ExperiencewithCodeCases

JohnRLilley.CEng.MInstNDT.ASNTLevel3RT.UT.PT.MT
GeneralManager,SonomaticLtd.

Biography
JohnLilleyhasbeenengagedintheNDTindustrysince1975,andhasheldcertificationtoASNTLevel
3since1984.HehasbeeninstrumentalintheapplicationofTOFDandotherautomatedultrasonic
inspectiontechnologytoindustrialapplicationssince1988.Hehaswrittennumeroustechnical
publicationsandhasbeenaregularcontributortocodesandstandardsovertheyears.Heis
currentlytheGeneralManagerofSonomaticLtd,andbecameaCharteredEngineerin2007.

Background
CodeCase2235wasoriginallyissuedbytheAmericanSocietyforMechanicalEngineering(ASME)
BoilerandPressureVesselCode(B&PVC)committeein1996[Ref1].TheenquiryaskedUnder
whatconditionsandlimitationsmayanultrasonicexaminationbeusedinlieuofradiography,when
radiographyisrequired....,andthecodecasetextgoesontodefinetheseconditionsand
limitations.Itessentiallyaddressesthefollowing:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.

Materialthicknessrangesandvolumetriccoveragerequirements.
Requirementforadocumentedexaminationstrategy.
TherequirementfortheexaminationtobecarriedoutinaccordancewithSectionV,Article
4[Ref2].
Therequirementforacceptabledemonstrationofperformanceofequipment,procedures
andpersonnelonaqualificationblock(s).
Acceptancecriteriabasedonacombinationofflawheightandlengthmeasurementswhich
arederivedfromalinearelasticfracturemechanicsprocedure.
Therequirementforautomaticcomputerbaseddataacquisitionwithdatarecordedin
unprocessedform.
Investigationandanalysiscriteria.
Discriminationbetweensurfaceandsubsurfaceflaws.
Rulesdefininginteractioninthecaseofmultipleflaws.

Otherfactorsarealsoaddressed,buttheabovelistdescribesthekeyelementsoftheinitialcode
case.Therehasbeenextensivediscussionthroughavarietyofforums,andthedocumentwas
revisedninetimesbeforebeingincorporatedintothemainbodyofSectionVIIIin2008[Ref3].The
variousrevisionshaveaddressedspecificrefinementsalthoughthefundamentaldocumenthas
remainedrelativelyunchangedthroughoutthisprocess.Alongtheway,essentiallythesamecode
case,withsomemodification,hasbeenincorporatedintotheASMEGasProcessPipingCodeB31.3
[Ref4],intheformofCodeCase181,whichwasissuedinJanuary2007.ThegenerictermCode

CaseisusedthroughoutthispapertorefertotheuseofUTinlieuofRTasdescribedinSectionVIII
oftheboilerandpressurevesselcode,orinB31.3CodeCase181.Inbothcases,fracture
mechanicsbasedacceptancecriteriamaybeusedinlieuofgoodworkmanshipcriteria.
Itisimportanttonotethatthekeydifferencebetweenconventionalandcodecase
acceptancecriteriaisthattheformerisbasedongoodworkmanshipcriteria,andthelatteris
supportedbyfracturemechanicscalculation.Adefinitionisofferedherebasedonpersonal
experienceandinteractionswithclients,colleaguesandpartnersoveraperiodinexcessofthirty
yearsinvolvementwithrelevantprojects,standardcommittees,R&Dforums,seminars,workshops,
conferencesandlegalwork.
Constructioncodesandstandardsareintendedtoensurethatpressureequipmentand
structuresaredesigned,fabricatedandtestedtoconsistentqualitystandardsintheinterestsof
safetyandreliability.Theearlycodesstipulatedradiographictestingforthedetectionofflaws
withintheweldvolume.Radiographictestingishowever,inefficientforthedetectionofplanar
flaws,whichmustbea)preferentiallyalignedtotheradiographicbeamandb)withagapethat
exceedstheapplicableradiographicgeometricunsharpnessvalue.Radiographyisefficient
however,forthedetectionofvolumetricflawssuchasslagentrapment,porosity,undercut,and
poorweldprofile[Ref5].Itwillalsodetectcertaingrossplanarflaws,especiallywheretheseare
associatedwithothertypesofvolumetricflaw.Allofthedescribedvolumetricflaws/conditionsare
indicativeofpoorworkmanshipandthecodesprovideveryclearlimitsonwhatcanbedefinedas
unacceptableintermsofqualitystandards.Rejectionlevelsarenotderivedfromwhatisconsidered
tobedetrimentaltotheequipmentonceplacedintoservice,butwhatisconsideredtobepoor
practiceintermsoffabricationquality.Thisqualityculturepervadesthroughouttheentire
fabricationprocessinmuchthesamewayasastrongsafetycultureleadstofeweraccidentsoverall.
Theinferenceisthatifweldingproceduresareapplieddiligentlyandgoodworkmanshipprinciples
areupheld,thenitfollowsthattheoccurrenceofcrackingandlackoffusionflawsislikelytobe
minimised.Thisprocesshasbeenobservedtobeeffectiveinthattheincidenceofboiler/pressure
vesselfailureshasdramaticallydecreasedfollowingtheintroductionofcodes.Attentiontodetailin
constructionNDTspillsovertocontrolandcareofweldingconsumables,weldingprocedures,heat
treatment,documentation,etc.Itisafundamentalaspectofqualitycontrol(QC).Thereisalsoa
psychologicalinfluenceinthatweldersjustifiablytakeprideintheirworkandareinclinedtobe
aversetothestigmaofbeingclassifiedaspoorworkmenthroughgeneratingunacceptablelevelsof
repair.
ConstructiongoodworkmanshipNDTdoesnotneedtohaveahighProbabilityOf
Detection(POD)becauseindividualflawswhichmaygoundetectedarenotlikelytobedetrimental
totheuseoftheequipmentinservice.Thisisduetothehighlevelofconservatismembodiedwithin
thegoodworkmanshipapproach.ThegoodworkmanshipacceptancecriteriaofSectionVIIIDiv2
Part7(2008Addenda)includes,butisnotrestrictedto,thefollowing:

