)
.
. 10.

, ,
,
.

1999.
Jackson,
, .
8 , , MYCIN, PROSPECTOR INTERNIST1, ,

. ,
.

8, :
,

, MYCIN, PROSPECTOR INTERNIST1,
(uncertainty model)
MYCIN ( ), PROSPECTOR ( )
INTERNIST1 ( ),

(compiled knowledge)
MYCIN,
MYCIN PROSPECTOR
INTERNIST1,

(knowledge acquisition systems) TEIRESIAS
(empty systems),
EMYCIN,
.
K E A A I O 8 :
184
MYCIN, PROSPECTOR,
INTERNIST 1

TEIRESIAS
Bayes -
EMYCIN

,
60 70.
(MYCIN, PROSPECTOR,
INTERNIST1), 70.
,
.
( ,
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(. 9)
(. 10).
, . ,
, . , ad hoc , . (representation level)
.
, ,
(knowledge level)
(conceptual model of expertise)
. '
.
.
, ..
MYCIN PROSPECTOR. , . .

, . , . ,
(deep) . . , ( ) () , . ,
.
( . 2). CASNET . , .. INTERNIST1,
. ,
( )
, ,
.

.
( ),
.
,
185
186
K E A A I O 8 :
,
. .
MYCIN
( ) .
, ( , , , .),
, ,
, MYCIN
. MYCIN 8.1.
PROSPECTOR , MYCIN
, , , , Bayes. PROSPECTOR 8.2.
INTERNIST1, ( ) .
MYCIN PROSPECTOR
, ,

. INTERNIST1
. . '
. INTERNIST1 ,
( ) ,
(associations),
.
, , . INTERNIST1 8.3.
M Y C I N
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8.1
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198
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199
Hyperparathyroidism
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Increased osteoclast activity (8,1)
Bone breakdown
Bone breakdown (6,3)

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8.1.5
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206
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207
208
8.6
K E A A I O 8 :
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, (goalhypothesis). . .
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209
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,
.
, (sufficiency factor), ,
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E, A
E: E
A: A
8.16
K E A A I O 8 :
214
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()
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, .
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215
,
P(M/Y)
. M Bayes, posterior odds

O(/) = P(Y/M) / P(~Y/M) = (P(M/Y) / P(M/~Y)) (P(Y) / P(~Y)) = ()
O(/~) = P(Y/~M) / P(~Y/~M) = (P(~M/Y) / P(~M/~Y)) (P(Y) / P(~Y)) = ()
odds P = O/(O + 1) = P /
(1 - P). odds
,
(()=P(Y)/P(~Y)). (1)
. . (2) , . . .
;
.
O(Y/M) = O(Y)
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.
A
P(Y/M) = P(Y,M/M) + P(Y,~M/M) = P(Y/M,M) P(M/M) + P(Y/~M,M) P(~M/M)
,
. P(Y/M,M) = P(Y/M)
P(Y/~M,M) = P(Y/~M). ,
P(Y/M) = P(Y/M) P(M/M) + P(Y/~M) (1 - P(M/M))
, , , P(M/M) = P(M) ( ), P(Y/M) = P(Y) (
(1)
(2)
K E A A I O 8 :
216
).
, P(M/M), , P(Y/M), 8.17(). P(M/M) > P(M), =
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< P(M), = [P(M/M)/P(M)], .
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8.18,
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E = 5
A = 0.7
E = 5700
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0.005
B
E = 800
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E = 200
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8.18
INTERNIST1
217
, ,
, ,
. ,
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8.3 Internist1
8
INTERNIST1, Pittsburgh

(differential diagnosis) .
MYCIN
PROSPECTOR. ' INTERNIST1
, 80%
15
. 600 ,
2600 , 3550 (manifestations) 6500
. INTERNIST1
, .
DIALOG,
DIAgnostic LOGic ( ).
,
. INTERNIST1 CADUCEUS,
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()
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8.19
218
K E A A I O 8 :
(Manifest) .
. , , , ,
, {1, 2, , 5},
. 5,
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.
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. , , , , {0, 1, , 5}.
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, .
,
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{1, 2, , 5} , ,
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INTERNIST1
219
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1, , . ,
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1
:
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INTERNIST1 . , . 3 , .
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8.20
220
K E A A I O 8 :
. ,

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.

