Classification and Selection of

Industrial Drying Systems

DEFINITION OF DRYING
Converts liquids/ solid/ paste into a solid product by evaporation of
liquid into vapor phase via application of heat. (Sometimes converts

Refresher Course in Chemical Engineering for Plant Personnel

solid moisture into vapor by sublimation eg. Freeze drying with

application of heat.)

9th and 10th December, 2005

Note: Mechanical dewatering (filtration, sedimentation, Centrifugation
etc.) is much cheaper (upto 100 times cheaper than drying)

Dr. B. N. Thorat
Reader in Chemical Engineering
UICT

Multicomponent
Moisture transport

Change of physical
structure

Various modes of moisture and heat transport

Moisture

Coupled with
mass
transfer
Input
Continuous/
intermittent

Change in
quality
DRYING AS A
THERMAL
PROCESS

Transient

Shrinkage
Chemical/
biochemical
reactions

Phase change

MATERIAL BEING
DRIED

Heat input

Drying of solids is a complex process involving several rate processes

occurring co-currently and or sequentially.

Why is drying of solids so complex?

Liquid diffusion
Vapor diffusion
Capillary flow (Permeability)
Knudsen diffusion (Mean free path < pore dia.)
Surface diffusion
Poiseuille flow
Combination of above
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Dielectric
Combined mode

Why so many dryers?

Over 200 types of dryers in industrial use.

Diverse products- physical, chemical properties vary widely for feed
and products.

Thousands of different products dried in industry, often new products,

new processes, high production rates etc. need new dryers.

Involves transient energy/ mass and momentum transport through

porous media, with phase change, with/ without chemical/
biochemical reactions.

Various fuels (gas, oil, electricity, flue gases, waste heat etc.).

No universal drying theory exists.

Need to reduce costs.

Little opportunity for generalization.

Need to consider drying system rather than dryer, ie. Pre- and postdrying stages are important and often cost more than dryer.

Environmental regulations.

Minor changes of moisture content result in large changes in physical

properties (eg. Fluidization of dry vs. wet particles).

MAIN DRYER TYPES

III. Radiant

I. Direct (Convective)
Hot gas

Direct
Dryer

Wet product

Heater (radiant)

Humid gas
Wet feed

Dry product

Drying medium directly contacts material to be dried and carries

evaporated moisture.

Dry product

Vacuum or low gas flow to carry evaporated moisture away.

II. Indirect (Contact, Conduction)

IV. Microwave or RF

Gas flow (low)

Vacuum or low gas flow

Wet product

Electromagnetic energy absorbed selectively by water (volumetric heating).

Dry product

Typically less than 50% of total heat supplied in most direct dryers
is used for evaporation. Water is the most common solvent removed
in dryers.

Heat supplied
by heat exchanger
(through metal wall)

Top 10 Reasons Why

Drying R&D has been Ignored
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Top 10 Reasons for

Innovation in Drying

Very old hence well-understood operation.

Conceptually simple (so design must be simple!).
Misleading coverage in standard texts and handbooks.
Too easy (?).
Too difficult (for academics conversant in transport phenomena!).
Vendors should do R&D.
Excessively long lifetime of dryers.
Low capital costs.
Low energy costs as it was thought but not now!!!
Lack of legislatives support.

Classification of Dryers
Solid Exposure to Heat Conditions
Dryers
0- 10
sec
Convection
Belt conveyor dryer
Flash dryer
Fluid bed dryer
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Tray dryer (batch)
Tray dryer (continuous)
Conduction
Drum dryer
Steam jacket rotary dryer
Steam tube rotary dryer
Tray dryer (batch)
Tray dryer (continuous)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Better product quality.

Improved productivity.
Environmentally-friendly process.
Improved economics.
Reduced energy consumption.
Better control.
Flexibility (high turn-down ratios).
Multi-processing capacity.
Safer operation.
New products / processes.

Classification of Solids

Typical residence time

within dryer
10- 30 5- 10 10- 60
sec
min
min

1- 6
hr

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

Granular material
Pastelike materials
Solutions or suspensions

- 0.05 to 5 mm
- 0.1 to 50 m
- 10- 50 m- Fines
- 0.1- 10 m- Ultrafines
- <0.1 m- Colloidal

Group I: Nonporous or Capillary- porous solids with large pore sizes

Only free moisture is removed eg. NaCl, ASA
Group II: Uniformly and non-uniformly porous materials with pores sizes of 6nm
Contains free moisture, moisture of macro and micro-capillaries, and
surface adsorbed moisture eg. Phenobarbitol, Sodium perborate
Group III: Microporous or colloidal- capillary- porous material
size 4-6 mm, eg. Glucose, sulfadimethoxine
size 2-4 mm, eg. Calcium gluconate
Group IV: Ultra-microporous materials. Pore size comparable to molecule size.
Intense drying is required to remove moisture content as low as
0.2- 0.1% or less.

