Formula Book

for
Hydraulics and Pneumatics
Fluid and Mechanical Engineering Systems
Department of Management and Engineering
Linkoping University
Revised 2008-10-27

Contents
1 Elementary Equations
1.1 Nomenclature . . . . . .
1.2 The continuity equation
1.3 Reynolds number . . . .
1.4 Flow equations . . . . .

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1
1
1
1
1

2 Pipe flow
2.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Bernoullis extended equation
2.3 The flow loss, pf . . . . . .
2.4 The friction factor, . . . . .
2.5 Disturbance source factor, s
2.6 Single loss factor, . . . . . .

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2
2
2
2
2
2
3

3 Orifices
3.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 The flow coefficient, Cq . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Series connection of turbulent orifices . .
3.4 Parallel connection of turbulent orifices

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6
6
6
6
7

4 Flow forces
4.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Spool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8
8
8

5 Rotational transmissions
5.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Efficiency models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9
9
9

6 Accumulators
6.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Calculating of the accumulator volume, V0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10
10
10

7 Gap theory
7.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Plane parallel gap . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Radial gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Gap between cylindrical piston and
7.5 Axial, annular gap . . . . . . . . .

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11
11
11
11
11
12

8 Hydrostatic bearings
8.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Circled block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Rectangular block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13
13
13
14

9 Hydrodynamic bearing
9.1 Nomenclature . . . .
9.2 Cartesian coordinate
9.3 Polar coordinates . .

15
15
15
15

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cylinder
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theory
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10 Non-stationary flow
10.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Joukowskis equation . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Retardation of cylinder with inertia load
10.4 Concentrated hydraulic inductance . . .
10.5 Concentrated hydraulic capacitance . .
10.6 Concentrated hydraulic resistance . . . .

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17
17
17
17
17
17
18

10.7 Basic differential equations on flow systems with parameter distribution in space .
10.8 Speed of waves in pipes filled with liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18
18

11 Pump pulsations
11.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 System with closed end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Systems with low end impedance (e.g. volume) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20
20
20
21

12 Hydraulic servo systems

12.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 The servo valves transfer function . . . . . . . .
12.4 Servo valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.5 The hydraulic systems transfer function . . . . .
12.6 The servo stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.7 The servos response bandwidth . . . . . . . . .
12.8 The hydraulic systems and the servos sensitivity
12.9 The servos steady state error . . . . . . . . . . .
12.10Control technical resources . . . . . . . . . . . .

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23
23
24
24
26
27
28
30
31
33
33

13 Hydraulic fluids
13.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

38
38

14 Pneumatic
14.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Stream through nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Series connection of pneumatic components . . . . .
14.4 Parallel connected pneumatic components . . . . . .
14.5 Parallel- and series connected pneumatic components
14.6 Filling and emptying of volumes . . . . . . . . . . .

42
42
42
43
44
44
44

Appendix A Symbols of Hydraulic Components

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. . . . . . . . . . . .
to loading stiffness
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47

1
1.1
Re
V
d
dh
p
q
qin
t

1.2

Elementary Equations
Nomenclature
:Reynolds number
:volume
:diameter
:hydraulic diameter
:pressure
:flow (volume flow)
:flow in into volume
:time

v
e

[-]
[m3 ]
[m]
[m]
[Pa]
[m3 /s]
[m3 /s]
[s]

:(mean-) flow velocity

:effective bulk modulus
(reservoir and fluid)
:pressure variation, upstream
to downstream
:dynamic viscosity
:kinematic viscosity (= )
:density

[m/s]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Ns/m2 ]
[m2 /s]
[kg/m3 ]

The continuity equation

dV

qin

p, V

qin =

dV
V dp
+
dt
e dt

Flow out from the volume is counted negative.

1.3

Reynolds number
vdh
(dh
hydraulic diameter)

4 cross section area

dh =
(dh = d at cirkular crosssection)
circumference

Re =

1.4

Flow equations

For flow through fix orifices applies (see also section 3, Orifices):
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow

q p

q p

2
2.1
Re
d
d1
d2
h
h1
h2
g

x
s

2.2

Pipe flow
Nomenclature
:Reynolds number
:diameter
:upstream diameter
:downstream diameter
:height
:upstream height
:downstream height
:gravitation
:length
:distance after disturbance source
:distance after disturbance source
when the flow profile is
completely developed

p
p1
p2
r
v
v1
v2

pf

[-]
[m]
[m]
[m]
[m]
[m]
[m]
[m/s2 ]
[m]
[m]

[m]

:pressure
:upstream pressure
:downstream pressure
:radius
:(mean-) flow velocity
:upstream (mean-) flow velocity
:downstream (mean-) flow velocity
:correction factor
:pressure loss, upstream
to downstream
:angle
:friction factor
:density
:single loss factor
:disturbance source factor

Bernoullis extended equation

At stationary incompressible flow

p1 +

2.3

2.4

The flow loss, pf

v 2

d 2

v 2
pf = s

v
2

at a straight distance
after a disturbance source
at a single disturbance source

The friction factor,

2.5

v 2
v12
+ gh1 = p2 + 2 + gh2 + pf
2
2

64

Re

Re < 2300 laminar flow

0,316

4
Re

2300 < Re < 105

turbulent flow in smooth pips

Disturbance source factor, s

The laminar flow is completely developed at the distance s after a disturbance source.
s 1,21

s 0,06dRe

(Re < 2300),

For < s applies

s = 1,28 tanh(6,28x0,44 )
where x =

x < 0,06dRe, see diagram in figure 1

x
dRe

[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[m]
[m/s]
[m/s]
[m/s]
[-]
[Pa]
[ ]
[-]
[kg/m3 ]
[-]
[-]

1,30

1,00

0,50

0,00

lx / d Re
-5

10

-4

-3

10

10

-2

-1

10

10

10

0,06
Figur 1: The disturbance source factor s as function of

x
.
dRe

The turbulant flow is completely developed at the distance s after a disturbance source.
s 0,09

s 40d

(Re > 2300),

For < s applies

s = 0,09

2.6

x
40d

x < 40d

Single loss factor,

Pipe connections to reservoir

tank
v

The pipe starts at a given distance inside the reservoir

(
1
Sharp edge
=
0,5 Slightly rounded edge

tank
v

Pipes in the reservoir wall

= 0,5

tank

Pipe in the reservoir wall with rounded edge

r
d

r/d

0,1

0,15

0,25

0,6

0,12

0,08

0,05

0,04

The pipe starts at a given distance inside the reservoir

with entrance cone: For given , optimal cone angle and
resistance factor is stated.

tank

d
l

/d

0,1

0,15

0,25

0,6

1,0

[ ]

6090

6080

6070

5060

5060

0,40

0,26

0,17

0,13

0,10

Pipe in reservoir wall with entrance cone: For given ,

optimal cone angle and resistance factor is stated.

tank

d
l

/d

0,1

0,15

0,25

0,6

[ ]

5060

5060

4555

4050

0,18

0,14

0,12

0,10

Area variations in the pipe

d1

d2

0,9

Increase of area: The loss factor is found in the figure 2

= 180, dashed

= 60

0,8
0,7

40

0,6
0,5

30

0,4

20

0,3

15

0,2

10

0,1

0,0
1,50

2,00

2,50

3,00

3,50

4,00

d2/d1

Figur 2: The loss coefficient as function of the area relationship with the angle as parameter at increase of area.

Decrease of area: The loss factor is described by =

0 , where 0 for different geometries is received from
section above about Pipe connection to reservoir.

d1

d2 v

According to von Mises applies when

d2 /d1

0,90

0,80

0,70

0,50

0,30

0,10

0,19

0,37

0,51

0,76

0,91

0,99

Disturbance source factor s applies in a similar way

"
 3 #
d2
s = s0 1
d1
The uncompensated disturbance source factor s0 is received from section 2.5, Disturbance source
factor, s .
4

Pipe bend

For pipe bend relates: = 90

90
where 90 is

d/r

0,20

0,40

0,60

0,80

1,00

90

0,13

0,14

0,16

0,21

0,29

For pipe angle gives directly by

[ ]

10

20

30

40

50

0,04

0,10

0,17

0,27

0,40

[ ]

60

70

80

90

0,55

0,70

0,90

1,20

Special geometries

= 0,10

= 0,50

= 1,20

45
= 0,15

45
= 2,5 3

= 0,50

= 0,06

Banjonipple
= 2,5 4

3
3.1
A
A1
Cq
Re
d
K

Orifices
Nomenclature
[m2 ]
[m2 ]
[-]
[-]
[m]

[m3 /s P a]

:area
:upstream area
:flow coefficient
:Reynolds number
:diameter
p
:constant Cq A 2/

p1

p
p1
p2
q

:length
:pressure
:upstream pressure
:downstream pressure
:flow (volume flow)
:density

p2

r
2
q = Cq A
(p1 p2 )

3.2

[m]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[m3 /s]
[kg/m3 ]

The flow coefficient, Cq

Hole orifice (sharp edged)

p2

p1
A1

Cq = Cq (Re,

A
)
A1

If nothing else is stated Cq = 0,67 can be used.

