General Chemistry 2 Week 1-8 PDF

Name: _____________________________ Grade & Section: ____12_________ Score: _____________
School: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________ Subject: General Chemistry 2

LAS Writer: Jenelyn D. Bongcayao
Evaluators: Retchie Joy B. Pisaňa, Eda F. Fale, Christine Joy G. Sua
Lesson Topic: Kinetic Molecular Model of Solids and Liquids (Quarter 3, Week 1, LAS 1)
Learning Targets: Use the kinetic molecular model to explain properties of solids and liquids.
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-99)
Reference(s): 2004. "Kinetic Molecular Theory." In Chemistry: You and the Natural World, by Teresita F.
Religioso Estrella E. Mendoza, 227. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House.
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Solids and Liquids

The Kinetic Molecular Theory provides a model of moving particles to explain some properties of
matter. This theory is based on the following assumption: (1) All matter is made of tiny particles, (2) These
particles are in constant motion, (3) The speed of particles is proportional to temperature where increase in
temperature means greater speed, (4) Solids, liquids and gases differ in distances between particles, in the
freedom of motion of particles, and the extent to which the particles interact.
All substances exist in one of three states: solid, liquid, and gas. Liquids and solids differ from gases in
a way that their particles are much closer together. They are collectively called as condensed phases because
their particles are in virtual contact. The attractive force that holds particles together is called cohesion.
Cohesion is stronger when the molecules are closer together.
In a solid substance for instance, the molecules are very closely packed and virtually no freedom of
motion. Solid substances are almost incompressible and possess definite shape and volume. In a liquid,
cohesion is less explaining the restricted looseness of particles and the indefinite shape. Molecules in a liquid
are held together by one or more type of attractive forces. However, the molecules can move past on another
freely. Liquids can flow, can be poured, and can assume the shape of its container.
Example:
The table below shows the comparison of the properties of solids and liquids based in their kinetic
molecular model.
Properties Solid Liquid
Has definite volume and assumes
Volume / Shape Has definite volume and shape.
the shape of container.
Density High High
Compressibility of particles Virtually incompressible Slightly compressible
Vibrate but generally don’t move Vibrate, moves about and slide
Motion of molecules
from one place to another. past each other.
Table 1. Properties of Solids and Liquids
Activity
1. Complete the statements below by encircling the correct word enclosed in the parentheses.
The kinetic molecular theory is based upon the assumption that particles of matter are in constant
(pressure/motion). The kinetic molecular theory is based on the notion that matter is made up of very small
particles and that the movement of particles is directly related to the (temperature/pressure), hence, the
more heat applied to the object, the (slower/faster) the particles inside the object move. Of the three states
of matter, the one which has the least kinetic energy is (solids, liquids, gases). Cohesion is the force that
holds the particles together and therefore (solids, liquids, gases) have the stronger cohesion because
molecules are closer together.
2. The following are models of the molecular arrangement of atoms in solid and liquid phases. Describe the
difference of the two model by completing the table using the key words given in the box below.
SOLID HIGH GAS FIXED ARRANGED RANDOMLY
DEFINITE LIQUID MODERATELY HIGH INDIFINITE CLOSELY PACKED
1. Phase
2. Arrangement of Particles
3. Density
4. Shape
5. Volume
Evaluators: Retchie Joy B. Pisaňa, Eda F. Fale, Christine Joy G. Sua
Lesson Topic: Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (Quarter 3, Week 1, LAS 2)
Learning Targets: Describe and differentiate the types of intermolecular forces and explain the properties of
water with its molecular structure and intermolecular forces. (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-100 /
STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-103)
Reference(s): 2004. "Types of Intermolecular Forces." In Chemistry: You and the Natural World, by Teresita F.
Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that act between molecules or particles in the liquid or solid
states. The strength of intermolecular forces operating in solids and liquids can be indicated by their melting and
boiling points. Particles move away from each other when a solid melt, or a liquid boil. As particles move away,
intermolecular forces of attraction are broken. The higher the melting and boiling points.
The different types of intermolecular forces are the following: (1) DISPERSION – a week force which is
the dominant intermolecular force between identical molecules like O 2, N2, and Cl2. This type of IMF is due to the
formation of instantaneous dipole moments in polar or nonpolar molecules as a result of short-lived
fluctuations of electron charge distribution; (2) DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES – are attractive forces between polar
molecules. It is a stronger force than that of dispersion because polar molecules have permanent unequal spread
of electrons. It is influenced by Coulomb’s Law: the larger the dipole moment, the stronger the attraction; (3)
ION-DIPOLE FORCES – attracts an ion and a polar molecule to each other. It is also explained by Coulomb’s
Law where the strength of interactions between molecules are greatly influenced by the charge and size of the
ion, the magnitude of the dipole moment and the size the molecules; (4) HYDROGEN BOND – a generally strong
force of attraction and a special type of dipole-dipole interaction between hydrogen atom in a polar bond such
as N-H, O-H or F-H. Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are particularly strong. Water’s hydrogen bond
explains its high surface tension where its skin-like cover keeps plant debris afloat the water surface. When water
cools from 100oC to 4 oC, it steadily shrinks in volume but when the temperature is lowered, water expands
because molecules in water begins to arrange themselves along the directional lines of hydrogen bonds, giving
rise to a hexagonal open structure. This structure makes the volume expand, causing the density to decrease.
Example
Type of IMF Example Type of IMF Example
Dispersion Ion – Dipole
Dipole – Dipole Hydrogen Bond
Table 1. Examples of Intermolecular Forces

