➢The process of devising a system, component or process to meet needs.

➢A decision-making process in which science and mathematics are applied to

convert resources to meet objectives.

➢Establishing objectives, criteria, analysis, construction, testing, and evaluation.

 Machine design

✓ A machine is a combination of several machine elements arranged to work

together as a whole to accomplish specific purposes.

✓ Machine design involves designing the elements and arranging them

optimally to obtain some useful work.

 Historical Questions
What role of engineers in history ?
Irrigation and farming equipment, dam projects, water and wind mills building construction, the Pyramids,
the Great Wall, the printing press, the Wright brothers’ aircraft, fermented beverages, nuclear power, the
Space Shuttle, electric appliances, petroleum products, pharmaceuticals.

When did the engineering disciplines begin?

3000 BC Civil
1000 BC Military
AD 1700 Mechanical
AD 1800 Materials
Agricultural
Electrical
AD 1900 Chemical
Aerospace
AD 1950 Computer, Nuclear, Biochemical
Biomedical
3000 BC Civil
1000 BC Military
AD 1700 Mechanical
 Classification of engineering design
❖Adaptive design
Concerned with adaption of existing design procedures.
Ex. I.C engines, machine tools etc. there is heardly anything left for the
designer to do except minor modifications.

To begin with every designer must gothrough the adaptive modification.

❖Development design
Starts from the existing design, but the final result may differ quite
markedly from the initial product.

➢ Methods of manufacture
➢ Selection of better materials
➢ Appearence etc.

The final product is much better than the original version.

❖New Design

➢ This is the one which never exist before.

➢ This may be done by dedicated persons who have personal

qualities of sufficiently higher order.

➢ Lot of research, experimental activities and creative brain

is required.
 Types of design based on methods
❖ Rational design
❖This is based on determining the stresses and strains of components and
thereby deciding their dimensions.

❖ Empirical design

✓ This is based on empirical formulae which in turn is based on experience

and experiments.
✓For example, when we tighten a nut on a bolt the force exerted or the
stresses induced cannot be determined exactly however, experience shows
that the tightening force may be given by P=284d where, d is the bolt
diameter in mm and P is the applied force in kg.
✓ There is no mathematical backing of this equation but it is based on
observations and experience.
❖Industrial design

These are based on industrial considerations and norms viz. market survey,
external look, production facilities, low cost, use of existing standard
products.
 General Procedure in Machine Design
Recognition of need

First of all, make a complete statement of the problem, indicating

the need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed.
Analyse and Evaluate the Design Mechanism

Shortlist and analyse various possible mechanisms for the

machine. Select the best mechanism for your design that will give
this machine the desired motion.
Analysis of Forces

Analyse how every component of a machine with fit in and

interact with each other, also analyse what forces act on each and
every component of the mechanical equipment and the energy
Fig. General Machine Design Procedure
transmitted by each component.
❖ Material Analysis and Selection

Based on the analysis of stresses that work upon the machine components
individually select the appropriate material for machine component design

❖Design Iteration for Manufacturing

Design changes, that do not affect the performance of the product however,
facilitates easy manufacturing the machine and its components is
advisable.

❖Creation of Detailed Mechanical Drawings

Create the detailed drawings of each component and assembly of the

machine. Complete specification using CAD capabilities can be of great
assistance for manufacturing process.
 Factors that influence the design activity
➢ Indigenous materials are preferred
- to avoid delays in procurement for fabrication
➢ Usage of standard materials
- to reduce cost
➢ Availability of materials
- this will ensure manufacturing schedules
➢ Saftey requirements
-saftey to the operator
- no danger to the people around during normal working condition or in
case of failure.
▪ Product safety
Design engineer has moral responsibility to design aproduct that is safe during
intended use.