Pipe orifice (sharp edged)

p1

p2

d
l

Laminar flow in the orifice (Re < 2300)

1
Cq = p
1,5 + 1,28 tanh(6,28x0,44 ) + 64x

d
ar x =

dRe

The term 1,28 tanh(6,28x0,44 ) agrees with s and can be received from the diagram in
figure 1 in section Pipe flow. When x 0,06, the value 1,21 is accepted.
Turbulent flow in the orifice with 2

Cq =

20
d

0,316

1,46 + 0,088 +

d
Re d

1,46 + 0,115
d

3.3

2300 Re 2 104

2 104 Re

Series connection of turbulent orifices

p0

p1

p2

pi

pn

q
K1

K2

Ki

Kn

The sum of the orifices applies:

q = K p0 pn

d
ar

1
K= v
u n
uX 1
t
Ki2
i=1

Ki = Cqi Ai

The pressure after the j:th orifice is given by

pj = p0 (p0 pn )K 2

3.4

j
X
1
2
K
i
i=1

Parallel connection of turbulent orifices

p0

q1

q2

qi

qn

K1

K2

Ki

Kn

p1

The sum of the orifices applies:

q = K p0 p1

d
ar K =

n
X
i=1

The flow through the i:th orifice is given by

qi =

Ki
q
K

Ki

Ki = Cqi Ai

4
4.1
Fs
d

p
p1
p2

4.2

Flow forces
Nomenclature
:flow force
:spool diameter
:length
:pressure
:upstream pressure
:downstream pressure

q
v
w
x

[N]
[m]
[m]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]

:flow (volume flow)

:(mean-)flow velocity
:area gradient
:spool opening
:jet angle
:density

[m3 /s]
[m/s]
[m]
[m]
[ ]
[kg/m3 ]

Spool
Fluidelement

Fs

For this valve, without pressure

relief grooves, is the area gradient:
w = d

p1
p2

Fs = |2Cq wx(p1 p2 ) cos()| + q

The term with absolute value is the static part of the flow force and has a closing effect.
If the spool and bushing have sharp and right angle edges and if the gap between the spool and
the bushing is small and also x d, then are:
0,62 Cq 0,67

and

= 69

Rotational transmissions

5.1

Nomenclature

Cv
D
Min
Mut
kp
kv
k
n

:laminar leakage losses

:displacement
:driving torque pump
:output torque motor
:Coulomb friction
:viscous friction losses
:displacement coefficient
:revs

[-]
[m3 /rev]
[Nm]
[Nm]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[rev/s]

qe
:effective flow
p
:pressure difference

:displacement setting
hm
:hydraulic mechanical efficiency
vol
:volumetric efficiency
Sub index
p
pump
m
motor

[m3 /s]
[Pa]
[-]
[-]
[-]

Pump
Effective flow

np, Min

Dp

qep

qep = p Dp np volp
Torque
Min =

1
p Dp
p
2
hmp

Motor
Effective flow

qem

nm, Mut
m
Dm

qem = m Dm nm
Torque

5.2

Mout =

1
volm

m Dm
phmm
2

Efficiency models

Pump
Volumetric efficiency
volp = 1 Cv

Hydraulic mechanical efficiency

p
|p |np

hmp =

1
np (k (1 |p |))
1 + (kp + kv
)e
p

Motor
Hydraulic mechanical efficiency

Volumetric efficiency
1

volm =
1 + Cv

hmm = 1 (kp + kv

p
|m |nm

nm (k (1 |m |))
)e
p

6
6.1
V0
n
p0

6.2

Accumulators
Nomenclature
[m3 ]
[-]

:accumulator volume
:polytrophic exponent
:pre-charged pressure (absolute pressure,
normally 90 % av p1 )

p1
p2
V

:minimum working pressure (absolute)

:maximum working pressure (absolute)
:working volume

[Pa]

Calculating of the accumulator volume, V0

A. Both the charging and discharging is either adiabatic or isotherm process

p1
p0
V0 =
 1
p1 n
1
p2
V

n=

isotherm process

1,4(1,5) adiabatic process

B. Isotherm charging and adiabatic discharging

V
V0 =


p2
p1

p2
p0

1

n = 1,4(1,5)

10

[Pa]
[Pa]
[m3 ]

7
7.1
Ff
Mf
Pf
b

Gap theory
Nomenclature

:friction force
:friction torque
:power loss
:gap width perpendicular
to flow direction
:eccentricity
:gap height
h1 + h2
mean gap height (
)
2
:length

7.2

Plane parallel gap

e
h
h0

p
q
r
r1
r2
v
p

[N]
[Nm]
[W]
[m]
[m]
[m]

[m]
[m]

:pressure
:leakage flow
:radius
:inner radius
:outer radius
:relative velocity
:pressure difference through
the gap (p1 p0 )
:angle
:dynamic viscosity
:angular speed

[Pa]
[m3 /s]
[m]
[m]
[m]
[m/s]
[Pa]
[rad]
[Ns/m2 ]
[rad/s]

Leakage flow relative to the fix wall

l
p1

q =

v
ql

p0

vbh bh3 p
+
2
12

Friction force
Ff =

vb bh
p
h
2

Effect losses (flow and frictional losses)

Pf =

7.3

bh3 p2
v 2 b
+
12
h

Radial gap
p0 ql
r

When h r can the equations for plane parallel

gap be used with following substitution:

v = r
= r

p1

7.4

Gap between cylindrical piston and cylinder

Leakage flow relative to the fix gap wall

"
 2 #
e
rh30 p
1 + 1,5
q = vrh0 +
6
h0

l
h2

h1

Frictional force

e
p1

p0
ql

Ff =

11

2rv
s
 2 rh0 p
e
h0 1
h0

Effect losses (flow and frictional losses)

"
 2 #
e
rh30 p2
1 + 1,5
+
Pf =
6

h0

7.5

2rv 2
s
 2
e
h0 1
h0

Axial, annular gap

Leakage flow
q =

p0 ql
r2

p1

ph3
 
r2
6 ln
r1

Pressure as function of radius

 
r
ln
r1
pr = p1 (p1 p0 )  
r2
ln
r1

r1
h

Friction moment
Mf =
Effect losses (flow and frictional losses)
Pf =

h3
6

p2
2 4
 +
(r r14 )
r2
2 h 2
ln
r1

12

4
(r r14 )
2 h 2

8
8.1
Ae
B
F
K1
K2
L
ae
f
h

8.2

Hydrostatic bearings
Nomenclature
[m2 ]
[m]
[N]
[Ns]
[Nm2 s]
[m]
[m]
[N/m]
[m]
[m]

:effective area
:bearing chamber length
:load
:constant
:constant
:bearing surface length
:effective area/width
:load/width
:gap height
:length

kb
k2
p
pb
qs
qsB
r1
r2

:constant
:constant
:pressure
:pressure in the bearing chamber
:flow through the bearing
:flow through
the bearing/width
:inner radius
:outer radius
:dynamic viscosity

[Ns/m2 ]
[Nms]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[m3 /s]
[m2 /s]
[m]
[m]
[Ns/m2 ]

Circled block

h = constant
Flow
qs =

p=0
r2

Load
F = Ae pb

r1

pb

h3
pb
kb

where

6
ln
kb =

and

r2
r1

r22 r12


Ae =
r2
2
ln
r1

Squeeze
Pressure

p=0
r2
pb

pb =

K1
h
h3

F =

K2
h
h3

Load

r1
where

K1 =

h
h

and

p=0
r2
pb

3r22

"

r1
r2

2 #

"
 4 #
r1
3 4
r 1
K2 =
2 2
r2

If pb = 0
Load

r1

F =

K2
h
h3

where

h
h

"
 3  4 #
3 4
r1
r1
r1
K2 =
r2 1 2 + 2

2
r2
r2
r2

13

8.3

Rectangular block

h = constant
Flow

p=0

qsB =

L
pb

h3
pb
kb

Load
f = ae p b

where
kb = 6L

and
ae = B + L

L
Squeeze
Pressure

p=0
L

pb =

K1
h
h3

f =

k2
h
h3

Load

pb
f

h
h

where
K1 = 6L(B + L)
and



4 2
2
k2 = 6L B + 2BL + L
3

p=0
L
pb
f

h
h

If pb = 0
Load
f =

k2
h
h3

where
k2 = 2L3

14

Hydrodynamic bearing theory

9.1
U1
U2
V1
V2
T
c
h
p
qx
qz
qr

Nomenclature
:velocity in x-axis surface 1
:velocity in x-axis surface 2
:velocity in y-axis surface 1
:velocity in y-axis surface 2
:temperature
:specific heat
:gap height
:pressure
:flow/width unit in x-axis
:flow/width unit in z-axis
:flow/width unit in r-axis

9.2

q
r
t
u
w

1
2

[m/s]
[m/s]
[m/s]
[m/s]
[K]
[kJ/kg K]
[m]
[Pa]
[m2 /s]
[m2 /s]
[m2 /s]

:flow/width unit in -axis

:radius
:time
:flow velocity in x-axis
:flow velocity in z-axis
:dynamic viscosity
:shear stress in x-axis
:shear stress in -axis
:density
:velocity in -axis surface 1
:velocity in -axis surface 2
:angle

[m2 /s]
[m]
[s]
[m/s]
[m/s]
[Ns/m2 ]
[N/m2 ]
[N/m2 ]
[kg/m3 ]
[rad/s]
[rad/s]
[rad]

