Chapter 2

Psychrometry and Air-conditioning

2.0 Introduction
Mixtures of air and water vapour are considered moist atmospheric air (i.e. a mixture of dry
air and water vapour).
It is often necessary to provide a controlled atmosphere in buildings where industrial
processes are to be carried out, or to provide air-conditioning in private, public and industry
buildings. The properties of atmospheric air have to be considered in these problems, and this
is a subject which is receiving an increasing amount of attention and application. Another
topic which will be considered is that of the cooling tower by means of which large
quantities of cooling water are cooled for recirculation. These topics come under the title of
psychrometry (sometimes called hygrometry).
2.1

Psychrometric mixtures

Consider atmospheric air at Pa= 1.013bar and Ta= 15 C

For the water vapour, Psat= 0.01704bar and T= 15C

Figure 2.1 Vapourisation at atmospheric pressure

According to Gibbs-Dalton law, at low vapour pressures the vapour can be assumed as a perfect
gas.
Assume: Psat= 0.01bar at T= 15C
P Pa Ps

, where

Pa= partial pressure of dry air

Ps= partial pressure of superheated vapour

Or Pa P Ps = 1.013 - 0.01= 1.003bar

Degree of superheat = 15 7 = 8K
The saturation temperature corresponding to 0.01bar is 7C

Figure 2.2 T-s diagram

Consider:
Dew point, Td = temperature to which unsaturated mixture must be cooled in order to become
just saturated
2.2 Specific Humidity, Relative Humidity and Percentage Saturation
Specific humidity (moisture content),

ms
ma

ms m s / V s a

ma ma / V a s

Assumed vapour and dry air are perfect gases.

Thus,
ms

PsV
Rs T

Where

and

Rs

ma

Substitute (2.2) in (2.1):

PaV
Ra T
Ra

(2.2)

(2.1)

PsV s
P
P
T
18

s 0.622 s
T
PaV a 28.96 Pa
Pa

However,

P Pa Ps

Pa P Ps

or

Ps
Thus, specific humidity, 0.622
P Ps

Relative humidity,

ms

PsV
Rs T

and

(2.3)

ms
ms sat

ms sat

PgV
Rs T

Where Pg= saturation pressure at the temperature of mixture

Thus;
Ps

P
g

Percentage saturation, = ratio of the specific humidity of mixture to the specific humidity of
mixture when saturated at same temperature

(2.4)

Or also known as relative saturation or degree of saturation.

Thus,
P Pg
P Ps

100

(2.5)

In air-conditioning practice the percentage difference between and in approximation in the

range of 0.5 to 2%.
Example 2.1:
The air supplied to a room of a building in winter is to be at 17C and have a percentage relative
humidity of 60%. If the barometric pressure is 1.01326bar, calculate the specific humidity. What
would be the dew point under these conditions?

Solutions
From the steam table, at 17C

Ps
Pg

0.6

or

Ps
0.622
P Ps

Pg 0.01936bar

Ps
0.01936

Thus,

Ps= 0.012bar

0.012

0.622
0.0072
1.01326 0.012

Thus, the dew point;

1.2 0.8721
Td 5 (10 5)
9.06C
1.276 0.8721

Measurement of relative humidity

An instrument used to measure relative humidity is called a psychrometer, or a hygrometer.
Another method is by the determination of wet and dry bulb temperatures.

Figure 2.3
Two thermometer situated in a stream of unsaturated air are separated by a radiation screen.
One of them indicates the air temperature and is called the dry bulb temperature. The bulb of
the second is surrounded by a wick which dips into a small reservoir of water and the
temperature indicated is called the wet bulb temperature. As the air stream passes the wet
wick, some of the water evaporates and this produces a cooling effect at the bulb. The
amount of this wet bulb depression depends on the relatives humidity of the air. If the
relative humidity is low, then the rate of evaporation at the wick is high, and hence the wet
bulb depression is high.
Psychrometer Chart

Figure 2.3 Psychrometric chart

The zero specific enthalpy of the mixture for the vapour is taken at 0C. For the dry air the
zero for enthalpy is also taken at 0C.