Cracksandlackoffusion/penetrationNotpermitted
VolumetricflawsLimitationsdependentonwallthickness

Asanexample,inthecaseofapressurevesselwithawallthicknessof50mm,a20mmlongslagline
wouldberejectabletothesecriteria.Theslaglinemaybelessthan2mmincrosssectionandwould
beexpectedtoberoundedinprofile.Accordingtothecodecases,asubsurface,39mmlongby

4mmhigh,verticallyorientedplanarcrackinacomponentofthesamewallthicknesswouldbe
permitted.Thedifferenceisthatthegoodworkmanshipcriteriaaredesignedtomaintainquality
standards,therebyimplyingfitnessforservice,whereasfracturemechanicsbasedacceptance
criteriaaredesignedtoeliminateflawsexceedinggivendimensions.Theperformancecriteriafor
theNDTassociatedwiththesetwoapproachesareverydifferent.GoodworkmanshipNDTmaybe
lessthanperfectbecauseitisdesignedtoflagupwhenthefabricationprocessisgoingoutof
controlbypickingupsystematicflaws(asopposedtodetectingallflaws)whichareindicativeof
underlyingbreakdownsinqualityprocesses.Thereislessroomformanoeuvrewithfracture
mechanicsbasedacceptancecriteria,hencetheadditionalrequirementforqualification.
Adoptionofthecodecaseshassteadilyincreasedovertheyearstothepointwhereincertain
circumstances,radiographictestingofpressurevesselsunderconstructionhasfallenaway
altogether.Thisprocesshowever,hasoccurredatatimewhentheindustryhasgonethrough:
a) aperiodofchangingregulatoryinfluence(lessinfluencefromcertifyingauthoritiesand
insurers),
b) increaseddependencyonformalqualityprocessesand
c) increasedpressureonefficienciesofprocurement.
Thesefactorsincombinationhavecreatedtheenvironmentwhereithasbecomeprevalentfor
fabricatorsand/orinspectionservicecompaniestointerpretandapplythecodecasesaccordingto
theirownunderstanding.Thishasbeenobservedtohaveoccurredwithoutguidanceorexperience
ofworkingwithcodesingeneral,andbypeoplewhosenativetongueisnotEnglish.Thesituationis
nothelpedbythefactthattheCodeCaseshavenotbeenverywellwrittenorpresented.Inthe
authorsexperience,thishasledtosituationswhereanyambiguitiesofinterpretationtendtoswing
markedlytowardstheinterestsofthefabricatorand/orinspector,oftentothedetrimentoftheend
clientorpurchaseroftheplantrequiringinspection.Theconsequentialeffectsofthiscanbevery
costlyinthelongertermduetoprojectdelays,remediationcostandotherprojectrisks.Itis
suggestedthatthesituationcouldbeimprovedthroughstrictercontrol,bothintermsofinitial
specificationoftheprocurementofNDTprocesses,butalsotightercontrolthroughoutthe
fabricationprocess.Thecostsassociatedwithqualityassuranceareverysmallcomparedtothe
projectriskinvolved.