Cartesian coordinate
y

V2

U2

x
V1

U1

Speeeds
u=


y
y
1 p
+ U2
[y(y h)] + U1 1
2 x
h
h

Flows
qx =

h3 p
h
+ (U1 + U2 )
12 x
2

1 p
[y(y h)]
2 z

w=

qz =

h3 p
12 z

Shear stresses

x|y=0 =
x|y=h =

h p
U2 U1
+
2 x
h

U2 U1
h p
+
2 x
h

x|y=h
x

x|y=0

Reynolds equation




h3 p

h3 p
+
= 6(U1 U2 ) (h) + 12(V2 V1 )
x
x
z
z
x
Adiabatic energy equation
" 
 2 #


2
p
p
T
T
T
h3

2
+ qz
+h
+
c qx
= (U1 U2 ) +
x
z
t
h
12
x
z

9.3

Polar coordinates
y 2

V2

w
x

V1
15

Velocities
u=

1 p
[y(y h)]
2 r

Flows
qr =

w=

h3 p
12 r


y
y
1 p
+ r2
[y(y h)] + r1 1
2 r
h
h
q =

h3 p
rh
+ (1 + 2 )
12 r
2

Shear stresses

|y=0 =
|y=h =

r(2 1 )
h p
+
2 r
h

h p
r(2 1 )
+
2 r
h

|y=h

|y=0

Reynolds equation


 3 

h p
h3 r p
+
= 6r(1 2 ) (h) + 12r(V2 V1 )
r
r
r

Adiabatic energy equation

" 
#

 2

2
r2
p
1 p
p p
T
T
T
h3
2
=
+ 2
+
c qr
+ q
+h
(1 2 ) +
r

t
h
12
r
r

r r

16

10
10.1
A
B
CH
C0
F
LH
L0
P
Q
RH
RHt
R0
R0t
V1
V2
Z0
a
d

10.2

Non-stationary flow
Nomenclature
:line sectional area
:constant (L0 a)
:conc. hydr. capacitance
:conc. hydr. capacitance/l.enh.
:force
:conc. hydr. inductance
:conc. hydr. inductance/l.enh.
:pressure (frequency dependent)
:flow (volume flow) (frequency dependent)
:conc. hydr. resistance (lam.)
:conc. hydr. resistance (turb.)
:conc. hydr. res./l.unit. (lam.)
:conc. hydr. res./l.unit. (turb.)
:volume
:volume
:impedance
:speed of sound
:diameter
:length
:mass

p
[m2 ]
p
[kg/s m40 ]
p
[m5 /N] 1
p
4
[m /N] 2
ps
[N]
q
4
[kg/m ]
q
5
[kg/m ]0
s
[Pa]
t
3
[m /s]
t
[Ns/m5 v]
v
[Ns/m5 ]0
6
[Ns/m ]

[Ns/m6 ]
e
3
[m ]
p
3
[m ]

[Ns/m5 ]

[m/s]
[m]

[m]

[kg]

:pressure
:pressure in point of operation
:upstream pressure
:downstream pressure
:supply pressure
:flow (volume flow)
:flow in point of operation
:Laplace operator (i)
:time
:valve closing time
:flow velocity
:velocity of cylinder
:dimensionless area
:effective bulk modulus
:change in pressure due to pressure peek
:dynamic viscosity
:friction coefficient
:parameter
:density
:single resistant loss

[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[m3 /s]
[m3 /s]
[1/s]
[s]
[s]
[m/s]
[m/s]
[-]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Ns/m2 ]
[-]
[1/m]
[kg/m3 ]
[-]

Joukowskis equation
p = av0

Reduction due to valve closing time.

pred = p

10.3

2
atv

for

tv >

2
a

Retardation of cylinder with inertia load

V2

V1

p2

p1

v0
m

FL

Pressure difference for retardation (v0 0)

p1max p2min = v0

ps = const

10.4

pT = 0

Concentrated hydraulic inductance

p1 p2 = L H

10.5

dq
dt

were LH =

Concentrated hydraulic capacitance

q1 q2 = CH

dp
dt

were CH =

17

A
e

2e m
V1

10.6

Concentrated hydraulic resistance

p1 p2 = RH q

10.7

were RH =

128

RH =

d4

q0

RHt = d A2

For laminar flow

For turbulent flow,
with linearization around the working
point with the flow q0

Basic differential equations on flow systems with parameter distribution in space

q
p
+ L0
+ R0 q|q|m = 0
x
t

p
q
+ C0
=0
x
t

Parameter values (per length unit)

independent of flow regime
C0 =

A
e

L0 =

with laminar flow

R0 =

128
d4

m=0

with turbulent flow

R0t =

10.8

0,1582 0,25 0,75

d1,25 A1,75

m = 0,75

Speed of waves in pipes filled with liquid

1
a=
=
L0 C0

Graphical solution
F-wave

f-wave

p = Bq

p = Bq

were B = L0 a

18

Boundary conditions:
At a valve

r
q
p
=
q0
p0

were = dimensionless area and p0 , q0 is stationary state.

At a pressure source with concentrated friction loss


q 2
p = p0 +
d 2A2
Solution with impedance method
Transfer matrices

 
cosh()
P (s, )
=
Z10 sinh()
Q(s, )


P (s, 0)
Q(s, 0)

P (s, x)
Q(s, x)

P (s, x)
Q(s, x)

were

Z0 sinh()
cosh()

cosh()
1
Z0 sinh()

cosh(x)
Z10 sinh(x)

cosh(( x))
1
Z0 sinh(( x))

Z0 sinh()
cosh()



Z0 sinh(x)
cosh(x)

p
(L0 s + R0 )C0 s

19



P (s, 0)
Q(s, 0)

P (s, )
Q(s, )


Z0 =

P (s, 0)
Q(s, 0)

Z0 sinh(( x))
cosh(( x))
r




P (s, )
Q(s, )

L0 s + R0
C0 s

11
11.1
A
T
D
L
P
V
a
d
fp
n

11.2

Pump pulsations
Nomenclature
[m2 ]
[s]
[m3 /varv]
[m]
[N/m2 ]
[m3 ]
[m/s]
[m]
[-]
[rev/s]

:the pipes cross-sectional area

:wave propagation time
:pump displacement
:pipe length
:pulsation amplitude
:volume
:wave propagation speed
:pipe diameter
:dim. free flow spectrum
:pump speed

ps
z

:static pressure level

:the pumps piston number
:dynamic viscosity
:dim.free cylinder volume
:bulk modulus
:the pumps displacement
:dim.free dead volume
:density
:dim.free charging time
:angular frequency

[Pa]
[-]
[Ns/m2 ]
[-]
[Pa]
[-]
[-]
[kg/m3 ]
[-]
[rad/s]

System with closed end

Resonances in a pipe system with closed end are obtained at following frequency/-ies:
=

k
T

k = 1, 2, 3, . . .

where
L
T =
a

a=

Figur 3: Amplitude for the resonances k = 1, 2, 3 and 4 in a system with closed end.

Flow disturbance from the pump rises at following frequencies:

= 2nzj

j = 1, 2, 3, . . .

Under condition that the pumps flow disturbance frequencies coincide with the pipe systems
resonances, can the resulting pressure amplitude at this frequency be calculated with following
equation:
 
r
P 
2fp p D
n
 
=
 ps 
3
dL
zj
max
where

1+
2
p =
+
3
1 + ( j)
2
The dimensionless charging time is the relationship between the time you, due to the oils
compressibility, receive a back flow into a cylinder, and the total time period, i.e. the time
between two volumes in succession are charged. This parameter is very difficult to decide, a
typical value of is between 0,05 till 0,3. The higher values are referred to pumps designed for
low flow pulsations for example pumps with pressure relief grooves.
The dead volume has often the magnitude of 0,2, that is 20% of the effective cylinder volume.
Anti-resonances are received in a pipe system with closed end at following frequencies:
fp =

(k + 21 )
k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
T
Under condition that the pump flow disturbance frequencies coincide with the pipe systems
anti-resonances, can the resulting maximum pressure amplitude at this frequency be calculated
with following equation:
 
P 
4fp p Dn
 
=
 ps 
d2 a
max
=

20

Example: The above equations are used for following example. A constant pressure pump
presumed work against a closed valve. Following data is obtained:
d = 38 103
n = 25
z=9
D = 220 106
e = 1,5 109

= 0,2
=0
= 0,02
= 900
= 0,25

[m]
[rev/s]
[m3 /rev]
[Pa]

[Ns/m2 ]
[kg/m3 ]

Four different pipe lengths between pump and valve is analysed:

L
L
L
L

= 1,45
= 1,91
= 2,15
= 2,90

m
m
m
m

Gives
Gives
Gives
Gives

resonances for j = 2, 4, 6, . . .
resonance for j = 3, 6, . . .
resonance for j = 4, . . .
resonance for j = 1, 2, 3, . . .

anti-resonances for j = 1, 3, 5, . . .
no anti-resonance
anti-resonances for j = 2, 6, . . .
no anti-resonance

In the table below shows the obtained relationship between pulsations pressure amplitude and the
systems pressure level for respective disturbance harmonic. Note, for L = 1,91 m and L = 2,15 m
can some disturbance harmonics not be analysed with the equations above, since they dont
coincide with any of the pipes resonances or anti-resonances. However, the amplitudes at these
frequencies are relative small because they dont coincide with any of the pipes resonances. In
the table below, these values are in parenthesis.
Relative pulsation amplitude |P/ps |

11.3

f [Hz]

L = 1,45 m

L = 1,91 m

L = 2,15 m

L = 2,90 m

225

0,01

(0,01)

(0,01)

0,35

450

0,45

(0,01)

0,00

0,22

675

0,00

0,22

(0,01)

0,14

900

0,18

(0,00)

0,12

0,09

1125

0,00

(0,00)

(0,01)

0,05

1350

0,07

0,05

0,00

0,03

Systems with low end impedance (e.g. volume)

Resonances in a pipe system with low end impedance is obtained at following frequencies:
=

(k + 21 )
T

k = 0, 1, 2, . . .

Figur 4: Amplitude for the resonances k = 0, 1, 2 and 3 for a system with low end impedance.

Anti-resonances in a pipe system with low end impedance is obtained at following frequencies:
=

k
T

k = 1, 2, 3, . . .