Figure 2.4 Property line in psychrometric chart

From equation (2.3),

0.622 Pg
( P Pg )

Combining this with equation (2.4), we have

100 100 ( P Pg )

g
0.622 Pg

For a given barometric pressure, P, the percentage saturation is a function of and P g. The
barometric pressures are in the range 0.95 1.05bar.

Figure 2.5 Sensible heating and cooling process

Figure 2.6 Humidification and dehumidification process

Figure 2.7 Combination process of humidification and heat transfer

Figure 2.8 Effect of heating process

Figure 2.9 Effect of humidifying process

2.3 Specific Enthalpy, Specific heat capacity, and specific volume of moist air
Specific enthalpy of moist air
The enthalpy of a mixture is the sum of the enthalpies of the individual constituents,
mh ma ha ms hs

Enthalpy of mixture per unit mass of dry air mha / ma

mh
ha s s
ma
ha hs

At low partial pressure, the enthalpy of water vapour can be expressed as

hs (hg _at _ Ps)Cps(t tg _at _Ps)

Where the mean specific heat of superheated water vapour, C ps= 1.88kJ/kgK (approximately).
The specific enthalpy of dry air in the mixture,
ha C pa t

Where Cpa= 1.005kJ/kgK

Thus, enthalpy of the mixture per unit mass of dry air;

h Cpat (hg_at sCP ps(tg_at Ps)

Since for low pressures the enthalpy of superheated vapour is approximately equal to the
saturation
Enthalpy of mixture per unit mass of dry air, h

h C pat (hg _ at _ t)
For specific heat capacity of moist air, Cp
Cp

ma C pa
m

ms C ps
m

Then, the specific heat capacity of mixture per unit mass of dry air,
C p C pa C ps

For specific volume of the mixture per unit dry air is convenient to use the specific volume of
dry air, a

Ra T
Pa

2.4 Summer Air-Conditioning

The air conditioning load on a room/space may be considered in two parts:
(i)
(ii)

The sensible heat load the energy added per unit time which increases the dry
bulb temperature
The latent heat load the energy added per unit time due to the enthalpy of the
moisture added plus the heat required to evaporate the moisture added

The Sensible Heat Gain

Due to heat transfer through the fabric, including solar radiation, plus internal
gains from people, lighting, machineries etc.
The Latent Heat Gains
Due to the occupants of the room
Consider:

Figure 2.10 Psychrometry chart

Point 1 : The moist air from the air conditioning plant entering the room
Point 2 : The moist air from the air conditioning
At point x :
1 x

and

t2 t x

Thus, sensible heat load = ma (hx h1 ) ma C Pma (t x t1 ) ma (C Pma C Ps )(t x t1 )

Latent heat load =

ma (h2 hx ) ma (2 1 )(hg _ at _ t2 )

The room ratio line 1-2:

hx h1 Sensible _ heat _ load

h2 h1 Total _ heat _ load

Now, consider a typical conventional air conditioning system:

Figure 2.11 Air-conditioning plant and psychrometry chart

In mixing box, assume that the mixing is adiabatic, the mass balance of the mixture are:
Mass of dry air:
Mass of vapour:
Energy balance:

ma 2 ma 3 ma 4
2 ma 2 3 ma 3 4 ma 4
ma 2 h2 ma 3 h3 ma 4 h4

Elimination of ma4 from the relations above results in

ma 2 3 4 h3 h4

r
ma 4 3 2 h3 h2
rh2 (1 r )h3 h4

Where r is the mass flow of dry re-circulated air per unit mass flow of dry air supplied to the
room. Thus,
r

h3 h4
h3 h2

Thus, gives:
r 2 (1 r )3 4

Therefore;
r

3 4 h3 h4 line _ 3 4

3 2 h3 h2 line _ 3 2

If the air undergoes sensible cooling in the cooling coil and dehumidification. Point A is
called the apparatus dew point.
The efficiency of the cooler:
Coil bypass factor =

line _ 5 A
line _ 4 A

Or normally defined as contact factor:

