Mechanical Element Design

Design
Engineering design
“The process of applying the various techniques and
scientific principles for the purpose of defining a device, a
process, or a system in sufficient detail to permit its
realization.”

MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar

Engineer

As a Professional Engineer I dedicate my professional knowledge

and skill to the advancement and betterment of human welfare.
I pledge:
 To give the utmost of performance;
 To participate in none but honest enterprise;
 To live and work according to the laws of man and the highest
standards of professional conduct;
 To place service before profit, the honor and standing of the
profession before personal advantage, and the public welfare
above all other considerations.
 In humility and with need for Divine Guidance,
I make this pledge.

MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar

 The requirements pyramid. The lower part of the pyramid tends to be labeled
“Technical design”, the upper part, “Industrial design”; better, perhaps, is to think of
think of all three tiers as part of a single process that we shall call “Product design”.
MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar
Phases of Design

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Phases of Design

MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar

Phases of Design
as many alternative design approaches as
possible are sought, usually without
regard for their value or quality.

MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar

Phases of Design
as many alternative design approaches as
possible are sought, usually without
regard for their value or quality.

• a straight-line linkage
• a cam and follower
• an air cylinder
• a hydraulic cylinder
• a robot
• a solenoid
MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar
Phases of Design
as many alternative design approaches as possible are sought,
usually without regard for their value or quality.

The process of design is essentially an

exercise in applied creativity
MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar
Iteration

Analysis Synthesis

Synthesis and Analysis are the “two faces” of machine

design. Synthesis means to put together and analysis means
to decompose, to take apart, to resolve into its constituent
parts.Thus they are opposites, but they are symbiotic.
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MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar
Design Process

Robert L. Norton - Machine Design_ An Integrated Approach-Prentice Hall (2010)

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Design Stages

Robert L. Norton - Machine Design_ An Integrated Approach-Prentice Hall (2010)

MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar

Where to start

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Where to start

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MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar
Design Consideration
 1 Functionality • 14 Noise
 2 Strength/stress • 15 Styling
 3 Distortion/deflection/stiffness • 16 Shape
 4 Wear • 17 Size
 5 Corrosion • 18 Control
 6 Safety • 19 Thermal properties
 7 Reliability • 20 Surface
8 Manufacturability

• 21 Lubrication
9 Utility

• 22 Marketability
 10 Cost
 11 Friction
• 23 Maintenance

 12 Weight
• 24 Volume

 13 Life
• 25 Liability
MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar • 26 Remanufacturing/resource
Design Responsibly - 1
 Understand the problem. Problem definition is probably the most
significant step in the engineering design process. Carefully read,
understand, and refine the problem statement.
 Identify the knowns. From the refined problem statement,
describe concisely what information is known and relevant.
 Identify the unknowns and formulate the solution strategy. State
what must be determined, in what order, so as to arrive at a
solution to the problem. Sketch the component or system under
investigation, identifying known and unknown parameters.
 Create a flowchart of the steps necessary to reach the final
solution. The steps may require the use of free-body diagrams;
material properties from tables; equationsfrom first principles,
textbooks, or handbooks relating the known and unknown
parameters; experimentally or numerically based charts; specific
computational tools as discussed in Sec. 1–4; etc.
MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar
Design Responsibly – 11
 State all assumptions and decisions. Real design problems generally do
not have unique, ideal, closed-form solutions. Selections, such as the
choice of materials, and heat treatments, require decisions. Analyses
require assumptions related to the modeling of the real components or
system.All assumptions and decisions should be identified and recorded.
 Analyze the problem. Using your solution strategy in conjunction with
your decisions and assumptions, execute the analysis of the problem.
Reference the sources of all equations, tables, charts, software results,
etc. Check the credibility of your results. Check the order of magnitude,
dimensionality, trends, signs, etc.
 Evaluate your solution. Evaluate each step in the solution, noting how
changes in strategy, decisions, assumptions, and execution might change
the results, in positive or negative ways. Whenever possible, incorporate
the positive changes in your final solution.
 Present your solution. Here is where your communication skills are
important. At this point, you are selling yourself and your technical
abilities. If you cannot skillfully explain what you have done, some or all
of your work may be misunderstood and unaccepted. Know your
MtE 322audience.
Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar
MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar
Economics of Design
 Standard Sizes
Parts that are made and sold in large quantities
usually cost somewhat less than the odd sizes.
 Large Tolerances
Tolerances cover dimensional variation and surface-
roughness range and also the variation in mechanical
properties resulting from heat treatment and other
processing operations.
 Break Even Points