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221
222
K E A A I O 8 :
i. (i) 2, 3,
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223
K E A A I O 8 :
224
() . / . , ,
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,
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, .

1999.
L. Johnson E. Keravnou, Expert Systems Architectures, International
Thomson Publishing (formely Kogan Page), 1988.
Johnson Keravnou , , , CADUCEUS, PIP, CASNET,
ABEL, NEOMYCIN, CRIB, MDX NEOCRIB.
CADUCEUS CASNET,
CRIB,
. NEOMYCIN MDX
.

.

,
.
, NEOMYCIN MDX.

9, :

,
NEOMYCIN ( ),

NEOMYCIN,
,

(heuristic classification),
. 8,
MDX ,

(generic tasks architecture),
.
K E A A I O 9 :
226

MDX

. '
,
. ,
NEOMYCIN ( 9.2),
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. NEOMYCIN ,
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, MDX (
9.3)
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.
,
(Generic
Tasks Architecture),
MDX.
( 9.1).
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, , .

, .
,
. ,
, , , ,
, .
.

. , :
: (control or strategic
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: (causal
knowledge).

.
, .
, .
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:
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227
228
K E A A I O 9 :
(heuristic model) , (causal model).

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NEOMYCIN
229
, ,
,
.
9.2 Neomycin
MYCIN
. ,
NEOMYCIN ( MYCIN)
.
NEOMYCIN, , Stanford,
William J. Clancey.
9.1
230
K E A A I O 9 :
NEOMYCIN GUIDON,
MYCIN. GUIDON, ' , , ,
,

, . GUIDON MYCIN,
, GUIDON , .
,
MYCIN. ,

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MYCIN, .
NEOMYCIN

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MYCIN,

.
,
, , ,
(structural knowledge), ,
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( 9.1). -
NEOMYCIN
231
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232
K E A A I O 9 :
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NEOMYCIN.
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K E A A I O 9 :
234
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238
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K E A A I O 9 :
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MYCIN NEOMYCIN.
9.2.4
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, .

. :
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,
, . ,

, . , . ,
,
. () (qualitative abstraction), , .. 41 C, , .. , () (generalization abstraction),
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[1] W.J. Clancey, Heuristic Classification, Artificial Intelligence, 27, 289350,

1985.
NEOMYCIN
241
, .. , ()
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. ,
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K E A A I O 9 :
242
, .
,
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9.3 MDX
MDX Ohio State B. Chandrasekaran S. Mittal. , .

, , MDX
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243
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245
MDX
RADEX
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PATREC

9.7
MDX
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B. Chandrasekaran,
MDX
,
. :
, .
.
.
.
,
.
, (primitive generic tasks)
. :
.
, .

.
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.
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247
K E A A I O 9 :
248
9
, NEOMYCIN MDX.

, .
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.
NEOMYCIN, ()
,
, ,
, ()
. ,
,
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MDX .
, . 8.
J.M. David, J.P. Krivine R. Simmons (), Second Generation

Expert Systems, SpringerVerlag, 1993.
E. Keravnou (), Deep Models for Medical Knowledge Engineering,
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1992.
David, Krivine Simons,
,
.
, , .
Johnson Keravnou, NEOMYCIN
MDX,
, CADUCEUS
INTERNIST1,
ABEL NEOCRIB.

.
249
10
10, M II ,
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.