ThepotentialbenefitsofUltrasonicTesting(UT)inLieuofRadiographicTesting(RT)for
productionwelding
TherearecertainpotentialadvantagesofUTinlieuofRTduringthefabricationprocess.Hereisan
overviewofthemoreimmediatebenefits[seealsoRef6]:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Noradiationhazardpersonnelcanworkinandaroundtheinspectionarea
Norequirementtotransportpressurevessels/pipespoolstoradiographiccompounds
Speed.Theinspectioniscompletedinashortertimeframe
Potentialforimprovedqualityofwelding.Ifappliedatthefrontendofaproject,itcan
beusedattheweldprocedureandwelderqualificationstagetooptimisethewelding
process,henceminimisingthelikelihoodofrepair.SeeFigure1.

v.

Depth&positioninginformationprovided.UnlikeRT,preciserepaircoordinatescanbe
provided,minimisingthepossibilityofrerepairsthroughmissedflaws

Other,lessobviousbenefitsinclude:
i.
ii.

Thedataformsafingerprintforcomparisonwithfutureinserviceinspectiondata.
Theacceptancecriteriaofthecodecasesareinmanycasesmoreforgivingintermsof
acceptableflawsize.Thisalsoreducestherepairfrequency,andisespeciallythecase
forvolumetricweldingflaws.

Figure1.ExampleofTOFDdatatakenfromaB31.3CC181project.Theindicationsscattered
throughouttheweldbodyweretermedbytheweldersasfisheyes.Thesearesmalllackof
fusionflawsthatformattheweldbevelfacesastheweldingheadweavesacrosstheweldbody.
Theyareaformofcombinedlackofinterrunandsidewallfusionthatcanbealignedintheaxial
direction,butalsocouldpotentiallyextendverticallybylinkingbetweenweldpasses.By
adjustingthewelltimeateachendoftheweave,thisflawtype(whichwasnotdetectable
radiographically)waseliminated.NotealsotheinterestingIDfitupandstopstartinterruptionin
theweldrootpenetrationallusefulfeedbackforthedesignandweldingengineers!
Takenincombination,thebenefitsintermsofprojectcost,quality,durationandriskcanbevery
significantindeed.Therehavebeencaseswhere24hourworking(asopposedtofabricationduring
thedayandRTatnight)enabledprojectdurationstobehalved,butconversely,whereUTusedin

lieuofRThasbeenimpactedbylackofplanningandoversight,delaysandcostshavebeenseento
escalatemassively,potentiallyleadingtolitigation.
DisadvantagesofUTinlieuofRT
i.
CertaingeometricfeaturespresentrestrictionsforUT,e.g.attachments,skirtsornozzles
adjacenttoweldsinthecaseofpressurevessels,orfittingsinthecaseofpipingsystems.
ii.
Variationsinexpertisemorecapableserviceinspectioncompanies/fabricatorswill
engineersolutionstomany,ifnotallultrasonictestrestrictions.Othersreadilygiveupand
seekdispensationtoexcludecertainweldsonthegroundsofdifficultgeometry.Itmaybe
permissibletousethetestrestrictionexcuseinthecaseoffabricationQC,butnotinthe
caseofFFSbasedonfracturemechanicsprinciples.Inspectionsshouldbeplannedproperly
tominimiseand/ordealwiththeseeffects.Fabricators/serviceinspectioncompaniesshould
bevettedduringtheprequalificationprocesstoassesstheirabilitytodealwiththese
situations.
iii.
CertainflawtypesaredifficulttodetectwithUT(e.g.excessrootpenetration).
iv.
CertainmaterialsarenotsuitedtoinspectionbyUT,especiallycoarsegrainedaustenitic
stainlesssteels.
v.
Thefracturemechanicsbasedacceptancecriteriaofthecodecasesbecomemoreonerous
forthinwallmaterialsandthebenefitsbecomediminishedwithwallthickness.
CommonmisinterpretationsormisapplicationsoftheCodeCases
ProceduresThepurposeandintentofultrasonictestingproceduresthemselvesisveryfrequently
misunderstood.Aprocedureshouldbederivedfromtheconstructioncode(inthiscaseSectionV,
Article4),incorporatingtherequirementsofthecode,butreflectingtheequipmentinuseandthe
specificitemstobeexamined.Workinstructions/methodstatementsandchecklists/calibration
recordsshouldbedefinedintheproceduresthatarerequiredtobeusedaslivingdocumentsas
eachcontractprogresses.Asthecodesareintendedtobeusedacrossawiderangeofdesignsand
situations,thereisacertaindegreeofflexibilityembodiedwithinthem.TheAmericanSocietyfor
Nondestructivetesting(ASNT)personnelcertificationschemeSNTTC1AorCP189asreferenced
bythecodesdefinescompetencylevelsforindividualstobeabletointerpretthecodessufficiently
toextracttheinformationrequiredinordertoconstructaprocedure.Itiscommonpractice
however,forfabricatorsandserviceinspectioncontractorstocutandpasteblocksoftextdirectly
fromthecodesintotheircompanyprocedures.Classicexamplesincludecoderequirementsforan
ultrasonictestfrequencyrangeof1MHzto5MHz,ortwobeamanglestobeselectedfrom45,60
or70toberepeatedwordforwordintheprocedure.Thisleavestheactualinspectionopento
interpretationandinconsistencieswilloccur.Thesearesimplisticexamplesthatleadtorelatively
minordiscrepancies.

