BICOL STATE COLLEGE OF APPLIED

SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

College of Engineering and Architecture
City of Naga

Methods, Processes, and Equipment Involved

in Handling of Solids
(Dryers and Drying Processes)

Submitted by:
BLANDO, Mark Goldwyn E.

Submitted to:
Engr. Augusto A. Avanceña

BSME-5A
CONTENTS:
I. Introduction

II. Different Types of Dryers

III. Processes Involved in Drying Process in Industrial and Manufacturing

Plants

IV. Equipment Involved in Drying Process in Industrial and

Manufacturing Plants

V. Significance of Dryers and Drying Processes in Industrial and

Manufacturing Plants

VI. Safety Protocols

VII. References
 INTRODUCTION

Drying is an important industrial process. Various temperature levels and drying

principles are applied in industrial dryers.

Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or

another solvent[1] by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid. This process is often used as

a final production step before selling or packaging products. To be considered "dried", the final

product must be solid, in the form of a continuous sheet (e.g., paper), long pieces (e.g., wood),

particles (e.g., cereal grains or corn flakes) or powder (e.g., sand, salt, washing powder, milk

powder). A source of heat and an agent to remove the vapor produced by the process are often

involved. In bioproducts like food, grains, and pharmaceuticals like vaccines, the solvent to be

removed is almost invariably water. Desiccation may be synonymous with drying or considered

an extreme form of drying.

In the most common case, a gas stream, e.g., air, applies the heat by convection and

carries away the vapor as humidity. Other possibilities are vacuum drying, where heat is supplied

by conduction or radiation (or microwaves), while the vapor thus produced is removed by

the vacuum system. Another indirect technique is drum drying (used, for instance, for

manufacturing potato flakes), where a heated surface is used to provide the energy, and

aspirators draw the vapor outside the room. In contrast, the mechanical extraction of the solvent,

e.g., water, by filtration or centrifugation, is not considered "drying" but rather "draining".

In some products having a relatively high initial moisture content, an initial linear

reduction of the average product moisture content as a function of time may be observed for a

limited time, often known as a "constant drying rate period". Usually, in this period, it is surface

moisture outside individual particles that is being removed. The drying rate during this period is
mostly dependent on the rate of heat transfer to the material being dried. Therefore, the

maximum achievable drying rate is considered to be heat-transfer limited. If drying is continued,

the slope of the curve, the drying rate, becomes less steep (falling rate period) and eventually

tends to become nearly horizontal at very long times. The product moisture content is then

constant at the "equilibrium moisture content", where it is, in practice, in equilibrium with the

dehydrating medium. In the falling-rate period, water migration from the product interior to the

surface is mostly by molecular diffusion, i,e. the water flux is proportional to the moisture

content gradient. This means that water moves from zones with higher moisture content to zones

with lower values, a phenomenon explained by the second law of thermodynamics. If water

removal is considerable, the products usually undergo shrinkage and deformation, except in a

well-designed freeze-drying process. The drying rate in the falling-rate period is controlled by

the rate of removal of moisture or solvent from the interior of the solid being dried and is

referred to as being "mass-transfer limited". This is widely noticed in hygroscopic products such

as fruits and vegetables, where drying occurs in the falling rate period with the constant drying

rate period said to be negligible.

In this term paper, various processes, significance, types, and safety protocols of Dryers

and Drying Processes will be given focus.

 DIFFERENT TYPES OF DRYERS

Adiabatic dryers are the type where the solids are dried by direct contact with gases,

usually forced air. With these dryers, moisture is on the surface of the solid. Non-adiabatic dryers

involve situations where a dryer does not use heated air or other gases to provide the energy

required for the drying process

Dryer classification can also be based on the mechanisms of heat transfer as follows: (a)

Direct (convection), (b) Indirect or contact (conduction), (c) Radiant (radiation), (d) Dielectric or

microwave (radio frequency) drying

Direct, or adiabatic, units use the sensible heat of the fluid that contacts the solid to

provide the heat of vaporization of the liquid.