Activity
A. Identify the intermolecular forces existing between the substances described in the table. (2pts/each)
Molecular Structure Chemical Name Type of Intermolecular Force
NaCl
1. (Sodium Chloride) __________________________
NH3
2. (Ammonia) __________________________
HF
3. (Hydrogen Fluoride) __________________________
H2
4. (Hydrogen Gas) __________________________
SO2
5. (Sulfur Dioxide) __________________________
B. Underline the correct word inside the parenthesis to complete the statement below.
(Intermolecular forces/Interatomic forces) are forces that exist between molecules. The strength of
attractions influences the (texture/phase) of the substance. (Dispersion, Hydrogen Bond, Ion-Dipole and
Dipole-Dipole) is the weakest force and (Dispersion, Hydrogen Bond, Ion-Dipole and Dipole-Dipole) is the
strongest among them. Dipole-Dipole and Ion-Dipole Forces follows the Coulomb’s Law which explains that the
state of interaction is influenced by the magnitude of the dipole moment and size of the molecule which means
that the greater the dipole moment, the (stronger/weaker) the attraction and vice versa.
Content Editor: Retchie Joy B. Pisaňa, Eda F. Fale, Christine Joy G. Sua
Lesson Topic: The Effects of Intermolecular Forces to the Properties of Liquid: Surface Tension, Viscosity, Vapor
Pressure (Quarter 3, Week 1, LAS 3)
Learning Targets: Describe the properties of liquid and explain the effects of intermolecular forces to these
properties. (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-102)
Religioso Estrella E. Mendoza, 146-148. Quezon City: Phoenix Publishing House.
The Effects of Intermolecular Forces to the Properties of Liquid
Molecules at the surface area is attracted to molecules below and to the sides of a liquid. This results to
a downward net attraction, and the molecules are drawn towards the interior of the liquid, leaving a minimum
surface area making the surface acts as if it were covered with a tight skin. To increase surface area, molecules
must move to the surface by breaking some attractions in the interior. Energy is required to do so and the amount
of work needed to extend the surface area is called surface tension. The greater the intermolecular forces
between particles in a liquid, the greater the surface tension.
Viscosity s a measure of the resistance of fluid to flow. The greater the viscosity, the more the liquid
flows steadily. As the temperature increases, the viscosity of liquid normally decreases. Liquids with strong
intermolecular forces are higher in viscosity than those with weaker forces.
By evaporation, molecules may escape from the surface of a liquid into a gaseous state. At a given
temperature, molecules of a particular liquid do not have
the same kinetic energy. Molecules with higher kinetic
energy overcome intermolecular forces of attraction and
break away from the surface of the liquid, escaping in
the atmosphere as vapor. The remaining molecules
have lower kinetic energy and will have a lower
temperature. This is the reason why evaporation has a
cooling effect. When the rate of evaporation is equal to
the rate of condensation; the system is said to be in
equilibrium. The pressure exerted by the gas of that
substance when it is in equilibrium with the liquid is
called vapor pressure and it depends on the
temperature of the liquid. Table 1. Viscosity of some liquids.
Example
a. The surface tension of water allows the paper clip to float on the surface of the water and a water strider
to walk on its surface.
b. Water has a higher viscosity than any other liquid because of its ability to form a strong hydrogen bond.
Glycerol (which has a water-like structure) also has significantly higher viscosity than that of other liquid
substances.
c. Ethanol molecules on the liquid surface have ample kinetic energy at any moment to overcome their
neighbor’s attractive forces and thus evaporates easily.
Activity
I. Modified TRUE or FALSE. Write T if the statement is
correct if it is wrong, change the underlined words to its
correct answer in the space provided. (2 pts/each)
Refer to Table 2 for items 1-3.
_________ 1. Ethylene glycol has the highest surface
tension among the group.