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252

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Proc. Cybernetics and Systems Research 2 ( R.Trappl), 647650, 1984.
261
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KEAAIO 10: T
264
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10.3
KEAAIO 10: T
272
7. .
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;.
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273
KEAAIO 10: T
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275
KEAAIO 10: T
276
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10.9
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277
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KEAAIO 10: T
278
. (reasoning task)
. ,
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279
KEAAIO 10: T
280
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10.10
10.5

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281
KEAAIO 10: T
282
, () ,
, () , ( ), , ()
, , .
J. Breuker W. Van de Velde (), CommonKADS Library for

Expertise Modelling: Reusable Problem Solving Components, IOS Press,
1994.
L.D. Elstein, L.A. Shulman S.A. Sprafka, Medical Problem Solving: An
Analysis of Clinical Reasoning, Harvard University Press, 1978.
A.J. Gonzalez D.D. Dankel, The Engineering of KnowledgeBased
Systems: Theory and Practice, PrenticeHall, 1993.
Breuker Van de Velde
CommonKADS,
CommonKADS.
Elstein, Shulman Sprafka , .
Gonzalez Dankel ,
, ,
, ,
.
, David, Krivine Simmons
,
. , .
11
T E
, ,
, , .
, , ,
o International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence
(IJCAI) o European Conference on Artificial Intelligence (ECAI),
.
IJCAI, 16 , 1999 , ECAI, 14 ,
2000 . ,

. , , , ..
, ,
Artificial Intelligence in Medicine Europe (AIME).

, ,
, (autonomous agents) (multiagent systems), , .
(rationality). ,
, , ,
, ,
.
.

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, (search engines)
284
KEAAIO 11: T E

, . , , , ,
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.
( . 6) MDX ( . 9) . , . ,
, .. (planning),

. .

(evolutionary linguistics).
, ,
.
. (evolutionary robotics) (artificial life) . , 15
IJCAI, Nagoya 1997,
,
RoboCup. .

. (planning approach),
(description logic).
T E
(Inductive Logic
Programming, ILP), , . ()
(background knowledge). . , , .
(knowledge
discovery in databases KDD), (data mining)
(intelligent data
analysis IDA), , .
,
Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery, Intelligent Data Analysis, .,
.
,
. , ,
, , , . ,

(information visualization).
(temporal reasoning)
.
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representation languages), .
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285
286
KEAAIO 11: T E
), . (spatial reasoning)
. ,
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(constraint satisfaction) ,
. ,
,
. ,
(constraint programming
languages and tools), .
,
, . , .
/, ( , , ),
, , .

. , , . , .
,

.
B
J. Ferber, MultiAgent Systems: An Introduction to Distributed Artificial
Intelligence, AddisonWesley, 1995.
N. Lavrac S. Dzeroski, Inductive Logic Programming: Techniques and
Applications, Ellis Horwood, 1994.
N. Lavrac, E. Keravnou B. Zupan (), Intelligent Data Analysis
in Medicine and Pharmacology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997.
K. Marriot P. Stuckey, Programming with Constraints, MIT Press, 1998.
G. Weiss (), Multiagent Systems: A Modern Approach to
Distributed Artificial Intelligence, MIT Press, 1999.
287
A A A
1.1
1. . ,
.
2. .
3. .
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290
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291
2.3
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293
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294
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3.1
A A A
295
4.1
1. "x {(x) (, x)}
2. ()
3. ()
4. "x "y {(x, y) ~_(x, y) (y)}
5. (, ) ~_(,
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4.2
1. .
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3. . P(A) , . (term)
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4. .
T N
296
5. . . .
wff.
.
4.3
() 1. , 2. , 3. Clausal, 4. , 5.
() 1. R P Q
PS
2. P Q R
PS
4.4
() modus ponens, () , () , () , ()
modus ponens () .
4.5
1. ~(x) (, x)
2. ()
3. ()
4. ~(x,y) _(x,y) (y)
5. (, )
~_(, )
6. ~(, x) (, x)
4.6
1. {z/x, w/y}
2. . g(x,y)/x .
3. {/y}
4. {g(z)/x, A/y]
5.{C/x, A/y}
6. . h
.
A A A
297
4.7
(, ).
. 4.6 . .
~APEEI(IANNH, YTIKIA)
~TPOH(x) APEEI(IANNH, x)
YTIKIA/x
~TPOH(YTIKIA)
~TPEI(x,y) KOTNETAI_AO(x,y) TPOH(y)

YTIKIA/y
~TPEI(x, YTIKIA) KOTNETAI_AO(x, YTIKIA)

TPEI(BAIH, YTIKIA)
BAIH/x
KOTNETAI_AO(BAIH, YTIKIA)
~KOTNETAI_AO(BAIH, YTIKIA)
4.6
4.8
wff,
.
.
P(x1)
P(x2) ~P(B)
~P(A) P(x3)
~P(A) ~P(B)
, 4.7.
T N
298
B/x1
P(x1)
~P(B)
A/x1
~P(A) ~P(B)
4.7
.