With adiabatic dryers, solid materials can be exposed to the heated gases via various

methods, including the following:

• Gases can be blown across the surface (cross circulation)

• Gases can be blown through a bed of solids (through-circulation); used when solids are

stationary, such as wood, corn and others

• Solids can be dropped slowly through a slow-moving gas stream, as in a rotary dryer

• Gases can be blown through a bed of solids that fluidize the particles. In this case, the

solids are moving, as in a fluidized-bed dryer

• Solids can enter a high-velocity hot gas stream and can be conveyed pneumatically to a

collector (flash dryer)

Non-adiabatic dryers (contact dryers) involve an indirect method of removal of a liquid

phase from the solid material through the application of heat, such that the heat-transfer medium

is separated from the product to be dried by a metal wall. Heat transfer to the product is
predominantly by conduction through the metal wall and the impeller. Therefore, these units are

also called conductive dryers.

Although more than 85% of the industrial dryers are of the convective type, contact

dryers offer higher thermal efficiency and have economic and environmental advantages over

convective dryers. Table 1 compares direct and indirect dryers, while Table 2 shows the

classification of dryers based on various criteria.

Tray dryers. This dryer type operates by passing hot air over the surface of a wet solid

that is spread over trays arranged in racks. Tray dryers are the simplest and least-expensive dryer

type. This type is most widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries. The chief

advantage of tray dryers, apart from their low initial cost, is their versatility. With the exception

of dusty solids, materials of almost any other physical form may be dried. Drying times are

typically long (usually 12 to 48 h).

Vacuum dryers offer low-temperature drying of thermolabile materials or the recovery of

solvents from a bed. Heat is usually supplied by passing steam or hot water through hollow

shelves. Drying temperatures can be carefully controlled and, for the major part of the drying

cycle, the solid material remains at the boiling point of the wetting substance. Drying times are

typically long (usually 12 to 48 h).

Fluidized-bed dryers. A gas-fluidized bed may have the appearance of a boiling liquid. It

has bubbles, which rise and appear to burst. The bubbles result in vigorous mixing. A preheated

stream of air enters from the bottom of the product container holding the product to be dried and

fluidizes it. The resultant mixture of solids and gas behave like a liquid, and thus the solids are

said to be fluidized. The solid particles are continually caught up in eddies and fall back in a

random boiling motion so that each fluidized particle is surrounded by the gas stream for
efficient drying, granulation or coating purposes. In the process of fluidization, intense mixing

occurs between the solids and air, resulting in uniform conditions of temperature, composition

and particle size distribution throughout the bed.

Freeze dryers. Freeze-drying is an extreme form of vacuum drying in which the water or

other solvent is frozen and drying takes place by subliming the solid phase. Freeze-drying is

extensively used in two situations: (1) when high rates of decomposition occur during normal

drying; and (2) with substances that can be dried at higher temperatures, and that are thereby

changed in some way.

Microwave vacuum dryers. High-frequency radio waves with frequencies from 300 to

30,000 MHz are utilized in microwave drying (2,450 MHz is used in batch microwave

processes). Combined microwave-convective drying has been used for a range of applications at

both laboratory and industrial scales. The bulk heating effect of microwave radiation causes the

solvent to vaporize in the pores of the material. Mass transfer is predominantly due to a pressure

gradient established within the sample. The temperature of the solvent component is elevated

above the air temperature by the microwave heat input, but at a low level, such that convective

and evaporative cooling effects keep the equilibrium temperature below saturation. Such a

drying regime is of particular interest for drying temperature-sensitive materials. Microwave-

convective processing typically facilitates a 50% reduction in drying time, compared to vacuum

drying.

Continuous dryers are mainly used in chemical and food industries, due to the large

volume of product that needs to be processed. Most common are continuous fluid-bed dryers and

spray dryers. There are other dryers, depending on the product, that can be used in certain

industries — for example, rotary dryers, drum dryers, kiln dryers, flash dryers, tunnel dryers and
so on. Spray dryers are the most widely used in chemical, dairy, agrochemical, ceramic and

pharmaceutical industries.