Classification of Granular Material

Group
I

Always think DRYING SYSTEM

not just DRYING

Pore size (nm)

Drying time in
Types of dryers
suspended state
recommended
0.5 - 3.0 sec.
Cyclone dryers
Flash dryers
Two- stage flash dryers
100 - 6
3 - 30 sec.
Two- stage flash dryers
Fast spouted bed
6-4
0.5 - 2 min.
Vortex dryers
Batch dryers
4-2
2 - 20 min.
Fluid bed
Vibrated fluid bed
Batch dryers
Ultra-micropores, particle 10 - 60 min
Vibrated fluid bed
size 1 - 2 mm
Multistage fluid bed
Batch dryers
40 - 90 min.
Batch dryers

DRYING SYSTEM

> 100

II
III

IV

Particle size > 2 mm

> 90 min.

Suspended state dryers

not recommended

Pre-drying
Stages

Falling rate

Evap. Rate
(kg/m2/hr)

Fluid, liquid
suspension

Pastes

Powders

Granules,
pellets

Operation

Forced
Convection
(through flow)

7.5

Good

Batch

Double Cone

10

Poor

Fair

Poor

Batch

FBD

130

Good

Good

Continuous

Band

30

Fair

Good

Continuous

Film Drum

22

Good

Fair

Continuous

Flash

750

Fair

Good

Fair

Continuous

Rotary
(indirect)

33

Poor

Good

Fair

Continuous

Spin Flash

185

Good

Good

Fair

Continuous

Spray

15

Good

Continuous

STEP 1- BASIC CHOICES

Batch Or Continuous

Batch dryers favored by:

Low throughput (under 50 Kg/H)
Long residence time (I.E. Mainly falling-rate drying)

Continuous dryers favoured by opposite conditions

Cooling
Agglomeration
Solvent recovery
(if applicable)
Grinding
Gas cleaning
(cyclone, filters,
scrubbers, etc.)
Product
collection
packaging

Idealized Drying Rate Curve

Dryers

Requirement for batch integrity

May involve
chemical reactions.

Feeders
Pre-forming
(extrusion,
pelletizing)
Backmixing
Metering
Blending
Mechanical
dewatering
Solar collector /
storage

Product Classification and Dryers Types

as an aid to Selection

Batch equipment upstream and downstream

Post-drying
Stages

Drying

Constant rate

dX

dt
Zone- C

Rate of
drying

Zone- B

Equilibrium moisture, Xe
0

Zone- A

Critical moisture, Xc

X = moisture content, kg moisture/ kg BDS (bone dry solids)

DRYER CHOICE BASED ON SOLIDS DRYING CHARACTERISTICS

Zone A
(Constant Rate)
Turbo- tray
Rotary
Belt
--------Spray
Flash

Zone B
(Falling Rate)
Turbo- tray
Rotary
Belt
Fluid Bed (Spray)
Spray
Flash

Zone C
(Internal diffusion)
Turbo- tray
Rotary
Belt
Fluid Bed
---------------

EXAMPLE - Fluidized Bed Dryers

Sub types:
Batch: Well- Mixed (WM)
Continuous: Well- Mixed, Plug- Flow (PF), Multi- Stage (MS)
Options: Internal Heating Coils, Split Distributor, Vibration, Feed End Rake,
Expanded Freeboard, Special Distributor, etc.
Flowsheet options:
Gas Recycle, Backmixing, Direct Firing, Self- Inerting
Cost criteria:
Simple types cheapest, most options add to cost.
Vibro fluidized beds
Have high capital cost/ low energy costs
Payback periods (depend on if dryer is new or replacing an existing
operating unit)

Small Scale Lab Tests

STEP 3- SUBTYPES AND REFINEMENTS

Choice Between Subtypes

Small- scale tests give valuable information:

Feed difficult to fluidized- Use WM, MS (WM before PF),
If PF used need ; rotating Rake, Backmixing, Vibrated Feed Region
Narrow X0 specification - Prefer in order PF= MS= WM
X0 much less than X1- prefer PF and MS to WM.
Wide size distribution- Use Vibration, Special Distributor, Expanded
Freeboard, Fines Collections
Small particles, low gas velocity- consider internal coils

Drying kinetics- drying rates (parametric effects)

Equilibrium moisture content- effect of t,h (humidity)
Microscopic examination- surface, agglomeration
Lab- scale rotary evaporator- overheating, balling, adhesion
Rotating drum tester- attrition, dustiness
Cohesion and adhesion- handling, sticky point