The same equations as in previous section can be used here for calculation of maximum pressure
amplitude for the pulsations.

21

If a volume, which size is not infinite, is connected to the pipe system is a dislocation of the
lines resonances from the values in above equations obtained. This dislocation can be calculated
according to following equation



V
1
arctan
=
T 2
Aa
I.e. if a finite volume is used the resonance frequency is increased.
As example on this section, a high pressure filter is placed before the valve in the example with
the constant pressure pump. The valve is closed in this example too. The volume of the filter is
2 liters; other parameters are the same as the previous example except for the length of the line.
The following line lengths are analysed:
L = 1,47 m
L = 1,87 m
L = 3,00 m

Gives resonance for j = 3, 5, . . .

Gives resonance for j = 1, 4, . . .
Gives no resonance

anti-resonance for j = 2, 4, 6, . . .
anti-resonance for j = 3, 6, . . .
anti-resonance for j = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .

Note, the volume is relative small and therefore the dislocation equation has to be used. When
the new resonance frequency is calculated, passningsr
akning has to be used. The method is
shown bellow for L = 1,47 m and k = 1.
= 430 rad/s
= 1810 rad/s

=
340
rad/s

= 1720 rad/s
k + 21

=
350
rad/s

=
1730 rad/s
= 1350rad/s
=
T
The size of the pulsation amplitude in relation to the static system pressure is shown in the table
below. The values in parenthesis show, as in previous example, a more correct analyze of the
disturbance harmonic which can not be calculated with the equation given in this handbook.
Relative pulsation amplitude |P/ps |
j

f [Hz]

L = 1,47 m

L = 1,87 m

L = 3,00 m

225

(0,01)

(0,54)

0,01

450

0,00

(0,01)

0,00

675

0,28

0,00

0,00

900

0,00

0,14

0,00

1125

0,11

(0,00)

0,00

1350

0,00

0,00

0,00

22

12
12.1
A
Ah
Am
Ar
Au
Bm
Bp
Ce
Ci
Ct
Cq
D
FL
Gc
Go
Greg
Jt
Kc
Kp
Kq
Kreg
Kv
Mt
Np
S
TL
U
V

Hydraulic servo systems

Nomenclature
:piston area
:control piston area (3-port valve)
:amplitude margin
:piston area, rod side
(3-port valve)
:the open systems transfer function
:viscous friction coeff. (motor)
:viscous friction coeff. (cylinder)
:external leakage flow coeff.
(cylinder/motor/pump)
:internal leakage flow coeff.
(cylinder/motor/pump)
:total leakage flow coeff.
:leakage flow coeff.
:displacement (motor/pump)
:external (load-) force on cylinder
:the closed systems transfer function
:the open systems transfer function
:controller transfer function
:total moment of inertia
(motor and load)
:flowpressure coeff. (servo valve)
:pressure gain (servo valve)
:flow gain (servo valve)
:control gain
:loop gain
:total mass (cylinder piston
and load)
:pump speed
:stiffness
:external (load-)moment on motor
:under lap
:volume

Vh
Vt
e
2
[m ]
kp
[dB]
p
pc
[m2 ]
ps
q
[Nms/rad]
qc
[Ns/m]
s
t
[m5 /Ns]
xv
xp
[m5 /Ns]
w
5
[m /Ns]
e
[-]
h
[m3 /rad]
0
[N]

m
p
m

2
[kg m ]
b
5
[m /Ns]
c
[Pa/m]
h
[m2 /s]
Re
Im
[m2 ]

[kg]
[rad/s]
[Nm]
[m]
[m3 ]

23

:control volume (3-port valve)

:total volume
:control error
:displacement gradient (pump)
:pressure
:control pressure (3-port valve)
:supply pressure
:flow (volume flow)
:centre flow
:Laplace operator (i)
:time
:position (servo valve)
:position (cylinder piston)
:area gradient
:effective bulk modulus
:hydraulic damping
:control error (stationary)
:density
:angular position (motor)
:displacement angle (pump)
:phase margin
:angular frequency
:bandwidth
:crossing-out frequency
:hydraulic eigen frequency
:real part
:imaginary part

Till
aggsindex
0
e
m
p
v
t
L

:working point
:effective
:motor
:cylinder (piston), pump
:valve
:total
:load

[m3 ]
[m3 ]
[m3 /rad2 ]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[m3 /s]
[m3 /s]
[rad/s]
[s]
[m]
[m]
[m]
[Pa]
[-]
[kg/m3 ]
[rad]
[rad]
[ ]
[rad/s]
[rad/s]
[rad/s]
[rad/s]

12.2

Introduction

The servo technical section discusses following system:

valve controlled cylinder
valve controlled motor
pump controlled cylinder
pump controlled motor
As example in this section will a position servo of the type valve controlled cylinder in a constant
pressure system be used. In this example is the servo valve a 4-port valve with negligible dynamic
and the cylinder is symmetric. See figure 5.

xp

xp ref

Greg

V1 A1

A2 V2

p1

p2

FL
Mt
Bp

xv
pT = 0
ps = constant

Figur 5: L
agesservo: ventilstyrd cylinder i konstanttryckssystem.

A position servo looks, in general, out as follow:

FL (TL)
Xp ref (m ref)

+
-

Controller

X v (p)

Xp (m)
Hydraulic system

The special case when the hydraulic system consists of a valve controlled cylinder becomes the
block diagram as:

FL

Kce
A2p
Xp ref

E
-

12.3

Controller

X v

1+

Kq
Ap

Vt
4eKce

Hydraulic
system

Xp

1
s2
h2

+ 2h s + 1
h

The servo valves transfer function

All the transfer functions in this section are applied when the load spring constant K is negligible
and its viscous friction Bp and Bm respectively is small (can often be set to 0). The direction

24

dependent friction coefficient Cf is neglected also in the motor case.

Valve controlled systems
The dynamic of the servo valve in the valve controlled systems is assumed to be negligible compared
to the system. Following is valid for the servo valve (see also section 12.4):
4-ports servo valve
qL
Kq =
xv
qL
Kc =
pL
pL
Kq
=
Kp =
Kc
xv

3-ports servo valve

qL
Kq =
xv
qL
Kc =
pc
pc
Kq
=
Kp =
Kc
xv

the servo valves flow gain

the servo valves flowpressure coefficient
the servo valves pressure gain

The load flow and load pressure through a 4-port valve controlled symmetric cylinder/motor is
defined according to following expression:
qL = (qL1 + qL2 )/2

pL = p1 p2

Pump controlled systems

The dynamic of the pump in the pump controlled systems is assumed to be negligible compared
to the system. The pumps ideal flow is:
qp ideal = p Dp Np = kp p Np
Linearised and Laplace transformed equations which describes the dynamic of the following hydraulic systems are presented in section 12.5.

25

xp
V1 A1

A2 V2

p1

p2

q1

xp

FL
Mt

Vh Ah

Mt

pc

Bp

q2

FL

Ar

Bp

xv

xv
ps = const

pT = 0

ps = const

a. Valve controlled symmetric cylinder (4-port valve)

pT = 0

b. Valve controlled asymmetric cylinder (3-port valve)

TL Bm

TL B m

Jt
m
Dm

p1

Jt

xp
V1 A1

p2

V1
q1

Bp

xv
ps = const

pT = 0

Dm

Mt

p1

V2
q2

FL

A2

p1
V1

p2 = const

c. Valve controlled motor

d. Pump controlled cylinder

e. pump controlled motor (transmission)

Figur 6: Different types of servo systems.

12.4

Servo valve

4-port zero lapped valve

Load flow:

s 

1
xv
ps
pL
qL = Cq wxv

|xv |

Centre flow:

qc = 0

Zero coefficients:

Kq0

ideal
r
ps
= Cq w

qL0 = 0

pL0 = 0

p2 =
const

Kc0 = 0 ideal
xv0 = 0

26

Kp0 = ideal

4-port under lapped valve

Load flow:
Centre flow:
Zero coefficients:



r
r
ps pL
ps + pL
qL = Cq w (U + xv )
for |xv | U
(U xv )

r
ps
qc = 2Cq wU

r
r
2ps
ps
1
Kc0 = Cq wU
Kp0 =
Kq0 = 2Cq w

ps
U
qL0 = 0

pL0 = 0

xv0 = 0

3-port zero-lapped valve

r
2

(ps pc ) d
a xv 0
Cq wxv

Load flow:
qL =
r

Cq wxv
pc
d
a xv 0

Centre flow:

qc = 0

ideal
r
ps
= Cq w

Zero coefficients:

Kq0

qL0 = 0

pc0 =

Kc0 = 0 ideal
ps
2

Kp0 = ideal

xv0 = 0

3-port under lapped valve

Load flow:
Centre flow:
Zero coefficients:

12.5

r
r

2(ps pc )
2pc
qL = Cq w (U + xv )
for |xv | U
(U xv )

r
ps
qc = Cq wU

r
r
ps
ps
1
Kc0 = 2Cq wU
Kp0 =
Kq0 = 2Cq w

ps
U
ps
qL0 = 0
pL0 =
xv0 = 0
2


The hydraulic systems transfer function

Valve controlled symmetric cylinder with mass load (4-port valve)