_________ 2. Water has the highest viscosity among the
group. Table 2. Surface Tension and Viscosity
_________ 3. Glycol is more than 10x more viscous that propanol.
_________ 4. Viscosity is inversely related to temperature; therefore, the viscosity of liquids decreases when
temperature increases which means that liquid flows steadily if it has greater rate of viscosity.
_________ 5. Alcohol evaporates more rapidly than water when exposed to high temperature.
II. Assuming equivalent conditions, substance X has less attractive force than substance Y. Write (+ or -) to the
corresponding column to describe the interaction of intermolecular forces to properties of substances.
Substance Y (higher/more IMF) Substance X (lower/less IMF)
Surface Tension Example: +
Viscosity
Vapor Pressure
Lesson Topic: The Effects of Intermolecular Forces to the Properties of Liquid: Boiling Point and Molar Heat of
Vaporization (Quarter 3, Week 2, LAS 1)
Learning Targets: Describe the properties of liquid and explain the effects of intermolecular forces to these
properties. (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-102)
The Effects of Intermolecular Forces to the Properties of Liquid
A liquid's boiling point is the temperature at which its vapor pressure, acting on the liquid surface, equals
the external pressure. The thermal energy of the molecules at this temperature is high enough for the molecules
within the liquid to break free from their neighbors and enter the gas phase. As a consequence, bubbles of vapor
form inside the liquid. If the external pressure rises, the boiling point increases. The normal boiling point of a
liquid is at 1 atm (760 torr) pressure. The time required for food to be cooked in boiling water depends on the
water. The temperature is 100 °C in an open container, but it is possible to boil at higher temperatures. Pressure
cookers operate by only allowing steam to escape when it exceeds a predetermined pressure; therefore, the
pressure above the water can rise above atmospheric pressure. The higher pressure allows the water to boil at
a higher temperature, making it easier for the food to get hotter and cook quicker.
A measure of the strength of intermolecular forces in a liquid is the molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap),
defined as the energy (usually in kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid. The molar heat of vaporization
has a direct relationship to the strength of intermolecular forces that exist in the liquid.
Example
a. The influence of pressure on the boiling point also explains why cooking food at high elevations takes longer
than it does at sea level. At higher altitudes, the air pressure is lower, so water boils at a temperature lower
than 100 °C, and food typically takes longer to cook than at sea level.
b. Rubbing ethyl alcohol on your hands is a realistic way to illustrate variations in the molar heat of vaporization.
Compare what is felt while using water. Ethyl alcohol has a lower ΔHvap than water so that heat from our
hands is enough to increase the kinetic energy of these molecules and provide additional heat to vaporize
them. As a consequence of the loss of heat from the skin, our hands feel cool.
Activity
Answer the following the instructions on every number.
1. Table 1 shows the boiling points of several substances.
a. Which substance has the highest boiling point? (2 pts)
___________________________________________
b. Which substance has the lowest boiling point? (2 pts) Table 1. Boiling Point of Several Liquids.
General Heating Curve
___________________________________________
For question c, underline the correct word inside the parenthesis to describe the relationship of intermolecular
forces and boiling point.
c. The (greater/lower) the intermolecular force of attraction between liquid molecules, the
(greater/lower) the boiling point of the liquid. This is because, more energy in the form of
(pressure/temperature) is required to break the attractive forces between molecules in condensed
phase. Boiling point (increases/decreases) when the external pressure is reduced.
2. Answer the following questions based on the data in table 2 and