Contact factor =

line _ 4 5
line _ 4 A

Dehumidification may also be achieved by passing the air through a spray cooler supplied
with chilled water. The apparatus dew point is then the water temperature. In this case the
contact factor is usually renamed the spray cooler, or washer, efficiency and is expressed as a
percentage.
2.5 Winter Air-Conditioning
A typical conventional type air-conditioning system for winter use is shown in Figure 2.12
and the corresponding state points are shown on Figure 2.12b. The various parts of the
system are similar to summer air-conditioning system except for the humidifier. The
humidification process 5-6 in the case shown is assumed to be adiabatic and take place at
constant wet bulb if pumped recirculation of the water is used as shown in Figure 2.12a.

Figure 2.12 Air-conditioning plant and psychrometry chart

In general, direct contact air washers and humidifiers may be classified as follows:
(a) pump recirculation
(b) (i) no circulation, with a water spray which
(ii) no recirculation, with steam blown into the air stream
For (a) the process is assumed adiabatic and the process occurs at a constant thermodynamic wet
bulb temperature.
For cases (b) (i) and (b) (ii), assuming that the process changes from state 5 to state 6, we have
Mass of water or steam added, m s m a ( 6 5 )
Also
a (h6 h5 ) m
s hs
m

i.e. m a (h6 h5 ) m a ( 6 5 )hs

hs

h6 h5
6 5

2.6 Cooling Towers

The cooling tower is to cool water passing through it by means of a heat exchanger.

Induced draught
Natural draught
Figure 2.13 Cooling Tower
This is done by spraying the water into the air over a pond, or into the air passing through a
cooling tower. The cooling water can be theoretically be cooled to the wet bulb temperature
of the incoming air, the figure used in design for cooling water leaving the tower is about 8K
above the wet bulb temperature. Induced and natural draught cooling towers are shown in
Figure 2.13. The cooling effect is greater with an induced draught compare to a natural
draught cooling tower due to the increase flow of air.
Example 2.2 :
Water at 40oC enters a cooling tower at a rate of 200kg/s. The water is cooled to 25 oC in the
cooling tower by the air which enters the tower at 1 atm, 20 oC, 60% relative humidity and
leaves saturated at 25 oC. Determine:
(a) The volume flow rate of the air entering the cooling tower
(b) The required mass flow rate of the make-up water
Solutions:
(a) From the conservation of mass and energy:
Dry air : ma1 m a 2 ma
Water : m3 1 ma1 m4 2 ma 2
m3 m4 ma ( 2 1 ) m w

Energy : Q W me he mi hi

but Q=0 and W=0

ma ( h2 h1 ) ( m3 m w ) h4 m3 h3 0

or

ma

m3 (h3 h4 )
(h2 h1 ) ( 2 1 )h4

From the psychrometric chart:

h1 = 42 kJ/kg d.a.
1 = 0.008 kg H2O/kg d.a.
1 = 0.84 m3/kg d.a.
h2 = 75 kJ/kg d.a.
2 = 0.02 kg H2O/kg d.a.
From the steam table, T3= 45oC and T4= 25oC
h3 = hf = 167.57 kJ/kg H 2O
h4 = hf = 104.89 kJ/kg H 2O

ma

200(167.57 104.89)
393.9kg / s
(75 42) (0.02 0.0088) 104.89

3
Volume flow rate, q ma 1 393.9(0.84) 330.9m / s

(b) The make-up water, m w :

m w m a ( 2 1 ) 393.9(0.02 0.0088) 4.41kg / s