Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
Whats Boundary layers ?
A thin layer Appearing on the surface of bodies in viscous
flow because the fluid seems to "stick" to the surface.
A thin layer of fluid with lower velocity than the outer flow
develops.
Boundary layer on airfoil.
laminar flow
Laminar flow
Fluid moves in smooth layers or lamina.
There is relatively little mixing and consequently the velocity
gradients are small and shear stresses are low.
The thickness of the laminar boundary layer increases with
distance from the start of the boundary layer and decreases
with Reynolds number.
Effects by viscosity
Drag
Pressure Distribution
Flow Separation
Viscous Drag
Viscous Drag
Skin Friction
Skin friction drag caused by shear stresses at the surface
contribute a majority of the drag of most airplanes
We define the skin friction coefficient, Cf, by
11
12
13
Pressure Drag
Pressure Drag
The presence of the boundary layer creates a
pressure or form drag on bodies
In an adverse pressure gradient, the skin friction
drag is reduced, but pressure drag increases.
This increase in pressure drag compensates for
some of the reduction in skin friction.
14
15
The effective shape can be used to approximate the effect of
the boundary layer using inviscid analysis methods combined
with the boundary layer equations.
Outside the boundary layer, the flow behaves much like an inviscid
(and usually irrotational) fluid.
As the angle of attack changes, the boundary layer shape
changes, with thicker boundary layers developing toward the
aft part of the airfoil at higher angles of attack (because of the
more severe adverse pressure gradients).
This leads to changes in the lift curve slope (up to a 10% reduction
in Cl at Reynolds numbers in the millions) and an aerodynamic
center that is usually farther forward than is predicted by inviscid
theory.
Separation causes large
changes in effective airfoil
shape here
Viscous result
Angle of attack
Separation
Separation
What is Separation
When the flow near the surface reverses its direction and flows
upstream, there must be a place, generally a bit farther upstream,
where streamlines meet and then leave the surface.
Why ?
Its caused by the presence of an adverse pressure gradient.
Effects
When this occurs, the assumptions that the u component of
velocity is larger than the v component and that certain derivatives
in the x direction may be ignored, no longer are valid.
Thus, coupling an inviscid analysis with a simple boundary layer
calculation does not work.
One must resort to experiment or Navier-Stokes solutions.
19
20
Turbulent boundary layers also have greater velocity near the
surface and are therefore better able to handle adverse pressure
gradients.
The laminar boundary layer is more likely to separate
When this occurs, the laminar boundary layer leaves the surface and
usually undergoes transition to turbulent flow away from the surface.
This process takes place over a certain distance that is inversely
related to the Reynolds number, but if it happens quickly enough, the
flow may reattach as a turbulent boundary layer and continue along
the surface.
22
23
24
Displacement thickness, *
This is a measure of the outward displacement of the
streamlines from the solid surface as a result of the reduced
u- velocity within the boundary layer. This quantity is defined
as :
u
= 1
u
*
e e
dy
25
Momentum Thickness,
This is a measure of the momentum loss within the
boundary layer as a result of the reduced velocities within
the boundary layer.
u
u
=
1
dy
ue
u
e
e
0
H = /
*
26
27
Thwaites method
This is an empirical method based on the observation
that most laminar boundary layers obey the following
relationship.
Ref: Thawites, B., Incompressible Aerodynamics,
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1960:
ue d 2
due
)= A B
(
dx
dx
2
28
Thwaites method
The above equation may be analytically
integrated yielding
0.45
2
= 6
ue
0.45
u
5
2
e ( x = 0)
x=0ue dx + ( x = 0) ue6 ( x) = ue6
x
5
u
e dx
x =0
For blunt bodies such as airfoils, the edge velocity ue is zero at x=0,
the stagnation point. For sharp nosed geometries such as a flat plate,
the momentum thickness is zero at the leading edge. Thus, the term
in the square bracket always vanishes.
The integral may be evaluated, at least numerically, when ue is
known.
29
Thwaites method
After is found, the following relations are used to
compute the shape factor H.
For 0 0.1
H = 2. 61 3. 75 + 5.24 2
For 0.1 0
0.0147
H = 2. 472 +
0.107 +
where,
2 du e
=
dx
30
Thwaites method
After is found, we can also find skin friction coefficient
from the following empirical curve fits:
ue
0.62
( + 0.09)
w =
w
Cf =
1 ue2
2
31
32
Skin Friction
function L = fL(lambda);
if lambda < 0
if lambda==-0.107
lambda=-0.106;
end;
L = 0.22 + 1.402*lambda +(0.018*lambda)./(lambda+0.107);
elseif lambda >= 0
L = 0.22 + 1.57*lambda - 1.8*lambda.^2;
end;
We invoke (or call this function) at each i-location as follows:
H(i) = fH(lambda); L = fL(lambda); cf(i) = 2*L./(Re*theta(i));
34
Transition prediction
A number of methods are available for predicting
transition.