write your answer in the space provided.
a. ___________ (2 pts) will vaporize first when exposed to
extremely high temperature? While ___________ (2 pts) will
vaporize last when exposed to extremely high temperature?
For question b, underline the correct word inside the Table 2. The Molar Heat of
parenthesis to describe the relationship of intermolecular Vaporization of Several
Liquids.
forces and boiling point.
b. Your answers in question 2a are based on the fact that the (stronger/weaker) the intermolecular
forces, the (higher/lower) the heat of vaporization. Because of this, (water/alcohol) vaporizes faster
when exposed to high temperature.
Lesson Topic: Nature of Crystals (Quarter 3, Week 2, LAS 2)
Learning Target/s: Describe the difference in structure of crystalline and amorphous solids.
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-104)
Nature of Crystals
Crystalline solids have regular ordered arrays of components held together by uniform intermolecular
forces, whereas the components of amorphous solids are not arranged in regular arrays. With few exceptions,
the particles that compose a solid material, whether ionic, molecular, covalent, or metallic, are held in place by
strong attractive forces between them. When we discuss solids, therefore, we consider the positions of the
atoms, molecules, or ions, which are essentially fixed in space, rather than their motions (like in liquid and gas).
Crystalline solids have a well-defined shape because their particles – atoms, molecules, or ions occur in
a highly ordered arrangement. There are seven different geometric forms of crystalline solids possible and
several variations within these forms namely: cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic, hexagonal,
and rhombohedral. In crystalline solids, the particles are arranged in a three-dimensional order. The particles
have equal intermolecular forces. They have sharp melting point and are anisotropic. They are called true solids.
Amorphous solids are non-crystalline which resulted when a solid is quickly formed and the atoms or
molecules did not have time to align themselves in place, hence lacked the three-dimensional arrangement of
atoms. Amorphous means shapeless. It has irregular arrangement of solid particles. The intermolecular forces
are not equal. Also, the distance between particles varies. They have undefined geometric shape. They are also
called supercooled liquids. They are isotropic. The table below shows the different properties of crystalline and
amorphous solids.
Properties Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids
Arrangement of Molecules Atoms are arranged in Atoms doesn’t have a regular
regular three-dimension arrangement
Melting Point With sharp melting point No regular melting point
Shape Symmetrical Asymmetrical
True Solid Pseudo Solid
Rigidity Very Rigid Less Rigid
Order Long-Range Order Short-Range Order
Table 1. Properties of Crystalline Solids and Amorphous Solids
Example
Crystalline Solids Amorphous Solids
 Carbon (exists as graphite and diamond)  Carbon (used in cooking)
 Gemstones  Glass used in dinner, vases, etc…
Table 2. Examples of Crystalline Solids and Amorphous Solids
Activity
Below are solid materials found in the environment. Identify the nature of the material by writing CS if the
material describes a crystalline solid and AS if it describes an amorphous solid based on the given
characteristics.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES CS / AS MATERIAL PROPERTIES CS / AS
soft solid with indefinite shapeless carbon
1. Rubber 9. Charcoal
shape substance
symmetrical Shape,
2. Emerald shiny and hard solid 10. Sapphire
Rigid
molecules oriented have well-ordered
3. Polymers 11. White Sugar
randomly & intertwined atomic structure
hard solid that melts in lacks ordered
4. Table Salt 12. Lenses
high temperature internal structure
hard solid with definite lacks ordered
5. Obsidian 13. Glass
shape internal structure
have a specific
6. Plastic less rigid pseudo solid 14. Quartz
crystalline form
symmetrical shape and with high melting
7. Snow Flakes 15. Ice
high melting point point
atoms are arranged in
8. Wood
definite pattern
Lesson Topic: Phase Changes and Phase Diagram of Water and Carbon Dioxide (Quarter 3, Week 3, LAS 3)
Learning Targets: Interpret the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide. (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-107)
Phase Changes and Phase Diagram of Water and Carbon Dioxide