Spray dryer. The spray-drying process can be divided into four sections: atomization of

the fluid, mixing of the droplets, drying, and, removal and collection of the dry particles.

Atomization may be achieved by means of single-fluid or two-fluid nozzles, or by spinning-disk

atomizers. The flow of the drying gas may be concurrent or countercurrent with respect to the

movement of droplets. Good mixing of droplets and gas occurs, and the heat- and mass-transfer

rates are high. In conjunction with the large interfacial area conferred by atomization, these

factors give rise to very high evaporation rates. The residence time of a droplet in the dryer is

only a few seconds (5–30 s). Since the material is at wet-bulb temperature for much of this time,

high gas temperatures of 1,508 to 2,008C may be used, even with thermolabile materials. For

these reasons, it is possible to dry complex vegetable extracts, such as coffee or digitalis, milk

products, and other labile materials without significant loss of potency or flavor. The capital and

running costs of spray dryers are high, but if the scale is sufficiently large, they may provide the

cheapest method.
 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN DRYING PROCESS IN INDUSTRIAL AND

MANUFACTURING PLANTS

Application of hot air (convective or direct drying). Air heating increases the drying force

for heat transfer and accelerates drying. It also reduces air relative humidity, further increasing

the driving force for drying. In the falling rate period, as moisture content falls, the solids heat up

and the higher temperatures speed up diffusion of water from the interior of the solid to the

surface. However, product quality considerations limit the applicable rise to air temperature.

Excessively hot air can almost completely dehydrate the solid surface, so that its pores shrink

and almost close, leading to crust formation or "case hardening", which is usually undesirable.

For instance in wood (timber) drying, air is heated (which speeds up drying) though some steam

is also added to it (which hinders drying rate to a certain extent) in order to avoid excessive

surface dehydration and product deformation owing to high moisture gradients across timber

thickness. Spray drying belongs in this category.

Indirect or contact drying (heating through a hot wall), as drum drying, vacuum drying.

Again, higher wall temperatures will speed up drying but this is limited by product degradation

or case-hardening. Drum drying belongs in this category.

Dielectric drying (radiofrequency or microwaves being absorbed inside the material) is

the focus of intense research nowadays. It may be used to assist air drying or vacuum drying.

Researchers have found that microwave finish drying speeds up the otherwise very low drying

rate at the end of the classical drying methods.

Freeze drying or lyophilization is a drying method where the solvent is frozen prior to

drying and is then sublimed, i.e., passed to the gas phase directly from the solid phase, below the

melting point of the solvent. It is increasingly applied to dry foods, beyond its already classical
pharmaceutical or medical applications. It keeps biological properties of proteins, and retains

vitamins and bioactive compounds. Pressure can be reduced by a high vacuum pump (though

freeze drying at atmospheric pressure is possible in dry air). If using a vacuum pump, the vapor

produced by sublimation is removed from the system by converting it into ice in a condenser,

operating at very low temperatures, outside the freeze drying chamber.

Supercritical drying (superheated steam drying) involves steam drying of products

containing water. This process is feasible because water in the product is boiled off, and joined

with the drying medium, increasing its flow. It is usually employed in closed circuit and allows a

proportion of latent heat to be recovered by recompression, a feature which is not possible with

conventional air drying, for instance. The process has potential for use in foods if carried out at

reduced pressure, to lower the boiling point.

Natural air drying takes place when materials are dried with unheated forced air, taking

advantage of its natural drying potential. The process is slow and weather-dependent, so a wise

strategy "fan off-fan on" must be devised considering the following conditions: Air temperature,

relative humidity and moisture content and temperature of the material being dried. Grains are

increasingly dried with this technique, and the total time (including fan off and on periods) may

last from one week to various months, if a winter rest can be tolerated in cold areas.

The conventional drying process. The figure on the below shows a commonly used

drying principle. The process is also drawn in the Mollier diagram below. Hot air (1), in this case

70 °C, is circulated over a product belt inside the dryer. The hot air is used to evaporate water out

of the product that needs to be dried. Therefore, the temperature of the air decreases and its

humidity increases. The cool, humid air (2) is than partly exhausted, however, the main part of

the air is recirculated in the dryer. To compensate for the exhausted humid air, fresh dry outside
air is brought into the cycle (3) and preheated (4). After preheating this air is mixed with the

recirculated humid air and the mixture (5) is than heated towards the required process

temperature (1).