TherequirementtogenerateaprocedureaccordingtoASMEV,Art4,T421(andTIII422in
thecaseofTOFDand/orTIV422forPhasedArray),includingtheidentificationandcontrolof
essentialandnonessentialvariablesisgenerallymisunderstood,especiallytherequirementforthe
proceduretoestablishasinglevalue,orrangeofvalues,foreachrequirement.Thisentiresection
hasbeenobservedtohavebeenpastedverbatimdirectlyintoaprocedure.
Muchmoreseriouscasesareprevalent.Asanexample,thecodecasesstipulatethatthe
ultrasonicexaminationshallincludeavolumeofmaterialtobeincludedoneachsideoftheweld

(theactualdistanceisdictatedbythematerialthickness).Thedistancemaybereducedtocover
onlytheweld,HeatAffectedZone(HAZ)+6mmofbasematerial,providedTheextentoftheweld
HAZismeasuredanddocumentedduringtheweldqualificationprocessand,TheUTtransducer
positioningandscanningdeviceiscontrolledusingareferencemark.....Ithasbeenobserved
practicethatthetextisoftenlifteddirectlyfromthecodecasetotheprocedureandthenignored.
Theendeffectisthatinadequatematerialisexamined.
Veryoften,proceduresaredocumentsthataregeneratedforauditpurposesand
techniciansperformingtheworkneverseethemorareevenunawareoftheirexistence.
QA/QC:Qualitystandardshavedevelopedquitestronglyinrecentyearsandtherehasbeena
strongfocusonrelianceonadherencetoaccreditedschemesattheexpenseoftechnicalaudit,
specificationandsupervision.Informertimes,certifyingauthoritiesemployingpersonnelwith
technicalknowledgeandexperienceusedtoprovidethisformofoversight.CurrentQA/QC
processesensurethatproceduresareadheredtoatthesystemlevelratherthandiggingintothe
technicaldetail.AkeyfailingofthisprocessisthatQA/QCrepresentativestendtohave
competenciesinQA/QCratherthaninNDT.Thisdoesnotdetractfromthehighlyimportant
functionofQA/QCasaprocess,butthereisacompetencygapthatiscurrentlynotaddressed.
UltrasonicinspectiontoSectionV,Article4:Thecodecasesdonotstipulatewhichofthe
techniquesdescribedinArticle4shouldbeused.ConventionalpulseechoUT(fixedbeam),Phased
Array(PA)andtheTimeOfFlightDiffraction(TOFD)techniquesarealldescribedandtheuserisfree
toselectwhichofthesemaybeused.Thecriteriaofthecodecasesarethatwhichevertechniqueis
used,itmustmeetorexceedtheminimumqualificationcriteriaoftheCodeCase.Itisunlikelythat
aconventionalpulseechotechniquewillmeetthesizingcriteriaasthesearemoresuitedto
techniquesthatmakeuseofthetipdiffractionprocesssuchasTOFDand/orPA.Manyofthefactors
thatapplytointerpretationandapplicationofthecodecasesapplyequallytointerpretationand
applicationofthebasecodeitself,butthiswillnotbeaddressedhereunlessitspecificallyrelatesto
applicationoftheCodeCase.
TOFDSupplementarycoverage(asrequiredbyArticle4,MandatoryAppendixIII):
a) Transverseflaws.Ananglebeamexaminationisrequiredfortransverseflawsunlessthe
referencingCodeSectionrequiresaTOFDexamination.Inthesecases,positioneachTOFD
probepairessentiallyparalleltotheweldaxisandmovetheprobepairalonganddownthe
weldaxis.Iftheweldreinforcementisnotgroundsmooth,positiontheprobesonthe
adjacentplatematerialasparalleltotheweldaxisaspossible.Caution:Therequirement
toperformTOFDscanswiththebeamorientedparalleltotheweldaxiswillnotincreasethe
probabilityofdetectionfortransverseflawsanymorethanascanwiththebeamoriented
acrosstheweld,possiblylessso.ThisrationalestemsfrompulseechoUTanddoesnot
applytoTOFDinthesameway.AlthoughtheclassicdepictionofTOFDiswhereacrackis
perpendiculartotheultrasonicbeam,diffractedsignalsarestillgeneratedatthetipsof
transversecrackswhenthecracksprimaryaxisisorientedparalleltotheTOFDbeam.An
exampleisshowninSectionV,Article4,NonMandatoryAppendixN.Thecodeiswrongon
thispoint,whichdoesnothelpmatters.
b) Supplementalshearwaveexamination.WhenTOFDisused,Article4callsfor
supplementalshearwaveexaminationsduetothepresenceofthelateralwaveandback