Examples:
Epplers method
Michels method
ue x
ue
Re =
Re 1.174 Re x
0.46
+ 22400 Re x
0.54
Turbulent Flow
A number of CFD methods, and integral
boundary layer methods exist.
The most popular of these is Heads method.
This method is used in a number of computer
codes, including PABLO.
37
Heads Method
Von Karman Momentum Integral Equation:
cf
dU
d
+
2+H
=
dx
dx
U
2
*
H1
0.6169
1 d
UH1 = 0.0306 H1 3
U dx
38
These two ODEs are solved by marching from transition location to trailing edge.
1.287
else
H1 = 3.3 + 1.5501(H 0.6778)
3.064
Ludwig-Tillman relationship:
C f = 0.246 10
0.678 H
)Re
0.268
39
function H=HofH1(H1);
if H <1.1
if H1 <= 3.32
H = 3;
elseif H1 < 5.3
H = 0.6778 + 1.1536*(H13.3).^(-0.326);
else
H = 1.1 + 0.86*(H1-3.3).^(0.777);
end
y = 16;
else
if H <= 1.6
y = 3.3 + 0.8234*(H-1.1).^(-1.287);
else
y = 3.3 + 1.5501*(H-0.6778).^(-3.064);
end;
end;
function cf = cfturb(rtheta,H);
cf = 0.246*(10.^(-0.678*H))*rtheta.^(-0.268);
40
Drag Prediction
Squire-Young Formula
Cd = Cd ,upper + Cd ,lower
Cd ,upper = 2
TrailingEdge U E ,TrailingEdge
c
H TrailingEdge ,upper + 5
2
41
Turbulent flows
42
43
44
45
46
47
Introduction to Airfoil
It is an airfoil analysis program that is an adaptation of
the original program "mcarfa" .
It can be used to predict the aerodynamic
characteristics of airfoils in subsonic, viscous flows.
The computed aerodynamic characteristics include
pressure distributions, lift, drag, pitch moment,
transition position, and incipient separation on the
airfoils.
48
Method
The program combines the potential-flow solution with
boundary-layer theory in an iterative manner.
The interrelationship between the potential-flow
solution and the boundary-layer effects is included .
Providing significant improvements in prediction
accuracy.
49
Modifications to "mcarfa"
Simplification of the input data procedure
Ability to generate NACA airfoil geometry data
Compacting output file
Displaying airfoil shape and pressure distributions in
a graphic manner
50
53
---- Output of Airfoil Program ----TITLE -- NACA 4412
Mach number = 0.100
Reynolds Number = 0.800 million
Angle of Attack = 4.000 Ref. Chord = 1.000 feet
CL = 0.8584
CD = 0.0101
CM(C/4) = -0.0925
Transition Point:
Upper x/c = 0.31117
Lower x/c = 0.95974
Separation (Percent of Surface):
Upper = 2.272
Lower = 0.000
55
---- Pressure Distribution on Upper Surface ---x/c
Zu
Cp
0.00183
0.00980
-0.28680
0.00668
0.01780
-0.84013
0.01413
0.02571
-1.10247
0.02453
0.03365
-1.20144
0.03776
0.04147
-1.22130
0.05337
0.04900
-1.21070
0.07107
0.05615
-1.19384
0.09018
0.06281
-1.17700
0.11100
0.06907
-1.16577
0.13289
0.07489
-1.17068
0.15481
0.07992
-1.17141
0.17790
0.08437
-1.15723
0.20142
0.08822
..
-1.14189
56
57
Limitations
Only NACA 4-digit Airfoil and NACA
Standard 5 Digit Airfoil ordinates can be
generated automatically.
Mach number must be greater than 0.05
and less than criteria Mach number.
58
Introduction to XFOIL
XFOIL is a software which goal was to combine the
speed and accuracy of high-order panel methods
with the new fully-coupled viscous/inviscid interaction
methods.
It was developed by Mark Drela, MIT and Harold
Youngren, Aerocraft, Inc.
It consists of a collection of menu-driven routines
which perform various useful functions .
59
Introduction to XFOIL
Functions
Viscous (or inviscid) analysis of an existing airfoil
Airfoil design and redesign by interactive specification of a
surface speed distribution via screen cursor or mouse.
Airfoil redesign by interactive specification of new geometric
parameters
Blending of airfoils
Drag polar calculation with fixed or varying Reynolds and/or
Mach numbers.
Writing and reading of airfoil geometry and polar save files
Plotting of geometry, pressure distributions, and polar.
60
Homework
Compare the results from using panel method program
PABLO for inviscid flows and viscous flows and using
Airfoil panel method coupled with boundary-layer
theory in an iterative manner.
Lift coefficient
Lift coefficient slope
Drag coefficient
Pressure distribution
61