~Q(z) P(z)
Q(x1)
~P(A) Q(x2)
Q(x3) ~P(B)
~P(A) ~P(B)
4.8.
~Q(z) P(z)
z/x1
P(z)
B/z
Q(x1)
~P(B)
4.8
~P(A) ~P(B)
A/z
.
P(f(x))
Q(f(B))
~P(f(A))
~P(y)
~Q(z)
, , ..
A A A
299
P(f(x)) ~P(y). f(x)/y.

.
P(A,y) ~P(x,B). A/x /y.
E. ,

P(x)
Q(A) Q(B)
~P(y) ~Q(y)
4.9.
P(x)
x/y
~Q(x)
~P(y) ~Q(y)
Q(A) Q(B)
B/x
Q(A)
A/x
4.9

"x {(x) (, x)}
()
"x "y {(x,y) (x,y)}

~(x) (, x)
()
~(x,y) (x,y)
(, ).
, 4.10.
4.9
T N
300
~TPEI(IANNH, OPTOKAIA)
~APEEI(x,y) TPEI(x,y)
~POYTO(x) APEEI(IANNH, x)
IANNH/x
OPTOKAIA/y
~APEEI(IANNH, OPTOKAIA)
OPTOKAIA/x
~POYTO(OPTOKAIA)
POYTO(OPTOKAIA)
4.10
4.10

~(x,y) ~_(z,y) _(z,x)
_(, _). 4.11 .
~EINAI_MEPO(OYPA, EPIKH_ATA)
~EINAI(x,y) ~EINAI_MEPO(z,y) EINAI_MEPO(z,x)
EPIKH_ATA/x, OYPA/z
~EINAI(EPIKH_ATA,y) ~EINAI_MEPO(OYPA,y)
EINAI(EPIKH_ATA, ATA)
ATA/y
~EINAI_MEPO(OYPA, ATA)
4.11
EINAI_MEPO(OYPA, ATA)
A A A
301
4.11
4.12() 4.12() .
~YEPAN(B,w)
~YEPAN(x,y) ~YEPAN(y,z) YEPAN(x,z)

B/x, w/z
~YEPAN(B,y) ~YEPAN(y,w)
~AN(u,v) YEPAN(u,v)
AN(B,A)
B/u, A/v
YEPAN(B,A)
A/y
~YEPAN(A,w)
~AN(u,v) YEPAN(u,v)
AN(A, TPAEZI)
A/u, TPAEZI/v
YEPAN(A, TPAEZI)
TPAEZI/w
4.12()
T N
302
~YEPAN(B,w) YEPAN(B,w)
~YEPAN(x,y) ~YEPAN(y,z) YEPAN(x,z)

B/x, w/z
~YEPAN(B,y) ~YEPAN(y,w) YEPAN(B,w)

~AN(u,v) YEPAN(u,v)
AN(B,A)
B/u, A/v
YEPAN(B,A)
A/y
~YEPAN(A,w) YEPAN(B,w)
~AN(u,v) YEPAN(u,v)
AN(A, TPAEZI)
A/u, TPAEZI/v
YEPAN(A, TPAEZI)
YEPAN(B, TPAEZI)
TPAEZI/w
4.12()
4.12
$x {(x) (, x)}. ,
, ~(x) ~(, x).
4.13(). M ,
4.13().
A A A
303
~TPOH(x) ~TPEI(EENH, x)
~TPEI(BAIH, x) TPEI(EENH, x)
~TPEI(BAIH, x) ~TPOH(x)
TPEI(BAIH,YTIKIA)
YTIKIA/x
~TPOH(YTIKIA)
YTIKIA/y
TPEI(BAIH, YTIKIA)
BAIH/x
4.13()
T N
304
~TPOH(x) ~TPEI(EENH, x) {TPOH(x) TPEI(EENH, x)}