Vt
Kce
Kq
Xv 2 1 +
s FL
Ap
A
4e Kce
 2p

Xp =
s
s
s
+1
+ 2h
2
h
h

where

4e A2p

if V1 V2

Vt Mt
h = s



e A2p 1

if V1 6= V2
+

Mt
V1
V2
Cep
Kce = Kc + Cip +
Vt = V1 + V2
2

27

Kce
h =
Ap

Bp
e M t
+
Vt
4Ap

Ap = A1 = A2

Vt
e M t

Valve controlled asymmetric cylinder with mass load (3-port valve)

where

h =

e A2h
Vh Mt



Vh
Kq
Kce
Xv 2 1 +
s FL
Ah
A
e Kce

 2h
Xp =
s
s
+1
+ 2h
s
h2
h
r
r
Kce e Mt
Bp
Vh
h =
+
2Ah
Vh
2Ah e Mt

Kce = Kc + Cip

Valve controlled motor with moment of inertia



Kq
Vt
Kce
Xv 2 1 +
s TL
Dm
D
4e Kce

 2m
m =
s
s
+1
+ 2h
s
h2
h
s
r
r
2
Kce e Jt
Bm
4e Dm
Vt
where h =
h =
+
Vt Jt
Dm
Vt
4Dm e Jt
Cem
Kce = Kc + Cim +
Vt = V1 + V2 , V1 = V2
2
Pump controlled cylinder with mass load

where

h =

e A2p
V0 Mt

V0 = V1
Ct = Cit + Cet



kp Np
V0
Ct
p 2 1 +
s FL
Ap
A
e Ct
 2 p

Xp =
s
s
s
+1
+ 2h
h2
h
r
r
e M t
V0
Ct
Bp
h =
+
2Ap
V0
2Ap e Mt
Ap = A1 = A2
= Cip(iston) + Cip(ump) + Cep(iston) + Cep(ump)

Pump controlled motor with moment of inertia (transmission)

where

h =

V0 = V1

12.6

2
e D m
V0 Jt



V0
Ct
kp Np
p 2 1 +
s TL
Dm
D
e Ct
 2 m

=
s
s
s
+
1
+
2
h
h2
h
r
r
e Jt
V0
Ct
Bm
h =
+
2Dm
V0
2Dm e Jt
Ct = Cit + Cet = Cip + Cim + Cep + Cem

The servo stability

Feedback systems can become instable if the feedback is incorrect dimensioned. In this case we
study a position servo with proportional feedback Greg = Kreg . The open loop transfer function
become:
Kv

Au = Greg Go =  2
s
s
+
1
+
2
s
h
h2
h
28

where Go is the transfer function which describes the hydraulic systems output signal (cylinder
position) as function of the hydraulic systems input signal (valve position) when the disturbance
signal (FL ) is zero. The steady state loop gain Kv (also called the velocity coefficient) is:
Kv =
Kv =
Kv =
Kv =
Kv =

Kq
Kreg
Ap
Kq
Kreg
Ah
Kq
Kreg
Dm
kp Np
Kreg
Ap
kp Np
Kreg
Dm

valve controlled symmetric cylinder (4-port valve)

valve controlled asymmetric cylinder (3-port valve)
valve controlled motor
pump controlled cylinder
pump controlled motor

Then, the open systems Bode-diagram for a position servo become as figure 7.
1

270

c Kv
180
|Au| = 1

|Au| [-], (solid line)

10

Am

90

Kv / 2hh

-1

10

-90

-2

10

-180
-3

10

-1

10

10
10
Angular frequency [rad/s]

phase(Au) [degrees], (dashed line)

10

-270

10

Figur 7: The open systems transfer function for a position servo. Amplitude, (solid line) and phase, (dashed).

Stability condition
A stable system is obtained when
the amplitude margin Am > 0 dB at 180 phase shift. If the phase intersects 180 more
than one time the Nyquist diagram is needed.
the phase margin m > 0 at 0 dB amplitude. If the amplitude curve intersects 0 dB more
than one time the Nyquist diagram is needed.
For a proportional position servo with a feedback is, for the hydraulic, the amplitude margin the
critical stability margin. It means that a stable system needs the open loop gain |Au | to be <= 1
(0 dB) when the phase shift is <= 180.
Figure 7 shows that the stability condition becomes
Kv
<1
2h h
Stability margins
Position servo (with Bode-diagram according to figure 7) amplitude margin can be written as:


 Kv 
10


Am = 20 log 
[dB]
2h h 

The following margins should be used when the control parameters shall be dimensioned in a
hydraulic system with a feedback.
29

amplitude margin: Am 10 dB
phase margin: m 45
The systems critical working condition
Since hydraulic systems are non-linear systems, the stability margin will become different in
different working condition. From the figure for the open systems transfer function Au the
stability margin become worst when both h and h are low and steady state loop gain Kv is big.
This happened for a valve controlled symmetric cylinder when
Cylinder piston is centered (xp = 0), i.e. V1 = V2 =

Vt
2 .

h is minimised.

The servo valve is closed (xv = qL = 0), i.e. when Kc = Kc0 . Kce and consequently h is
minimised.

Cylinder piston is out balanced, i.e. when pL = 0. Kq , which is proportional to ps pL ,

is maximised and consequently also Kv (proportional to Kq ).
With similar discussion, the critical working condition can be decided for other systems.
In practical dimensioning, the hydraulic damping is often set to h 0, 1.

12.7

The servos response bandwidth

The bandwidth (b ) for the closed loop system specifies how high frequency the servos output
signal can follow a sinusoidal input signal, when the disturbance FL = 0, without:
the gain lowers more than 3 dB (29,3 %)
or the phase shift become more than 90
If the feedback is 1, the closed loop systems transfer function for a position servo with any of
the earlier described hydraulic systems becomes:
Gc =

1
1
2
1
h
s2 +
s+1
s3 +
2
K v h
K v h
Kv

Xp
for a position servo with a valve controlled cylinder.
Xp ref
1

10

270

b,1

|Gc| = 0.71 -3 dB

|Gc| [-], (solid line)

180
|Gc| = 1

10

90
0

-1

10

-90
-180

b,2
-2

10

-1

10

10
10
Angular frequency [rad/s]

phase(Gc) [degrees], (dashed line)

where Gc =

Au
=
1 + Au

-270

10

Figur 8: The closed loop systems transfer function for a position servo. Amplitude (solid) and phase (dashed).

30

The closed loop systems transfer function can also be written as

Gc = 

s
+1
b



1

s
s2
+
1
+
2
nc
2
nc
nc

If h and Kv /h is small
nc h
b K v
Kv
2nc 2h
h

12.8

The hydraulic systems and the servos sensitivity to loading

stiffness

Cylinder - respective motor position sensitivity to disturbance force FL or a disturbance torque

TL is described with its stiffness S. When the stiffness is studied is all other input signals
assumed to be constant (Insignal = 0). The stiffness is defined as
S=

FL
Xp

or

S=

TL
m

The hydraulic systems transfer function can be found in section 12.5.

As example on a system without respective with a feedback, the stiffness for the valve controlled
(4-port valve) symmetric cylinder is decided. The same approach is used when the stiffness is
decided for the other hydraulic.
System without feedback
For a hydraulic system without feedback, the stiffness for the valve controlled cylinder is calculated
as

 2
s
s
+1
+ 2h
s
h2
h
1
FL


=
S=
=
Xp
s
Kce
Xp
1
+
FL
A2p
s
where
s =

4e Kce
= {if Bp isneglected} = 2h h
Vt

The transfer function for the stiffness is shown in figure 9.

10

10

|S| [N/m]

10

10

qh!h Ap!h 2

Kce

10

1+ (! )

10

-1

10

10
10
Angular frequency [rad/s]

10

Figur 9: The transfer function for the stiffness for the non-feedback valve controlled cylinder.

31

System with feedback

For a system with feedback with the feedback 1 and proportional gain of the control error is
following stiffness obtained for a valve controlled cylinder(Xp ref are set to 0).
1
2h 2
1
s +
s+1
s3 +
2
K v h
K v h
K
1
FL

 v
=
S=
= Kv
Xp
s
Kce
Xp
1+
FL
A2p
s
where
s =

4e Kce
= {if Bp isneglected} = 2h h
Vt

The transfer function for the stiffness in the position servo is shown in figure 10.
10

10

|S| [N/m]

10

10

KvAp / Kce

10

10

-1

10

10
10
Angular frequency [rad/s]

10

Figur 10: The transfer function for the stiffness for the valve controlled cylinder with proportional feedback.

32

12.9

The servos steady state error

The control error e(t) in a servo system is defined as the difference between the output value and
the input value when Disturbance signal = 0.
According to end value theorem, the steady state control error will be:
0 = lim e(t) = lim sE(s)
t

s0

where the error gets the following expression if the feedback is 1:

E(s) = Xpref Xp = Xpref

1
1 + Au

The end value theorem is only usable on an asymptotic stable system, i.e. if the output signal
has a finite limit value. For all systems can the transient be studied in the time domain (inverse
transformation, see section 12.10).
The input signal is a step
If the input signal Xpref respective mref is a step with the amplitude A becomes the input
signal A/s in frequency domain. The end value theorem becomes
0 = lim s
s0

1
A
A
A
=

=0
s 1 + Au
1 + lim Au

s0

Practical, the steady state error does never become 0, because of the components which are
included in the control loop do not have ideal characteristic.
The input signal is a ramp
If the input signal Xpref respective mref is a ramp A t (i.e. the speed A is desired), becomes
the input signal A/s2 . The steady state position error becomes
0 = lim s
s0

12.10

1
A
A
=
2
s 1 + Au
Kv

Control technical resources

Linearize
Non-linear differential equations are linearized around a working point with the first term of the
Taylor series according to
f

= f (x10 , x20 , . . . , xn0 ) =

0

n
X

xj

j=1

f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
xj

(x10 ,x20 ,...,xn0 )

where the working point is assumed to have stationary working conditions.