➢ Protects human from injury

➢ Protects property from damage

➢ Prevents harm to environment

➢ No danger to people if it fails in normal working hours

➢ Protective devices such as gaurds around belt drive
➢ Warning signs, loud sounds or flashing lights can also be taught of to warn the
dangers.
Nominal Size: Size of a part specified in the drawing. It is used for
general identification purpose
Example
Basic size: It is the size based on which the dimensional
deviations are given
❖Examples of clearance fit
✓ Door hinges, wheel, and axle, shaft and bearing, etc. used in the
assembly of parts.
✓It is used between those mating parts where no precision is required. It
provides minimum allowance and is used on loose pulleys, agricultural
machineries, etc.
❖Examples of transition fit
Spigot in mating holes, coupling rings and recesses
❖Examples of interference fit
Pin in bicycle chain
Hinge pin
 Design Considerations
Strength [N/m2] is the maximum stress that the material can resist before deformation or
fracture.
Stiffness [N/m] is the resistance of an elastic body to deflection or deformation by an applied
force, expressed as k = F / δ
Some of the important factors considered in design are listed below:
Functionality Friction Maintenance
Strength Weight Liability
Stiffness Noise Cost
Shape Life
Wear
Size Styling
Corrosion Safety Control
Thermal Properties Reliability Volume
Surface Finish Manufacturability Marketability
Lubrication Utility Remanufacturing
 1 Selection of Material
❑ Material selection is a vital step in the process of machine design. Selection of material depends upon following aspects:

❖ Performance Requirements: Material is selected considering the design constraints and performance requirements e.g.

loads acting on the member, size and weight constraints, environmental conditions, desired reliability & durability etc.

❖ Material Properties: Performance requirements are compared with properties of materials to select the best suitable

material.

✓ Properties can be Physical (melting point, co-efficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity, specific heat, specific

gravity, electrical conductivity, magnetic properties etc.),

✓ Chemical (corrosion resistance, reactivity with acids, bases, water etc.), Mechanical (hardness, toughness, ductility,

malleability etc.) or

✓ Manufacturing (castability, weldability, formability, machineability etc.).

✓Manufacturing Aspects: Along with the selection of material designer also
has to decide about the manufacturing processes to be used to give it
desired shape.
✓Availability and Cost: Material selected should be easily available at an
acceptable cost.
 Mechanical Properties of Materials
Following are some important mechanical properties
Strength Ability of the material to withstand external forces without yielding or fracture.

Stiffness Ability of the material to resist deformation under the action of external forces.
Ability of the material to regain its original shape and size when the external
Elasticity
load is removed.

Ability of the material to permanently retain the deformation produced due to

Plasticity external load. Ability to have large plastic deformation without fracture is very
important property in certain operations like stamping.
 Ability of the material to have large plastic deformation without fracture when subjected to tensile
Ductility force. It is measured by %age elongation and %age reduction in area. Ductility decreases with increase
in temperature.

Ability of the material to have large plastic deformation without fracture when subjected to compressive
Malleability
force. Malleability increases with increase in temperature.

Brittleness Property of the material to show negligible plastic deformation before fracture.

Ability of the material to resist penetration, plastic indentation, abrasion or scratching. Wear resistance
Hardness increases with increase in hardness and processes like case hardening are used to increase to increase
the hardness of surfaces rubbing against each other.
 Ability of the material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and release this energy when
Resilience unloaded. It is measured by Modulus of Resiliance which is strain energy per unit volume upto
the elastic limit and is given by the area under the stress-strain curve, from origin to elastic limit.