~TPEI(BAIH, x) TPEI(EENH, x)
~TPEI(BAIH, x) ~TPOH(x) {TPOH(x) TPEI(EENH, x)}

TPEI(BAIH,YTIKIA)
YTIKIA/x
~TPOH(YTIKIA) {TPOH(YTIKIA) TPEI(EENH,YTIKIA)}
YTIKIA/y
{TPOH(YTIKIA) TPEI(EENH,YTIKIA)}
TPEI(BAIH, YTIKIA)
BAIH/x
4.13()
5.1
() 5.14 () 5.15. .
( / , .. ), .
A A A
305
APAKOOYHH
EINAI
APAKOOYHH_1
IEKEPAITH
MAHMA
ANTIKEIMENO
EINAI
EENH
MEAO
BAMO
YOKEIMENO
KAT_EN_1
TEXNHTH
NOHMOYNH
ANTIKEIMENO
KATATAEI
ENIAEPONTO
EINAI
5.15
5.2
.
5.3
Fortran ,
_1,
1 ( 5.16). YMBAN
EINAI
YOOITIKO
POPAMMA
OKIMH
EINAI
PAIMO
EINAI
EINAI
ANTIKEIMENO
EINAI
POPAMMA_1
ANTIKEIMENO
OKIMH_1
PAIMO_1
YPAEA
OKIMATH
BAIH
IANNH
EINAI
ANPO
EINAI
EINAI
POPAMMATITH
T N
306
( ), . , Cobol. 2,
, P, Cobol, C.
POPAMMATA
GOBOL
EINAI
POPAMMATA
YOOITH
EINAI
ANTIKEIMENO
E2
P
YOKEIMENO
EINAI
EINAI
IANNH
POPAMMATA
FORTRAN
ENIKE
POTAEI
PAIMO_PO
EINAI
EINAI
Accounts
POPAMMATITH
EINAI
_1
EMBEEIA
5.16
EINAI
"
EINAI
F
EINAI
ANTIKEIMENO
E1
YOKEIMENO
MAIPH
Accounts;,
:
Accounts _. M
_FORTRAN 1. _ . _1 Accounts.
5.4
A A A
307
,