Vital to have a representative sample of final material

Not necessary to carry out all of above tests in all cases

WM: WELL- MIXED; PF= PLUG FLOW

Selection: Proper selection is crucial. Best designed wrong dryer is still a poor choice.
For granular solids, for example, numerous choices exist.
Type
Rotary- Convective (direct only)
Rotary- Convection/ Conduction (steam
tube)
Fluid bed (Convective)
Fluid bed (Combined mode)
Vibrated Fluid Bed
Vibrated Bed with Immersed
Exchangers
Spouted Bed Dryer
Centrifugal Fluid Bed
Rotary Tray (Turbo Dryer)
Spiral Dryer (Flash with Indirect
heating)
Flash/ Pneumatic Dryer Flash + Fluid
Bed
Jet- Zone Dryer (layers of particles
fluidized by impinging jets)
Through Dryers (hot air through beds of
particles)
Vacuum Dryer
Combination Dryers

Advantages/ limitations
Flexible/ high operating cost; large volume; high
carryover of fines
Flexible/ better efficiency/ low fines carryover/ expensive/
large volume
Compact/ more efficient/ less flexible
Compact/ efficient
More efficient, flexible, for friable materials, polydisperse
solids
More efficient, less carryover, low blower power

Definitions
Unbound moisture

Bound moisture
100%

R.H.

50%
Free moisture
Content

EMC

Compact, limited range of operation, high efficiecy, high

blower power, limited capacity
Very high transfer rates, expensive
Gentle handling, flexible
High drying rates, more expensive

X*

T= Constant

X Moisture Content(dry basis)

Drying rate curve

C.R.P.

F.R.P.

For surface moisture removal only

R=
- Ls dX
A dt

High drying rates, flexible

Expensive for fine particles, non-uniform drying
For heat- sensitive solids, expensive

X*
0

Ls= Dry mass

A= Area

Xcrit

Examples Of Normalized Drying- Rate Curves For Different Types Of Media

a

Turbo Tray Dryers

b

II

III

IV
a
b

VI

VII

VIII
a

b
IX

XI

XII
c

CLASS I: Glass beads sand, clay, mixtures of sand and clay, calcium carbonate, silica gel, paper pulp, leather, pig
manure. CLASS II: glass beads, ceramic tiles, clay, silica gel. CLASS III: organic liquid in glass beads, for
example,(a) benzene and n-propanol, (b) n-pentanol. CLASS IV: glass beads, polystyrene beads. CLASS V: sand,
plastic-clay mix, silica-brick mix, whiting slab, ceramic plate, leather, lactose granulation. CLASS VI: special case
of CLASS I: Schlunder reports that for molecular sieve. CLASS VII: CLASS I with different curvature during bthe
period of decreasing drying rate, aluminium silicate particles as a function of air temperature, and sand and paper
pulp as a function of thickness of the sample. CLASS VIII: (a) fir wood; (b) cypress wood. CLASS IX: (a) paper,
wool, aluminium stearate dough; (b) potatoes, tapioca tuber, and rice flour. CLASS X: (a) rye bread, yeast; (b) butter
and margarine. CLASS XI: (a) wheat corns; (b) and (c) the same for lower X normalized to the initial drying rate for
(a). CLASS XII: limestone granules saturated with (a) water, (b) 0.05-M NaCl. Similar behavior, due to crust
formation, has been observed for p[laster tiles and for clay.

Suitable for granular feeds, operate with rotating shelves and force
convection of air above the shelves.
The Dryer can have 30+ trays and provide large residence time.
Hermetic sealing is possible for solvent recovery.

Rotary Dryer

Steam Tube Rotary Dryer

Combined cascade motion

with heat & mass transfer.
Large capital & operating cost.
Used in fertilizers,
pharmaceutical, lead & zinc
concentrate for smelting,
cement.
Size 0.3 to 5 m diameter &
2 to 90 m length.

Pneumatic Conveying (Flash) Dryers

Tunnel Dryers

FBD Dryers - Variations

Rotocone Dryers (Batch)
Drying of pharmaceuticals tableting formulation
Maximum capacity 10 m3.
Evap. rate 2-7 kg/hr.m2

Agitated Dryers
Drying of fine & moderately
wet materials such as
gypsum, pigments, and
dyestuffs.

Paddle Dryers

Provides drying time

upto several hours.
Suitable for pastelike
& granular material.
Evap. rate upto
10 kg/hr.m2

Microwave Dryers
Used in ceramics industries,
foods & pharmaceuticals to
drive of last traces of moisture.