Ability of the material to absorb energy before the fracture takes place. Tough materials have
ability to bend, twist or stretch before it gets fractured. It is an important property for
Toughness components subjected to shock loads. It is measured by Modulus of Toughness which is the total
work done or energy absorbed by the component upto the fracture point and is given by the area
under the stress-strain curve upto the fracture point
 Engineering Materials
• Engineering Materials can be classified as metals (ferrous & non-ferrous) and
non-metals, which are discussed in the following articles:
❖Ferrous Materials
• Ferrous materials can be classified into Wrought Iron, Cast Iron and Steel.
✓Wrought Iron and Cast Iron
Wrought Iron and Cast Iron along with their types are discussed in the table
given below
Introduction Properties Applications
Tough, malleable, ductile, weldable,
forgeable & corrosion resistant Bolts, nuts, railway couplings, chains,
Purest form of iron with
Wrought Iron Poor castability, high melting point crain hooks, oil rigs, pipes, pipe fittings,
more than 99.5% Fe
(1510°C)low impact strength, cannot be plates, sheets etc.
hardened or tempered
Low cost, good castability & machinability,
An alloy of Fe & C with
high compressive strength, wear resistant,
Cast C > 2%, other Automobile engine blocks, machine tool
good vibration damping capacity
Iron ingradients – Si, Mn, S, structures
Very brittle, low plasticity, low malleability,
Ph etc, hard and brittle
cannot be forged
Contains 2.5 to 3.75 % C
present in the form of
graphite flakes, giving Low cost, good castability & machinability,
gray color and hence its high compressive strength, graphite acts as Machine tool structures, gas/ water
Grey
name. lubricant making it suitable for sliding parts pipeselectric motor frames, piston rings,
Cast Iron
Examples: FG150, Low tensile and impact strength, less flywheels, cylinder block, heads, housings
FG250, FG350Si12 (no. ductility, poor weldability
indicates UTS, Si12
means 12% Si)
 Very hard and brittle, good
Rail/car wheels, valve seats,
Contains 1.75 to 2.30% C present in the abrasion resistance, poor
White Cast Iron cams, small pulleys, rollers,
form of cementite (Fe3C) mechanical properties, low
gears
machinability
Obtained by annealing of white cast
iron, contains 2.2 to 3.6% C. Examples: Low cost, malleable, ductile,
Crank case, pump bodies,
BM 300 WM200 PM400 forgeable, good wear
Malleable Cast Iron conveyer chain links,
BM, WM & PM indicate Black hearth, resistance, impact strength and
crankshafts, levers etc.
White hearth & Pearlitic Malleable CI vibration damping capaity
resp. numbers indicate UTS
Stronger, more ductile, tougher, Cylinders, cylinder heads,
Also known as nodular or ductile CI, C
good fluidity, castability, valves, pipes, pipe fittings,
Spheroidal Cast Iron (graphite) is present in the
machinabilty, weldability and power transmission equipment,
spheroidal/nodular form
wear resistance earth moving machinery
Automobile parts like
Improved properties by adding alloying cylinders, pistons, piston rings,
Alloy Increased strength, high wear
elements like Ni, Cr, Mo, Cu, Si, Mn crank case, brake drums,
Cast Iron and corrosion resistance
etc. crushing and grinding machine
parts
Steel
❖It is an alloy of Fe and C with C < 1.5%. C is present in the form of iron carbide
(Fe3C), which imparts hardness and strength.

Steel is used for most of the engineering applications. Its properties can be modified
using heat treatment.

It can be classified as Plain Carbon Steels and Alloy Steels.

❖Plain Carbon Steel: It contains 0.5 to 1.0 % of C. It is cheap, easily available, has
wide range of mechanical properties that can be controlled with the help of heat
treatment and alloying elements, has good machinability and weldability. It can be
classified as low, medium and high carbon steel.
 Type Carbon %age Properties Applications

Very soft and ductile, good Small forgings, machined,

Low Carbon Steel (Mild
< 0.3 % machinability and welded and cold formed
Steel)
weldability parts

High strength , good

Medium Carbon Steel 0.3 to 0.7 % Most machine components
weldability

High yield strength, tough,

Cutting tools, springs,
High Carbon Steel > 0.7 % hard and brittle, low
bearings
weldability
Alloy Steels
❖Alloy Steels: When certain alloying elements are added in sufficient quantity to impart some

desired property, these are called alloy steels.

✓ For example, Ni provides hardness, strength & toughness without compromising ductility,

✓ Cr provides high hardness, strength, wear & corrosion resistance,

✓Mo & W increases hardenabilty and wear resistance,

✓V improves fatigue resistance and so on.

✓Some examples of alloy steels are 40Cr1Mo28, 40Ni3, 37Mn2, 31Ni3Cr65Mo55.

 Non-ferrous Materials
❑A variety of non-ferrous materials are also used in engineering applications. They are
soft, have low melting point, low strength, high corrosion resistance, can be cold worked and
have good manufacturing properties.
❖Some important non-ferrous materials are
✓Al Alloys (Duralumin, alloy, Magnalium, Hindalium),
✓ Cu Alloys (Brass, Bronze, Gun metal, Babbit),
✓Ni Alloys (Monel Metal, Inconel, Nichrome, Nimonics) etc.
✓Non-Metallic Materials
❖Non-metals have low cost, flexibility and resistance to heat & electricity. Examples are
timber, leather, rubber, plastics etc.
1. The dimensions of the mating parts, according to basic hole system, are given as
follows.
Hole : 25.00 mm Shaft : 24.97 mm
25.02 mm 24.95 mm
Find the hole tolerance, shaft tolerance and allowance.