.
.
6.1
K
.
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345
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347
348
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349
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351
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355
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369
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Canonical forms: . .
CASNET
, , .
Causal model: . .
Certainty factor: . .
CLIPS
( ),
NASA.
Classification problem: . .
Clausal form
1 2 n B1
B2 Bm, n0, m0, ( ).
. i , j
. , , .
Closed state: . .
Closed world assumption: . .
Collaborative model of specialists: . .
Combinatorial explosion: . .
CommonKADS methodology: . CommonKADS.
Complementary link: . .
Compiled knowledge: . .
Completeness: . .
Computable predicate: . .
Conflict resolution set: . .
Conjunctive normal form: . .
Connective: . .
Constructive problem: . .
Context tree: . .
Control frame: . .
Control structure: . .
DAI: . Distributed Artificial Intelligence.
371
T N
372
Data abstraction: . .
Data mining: . .
Deadlock: . .
Decidability: . .
Decisionsupport system: . .
Declarative/procedural controversy: .
.
Declarative representation: . .
Deduction: . .
Deep knowledge: . .
Default: . .
DENDRAL
. .
Depthfirst search: . .
Descriptive learning: . .
Disjunctive normal form: . .
Distributed Artificial Intelligence: . .
Distributed control: . .
ECAI
,
1974 .
Empty system: . .
EMYCIN
(. ) MYCIN. Empty
MYCIN Essential MYCIN.
Evaluation function: . .
Eventdriven reasoning: . .
Expert system: . .
Expert systems technology: . .
Expertise model: . .
Explanation system: . .
Facet: . .
Final state: . .
Findout for objects: . .
First generation of expert systems: . .
Forward chaining: . .
Forward reasoning: . .
Frame: . .
Frame instantiation: . .
Frame problem: . .
Frame system: . .
General Problem Solver: . .
GPS: . General Problem Solver.
Generic tasks architecture: . .
Goaldriven reasoning: . .
Goal state: . .
Goal tree: . .
Greedy search: . .
GUIDON
MYCIN.
HERACLES
, (. ).
Heuristic: . .
Heuristic adequacy: . .
Heuristic classification: . .
Heuristic function: . .
Heuristic search: . .
373
T N
374
Hierarchical link: . .
Hierarchical problem space: . .
Horn clauses
clausal form (. ), .
,
(. ),
.
How explanation: . ;.
Hybrid representation: . .
Hypotheticodeductive inference model: .
.
IDA: . Intelligent Data Analysis.
IJCAI
,
1969 .
Induction: . .
Inference distance: . .
Inference engine: . .
Inference network: . .
Inheritance: . .
Intelligent agent: . .
Intelligent Data Analysis: . .
Interactive system: . .
Intersection search: . .
INTERNIST1
,
. .
Interview technique: . .
Knowledge acquisition system: . .
Knowledgebase: . .
Knowledgebased system: . .
KDD: . Knowledge Discovery in Databases.
Knowledge Discovery in Databases: .
.
Knowledge engineering: . .
Knowledge representation: . .
Knowledge representation formalism: .
.
Knowledge representation language: . .
Knowledge source: . .
LISP
. LISP
LISt Programming.
(sexpression).
Literal: . .
Logical adequacy: . .
Machine learning: . .
MDX
( ), (. ). , .
Mediating representation: . .
Meronomy: . .
Metaknowledge: . .
Metarule: . .
Mixed chaining: . .
Modus ponens: . .
Monitor for rules: . .
Multiagent system: . .
Multiple inheritance: . .
375
T N
376
MYCIN
, , ,
.
.
Navigation mechanism . .
Necessity factor . .
Negation as failure . .
NEOMYCIN
,
MYCIN .
Ninheritance: . .
Notational convenience: . .
Object frame: . .
Ontology: . .
Open state: . .
Operational knowledge: . .
Opportunistic search: . .
Opposing link: . .
OPS5
, ( ). XCON.
Partitioned associative network: . .
Path: . .
Physical symbol system: . .
Physical symbol system hypothesis: . .
Power of expression: . .
Predicate logic: . .
Predictive learning: . .
Prenex form: . prenex.
Problem solving: . .
Procedural attachement: . .
Procedural representation: . .
Production memory: . .
Production rule: . .
Production system: . .
PROLOG
,
Horn clauses (. ), (. ). PROLOG PROgramming in
LOGic.
Proof by contradiction: . .
PROSPECTOR
. .
Quantifier: . .
Reasoning mechanism: . .
Recency: . .
Recognition problem: . .
Recognizeact cycle: . .
Refractoriness: . .
Representation problem: . .
Resolution: . .
Resolution refutation procedure: . .
Resolution refutation tree: . .
377
T N
378
Rule instantiation: . .
Rule interpreter: . .
Rule of inference: . .
Scoring function: . .
Screening rule: . .
Search method: . .
Second generation expert systems: . .
Semidecidability: . .
Sensitivity: . .
Sentence equivalence: . .
Setofsupport heuristic: . .
Shallow knowledge: . .
Similarity matrix: . .
Skeletal system: . .
Skolem function: . Skolem.
Slot: . .
Specificity: . .
Stability: . .
Starting state: . .
State predecessor: . .
State space: . .
Strategic explanation: . .
Strategic How explanation: . ;.
Strategic knowledge: . .
Strategic Why explanation: . ;.
Strict inheritance: . .
Strict taxonomy: . .
Structural knowledge: . .
Successor states: . .
Sufficiency fa ctor: . .
Support knowledge: . .
Symbolic processing: . .
Symbol structure: . .
Systemic grammar network: . .
Taxonomy: . .
Taxonomic model: . .
Teachback interview technique: . .
TEIRESIAS
MYCIN.
.
Term: . .
Test and select: . .
Topdown refinement: . .
Total task investigation: . .
Triggering link: . .
Turing test: . Turing.
Uncertainty model: . .
Unification of sentences: . .
Unitpreference heuristic: . .
Universal specialization: . .
Validity: . .
Well formed formula: . .
Wff: . Well formed formula.
Why explanation: . ;.
Working memory: . .
XCON
DEC
379
380
T N