Vacuum Dryers Heat Sensitive Materials

Screw Conveyer Dryer

Freeze Dryer

 PO
1 / 2VO 2

A
N Re

+ B

UICT Product

Two phase theory for fluidization

Fixed
bed

V< VO
No particle
mixing

Incipient
fluidization

V = VO
Moderate particle
mixing

Aggregative
fluidization

V> VO
V << Vt
Rapid particle Mixing
controlled by bubbles

Thorat and Joshi, 2001

I & EC

dp, m

Velocity, m/s

100- 300

0.2- 0.4

300- 800

0.4- 0.8

800- 2000

0.8- 1.2

2000- 5000

1.2- 3.0

The fluid bed consist of two phases:

(1) Particle phase: A homogeneous mass with the voidage O and gas velocity VO
(2) Bubble phase: Containing all excess gas and nearly free from particles. These gas bubbles are
responsible fot the mixing of the particulate phase.
Actual gas velocity in FBD is always 2- 3 times more than incipient fluidization velocity for particles.

Heat Pump Dryer

INTRODUCTION

Mostly Used Drying Techniques in

Food Industry
9 Conventional Air Dryer

Drying of Foods To increase the shelf life, to reduce

packaging cost

9 Osmotic Dehydration

Acceptable final moisture content 5 to 12%

9 Freeze Dryer

Quality Changes occurs during drying of FOODS

9 Microwave Dryer

Factors affecting structural Properties

9Spray Dryer

1. Drying Method
2. Drying Conditions

9Fluid Bed Dryer

3. Moisture Content

9Heat Pump Dryer

9Infrared Dryer

Case study : Shrimp drying

Shrimp (Prawn) is one of the most popular
seafood products
Sun Drying a traditional way, results in
poor product quality
High local and export market
Superior quality and energy minimization
could result in value addition to product

Combinatorial Drying for Shrimps

Osmotic
dehydration
15% w/v NaCl
30 min
450C
4 to 2 kg/kg db

Heat pump
drying
17% RH
40-440C
X=2 to 0.5 kg/kg db

Infra-red
drying
Max. 20 min
600C
X=0.2 db

Different combinations of drying can be

used

Heat pump drying

What is Heat Pump

Why heat pump + Drying

Heat savings
Product Quality
Recovery of solvent

Simple Scheme

Condenser

Dryer

Compressor

Evaporator

How it works ?

Enhancement of performance using bypass coil

17 % RH
Dehumidified air
40-440C

Refrigerant: R134A (Dichloro Difluoro Ethane)

Shrimps taken out after Heat Pump drying

Water Activity, Angle of repose& Bulk densities after drying of Materials @ 60C

No.

Water Activity
Materials

1.

Angle of Repose

Bulk Density
(kg/m3)

Raw

Dried

Temp(C)

0.67

0.24

30.3

49.96

712.41

Chickpea (mix)

2.

Chickpea
(=0.945
mm)

0.65

0.23

30.5

55

688.74

3.

Rice rawa
(Semolin)

0.655

0.226

30.8

52

790

4.

Suji

0.798

0.265

30.75

55.78

750

0.608

0.289

30.4

42.78

693.75

5.

Rice powder

Actual SCD set-up

Dryer developed at UICT:

Screw Conveyor Dryer
Wet
material

Hot water

Gas inlet

N2
N2

Material inlet

Jacketed dryer

Screw
Scre
w

Bearing support
Material outlet

Hot
water

Motor
Dry
Product

Gear box
Gear
Box

3 Motor

Degree of fullness or dryer loading

Dryer Throughput

C=

2
(D sc + 2r) 2 D sh (P t ) N 60
4

Where,
C

Dsc
Dsh
r
P
t
N

= Screw conveyor throughput, m3/h

= degree of fullness
= screw diameter, m
= shaft diameter, m
= radial clearance, m
= screw pitch, m
= flight thickness, m
= screw speed, rpm

Material
type

Degree of
fullness

Material
characteristics

Examples

Class I

45 %

Light, free-flowing,
non-abrasive

Class II

30 %

Non-abrasive, less free

Baking powder,
flowing than Class I,
pulverized
small lumps mixed
coal, corn
with fines
grits etc.

Class III

30 %

Similar in size and

flowability to Class
II solids, but more
abrasive

Dry ash, cement,

salt,
charcoal,
crushed
chalk etc.

Class IV

15 %

Abrasive and poor

flowability

Furnace slag, dry

sand,
alumina etc.

Wheat, flour,
graphite etc.

Note: The allowable loading or degree of fullness and screw

speed are limited by the material characteristics

Note: Class I materials fill the trough deeply, permitting a higher

rotating speed than heavier and more abrasive materials

Thank You

10