Phase changes are transformations of matter from one physical state to another. They occur when
energy (usually in the form of heat) is added or removed from a substance. They are characterized by changes
in molecular order; molecules in the solid phase have the greatest order,
while those in the gas phase have the greatest randomness or disorder.
Phase diagram is a graphical representation of the physical states
of a substance under different conditions of temperature and pressure. A
typical phase diagram has pressure on the y-axis (atm) and temperature
on the x-axis (oC / oK). As we cross the lines or curves on the phase
diagram, a phase change occurs. The diagram is split between solid,
liquid, and gaseous states. The boundary between the liquid and gaseous
regions stops at red dot, the critical point for the substance. The lines that
serve as physical state borders represent the combinations of pressures
and temperatures at which two phases can exist in equilibrium and thus Figure 1. General Phase Diagram
identify points for phase transition. There are two important points on the diagram – the triple point (a unique
combination of temperature and pressure
where all three phases are in equilibrium
together), and the critical point (the lines
depicting the conditions of solid-liquid, liquid-
vapor, and solid-vapor equilibrium meet). The
majority of substances changes from solid to
liquid to gas at standard pressure as the
temperature rises, and most substances
change from gas to liquid to solid at standard
temperature as the pressure increases. The
normal melting and boiling points are those
when the pressure is 1 atmosphere in the Figure 2. Phase Diagram for Carbon
phase diagram. Dioxide (left) and Water (right)
Example
Most substances have the phase diagram that mimics that of carbon dioxide. However, if we examine
the phase diagram of water, we will find an important difference. Unlike carbon dioxide and most other
substances, the phase diagram of water shows a negative slope for the boundary line between the liquid and
solid state. This difference has to do with that fact that water actually expands as it goes from the liquid state to
the solid state. This implies that liquid water is more dense than solid water. That is exactly why an ice cube
made of water will float in liquid water.
Activity
For questions 1-4, refer Figure 3 and answer the given
questions.
1. Which section (letter) represents the solid phase? ________
2. Which section (letter) represents the liquid phase? _______
3. Which section (letter) represents the gas phase? _________
4. Which section (letter) represents the triple point? _________ Figure 3. Sample Phase Diagram
For questions 5-10, refer Figure 4 and answer the given questions.
5. At 1 atm & 55OC, CO2 is in __________ phase and
H2O is in __________ phase.
6. The triple point value of CO2 is ____ OC, ____ atm.
7. The triple point value of H2O is ____ OC, ____ atm.
8. The critical point value of CO2 is ____ OC, ____ atm.
9. The critical point value of H2O is ____ OC, ____ atm.
10. The boiling point value of water is ___________ OC.
Figure 4. Phase Diagram for
Carbon Dioxide (left) and Water (right)
Lesson Topic: Phase Changes and Phase Diagram Interpretation of a Substance. (Quarter 3, Week 3, LAS 1)
Learning Targets: Determine and explain the heating and cooling curve of substance. (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-
109)
Interpretation of Heating Curve and Cooling Curve of Substances
Phase changes occur when heat is added or removed from a substance. The added energy is used by
the substance in either of two ways when a substance is heated: (a) The added heat increases the kinetic energy
of the particles and the particles move faster resulting in an increase in temperature; and (b) The added heat is
used between particles to break off attractive forces. There is no observed increase in temperature when this
happens. A change in the physical appearance (phase change) of the substance is often observed.
Conversely, in two ways, the loss or release of heat results in: (a) A decline in the particles' kinetic energy
where the motion of the particles slows down & a decrease in temperature is observed; and (b) Forces of
attraction are formed, and there may be a phase transition with no change in temperature.
Example
In figure 1, between points A & B, the material is a solid. The
heat supplied to the material is used to increase the kinetic energy of
the molecules and the temperature rises. Between B & C, the solid is
melting. Heat is still being supplied to the material but the temperature
does not change. Heat energy is not being changed into kinetic energy.
Instead, the heat is used to change the arrangement of the molecules.
At point C, all of the materials have been changed to liquid. Between
C & D, the heat supplied is again used to increase kinetic energy of the
molecules and the temperature of the liquid starts to rise. Between C
& D, the liquid is heated until it starts to boil. Between D & E, the liquid
is still being heated but the extra heat energy does not change the
temperature (kinetic energy) of the molecules. The heat energy is used
to change the arrangement of the molecules to form a gas. At point E, Figure1. Heating Curve (top) and
Cooling Curve (bottom) for
all of the liquid has been changed into gas. Between E & F, the gas is Water at 1.00 atm pressure.
heated and the heat energy increases the kinetic energy of molecules
once more, so the temperature of the gas increases. When a system contains only one phase (solid, liquid, or
gas), the temperature will increase when it receives energy. The rate of temperature increase is dependent on
the heat capacity of the phase in the system. When the heat capacity is large, the temperature increases slowly,
because much energy is required to increase its temperature by one degree. Thus, the slopes of temperature
increase for the solid, liquid, and gases are different.
Activity
TRUE or FALSE. For questions 1-3, write T if the statement is correct and F is it is wrong in the space provided.
____ 1. The heating curve is a plot of temperature versus time.
____ 2. The heating and cooling of substances can be determined by the diagonal lines of the curve.
____ 3. HF boils at faster than HCl, thus, HCl has the stronger intermolecular forces.
For items 4 – 10, refer to figure 2 and answer the given questions
on the space provided.
____ 4. What letter represents the boiling point of the substance?
____ 5. What letter shows the melting point of the substance?
____ 6. Which letter represents the heating of solid?
____ 7. Which letter represents the heating of gas?
____ 8. Which letter represents the melting of solids?
____ 9. Which letter represents the boiling of liquids? Figure 2. General Heating Curve
____ 10. No temperature change in point b-d even though heat is
added.
For items 11 – 15, refer to figure 3 and answer the given
questions on the space provided.
____ 11. Water is liquid at 2 atm and 50oC.
____ 12. Melting of substance occurs if temperature is lowered from
80oC to - 5oC at 1 atm.
____ 13. Based on the data, phenol at 99oC is solid.
____ 14. Ammonia at -25oC is gas.
____ 15. Phenol at 25 oC is solid.
Figure 3. Phase Diagram
School: ____________________________ Teacher: ____________________ Subject: General Chemistry 2
LAS Writer: Flory Vee A. Salanga
Evaluators: Retchie Joy B. Pisaňa, Michael Dave M. Nalagon
Lesson Topic: Ways of Expressing Concentration of Solutions (Part 1), (Quarter 3 Week 3 LAS 8)
Learning Targets: Use different ways of expressing concentration of solutions.
Reference(s): Gen Chem 2 for Senior High School by Baguio C & E Publishing Inc. 2017, MELC
(STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-111); Torres et.al…” Region II LAS in Earth Science Grade 12 2020
pp.120-141
Ways of Expressing Concentration of Solutions