wallsignals.Comment:Unlessthedetectionandsizingaccuraciesusingthesetechniques
canbesuccessfullyqualifiedusingaqualificationblock(s),thesupplementalshearwave
examinationtechniquesshouldbeusedinconjunctionwiththegoodworkmanship
acceptancecriteriaofSectionVIII.Thisisoftenoverlookedinpractice.
Qualificationblock(s):Thisispossiblythemostuniversallymisunderstoodsectionofeitherofthe
CodeCases.Theblock(s)is(are)requiredtobemanufacturedbyweldingortheHotIsostatic
Process(HIP).Theauthorhasnoexperienceofthelatterbeingusedforfabricationofentire
qualificationblocks,althoughthisprocesshasbeenseentohavebeenusedinthenuclearindustry
tomanufactureindividualflawsofveryprecisedimensions.Inthiscasetheflawsarecreatedby
sparkerodingtherequiredflawdimensionsintooneorbothfacesoftwoblocksofsteel.Thesizeof
theblocksissomewhatlargerthantheintroducedflaw.The(uneroded)matingfacesofthetwo
blocksarethenbondedtogetherthroughtheapplicationofintenseheatandpressure,creatinga
homogenouspieceofmaterialexceptforthenowembedded,intendedflaw.Theblockisthen
machinedintoabobbin,whichisimplantedintothequalificationblockbywelding.Itisunlikely
thatHIPbondingwouldbeusedinthenonnuclearindustryasthereareother,lesscostly,ifless
precisemethodsofsimulatingplanarflawsinwelds.Referencetothisfabricationprocesshowever,
hasledtospeculationthatblocksneednotbewelded,andthatartificialflawsmaybeintroduced
fromtheendsofunweldedqualificationblocks(presumablybydrilling/ElectroDischargeMachining
(EDM).Discussionofthiscanbefoundonwww.ndt.net[Ref7].

TheCodeCasescarriedthestatementregardingqualificationblock(s):andshallcontaina
minimumofthreeflaws,orientedtosimulateflawsparalleltotheproductionweldsfusionline....
Interpretationofthisdefinitionhasbeencarriedoutinvariousways.Theauthorsinterpretationof
theintentofthisisthattheflawsshouldsimulatethemostdifficulttodetectoffabricationflawsin
theformofatight,smooth,planarflawsuchasalackoffusion(inisolation,i.e.notincombination
withanyotherflaw).Thisissupportedbythefollowingstatementalsopostedonthewww.ndt.net
website:WhiletheoriginalASMECC2235wasnotclearonthisissue,theintentwastouseartificial
cracksnotsidedrilledholesornotchesasthereflectors.Inaddition,theartificialcracksshould
followthebeveltosimulateLackofFusiondefectsorsimilar.ASMEiscurrentlyworkingonclarifying
thissituation.MichaelMoles;Member,ASMESectionVUltrasonicsWorkingGroup.Itispositiveto
notethatthe2008AddendatoSectionVIIIrequirementsforqualificationblockflawsnowreads:
...andshallcontainaminimumofthreeplanar(e.g.cracklike)flaws,orientedtosimulateflaws
paralleltotheproductionweldsfusionline...,althoughB31.3CC181stillretainstheoriginaltext.
Theauthorsexperienceisthatwhereaninspectionservicecontractororfabricatordrivesthe
process,qualificationblocksmayormaynotcontainwelds,buttheywillcontaindrilledholesor
notches,whereaswhereanenduserdrivestheprocess,qualificationblockswillalwaysbewelded
andwillusuallycontainsimulatedplanarweldingflaws.Thelatterfallintothecategoryofcrack
like,inthattheyaretight,planarandpreferentiallyoriented.Suchflawscanbeintroducedby
weldingshimsontoweldbevelfaces(practicerequired!),ortheycanbeprocuredfromaspecialist
firmofsamplemanufacturers.
Caseshavebeenobservedinpracticewhere6mmwidebuttressnotcheshavebeenusedto
representsurfaceflawsinconjunctionwithTOFDprocedures.Thisisincorrectontwocounts.
Firstly,abuttressnotchrepresentsalarge,stronglyreflectiveareawheninspectedfromthe
oppositesurface(quiteunlikeanynaturalplanarflawalignedwiththeweldfusionline),and