.
Zinheritance: . .
X
BX
I BX I O P A I A
B
. ( . ),
Prolog, , 1992.
D.R. Hofstadter D.C. Dennett, , , 1983.
J. Breuker W. Van de Velde (), CommonKADS Library for
Expertise Modelling: Reusable Problem Solving Components, IOS Press,
1994.
L. Brownson, R. Farell, E. Kant N. Martin, Programming Expert Systems
in OPS5: An Introduction to RuleBased Programming, AddisonWesley,
1985.
L.D. Elstein, L.A. Shulman S.A. Sprafka, Medical Problem Solving: An
Analysis of Clinical Reasoning, Harvard University Press, 1978.
R. Engelmore T. Morgan, Blackboard Systems, AddisonWesley, 1988.
J. Ferber, MultiAgent Systems: An Introduction to Distributed Artificial
Intelligence, AddisonWesley, 1995.
N.V. Findler (), Associative NetworksRepresentation and Use of
Knowledge by Computers, Academic Press, 1979.
J. Giarratano G. Riley, Expert Systems: Principles and Programming,
, International Thomson Publishing, 1994.
A.J. Gonzalez D.D. Dankel, The Engineering of KnowledgeBased
Systems: Theory and Practice, PrenticeHall, 1993.
1999.
E. Keravnou (), Deep Models for Medical Knowledge Engineering,
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., 1992.
381
382
T N
N. Lavrac S. Dzeroski, Inductive Logic Programming: Techniques and

Applications, Ellis Horwood, 1994.
N. Lavrac, E. Keravnou B. Zupan (), Intelligent Data Analysis
in Medicine and Pharmacology, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997.
G.F. Luger W.A. Stubblefield, Artificial Intelligence: Structures and
Strategies for Complex Problem Solving, , AddisonWesley,
1998.
K. Marriot P. Stuckey, Programming with Constraints, MIT Press, 1998.
N.J. Nilsson, Principles of Artificial Intelligence, Tioga Publishing Co, 1980.
R. Penrose, , , 1997.
1991.
J. Searle, , , 1997.
G. Weiss (), Multiagent Systems: A Modern Approach to
Distributed Artificial Intelligence, MIT Press, 1999.
P.H. Winston, Artificial Intelligence, , Addison Wesley, 1992.
EYPETHPIO OPN
E
41
230
A 144
90, 96
41
42
115

285
145, 154
145
156
A 40

71
177, 178
146
130
48
95
68
134
70
104

247
83
A 283
148,
240
242
B 218
B 218
B 218
171

58
230
275

278
230
52
189
383
/ 153
153
86

225
72
41
87
151

210

116
236
144
68
153
114
Turing 21
52
151, 278
66
69
E 86
101
285

52
171, 183
127,
231
95
E 285
E 284
E 284
177, 179

285
; 159
; 159
278
E 151
156
46
68
E 240
47
240
27
285
70
Bayes 214
126
51
I 286
wff 89
90
165

83
141
232
K 86
K
35
40
130
131
132

149
83
62
83
67
CommonKADS
265
210
112
205,
242
M 63, 198
146, 162, 192,
236
275
126

171
40
144, 150
141, 144
193, 213,
384
221

252
M prenex 93
162
272

255
41
144
145, 146
82
120
47
71
272
162, 275
120
125
125
70
133
83
35
39
50
50
40
152

183
242

84
202
151
233, 279
237
;
238
;
238
152
143

T N
124
87

286

145

145
177, 178

146

127

47
219,
221
Skolem 92
42
244
150

82
213
194
42
213
198
171
197
202
144
125

283
25

259
273
120
112
T 233
230
T 51
39
T 284

261
251
90
T 41
209
105

25

179,
213, 218
84

58
X
176
X 36
A
Clausal Form 87
EMYCIN 202
GUIDON 230
HERACLES 242
Horn clauses 104
INTERNIST1 217
MDX 242
MYCIN 187
NEOMYCIN 229
PROSPECTOR 209
TEIRESIAS 198

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T N

TEXNHTH NOHMOYNH EAPMOE

9.2.2 M .................................................. 233

. (physical symbol system hypothesis),

1 . (pruning heuristic). 2 (homing heuristic).