The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent, or in a given
amount of solution. The following methods are used in expressing the concentration of a solution: Molarity,
Molality, Percent by Mass, Percent by Volume, Mole fraction and Parts Per Million.
1. Percent by Mass (also called percent by weight or weight percent) is the ratio of the mass of a solid solute to
the mass of the solution, multiplied by 100 percent.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Percent by Mass = 𝑥 100 or Percent by Mass =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 +𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑥 100
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Example: In a solution prepared by dissolving 30g of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) in 160g of water, what is the
mass percent of Sodium Chloride (NaCl)?
Given: Solute = 30g of NaCl, Solvent= 160g of Water
30 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
Solution: Percent by Mass = 𝑥 100
30 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑙 +160 𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
30 𝑔
Percent by Mass = 𝑥 100 = 16%
190𝑔
2. Percent by Volume or Volume Percent is a common expression used for expressing concentration. It is
related to the molar concentration but the difference is that the volume percent is expressed with a
denominator of 100. It is used for reporting concentration of liquids solutes in solution.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Percent by Volume = 𝑥 100 or Percent by Volume =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 +𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑥 100
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Example: A solution of propanol (CH3CH2CH2OH) is prepared by dissolving 67 mL propanol in enough water
to have a final volume of 250 mL. What is the volume percent of the propanol?
Given: solute 67mL propanol, 250 mL solution
67 𝑚𝐿
Solution: Percent by Volume = 𝑥 100 = 26.8 %
250 𝑚𝐿
3. Parts Per Million (ppm) is a measurement of the concentration of a solution.