The exhausted humid air contains a lot of energy. The temperature level of this air is low

and direct reuse inside the dryer is therefore not possible. Application of a heat pump gives the

possibility for waste heat recovery. With a heat pump the extracted heat from the exhaust air is

upgraded to a higher temperature level and reused to heat the dryer. The principle of operation of

this heat pump dryer is described below.

Figure 1.1 Mollier Diagram for
Conventional Drying Process

Heat Pump Dryer, below is a drying process is shown that is heated with the use of a heat

pump. Furthermore, a Mollier diagram in which the drying cycle is highlighted is shown in order

to provide more insight in this process. As compared to the conventional dryer, in the heat pump

dryer the heat exchanger is replaced by the condenser (hot side) of the heat pump. Furthermore,

the air exhaust duct is connected to the air supply duct. Inside this connection the evaporator

(cold side) of the heat pump is installed.

Hot air (1) is circulated over a product belt inside the dryer. During this cycle the

temperature of the air will decrease as its humidity increases. About 1/3 of the cool humid air (2)

is circulated over the evaporator. The evaporator cools the air further down below the

condensation temperature (3). Below this temperature the air will be dehumidified. The cool, dry
air (4) is than mixed with circulation air from the dryer. The mixture (5) is heated to the desired

process temperature inside the condenser and can be reused in the dryer cycle (1).

Theoretically, a fully closed drying process is possible with this technique, making the

process independent from environmental influences. However, sometimes air refreshment is

desirable. Therefore, in practice an air exhaust duct and supply air duct will always be built in a

heat pump dryer.

Figure 1.2 Moiller

Diagram for Heat Pump Dryer

EQUIPMENTS INVOLVED IN DRYING PROCESS IN INDUSTRIAL AND

MANUFACTURING PLANTS
 In tray dryers, the food is spread out, generally quite thinly, on trays in which the drying

takes place. Heating may be by an air current sweeping across the trays, by conduction from

heated trays or heated shelves on which the trays lie, or by radiation from heated surfaces. Most

tray dryers are heated by air, which also removes the moist vapors.

Tunnel Dryers may be regarded as developments of the tray dryer, in which the trays on

trolleys move through a tunnel where the heat is applied and the vapours removed. In most cases,

air is used in tunnel drying and the material can move through the dryer either parallel or counter

current to the air flow. Sometimes the dryers are compartmented, and cross-flow may also be

used.

In Roller or Drum Dryers the food is spread over the surface of a heated drum. The drum

rotates, with the food being applied to the drum at one part of the cycle. The food remains on the

drum surface for the greater part of the rotation, during which time the drying takes place, and is

then scraped off. Drum drying may be regarded as conduction drying.

In a Fluidized Bed Dryer, the food material is maintained suspended against gravity in an

upward-flowing air stream. There may also be a horizontal air flow helping to convey the food

through the dryer. Heat is transferred from the air to the food material, mostly by convection.

In a spray dryer, liquid or fine solid material in a slurry is sprayed in the form of a fine

droplet dispersion into a current of heated air. Air and solids may move in parallel or

counterflow. Drying occurs very rapidly, so that this process is very useful for materials that are

damaged by exposure to heat for any appreciable length of time. The dryer body is large so that

the particles can settle, as they dry, without touching the walls on which they might otherwise

stick. Commercial dryers can be very large of the order of 10 m diameter and 20 m high.
 In a pneumatic dryer, the solid food particles are conveyed rapidly in an air stream, the

velocity and turbulence of the stream maintaining the particles in suspension. Heated air

accomplishes the drying and often some form of classifying device is included in the equipment.

In the classifier, the dried material is separated, the dry material passes out as product and the

moist remainder is recirculated for further drying.