G.F. Luger W.A. Stubblefield, Artificial Intelligence: structures and

, , (depthfirst search) (breadthfirst search).

(design/planning) (scheduling) ' . ,

G.F. Luger W.A. Stubblefield, Artificial Intelligence: structures and

T.J.K. BenchCapon, Knowledge Representation: An Approach to Artificial

~(x) ($y [(x,y) ~(y)]

"x [~(x) ($y [(x,y) ~(y)]

"x [(x) ~{$y (y, x)}]

"x "y "z [(x,y) (y,z)

{"x (x) (x), (), ()}

(clause) . {Li} {Mi}

4.6 orn clauses

T.J.K. BenchCapon, Knowledge Representation: An Approach to Artificial

(frame) Marvin Minsky, 1975

N.V. Findler (), Associative Networks Representation and Use

, .. (, 1, 1), (, 2, 2), , (, n, n), (, 1, 1, 2, 2, , n, n). OPS5 CLIPS,

, (findout for objects) (monitor for rules). , , Edward Shortliffe

, ( 2 ) ( 2.2 3.2 ), . ( 6.2.2) (metarules), .

R. Englemore T. Morgan (eds), Blackboard Systems, AddisonWesley,

, (decision support systems).

, . ( . 4). modus ponens

"x _(x) (x, )

P. Jackson, Introduction to Expert Systems, , AddisonWesley,

8 , , MYCIN, PROSPECTOR INTERNIST1, ,

MYCIN contexts (). .

B[1] B[2] B[3]

[] + [,] - [] [,], [] > 0 [,] > 0

[] := [] + [,] + [] [,], [] < 0 [,] < 0

([] + [,]) / (1 - min (|[]|, |[,]|)),

(knowledge acquisition system)

Elevated cyclic-AMP (9,1)

Bone breakdown (6,3)

Increased urinary calcium (7,4)

Calcium-based renal stones (2,3)

PROSPECTOR SRI International

P. Jackson, Introduction to Expert Systems, , AddisonWesley,

(heuristic model) , (causal model).

[1] W.J. Clancey, Heuristic Classification, Artificial Intelligence, 27, 289350,

(Activation of Heuristic Links).

MDX Ohio State B. Chandrasekaran S. Mittal. , .

(Generic Tasks Architecture),

J.M. David, J.P. Krivine R. Simmons (), Second Generation

(total task investigations)

[1] L.Johnson R.T.Hartley, Conversation Theory and Cognitive Coherence Theories,

(forward scenario simulation).

J. Breuker W. Van de Velde (), CommonKADS Library for

~TPEI(x,y) KOTNETAI_AO(x,y) TPOH(y)

~TPEI(x, YTIKIA) KOTNETAI_AO(x, YTIKIA)

P(f(x)) ~P(y). f(x)/y.

~YEPAN(x,y) ~YEPAN(y,z) YEPAN(x,z)

~YEPAN(x,y) ~YEPAN(y,z) YEPAN(x,z)

~YEPAN(B,y) ~YEPAN(y,w) YEPAN(B,w)

~TPOH(x) ~TPEI(EENH, x) {TPOH(x) TPEI(EENH, x)}

~TPEI(BAIH, x) ~TPOH(x) {TPOH(x) TPEI(EENH, x)}

: 6, 14, 15, 16,

NEOMYCIN . MYCIN. , NEOMYCIN ( ),

N. Lavrac S. Dzeroski, Inductive Logic Programming: Techniques and

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