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Dimensions and Tolerances
 Nominal size: The size we use in speaking of an element. For example, we may specify
a 1½ in pipe or a ½ in bolt. Either the theoretical size or the actual measured size may
be quite different. The theoretical size of a 1½ in pipe is 1.900 in for the outside
diameter.And the diameter of the ½ in bolt, say, may actually measure 0.492 in.
 Limits: The stated maximum and minimum dimensions.
 Tolerance: The difference between the two limits.
◦ Bilateral tolerance: The variation in both directions from the basic dimension.
That is, the basic size is between the two limits, for example, 1.005 ± 0.002 in. The
two parts of the tolerance need not be equal.
◦ Unilateral tolerance. The basic dimension is taken as one of the limits, and
variation is permitted in only one direction, for example, 1.005+0.004
−0.000 𝑖𝑛
 Clearance: A general term that refers to the mating of cylindrical parts such as a bolt
and a hole. The word clearance is used only when the internal member is smaller than
the external member. The diametral clearance is the measured difference in the two
diameters.The radial clearance is the difference in the two radii.
 Interference: The opposite of clearance, for mating cylindrical parts in which the
internal member is larger than the external member.
 Allowance: The minimum stated clearance or the maximum stated interference for
mating parts.

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Cost of Tolerance

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Production Print

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Break Even Point

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Uncertainties
 Composition of material and the effect of variation on properties.
 Variations in properties from place to place within a bar of stock.
 Effect of processing locally, or nearby, on properties.
 Effect of nearby assemblies such as weldments and shrink fits on
stress conditions.
 Effect of thermomechanical treatment on properties.
 Intensity and distribution of loading.
 Validity of mathematical models used to represent reality.
 Intensity of stress concentrations.
 Influence of time on strength and geometry.
 Effect of corrosion.
 Effect of wear.
 Uncertainty as to the length of any list of uncertainties.

MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar

Designing for Uncertainties

 Deterministic Techniques
◦ Design Factor, nd
◦ Factor of Safety, ns

 Stochastic (Being or having a random variable) Techniques

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Deterministic Techniques

 Design Factor
Example: Consider that the maximum load on a structure is known with
an uncertainty of ±20 % and the load causing failure is known within
±15%. If the load causing failure is nominally 2000 lbf, determine the
design factor and the maximum allowable load that will offset the absolute
uncertainties.

MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar

Reliability
In the reliability design method, the distributions of
stresses are compared to the distribution of strengths
in order to achieve an acceptable success rate.

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Design Factor

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Design Tools
Computational Tools
 CAD (Computer-aided design) software:
Aries, AutoCAD, CadKey, I-deas/Unigraphics, ProEngineer, etc.
 CAE (Computer-aided engineering):
Finite element analysis/method (FEA or FEM):
Algor, ANSYS, MSC/NASTRAN, ABAQUS, etc.
Computational fluid dynamics:
CFD++, FIDAP, Fluent, etc.
Dynamic force and motion in mechanics:
ADAMS, DADS, Working Model, etc.

MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar

 Acquiring Technical Information
Codes and Standards
 Libraries, Government sources, Professional societies, Commercial
vendors, internet.
• American
Specifications for standards
Bearing and safety
Manufacturers or design
Association codes.
(ABMS)
•• Aluminum
British Standards Institution
Association (AA) (BSI)
•• Industrial
American Fasteners Institute (IFI)
Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)
• Institution of Mechanical Engineers (I. Mech E)
•• International
American Institute
BureauofofSteel Construction (AISC)
Weights and measures (BIPM)
•• International
American Iron and SteelOrganization
Standards Institute (AISI)
(ISO)
• National
AmericanInstitute
NationalofStandards
StandardsInstitute
and Technology
(ANSI) (NIST)
•• Society
American of Society
Automotive Engineers
for Metals (ASM)(SAE)
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
• American Welding Society (AWS)
MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar
 Strengths are the magnitudes of stresses at which
something of interest occurs, such as the
proportional limit, 0.2 percent-offset yielding, or
fracture. In many cases, such events represent the
stress level at which loss of function occurs.
The standard tensile test is used to obtain a variety of material
characteristics and strengths that are used in design. Figure 2–l illustrates a
typical tension-test specimen and its characteristic dimensions.
Stress - Strength

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 Mechanical failure modes
 Yielding
 Fracture
 Rupture
 Impact
 Fatigue
 Wear
 Buckling
 Creep
 Corrosion
 Thermal shock

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Engineering Stress - Strains

 All of the stresses and strengths defined by the

stress-strain diagrams are specifically known as
engineering stresses and strengths or nominal
stresses and strengths.
 The adjectives engineering and nominal are used here to
emphasize that the stresses are computed by using the
original or unstressed cross-sectional area of the specimen.

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Stress-Strain Diagram
 Proportional Limit
◦ Hooks Law
 Young’s Modulus
 Elastic Limit
 Yield point
 Yield Strength
 Ultimate Strength
 True Stress/Strain
 Ductile vs Brittle

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Engineering Stress – Strain Diagram

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Ductile vs Brittle

Ductile if EL%>8% (approximately)

Brittle if EL% < 5% (approximately)

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Ductile and Brittle

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 True Stress/True Strain

𝑙
𝑑𝑙 𝑙
𝜀 = න = ln
𝑙 𝑙𝑜
𝑙𝑜

𝐴𝑙 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑙𝑜

𝑙 𝐴
𝜀 = ln = ln
𝑙𝑜 𝐴𝑜

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Cold Working – Strain Hardening
Strain-hardened.
A higher yield point
Less ductile
Reduced Strain capacity
If the process is
continued, the material
can become brittle and
exhibit sudden fracture.

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Area Reduction

Reduction of Area
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑓 𝐴𝑓
𝑅= =1−
𝐴𝑜 𝐴𝑜
Cold Work Factor
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴′𝑖
𝑊=
𝐴𝑜
𝐴𝑜 − 𝐴𝑖
≅
𝐴𝑜
Final size
𝐴′𝑖 = 𝐴𝑜 1 − 𝑊

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New Strengths

Cold working a material produces a new set of values for the

strengths, as can be seen from stress-strain diagrams. Datsko
describes the plastic region of the true stress–true strain diagram
by the equation

𝜎 = 𝜎𝑜 𝜀 𝑚

Where
σ = true stress
σ0 = a strength coefficient, or strain-strengthening coefficient
ε = true plastic strain
m = strain-strengthening exponent

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Strength Modified

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 The resistance of a material to penetration
by a pointed tool is called hardness.
 Rockwell Hardness Test
 Brinell Hardness Test
 Vickers Hardness Test
 Knoop hardness
 Shore
 Others
◦ Mohs Hardness
Hardness

◦ Barcol Hardness

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MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar
Strain Rate Hardening

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Temperature Effects
Reduction in Strengths at Ductile to Brittle
elevated temperatures Shift/Transition

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Creep

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The Heat Treatment of Steel

Heat treatment of steel refers to time- and

temperature-controlled processes that relieve residual
stresses and/or modifies material properties such as
hardness (strength), ductility, and toughness.

The common heat-treating operations are

Annealing
Normalizing
Quenching
Tempering
Case hardening

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Effect of Heat Treatment
The effect of thermal-mechanical history on the mechanical properties of AISI 4340 steel.

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Heat Treatment

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Surface Coatings

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MtE 322 Dr M. Akmal UET Peshawar
Material Coding System

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Material Code

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Project
27-2-2019 Due on 13-3-2019

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