In Rotary Dryers, the foodstuff is contained in a horizontal inclined cylinder through

which it travels, being heated either by air flow through the cylinder, or by conduction of heat

from the cylinder walls. In some cases, the cylinder rotates and in others the cylinder is

stationary and a paddle or screw rotates within the cylinder conveying the material through.

In Trough Dryers, the materials to be dried are contained in a trough-shaped conveyor

belt, made from mesh, and air is blown through the bed of material. The movement of the

conveyor continually turns over the material, exposing fresh surfaces to the hot air.

In bin dryers, the foodstuff is contained in a bin with a perforated bottom through which

warm air is blown vertically upwards, passing through the material and so drying it.

In Belt Dryers, the food is spread as a thin layer on a horizontal mesh or solid belt and air

passes through or over the material. In most cases the belt is moving, though in some designs the

belt is stationary and the material is transported by scrapers.

Batch vacuum dryers are substantially the same as tray dryers, except that they operate

under a vacuum, and heat transfer is largely by conduction or by radiation. The trays are

enclosed in a large cabinet, which is evacuated. The water vapour produced is generally

condensed, so that the vacuum pumps have only to deal with non-condensible gases. Another

type consists of an evacuated chamber containing a roller dryer.

 In Freeze Dryers, the material is held on shelves or belts in a chamber that is under high

vacuum. In most cases, the food is frozen before being loaded into the dryer. Heat is transferred

to the food by conduction or radiation and the vapour is removed by vacuum pump and then

condensed. In one process, given the name accelerated freeze drying, heat transfer is by

conduction; sheets of expanded metal are inserted between the foodstuffs and heated plates to

improve heat transfer to the uneven surfaces, and moisture removal. The pieces of food are

shaped so as to present the largest possible flat surface to the expanded metal and the plates to

obtain good heat transfer. A refrigerated condenser may be used to condense the water vapour.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF DRYERS AND DRYING PROCESSES IN

INDUSTRIAL AND MANUFACTURING PLANTS

Adjustment and control of moisture levels in solid materials through drying is a critical

process in the manufacture of many types of chemical products. As a unit operation, drying solid

materials is one of the most common and important in the chemical process industries (CPI),

since it is used in practically every plant and facility that manufactures or handles solid materials,

in the form of powders and granules.

The effectiveness of drying processes can have a large impact on product quality and

process efficiency in the CPI. For example, in the pharmaceutical industry, where drying

normally occurs as a batch process, drying is a key manufacturing step. The drying process can

impact subsequent manufacturing steps, including tableting or encapsulation and can influence

critical quality attributes of the final dosage form.

Apart from the obvious requirement of drying solids for a subsequent operation, drying

may also be carried out to improve handling characteristics, as in bulk powder filling and other

operations involving powder flow; and to stabilize moisture-sensitive materials, such as

pharmaceuticals.

Various temperature levels and drying principles are applied in industrial dryers. The

most common dryer type is one in which air is heated with steam, gas or hot water and then

circulated over the wet product.

Industrial dryers are used to efficiently process large quantities of bulk materials that

need reduced moisture levels. Depending on the amount and the makeup of material needing to

be dried, industrial dryers come in many different models constructed specifically for the type
and quantity of material to be processed. The most common types of industrial dryers

are fluidized bed dryers, rotary dryers, rolling bed dryers, conduction dryers, convection dryers,

pharmaceutical dryers, suspension/paste dryers, toroidal bed or TORBED dryers and dispersion

dryers. Various factors are considered in determining the correct type of dryer for any given

application, including the material to be dried, drying process requirements, production

requirements, final product quality requirements and available facility space.

Foods are dried to inhibit microbial development and quality decay. However, the extent

of drying depends on product end-use. Cereals and oilseeds are dried after harvest to the

moisture content that allows microbial stability during storage. Vegetables are blanched before

drying to avoid rapid darkening, and drying is not only carried out to inhibit microbial growth,

but also to avoid browning during storage. Concerning dried fruits, the reduction of moisture acts

in combination with its acid and sugar contents to provide protection against microbial growth.