secondly,itisopentothesurface.AccordingtoSectionVIIIMT&PTacceptancecriteria,linear
surfacebreakingflawsareunacceptable,sothereseemslittlepointinqualifyingdetectionandsizing
performanceforflawsthatarenotpermitted.Thisdoesnotapplyhowever,toslightlysubsurface
flawsthatareclassifiedassurfaceflawsiftheremainingligamenttotheexternalsurfaceislessthan
halftheflawheight.Moreonthislater.
SidedrilledholesandEDMnotcheshavefrequentlybeenobservedasartificialflawsin
qualificationblocks.Thisgenerallyspeakingisacarryoverfromtheuseofdrilledholesandnotches
incalibrationblocksdescribedinSectionV,Article4.Inthiscase,theartificialflawsareintendedto
createreflectorsthatarereproducibleandeasytomanufacture.Theirpurposeistocontrol
accuraciesofcalibration,sizing,sensitivityandcoverage.Thepurposeofimplantedflawswithin
qualificationblocksisanentirelydifferentmatter.Heretheonusisnottorepeatthecalibration
process,buttoverifytheperformanceofthecalibratedUTsetuponsimulatedplanarwelding
flaws.Itshouldbeborneinmindthatatruelackofsidewallfusionisoftenaverytightflawthathas
negligiblewidthorgape.Inthemostextremeofsituations,theweldpoolmaysolidifyalongsidea
weldbevelfacewithoutactuallyformingabond,andinthiscaseitisnomorethanamolecular
separation.Suchaflawwillbepartiallyopaqueandthetipswillhavenegligiblewidth.Flawopacity
andmorphologyarebothimportantforpulseechotechniques(includingphasedarray),andtip
conditionisimportantfortechniquesthatrelyontipdiffractionsuchasTOFDorphasedarray.
Drilledholesandnotchessatisfynoneoftheseconditionsandshouldnotbeconsideredfor
qualificationblocks.
Afurtherconsiderationwithqualificationblocksisthenumberofflawsrequired.Thecode
casesstipulateaminimumofthreeplanar(e.g.,cracklike)flaws,orientedtosimulateflawsparallel
totheweldfusionline.Theminimumcriteriaofonlythreeflawstendstobetheautomaticchoice
inpractice,andintheauthorsview,thisislikelytobeinadequateinmost,ifnotallcases.However,
therearetwoalternativeinterpretationstothisrequirement:
i.
ii.

therequirementforoneflawateachsurfaceandonesubsurfaceflawisto
demonstrateoverallsystemperformancethroughthefullthickness,or,
therequirementtodemonstratesystemperformancecoveringeachdepthzoneas
describedinSectionVArticle4,forallbevelangles.

Inpractice,fabricatorsandinspectionservicecompanieswilloptfori.above,butwouldendusers
bemorecomfortablewithqualifyingsystemperformancethroughouteachzoneandbevelangle?
Anotherfactorwhichiswidelyignoredisthequalificationblockgeometry.TableT421of
ASMEV,Article4,2008AddendaprovidesmandatoryrequirementsforUTexaminations.Thistable
definesessentialvariablesforwhichasinglevalueorrangeofvaluesaretobeestablished.Itgoes
ontosaythatwhenprocedurequalificationisrequiredbythereferencingCodeSection,achange
ofarequirementinTableT421identifiedasanessentialvariablefromthespecifiedvalue,orrange
ofvalues,shallrequirerequalificationofthewrittenprocedure.Thecodedoesnotspecifythe
requiredcalibrationblockgeometry,althoughthe2008AddendatoSectionVIIIdoesstatethatthe
qualificationblockmustbewithin25%ofthethicknesstobeexamined.Itfollowshowever,thatif
thecomponentgeometrylimitsdefinedintheprocedure(essentialvariableaccordingtoT412)are
exceeded,thenadditionalqualificationblock(s)willberequired.Thistranslatestoarequirementfor

multiplecalibrationblockscoveringthefullrangeofthicknessestobeexamined,material
combinationsandcomponentgeometries.