33

Laplace transformation
The following Laplace transformation table translates equations in the time domain to equations
in frequency domain (rad/s) and vice versa.
Z
Definition
L{f (t)} = F (s) =
est f (t)dt
0

Function in time domain

Transform to frequency domain

f (t)

F (s)

af (t) + bg(t)

a, b constants

aF (s) + bG(s)

f (t a)

a0

eas F (s)

f (at)

a>0

1
F
a

tn f (t)

n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

(1)n F (n)(s)

f (t)
t

f (t)
lim
exists
t0+ t

eat f (t)

a constant

F (s + a)

f (t a)H(t a)

a > 0, H(t)

s
a

 

F (u)du

then t < 0

otherwise

f (t)

eas F (s)
sF (s) f (0)

f (n) (t)

sn F (s)

n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

n
X

snk f (k1) (0)

k=1

Rt
0

F (s)
s

f (u)du

f (t) g(t) =

f (u)g(t u)du =

g(u)f (t u)du

F (s)G(s)

Function in time domain

Transform to frequency domain

tn

n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

eat

a constant

tn eat

n = 0, 1, 2, . . .

n!
sn+1
1
sa
n!
(s a)n+1
s
s2 + a 2
a
s2 + a 2
sa
(s a)2 + b2
b
(s a)2 + b2
s2 a 2
(s2 + a2 )2
2s3
2
(s + a2 )2
2as2
2
(s + a2 )2
2a3
2
(s + a2 )2

cos at
sin at
eat cos bt
eat sin bt
t cos at
2 cos at at sin at
sin at + at cos at
sin at at cos at

34

Re(s) > 0
Re(s) > Re(a)
Re(s) > Re(a)
Re(s) > |Im(a)|
Re(s) > |Im(a)|
Re(s) > |Im(a)|
Re(s) > |Im(a)|
Re(s) > |Im(a)|
Re(s) > |Im(a)|
Re(s) > |Im(a)|
Re(s) > |Im(a)|

Block diagram reduction

Reduction

System

Equivalent system

1. Feedback

2. Series connection

3. Parallel connection

u
4. Move branch point
after a block

5. Move branch point

in front of a block

7. Move summation point

in front of a block

1
G

1
G

y
+

35

z
u

y
z

u + y z

8. Shift summation order

y
u

G+H

6. Move summation point

after a block

GH

1 GH

u
u + y z

u + y z

Bode diagram
For the transfer functions

 


s
s
s
1+
1+
1+
K
z1
z2
z

  m
1.
G(s) = p 
s
s
s 1+ s
1+
1+
p1
p2
pn
2.

G(s) =

(real numbers)

1
s
s2
+ 20
+1
02
0

0 < 1 (complex numbers)

the amplitude curve becomes

1.

2.

log |G(i)| =







i 
i 


log K p log || + log 1 +  + log 1 +  +
z1
z2












i 
i 
i 
i 




log 1 +  log 1 +  log 1 + 
+ log 1 +
zm 
p1
p2
pn

1
|G(i)| = s

2

2
2

1 2
+ 20
0
0

and the phase becomes

1.

arg G(i) =

p90 + arctan

z1

+ arctan

z2

+ + arctan

zm


 
 

arctan
arctan
p1
p2
pn

20 0

arctan
d
a 0 0

02

arg G(i) = 90
d
a = 0

20 0

180 + arctan
a > 0

1
02
arctan

2.

Nyquist diagram
If the transfer function is plotted direct in the complex domain, the Nyquist diagram is obtained
which is more usable than the Bode diagram. From the Bode diagram can Nyquist diagram be
constructed in following way:

36

270
180

|Au| [-], (solid line)

10

90
|Au(ii)|
-1

10

0
-90

arg(Au(ii))

-2

10

-180

i
-3

10

-1

10

10
10
Angular frequency [rad/s]

phase(Au) [degrees], (dashed line)

10

-270

10

0,50

Im(Au)

0,25

0,00
|Au(ii)|

arg(Au(ii))

-0,25

-0,50
-1,50

-1,00

-0,50
Re(Au)

0,00

0,50

Linear systems - linearized system

Under presumption that Au does not have poles in the right side are following valid:
For a feedback system shall be stable must not the open loop systems transfer function
enclose Re(Au ) = 1 in the Nyquist diagram.
Mnemonic rule: Pull the rope downward. If Re(Au ) = 1 follows - the system is instable!
Non-linear systems
With non-linear systems can a host of phenomenon occur due to occurrence of play, hysteresis in
the system etc despite the system is seemingly stable. A analyse method for investigation of the
stability is the descriptive functions where the open loop systems transfer function is divided in
a linear part and a non-linear part according to
Au = Glinear Gnonlinear
which results in the stability condition
Glinear Gnonlinear = 1
By plotting Glinear and (1/Gnonlinear) in the Nyquist diagram can the stability be investigated.
The intersection point gives in many cases the frequency and the amplitude for the self oscillation.
See other literature for determination of the non-linear transfer function.
37

13
13.1
V
V1
V2
Vc
Vg
V
Vt
p
p0
p1
p2
u
n
ys
yt

Hydraulic fluids
Nomenclature
:volume
:start volume (secant)
:end volume (secant)
:volume (reservoir)
:volume (gas)
:volume (fluid)
:total volume
:absolute pressure
:absolute pressure at NTP (= 0,1 MPa)
:start pressure (secant)
:end pressure (secant)
:flow velocity in x-led
:polytrophic exponent
:correction coefficient (secant)
:correction coefficient (tangent)

[m3 ]
[m3 ]
[m3 ]
[m3 ]
[m3 ]
[m3 ]
[m3 ]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[m/s]
[-]
[-]
[-]

x0

e
c
g

t
s
bt
bs

:amount of air in the oil

(gas volume/total volume at
normal state, NTP)
:kinematic viscosity
:density
:effective bulk modulus
:bulk modulus (reservoir)
:bulk modulus (gas)
:bulk modulus (fluid)
:bulk modulus with no air in the
:bulk modulus with no air in the
:bulk modulus with air in the oil
:bulk modulus with air in the oil
:skjuvsp
anning
:dynamic viscosity

u(y)

Definition,
dynamic viscosity
for Newton fluid

oil (tangent)
olja (secant)
(tangent)
(secant)

du
dy

Kinematic viscosity

Bulk modulus for oil with no air

Tangent value, is used at small changes
t = V

dp
dV

t is shown in figure 11. Most of the normal hydraulic oils have bulk modulus between the Naften
based oil and Paraffin based oil.

Bulk modulus, tangent [MPa]

2500
ASME-36 Naften based oil
ASME-31 Paraffin based oil

T = 0
25

2000

50
75
100

1500

1000
0

10

20
30
Pressure [MPa]

40

Figur 11: Tangent value of the bulk modulus for oil with no air.

38

50

[-]
[m2 /s]
[kg/m3 ]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[N/m2 ]
[Ns/m2 ]

Secant value, is used at big changes from normal pressure

(p1 = 0, V1 ) till (p2 , V2 )
p2
s = V1
V2 V1

s is shown in figure 12. Most of the normal hydraulic oils have bulk modulus between the Naften
base oil and Paraffin base oil.

Bulk modulus, secant [MPa]

2500
ASME-36 Naften based oil
ASME-31 Paraffin based oil
T = 0
2000
25
50
75

1500

100

1000
0

10

20
30
Pressure [MPa]

40

50

Figur 12: Secant value of bulk modulus for oil with no air.

Bulk modulus for oil with air

Tangent value
Simplified model and can be used when x0 0,1.
bt = yt t

d
ar

yt =

x0
t
1+
np (1 x0 )

p0
p

1

yt is shown in figure 13 for different amount of air in the oil, x0 , at the special case:
polytrophic exponent n = 1,4
t = 1500 + 7,5p [MPa]

1,0
x0 = 0,1

Compensator factor yt

0,8

x0 = 0,05
x0 = 0,02

0,6

x0 = 0,01
x0 = 0,005

0,4

p0 = 0,1 MPa
n = 1,4

0,2

t = 1500 + 7,5p MPa

0,0
0

10

20
30
Pressure [MPa]

40

Figur 13: Correction for the air included in oil, tangent value.

39

50

Secant value
Simplified model and can be used when x0 0,1.
bs = ys s

d
ar

ys =
1 x0 +

s x0
1
(p p0 )

p0
p

1

ys is shown in figure 14 for different amount of air in the oil, x0 , at the special case:
polytropexponent n = 1,4
s = 1500 + 3,7p [MPa]

Compensator factor ys

1,0

s = 1500 + 3,7p MPa

x0 = 0,005

p0 = 0,1 MPa

0,8

n = 1,4
x0 = 0,01
0,6
x0 = 0,02
x0 = 0,05

0,4

0,2

x0 = 0,1

0,0
0

10

20
30
Pressure [MPa]

40

50

Figur 14: Correction for the air included in oil, secant value.

Effective bulk modulus, e

The effective bulk modulus, e ,
is defined as
Vt
1
=
e
Vt p
Total initial volume:
At compression:

Gas
Vg

Vt = V + Vg
Vt = V Vg + Vc

Fluid

Vl

where , g och c refer to fluid, gas respective reservoir.