Products such as milk powder must be dried to very low moisture contents in order to ensure

flowability and avoid caking. This moisture is lower than that required to ensure inhibition to

microbial development. Other products as crackers are dried beyond the microbial growth

threshold to confer a crispy texture, which is liked by consumers.

Spray Drying is important to the industrial plants because it helps mainly on things like

paint pigments, ceramic materials, and catalyst supports. It also is significant in the

manufacturing of food (e.g. milk powder, coffee, tea, eggs, cereal, spices) and pharmaceutical

(e.g. antibiotics, medical ingredients and additives)

Oven drying is significant in the manufacture of chlorine gas, curing of rubber and

plastics, and production of toilet bowls, sewer pipe, tiles, and glass and porcelain.
 Freeze Drying is necessary in technological industry because freeze-drying is often

reserved for materials that are heat-sensitive such as proteins, enzymes, microorganisms, and

blood plasma. It is also needed in food production of instant coffee, astronaut food, freeze-dried

fruits, and cereals and pharmaceutical companies often use freeze-drying to increase the shelf life

of products.

A rotary dryer is a device that uses rotation, gravity and warm gasses to dry a material.

These driers range from small household clothes to large industrial systems. Regardless of their

size, the majority of rotary dryers work the same way.

Drum drying is necessary in the manufacturing or processing of food like powdered milk,

starches, breakfast cereals, baby food, and instant mashed potatoes.

SAFETY PROTOCOLS

Since dryer sections require use of high temperatures and pressures, they must be treated

with caution. The nature of the dryers’ function and required operating care make it important

that they be given close attention in the mill safety program. The key to dryer section safety is to

keep operating personnel from getting into dangerous areas or unsafe positions, especially while

the dryers are operating. If unsafe conditions exist, the dryers must be shut down until the

condition is corrected.

Machine tenders and other mill personnel with work assignments in the dryer section

must be given complete safety instructions and continued refresher courses so they “think safety”

and will be on guard against potential hazards. They should be carefully instructed on the proper

use of equipment and potential dangers of the steam systems, high pressures and high
temperatures associated with dryer operation. Also, adequate barriers, footwalks platforms and

signs should be installed at appropriate locations to protect and warn personnel of the potential

hazards.

A trained and responsible person be designated at each mill to oversee safe operation,

maintenance and inspection programs for dryers and be aware of the following conditions:

 Felts and felt seams should be inspected at least once a shift on high speed machines and

during all clothing changes. Should a felt seam part due to fatigue or wear, serious

damage could occur.

 Some steam fit designs can be hazardous if not protected by a guard due to exposed

rotating journal flange, capscrews or bolt heads. The guard must completely cover the

rotating parts that provide the seal between the rotating dryer and the stationary piping

that supplies the steam to the dryers and carries away the condensate from the dryers. It is

recommended that the guard be constructed from solid sheet metal as opposed to

expanded metal plate, to provide protection against a sudden escape of steam.

 Loose balance weights, siphons and other debris that may be inside the dryer cylinder can

cause severe erosion that may result in shell failure. If detected during routine inspection,

the loose items must be removed. If erosion is excessive, the dryer should be replaced or

at least run at lower pressures.

 Loose plates on manholes and clean-out holes must be reported so repair work can be

scheduled immediately.

 Rope systems should be continually inspected. Ropes that have become dislodged or

show signs of wear should be replaced.

 When performing maintenance or service in the dryer section, the following safety rules must

be observed:

 Use proper lockout/tagout procedures on all drives and controls before performing

maintenance. Accidental start-up may injure personnel.

 Release pressure from steam, water and air lines before disassembly. Hot steam or high

water and air pressure may be dangerous to personnel in the area.

 Valve off or blank off steam and condensate piping before entering the dryer for

maintenance. Use adequate ventilation inside of the dryer along with low voltage

lighting. Also, make certain that a standby person is posted by the manhole entrance to

observe and communicate with workers inside the dryer at all times.

 Inspect slings and cables for worn or weak spots before using them. Keep all personnel

away from under machine components when lifting to prevent injury in case the slings,

cables or hoists should break.