Otherfactorsinfluencedbyprice/productivitypressures
Weldingquality.Asstatedearlier,a39mmlongby4mmhighsubsurfaceflawwouldbeacceptable
ina50mmthickpressurevesselorpipeweld.Basedonobservationsinthefielditissuspectedthat
someweldersorfabricators,onrealisingthatitwouldinfactbehardtoproduceaflawofthese
dimensions,wouldbeinclinedtoconcentrateonquantityratherthanquality.Thisisespeciallythe
caseiftheyareincentivisedonthebasisofproduction.Thisiscompoundedbythefactthatin
theoryatleast,unlimitedquantitiesofvolumetricflawsarepermitted.
NDTtechniciancompetencies.Largenumbersoftechnicianshavebeenrequiredbyindustryto
workinaccordancewiththecodecasesandtherehasbeenatendencytorushthesethroughthe
certificationprocess.Thishasbeenachievedbystreamliningthetraining,examinationand
certificationprocesstoconcentrateonsimplistic,clearcutandunrealisticflawconditions.Non
MandatoryAppendixNofSectionV,Article4(TOFDInterpretation)couldbeconstruedas
misleadinginthisregard.Veryclearcutexamplesofclassicflawinteractionsaredescribed.The
surfacebreakingflawforexample,isanotch,notarealfusionflaworcrack,whichbehavevery
differently.Completelossoflateralwavesignalisavery,rareevent.TheAppendiximpliesthat
TOFDindicationscanbeidentified,characterisedandsizedfromtheTOFDdataalone.Inextreme
casesthisissometimespossible,buttheyreallyarerareoccurrences.Inreallife,TOFDindications
needtobeinvestigatedusingadditionalTOFDscanningand/orpulseechotechniquesto
differentiateplanarfromvolumetricflawsbasedontheirreflectivity.PleaseseeFigure2asan
exampleofcomplexflawformations.

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Figure2.TOFDDataComplexflawformations,possiblyarisingasaresultofabuseoftherelaxed
acceptancecriteriaoftheCodeCases,butleadingtodifficultieswithinterpretationforthe
operatortrainedonclearcut,idealisticflaws.
Thisisanexampleofwhatoccursregularlyinthefield.Inthiscaseitismanualwelding,andisthe
resultofpoorworkmanship.Itprobablycomprisesofacombinationofslaginclusions,porosity,lack
ofsidewallandlackofinterrunfusion.Thepossibilityofcrackingcannotbediscounted,butunder
thefracturemechanicsbasedacceptancecriteria,flawtypeisimmaterial,onlyflawdimensionsare
requiredforacceptancepurposes.Intheauthorsexperience,provisionisnotmadeforeither
manualorautomatedpulseechocharacterisation(discriminationbetweenplanarandvolumetric
flaws)ofcomplexflawsandthissituationisnotaddressedbycodes,standardsorprocedures.Codes
andtrainingmaterialsdohowever,refertoburiedflawsbeingrecognisableduetophasereversals,
andfarsurfaceflawsbeingidentifiableduetoeffectsatorafterthebackwall.Intheauthors
experience,theseidealisticsituationsdonotariseinpractice.Theonlywaytodealwiththeabove
conditionisacombinationofadvancedsignalprocessingandcomprehensive(andtimeconsuming)
evaluationbyanexperiencedtechnicianconversantwithbothpulseechoandTOFD.Similar
limitationsapplytophasedarray,wherecomplexinteractionscanoccurwithdirectandmode
convertedresponsesfromcomplexflawformationswheremaskingcanalsobeanissue.Thereisa
dangerofaninexperiencedtechnicianbeingtrainedtoonlylookfortops&bottomsorbackwall
effectsasevidenceofplanarflaws.Thisisapotentiallydangeroussituation,anditshouldbedealt
withearlyonintheproductionprocess.Severalcaseshavebeenexperiencedwheresimilar
conditionswereexposedonlyafterallwelding/fabricationwascompleted.

Conclusions
Itcanbeconcludedthattherearesignificantdisparitiesbetweenthemannerinwhichcodecase
inspectionsare,orcouldbeappliedinpractice.Ontheonehand,theprocesscanbeappliedinthe
spiritwithwhichitwasintended,possiblywithenhancementsthatenablecomponentqualitytobe
optimised,andontheother,thecodecasescanbeinterpretedtodeliverlowestprojectcost,but
withhighestrisk.

Itcanalsobeconcludedthatifappliedinthespiritwithwhichtheyareintended,thecode
casescanleadtoarequirementforalargequantityofcostlyqualificationblocksandhighlevelsof
qualificationactivity,whichcouldhavethepotentialtoimpedeprojecttimescales.Althoughmore
timeandexpenseshouldcertainlybeincurredinthisareathaniscurrentpractice,therearewaysin
whichtomanagethisprocessefficiently.Thisiselaboratedfurtherinthenextsection.

Wherethereisinsufficientattentiontoprequalificationandtechnicalsupervision
throughouttheproject,successfulbiddersforconstructionNDTprojectsarelikelytobethosethat
provideaminimalistinterpretationofcodecaserequirementsthatleadtounacceptableproject
risksfortheenduser.