In general, the bulk modulus is calculated as (secant
value)
 
 
1
Vg 1
V 1
1
=
+
+
e
Vt g
Vt
c

Gas
Vg

For oil with no air:

Fluid

1
1
1
=
+
e

Vc

40

Vt

Specific heat capacity

2500
3

Specific heat [J/kg K]

20 = 840 kg/m
2300

860
880
900
920
940
960

2100

1900

1700
0

50
100
Temperature [degrees C]

150

Thermal conductivity ability

0,14

Thermal conductivity [W/m K]

20 = 840 kg/m
860
880

0,13

900
920
940

0,12

960

0,11
0

50
100
Temperature [degrees C]

41

150

14
14.1

Pneumatic
Nomenclature

A0
A12
A23
Ae
Cd
Ci
Cs
K

:min. cross-section area of the orifice

:effective entrance area
:effective exit area
:effective orifice area (Cd A0 )
:flow coefficient
:C-value for component i
:C-value for system
:constant

Kt
N
R
T0
T1
T3
Tv

:temperature correction ( T0 /T1 )

:parameter
:gas constant (287 for air)
:reference temperature (NTP)
:upstream total temperature
:downstream total temperature
:total temperature i volume

14.2

[m2 ]
[m2 ]
[m2 ]
[m2 ]
[-]
[-]
[-]
p
[ kgK/J]

[-]
[-]
[J/kg K]
[K]
[K]
[K]
[K]

b
bi
bs
m

p1
p2
p3
pv
q
t

:critical pressure ratio

:b-value for component i
:b-value for system
:mass flow
:upstream total absolute pressure
(= static + dynamic pressure)
:downstream static absolute pressure
:atmospheric pressure (0,1 MPa)
:atmospheric pressure in volume
:volume flow
:time
:parameter
:isentropic exponent
:parameter

At
)
:dimension free time (= RT
V

Stream through nozzle

According to the thermodynamic, the mass flow m

through a nozzle can be written as
v
u
u 
 + 1
u
p1 Cd A0 KN
2
t
1

m
=
where
K=
R +1
T1

  2   + 1
u
u p2
p2

N= u

p
p1
1


 + 1

u
t
2

2
+1
critical pressure ratio:

b=

p2
p1

p2

for
p1

p2
p1

p2
>
p1

p2
p1

for


2
1
+1

With b- and C-value hold for volume flow q following expression at NTP
q = p1 Kt C

u
2
p
2
b
= u
u

p1
u

t1 1 b

42

for

p2
b
p1

for

p2
>b
p1

[-]
[-]
[-]
[kg/s]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[Pa]
[m3 /s]
[s]
[-]
[-]
[-]
[-]

14.3

Series connection of pneumatic components

p1

b1

p2 b2

p3

bi

bn

pn+1

q1
T1

C1 q2 C2 q3

Ci

Cn

qn+1

bs ,Cs

Figur 15: Series connection of pneumatic components with b- and C-values

On condition that
every component can be described with q = p1 Kt C
b- and C-value is known for every component
absolute static pressure after one component is equal to the absolute total pressure before
the next component
the entrance temperature holds for all system
every component have the same mass flow (q1 = q2 = = qn )
qs = p1 Kt Cs

med Kt =

v
p
2
u
n+1
bs
= u
u

u 1 p1

b
s

T0
T1

for

pn+1
bs
p1

for

pn+1
> bs
p1

Case A If b- and C-value is about the same

n

X 1
1
=
Cs3
Ci3
i=1

bs = 1 Cs2

n
X
1 bi
i=1

Ci2

Case B In cases of, the components characteristics show large divergence,

the components sequence have to be considered (gradual reduction)
Calculation sequence:
12 =

C1
C2 b1

12 < 1

Critical pressure drop first over component 1, and because of

the decrease of pressure ratio as well in component 2.

12 = 1

Both components is critical at the same time

12 > 1

Critical pressure drop only in component 2

C1


2

1 b1

2
12 b1 + (1 b1 ) 12 +
1
C12 =
b1


2
C2 12

1 b1

2 +

12
b1
43

for 12 1
for 12 > 1


13

14.4

1 b2
1 b1
+
C12
C22

C12
=
osv . . .
C3 b12

2
b12 = 1 C12

Parallel connected pneumatic components

p1
q1
T1

b1

b2

bn

C1

C2

Cn

bs ,Cs
p2

Figur 16: Parallel connected pneumatic components with b- and C-values

qs = p1 Kt Cs

med Kt =

v
p
2
u
2
bs
= u
u
p1

u1

b
s

T0
T1

p2
bs
p1

forr

for

p2
> bs
p1

For systems with the same further line (see figure 16) relates to
Cs =

n
X

Ci

i=1

14.5

X Ci
Cs

=
1 bs
1 bi
i=1

Parallel- and series connected pneumatic components

For system with separate further lines are dealt as series links, after which the total flow is obtained
as the sum of all the partial flows in every series links.

14.6

Filling and emptying of volumes

Assumptions
isotherm process (T = T1 = Tv = T3 )


dAe
dV
dp1
dp3
dT
= 0,
= 0,
= 0,
= 0,
=0
stationary conditions
dt
dt
dt
dt
dt
p3 = atmospheric pressure
p1 and pv are absolute pressure
A12 and A23 are effective areas

44

Charging a volume
The diagrams below shows pv as a function of dimensionless time =
A23
as parameter.
relation of
A12

A12
p1
T1

A23
pv
Tv

p3
T3

Pressure pv [MPa absolute]

0,6

RT A12 t
with the area
V

A23/A12 = 0,0
0,5

0,5

1,0

0,4

1,5

0,3
2,0
0,2
0,1

(a) The downstream pressure p3 = 0,1 MPa absolute.

0,0
0,0

0,5

1,0

1,5

2,0

2,5

tao [-]

(b) The upstream pressure p1 = 0,6 MPa (absolute)

1,1
0,5

0,9
0,8

1,0

0,7

1,5

0,6
2,0

0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,0
0,0

A23/A12 = 0,0

2,0
Pressure pv [MPa absolute]

Pressure pv [MPa absolute]

1,0

2,2
A23/A12 = 0,0

1,8

0,5

1,6

1,0

1,4
1,5

1,2

2,0

1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2

0,5

1,0

1,5

2,0

0,0
0,0

2,5

0,5

tao [-]

1,0

1,5

2,0

2,5

tao [-]

(d) The upstream pressure p1 = 2,1 MPa (absolute)

(c) The upstream pressure p1 = 1,1 MPa (absolute)

Figur 17: Charging of the volume V .

45

Discharging a volume
The diagrams below shows pv as a function of dimensionless time =
A12
as parameter.
relation of
A23

RT A23 t
with the area
V

A12
p1
T1

A23
pv
Tv

p3
T3

Pressure pv [MPa absolute]

0,6
A12/A23 = 1,0

0,5

0,8
0,4

0,6

0,3

0,4

0,2

0,2
0,0

0,1

(a) The downstream pressure p3 = 0,1 MPa absolute.

0,0
0,0

1,0

2,0

3,0

4,0

5,0

tao [-]

(b) The upstream pressure p1 = 0,6 MPa (absolute)

1,1

2,2
2,0
A12/A23 = 1,0

0,9

Pressure pv [MPA absolute]

Pressure pv [MPa absolute]

1,0
0,8

0,8

0,6

0,7
0,6

0,4

0,5
0,4

0,2

0,3
0,2

0,0

0,1
0,0
0,0

1,0

2,0

3,0

4,0

A12/A23 = 1,0

1,8
1,6

0,8

1,4

0,6

1,2
1,0

0,4

0,8
0,2

0,6
0,4

0,0

0,2
0,0
0,0

5,0

1,0

tao [-]

2,0

3,0

4,0

5,0

tao [-]

(c) The upstream pressure p1 = 1,1 MPa (absolute)

(d) The upstream pressure p1 = 2,1 MPa (absolute)

Figur 18: Discharging the volume V .

For both charging and discharging a volume

If p1 is between the assumed levels in the diagrams can the time be calculated with linear interpolation of the two diagram according to the equation below ((p1 in MPa)).

t5 + p1 0,6 (t10 t5 )
for 0,6 p1 1,1 MPa
0,5
t=

t10 + (p1 1,1)(t20 t10 ) for 1,1 p1 2,1 MPa

46

Appendix A
Symbols for hydraulic diagrams
Correspond to the international standard CETOP RP3 and the Swedish SMS 712. It is specified
when the two standards differ.
General symbols...................................................................
Mechanical elements.............................................................
Pipes and connections..........................................................
Control systems....................................................................
Pumps and Motors...............................................................
Cylinders..............................................................................
Directional control valves.....................................................
Check valves or non-return valves........................................
Pressure control valves.......................................................
Flow control valves...............................................................
Components for cooling, filtering, energy storage etc..........
Energy sources.....................................................................
Measurement equipments.....................................................

47

48
48
48
49
49
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
57

General symbols
1)

2)

Flow direction

1)Hydraulic
2)Pneumatic

Variability
Joined
nents

compo-

Components belonging to one assembly or

functional group

Mechanical elements
D
D<5E

Shaft, lever arm,

bar, rod piston

Rod piston can be drawn with a single line

Rotational shaft

One respective two rotational directions

Spring

Pipes and connections

Solid line = main pipe
Dotted line with L>10E = control pipe
Dotted line with l<5E = drain pipe
(E = line width)

E
L<10E

Line

E
L<10E

Flexible
hose

pipe,
The symbol is used mainly for movable parts

1)

1)

3)

2)

2)

1)

2)

3)

4)

Pipe connection

d = 5E (E = line width)

Air-drain
air outlet

1) Air-drain for hydraulic pipe

2) Air outlet without possibility of connection
3) Air outlet with possibility of connection

and

Connection

Quick connect
fittings
Rotatable connection

1) Plugged connection
2) Connection with connected pipe.
mally is the connection plugged.)

(Nor-

Enable connection of pipes without tools.