 Use lift points as specified by the manufacturer. Where provisions have been made for

lifting eyes to be screwed into a tapped hole, make certain that the eyebolt is tightened to

the shoulder and that the eye is parallel to the lifting plane to prevent breakage.

 Tie slings securely when attempting to lift machine components. When using two crane

hooks, lift the component evenly. Rapid shifting of out-of-balance pieces could be

hazardous.
 Do not depend on hydraulic or pneumatic drives or components to hold equipment in a

raised position while performing maintenance. Pin, chain or block the equipment in the

raised position as a precautionary measure.

 Use proper stops when applying hydraulic removal equipment to bearings, heads, gears,

etc. These items may travel at a high rate of speed once they have loosened from the fit.

 All condensate and steam lines must be insulated to prevent possible burns to personnel.

 Never weld repair cast iron dryers. Contact Valmet for dryer cylinder maintenance

procedures.

 Inspect the inside of dryer cylinders every 2 to 3 years. Loose balance weights, siphons

and spoiler bars must be secured. Examination must be made for erosion to the shell

inside diameter which is caused by condensate channeling or loose equipment. Seriously

eroded dryer components must be replaced.

 Loose plates on manholes and clean-out holes must be reported to mill supervision who

should arrange for immediate repair.

 Dryer outside diameters should be checked each year for doctor wear. Dryer shells which

are pressurized must be replaced or derated if worn too thin to be safe.

 Dryer head to shell leaks should be repaired immediately. Capscrew failures may result

due to stress corrosion cracking when contaminated by steam system additives.

Capscrews in a leak area should be checked ultrasonically to detect cracks.

 Dryers subjected to severe paper wraps or felt wrecks should be carefully examined.

These accidents can overload journals and shells and may cause cracks.
 In order to effectively manage self-heating hazards, a proper understanding of the self-

heating behaviors of powders subjected to heat is essential. Effective measures to prevent or

control the ignition of combustible particulate inside of drying equipment due to self-heating

include the following:

In some cases, self-heating is prevented by controlling the powder residence time in the

dryer. In applications where it is not, the drying equipment must be operated using a drying

medium temperature that is below the temperature (including a suitable safety margin) capable

of causing the onset of exothermic reaction.

Equipment should be designed to eliminate any blind spaces or areas where product can

accumulate for extended periods of time.

Inspection and cleaning frequencies should be established to ensure unplanned

accumulations of materials do not occur inside of equipment.

When powders are being stored after drying, the storage temperature must not exceed the

self-heating onset temperature (less a suitable safety margin appropriate to the storage

conditions).

Where ignition-sensitive powders are being dried, consider installing carbon monoxide

(CO) sensors to detect the onset of combustion. The sensors should be interlocked to alarms to

alert personnel so that actions can be taken to mitigate the hazard.

Consider installing fixed fire protection inside of drying equipment prone to fires. The

fire-protection devices should be triggered by thermal or optical sensors.

 In addition, in equipment where the concentration of the dust cloud can exceed the

minimum explosible concentration (MEC), or where flammable vapor clouds can be formed

above their LFL, equipment may need to be designed for containment or explosion

protection/prevention. Systems such as inert gas blanketing, chemical suppression or deflagration

venting may be required.

REFERENCES:

https://www.chemengonline.com/solids-drying-basics-and-applications/?

printmode=1#:~:text=Most%20common%20are%20continuous%20fluid,tunnel

%20dryers%20and%20so%20on.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drying

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_dryer

https://industrialheatpumps.nl/en/applications/drying_processes/#:~:text=Drying%20is

%20an%20important%20industrial,circulated%20over%20the%20wet

%20product.&text=Its%20evaporator%20both%20cools%20and%20dehumidifies

%20the%20humid%20air.

https://nzifst.org.nz/resources/unitoperations/drying7.htm

https://www.process-heating.com/articles/91471-strategies-to-manage-the-risk-of-fire-

and-explosions-inside-drying-equipment

slideshare.net/physics101/dryers

https://www.valmet.com/media/articles/up-and-running/reliability/RTDryerSafety/