Recommendations
Itisrecommendedthatthefollowingprocessisadoptedinthecaseofnewconstructionprojects
whereultrasonicexaminationiscarriedoutinlieuofRT(SectionVIII,Div2,Part7)and/orASME
B31.3CodeCase181:
i.

ii.

iii.

iv.
v.

vi.
vii.

viii.

ix.

x.

Theendusertogenerateaspecificationofperformancecriteriaforthefabricator/inspector
tofollow.Simplytostatethattheinspectionmustmeetcoderequirementsisinsufficient.
Fabricatorsandinspectionservicecompaniesareunderintensepressuretomeettimescale
andcosttargetsandwilladapttheirinterpretationofcodestomeettheseends.
Riskassessmentsshouldbecarriedoutontendersubmissions.Theseshouldaddressfactors
suchastheprobabilityofprojectoverruns,expectedweldquality,andshouldbebasedon
reviewsofcurrentcompetencies,demonstratedcapabilities,experienceandproventrack
record.Dependencyonqualitysystemsaloneisinadequate.
Technicalsupervision.Acompetenttechnicalauthorityshouldbeengagedtomonitorthe
processfromprecontractauditthroughqualification,inspectionandfinaldatareview.This
shouldalsoinvolveindependentreviewofdatatoassessqualityandreliabilityof
interpretation.
Itshouldbecontractuallyagreedthattheinspectionbodyisresponsibleforworkthatis
technicallynoncompliantwithprovisionforrepeatand/orescalationofinspectionactivity.
Thedesignofqualificationblocks,includingthetypeofartificialflawshouldbedefinedin
theprojectspecificationandapprovedbythetechnicalauthoritypriortoproject
commencement.Qualificationblocksshouldreflectactualcomponentgeometries,material
combinationsandwallthicknesses.
Qualificationflawsshouldaddressallinspectionzones,flaworientations(including
transverseflaws)andweldbevelangles.
Procedures,trainingandcertificationcriteriashouldmakeprovisionforinterpretationand
characterisationofcomplexflawformationsandshouldaddresstheabilitytoaccurately
measuretheligamentofremainingmaterialbetweenaflawtipandtheexternalsurfacein
thecaseofnearsurfaceflaws.
Theinspectionprocessshouldcommenceatthewelderandweldprocedurequalification
stageinordertooptimiseweldingqualityinadvanceofproductionwelding.Thisshould
becomeaholdpoint.
Inaccessiblewelds.Inaccessible,orpartiallyinaccessibleweldsareoftenclassifiedasatest
restriction,andexcludedfromexamination.Asdescribedearlier,thiscouldbeamatterof
convenience.Designsshouldbereviewedbyatechnicallycompetentauthoritypriorto
commencementofconstruction.
Apossiblealternativetotherequirementforextensiveflawedsamplesistoapproach
qualificationinthespiritofanuclearindustryqualification.ASMEcodesmakeprovisionfor
variationssubjecttotheagreementofallparties,providedthevariationsatleastmeetthe
minimumcoderequirements.Qualificationisrequiredinthenuclearindustryaccordingto
ASMEXI,Appendix8,PerformanceDemonstration[Ref8].Inthiscase,theperformance
criteriaofaninspectionaredefined,andtheinspectionservicecontractorisrequiredto
qualifyequipment,proceduresandpersonnelusingacombinationofopenandblindtrials
ontestsamplesthroughanindependentbody.TheEuropeannuclearcommunity
establishedtheEuropeanNetworkforInspectionQualification(ENIQ)[Ref9]throughthe

EuropeanJointResearchCommission(JRC)asamechanismtomaintainqualification
standardswhilstminimisingtherequirementforqualificationsamples.Thisisachieved
throughavigorousprocessinvolvingexpertjudgement/reasoning,mathematicalmodelling
(e.g.CIVA[Ref10]andUMASIS[Ref11])andpracticaldemonstration.Priorexperiencewith
qualificationmaybetakenintoaccount.Adoptionofthisprocesscouldenableaninitial
basecasetobequalifiedfollowedbyqualificationofvariablesonacasebycasebasis.ENIQ
wasdevelopedbythenuclearcommunity,butitisintendedtoapplytononnuclear
applicationsalso.Ithasbeenusedforseveraloilindustryapplicationsinrecentyears[Ref
12].

Acknowledgements
Thanksareextendedtomycolleagues,PeterConlin,GordonDavidsonandGordonReidof
SonomaticLtd,allofwhomprovidedoutofhourssupportbyprovidingmaterialinsupportofthis
technicalpaper.

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&Taal=2
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