When the amount of solute is very small, as with trace impurities in water, concentration is often expressed
in parts per million
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Example: What is the concentration of a solution in parts per million, if 0.02 grams of NaCl is dissolved in 1000
grams of solution?
Given: Solute: 0.02 g of NaCl, Solution= 1000g
0.02 𝑔
Solution: 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑥 100 = 2ppm
1000𝑔
Activity: Perform the needed calculation in the following problems

1. A sample of 0.892 g of potassium chloride (KCl) is dissolved in 54.6 g of water. What is the percent by mass
of KCl in the solution?
2. How many mL of HNO3 concentrate are needed to prepare 250 mL of solution 4%?
3. What is the total mass of solute in 1000g of a solution having a concentration of 5ppm?
Lesson Topic: Ways of Expressing Concentration of Solutions (Part 2) (Quarter 3, Week 3, LAS 3)
Learning Targets: Use different ways of expressing concentration of solutions.
Reference(s): Baguio, Sol Saranay” Breaking Through General Chemistry for Senior High School” 2 C & E
Publishing Inc. 2017, MELC (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-111) ; Torres et.al”Region II LAS in Earth
Science” Grade 12 2020 pp.120-141
Ways of Expressing Concentration of Solutions
4. Mole fraction is the ratio of moles of one substance in a mixture to the total number of moles of all substances.
For a mixture of two substances, AA and BB, the mole fractions of each would be written as follows:
Mole fraction of component A: Mole fraction of component B:

XA= mol B XB = mol B
mol A+ mol B mol A+ mol B
The mole fraction of component “i”
in a mixture is given by : Xi= ni
nT
Example: 0.100 mole of NaCl is dissolved into 100.0 grams of pure H2O. What is the mole fraction of NaCl?
What is the mole fraction of H2O?
Solution: Given: 0.100 mole of NaCl 100.0 grams of pure H 2O
*Note:Since we are dealing with mole fraction, we have to convert 100 grams of H2O into moles using the
molar mass of H2O (18g/mol).
Converting 100 grams of water into moles:
(100 grams of H2O)x (1 mol H2O) = 5.56 mol H2O
18.0 g of H20
Xi = ni = 5.56 mol
nT 5.66 mol = 0.982
5. Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution. The SI unit for molarity is mol/m3
M= Moles of Solute and can be expressed algebraically as M= n
Liter of Solution V
Where n, is the number of moles of solute
V, is the volume of solution in liters
Example: What is the molarity of a 250 mL solution containing 0.35 moles NaCl?
1𝐿
Convert mL to L : 250 𝑚𝐿 𝑥 = 0.25𝐿
1000𝑚𝐿
Calculate the molarity of the solution:

M= mole of solute = (n) = 0.35 mol NaCl = 1.4 M NaCl
Liter of solution (V) 0.25 L solution
6. Molality is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg (1000 g) of solvent. It is calculated as the moles
of a solute divided by the kilograms of the solvent.
The SI unit for molality is mol/kg , m= Moles of solute
Mass of solvent
Example: Calculate the molality of a sulfuric acid solution containing 24.4 g of sulfuric acid in 198 g of water.
The molar mass of sulfuric acid is 98.09 g.
* Note: Convert grams into moles (that is 0.249 molH2SO4) and also the solvent is expressed in grams that
should be in kilograms so, solvent must be 0.198 kg).*
m= 0.249 H2SO4 /0.198 kg= 1.26 m
Activity: Perform the needed calculation in the following problems

1. 80.0 grams of glucose (C6H12O6 ) is dissolved in 1.00 kg of solvent. What is its molality? Molar mass of
(C6H12O6 ) is equal to 180g/mol.
2. Suppose you added 4.0 moles of sugar to 10.0 L of solution. Calculate the molar concentration of the
solution.
3.What is the Molality of a solution containing 7.78g of Urea [(NH 2)2CO2] in 203g of water?
Name: ____________________________ Grade & Section: ____12_______ Score: _____________
School: ___________________________ Teacher: ___________________ Subject: General Chemistry 2
Lesson Topic: Stoichiometric Calculations for Reactions in Solutions (Quarter 3, Week 4, LAS 1)
Learning Targets: Perform stoichiometric calculations for reactions in solution.
Publishing Inc. 2017, MELC (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-111); Torres et.al…” Region II LAS in
Earth Science” Grade 12 2020 pp.142-158
STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS FOR REACTIONS IN SOLUTION
Stoichiometry is the calculation of reactants and

products in a certain chemical reaction based on balance
chemical equations. It applies the law of conservation of
mass wherein the total mass of the reactants is always
equal the total mass of the products, leading to the insight
that the relations among the value or the number of
reactants and products typically produce a ratio of
positive numbers.
Example: 2 H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
It shows the 2:1:2 ratio of hydrogen, oxygen, and water
molecules in the above equation.
a. How many moles of O2 is needed to produce 8 moles of water?

moles O2 = 8 mol H2O x 1 mol O2
2 mol H2O Moles O2 = 4 mol O2
b. If 64 g of O2 is used in the reaction. How many moles of water will be produced?