1) Quick connect fitting without valve (interconnected)
2) Quick connect fitting with valve (interconnected)
3) Half of a quick connect fitting without valve
4) Half of a quick connect fitting with valve
Can rotate during operation, with one line

48

Control systems

Manual controls

1)
2)
3)
4)

Mechanical controls

1) Plunge
2) Roll
3) Spring

Electric controls

1) Electromagnetic with one winding

2) Electromagnetic with two winding (active
in two directions)
3) Control with electric motor

Pressure control

Pressure control through pressure rise respective pressure reduction

Pressure control

Direct control through differential pressure

Indirect
pressure control

Simplified symbol for pre-controlled valve.

Control at pressure rise respective pressure reduction.

Internal control
line

Control line is inside the valve.

Combined controls

1) Control with electromagnetic controlled

pre-control valve.
2) Control with electromagnetic or pre-control
valve.

2)

Pump
with
constant
displacement

1) One flow direction

2) Two flow directions

2)

Pump
with
variable
displacement

1) One flow direction

2) Two flow directions

1)

2)

3)

4)

1)

1)

1)

2)

2)

3)

3) M

2)

General symbol
Control with push button
Control with lever arm
Control with pedal

Pumps and Motors

1)

1)

49

1)

2)

Example of controls for variable

pump

1) Manual control
2) Pressure control via control valve

Compressor
with one flow
direction

The two distorted lines is not included in SMS

Vacuum pump

1)

1)

1)

2)

2)

2)

Motor
with
constant
displacement

1) One flow direction

2) Two flow directions

Pneumatic
motor
with
constant
displacement

1) One flow direction

2) Two flow directions

Motor
with
variable
displacement

1) One flow direction

2) Two flow directions

Motor
with
limited angle of
twist

1)

2)

3)

Pump/motor
with constant
displacement

Component working as pump/motor at:

1) Shifted flow direction, maintained pressure
side.
2) Maintained flow direction, shifted pressure
side.
3) Shifted flow direction and pressure side.

Hydrostatic
gear

Pump and motor together as one unit without

external pipe system.

50

Cylinders
Single-acting
cylinder

The fluid pressure exercises a force in one direction only.

Single-acting
cylinder

The fluid pressure exercises a force in one direction only and the return stroke by return
spring.

Double-acting
cylinder

The fluid operates alternatively in both directions.

Double-acting
symmetric
cylinder
Double-acting cylinder where the area different between the both sides are essential for the
function.

Differential
cylinder
1)

Cylinder
cushion

2)
1)
2)

1)

2)

with

1) Single acting cushion.

2) Double acting cushion.

Cylinder with
variable cushion

1) Single acting cushion.

2) Double acting cushion.

Pressure intensifiers

Unit converting a pressure X into a higher

pressure Y.
1) For one medium (air).
2) For two mediums (air and oil).

Air-oil actuators

Unit converting a pneumatic pressure into an

equal hydraulic pressure.

51

Directional control valves

Opening and closing of one or more flow paths. Symbols with
several squares. The external flow lines are normally situated
at the square which indicates the neutral or normal position.
Other positions can be shown by displacement of the squares
until the external flow lines are situated at the corresponding
square.

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

Example
squares
different
paths.

of
with
flow

1)
2)
3)

Non-throttling
directional
control valve

1)
2)

Several service positions each shown by a

square;
1) Valve with two distinct positions.
2) Valve with three distinct positions.
3) Valve with two distinct positions (outer
squares), but between the distinct positions
the valve passes a central position with
essential function.

2/2 directional
control valve

First number in the description denotes the

number of ports, the second the number of
positions. Pilot ports are not included. Control e.g.
1) manual
2)by pressure against return spring (unloading
valve).

3/2 directional
control valve

1) Control by pressure from both ends.

2) Control by solenoid against return spring,
with transient intermediate position.

Electro
hydraulic
servo
valve with pilot
and mechanical
feedback.
4/2 directional
control valve

Combined with solenoid operated pilot valve

with return spring. Representation
1) detailed
2) simplified.

5/2 directional
valve

Control by pressure in both directions.

1)
2)

1) Two pipe connections and free throughflow.

2) Two connections that are closed.
3) 4) Four connections and free throughflow.
5) Four connections where all are tied to each
other.
6) Four connections were two are closed and
two are tied together.
7) Five connections were one is closed.

52

1)
2)

Throttling directional control

valve

Two end positions and intermediate throttling

positions.
1) Shows only the end positions.
2) Shows the end positions and the centre
(neutral) position.
All valve symbols have parallel lines outside
the envelope.

One throttling
orifice (2 ports)

Tracer valve; plunger operated against return

spring.

Two throttling
orifices (3 ports)

Pressure controlled against return spring in

two directions.

Four throttling
orifices (4 ports)

Tracer valve; plunger operated against return

spring.

Single
stage
electrohydraulic servo
valve

Amplification of infinitely variable electrical

input signals transformed onto hydraulic output; without pilot operation.

Two
stage
electrohydraulic
servo
valve
with mechanical
feedback
Two
stage
electrohydraulic
servo
valve
with hydraulic
feedback

Check valves or non-return valves

1)

1)

2)

Check valve

1) without, 2) with back pressure. Opening

if inlet pressure is 1) higher than the outlet
pressure, 2) higher than the outlet pressure
plus spring pressure.

2)

Pilot controlled
check valve

Pilot controlled
1) Opening can be prevented
2) Closing can be prevented

Shuttle valve

The inlet under pressure is automatically connected to the common outlet and the other
inlet is closed.

53

One way restrictor

Valve which allows free flow in one direction

and restricted flow in the other direction.

Quick
valve

When pressure falls at the inlet connection,

the outlet is automatically opened to exhaust.

exhaust

Pressure control valves

Pressure control
valves

Automatic control of pressure;

1) One throttling orifice, normally closed.
2) One throttling orifice, normally open.
3) Two throttling orifices. Arrows with or
without tails.
Pictures in the right column are not according
to SMS standard.

Pressure
valve

Inlet pressure is controlled by opening the exhaust port to the reservoir or the atmosphere
against an opposing force. The left valve has
fixed preloaded spring force, the right has variable.

1)
2)
3)

relief

Pilot controlled
pressure relief
valve

Inlet pressure is controlled by spring force or

by a value determined by the pressure in a
outer pilot port. In the left figure pilot pressure acts against the spring force. In the right
figure it acts together with the spring force.

Proportioning
pressure relief
valve

Inlet pressure is limited to a value proportional to the pilot pressure.

Sequence valve

When the inlet pressure exceeds the opposing

force of the spring, the valve opens permitting
flow through the outlet port.

Pressure regulator

With varying inlet pressure the outlet pressure

remains substantially constant. Inlet pressure
must however remain higher than the selected
outlet pressure.
1) without,
2) with unloading device.

1)
2)

3)

54

Pilot controlled
pressure regulator

Outlet port pressure proportional to pilot

pressure.

Differential
pressure regulator

The outlet pressure is reduced by a fixed

amount with regard to the inlet pressure.

Proportioning
pressure regulator

The outlet pressure is reduced by a fixed ratio

with regard to the inlet pressure.

Variable
flow
control valve

Manual controlled throttle valve.

1) Detailed
2) Simplified
Mechanical controlled throttle valve.
3) Mechanical controlled against spring (braking valve).

Series flow control valve

Regulator with fixed setting, without exceeding oil bleed off.

1) Detailed
2) Simplified

By-pass
flow
control valve

Regulator with fixed setting, with exceeding

oil bleed off.
1) Detailed
2) Simplified

Flow divider

The flow is divided into two fixed flows substantially independent of pressure variations.

Shut-off valve

Simplified symbol.

Flow control valves

1)

2)
3)

1)

2)

1)

2)

55

Components for cooling, filtering, energy storage etc.

1)

1)

2)

Orifices

Reservoirs

1),2), and 4) Reservoirs with atmospheric

pressure.
3) Pressured reservoir. 1),3) The flow line flow
into the reservoir above the the fluid level. 2)
The flow line flow into the reservoir below the
the fluid level. 4) The flow line flow connected
under the reservoir.

Accumulators

1) Hydraulic, the fluid is subjected to pressure

from a spring, weight or gas (air, nitrogen, etc)
2) pneumatic (receiver)

3)

2)

1)

Acc. CETOP:
1) Viscosity dependent (pipe orifice)
2) 1) Viscosity dependent (sharp edged)
Acc. SMS:
1) General symbol
3) Viscosity dependent (pipe orifice)

3)

2)

4)

Filter; strainer
1)

2)

1)

2)

Water trap

1) Manual control of draining, 2) automatic

draining.

Filter with water trap

The apparatus is a combination of filter and

water trap..

Desiccator

Air drying by chemicals.

Lubricator

For lubrication of apparatus small quantities

of oil are added to the air which is flowing
through the lubricator.

Maintenance
unit

Apparatus comprising filter, pressure regulator and lubricator assembled as a unit, 1) detailed 2) simplified.

1)
2)

56

1)

2)

Temperature
controller

The fluid temperature is controlled between

two predetermined values. The arrows indicate both heat introduction and dissipation.

Cooler

1) Without 2) with indication of the flow lines

of the coolant. The arrows in the square indicate the heat dissipation.

Heater

The arrows indicate introduction of heat.

Silencer

Energy sources
Pressure source

1)

Electric motor
2)

Combustion engine

1) According to CETOP
2) According to SMS

Measurement equipments
Manometer
(Pressure transducer)

Thermometer

The symbol can be placed arbitrarily.

Flow rate meter

Measure flow (volume per time unit)

Integrated flow
meter

Measure the total volume which is passed.

Pressure switch

The symbol shows a switching contact.

57