Moles O2= 64 g O2 x 1 mol O2 =2 mol O2
32g
Moles H2O= 2mol O2x 2mol H2O = 4 mol H2O
1 mol O2
Activity 1: SIMPLE STOICHIOMETRY
Directions: Solve the following stoichiometry problems. The combustion of a sample of butane, C 4H10 (lighter
fluid), produced 2.64 grams of water. Using the given balanced equation, answer the following questions:
2 C4H10 + 13O2 8CO2 + 10H2O
a. How many moles of water formed? ___________________________________
b. How many moles of butane burned? _________________________________
c. How many grams of butane burned? ________________________________
d. How much oxygen was used up in moles? ___________________________
e. How much oxygen was used up in grams? ____________________________
Lesson Topic: Effects of Concentration on the Colligative Properties of Solutions (Quarter 3, Week 4, LAS 2)
Learning Targets: Describe the effect of concentration on the colligative properties of solutions.
Publishing Inc. 2017, MELC (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-111); Torres et.al…” Region II LAS in Earth
Science” Grade 12 2020 pp.159-168
Effects of Concentration on the Colligative Properties of Solutions
Colligative properties of solutions are properties that depend upon the concentration of solute molecules or
ions, but not upon the identity of the solute. Colligative properties include vapor pressure lowering, boiling point
elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure.
Lowering the Vapor Pressure. When non-volatile solute is dissolved in solvent, the vapor pressure of
solvent is lowered. The presence of solute decreases the rate of escape of solvent molecules resulting to lower
vapor pressure.
Boiling Point Elevation. The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of that liquid equals the atmospheric pressure (760mm Hg). The addition of the solute increases the
boiling point of the solution. The atmospheric pressure remains the same while the vapor pressure of the solution
is lowered resulting in the increase of the difference in atmospheric pressure and vapor pressure of the solution.
Therefore, a higher temperature is required to boil the solution.
Normal freezing or melting point is the temperature at which solid and liquid are in equilibrium under 1
atm. Addition of solute will decrease the vapor pressure and so will decrease the freezing point.
Osmotic Pressure - osmosis is the movement of solvent particles across a semipermeable membrane from
a dilute solution into concentrated solution. The solvent moves to dilute the concentrated solution and equalize
the concentration on both sides of the membrane. Osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the concentration
of the solution. Therefore, doubling the concentration will also double the osmotic pressure.
Activity 1: 1 PIC, 3 SENTENCES
Directions: Number is given as example.The pictures below illustrate the different effects of colligative properties
to solutions. Using three (3) sentences, answer the question that each picture depicts. Write your answer on the
spaces provided.
1. Why does the boiling point of water increase when added with salt?
Boiling point of water increases when salt is added because salt
dissociates into Na+ and Clions. The addition of these particles
raises the boiling point because part of the pressure the solution
exerts on the atmosphere now comes from solute particles, not
just solvent (water) molecules. The phenomenon depends on the
number of particles formed in the solution.
2.Why does seawater have lower freezing point than pure water?
3.Why does Ice float in the water surface?

Name: ___________________________________ Grade & Section: _______________ Score: _____
School: ____________________________________ Teacher: __________________Subject: Gen Chem 2
LAS Writer: FLORY VEE A. SALANGA Content Evaluator:
Lesson Topic: Difference between the colligative properties of Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte solutions
Quarter 3 Week 4 LAS 12
Learning Targets: Differentiate the colligative properties of nonelectrolyte solutions and electrolyte
solutions
Publishing Inc. 2017, MELC (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-111) ;Torres et.al”Region II LAS in Earth Science” Grade 12
2020 169-184
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF ELECTROLYTE
AND NONELECTROLYTE SOLUTION
Colligative properties are physical properties of a solution that depends on the amount of a solute but not
on the nature of solute. This means similar amounts of completely different solutes can alter these physical
properties in similar quantities.
Electrolytes are substances that can form solutions that are able to conduct electricity through this
solution.Such solutions are known as electrolytic while
Nonelectrolytes are substances that are not capable of forming electrolytic solutions. Both these types
(electrolytes and nonelectrolytes) have colligative properties.
Colligative Properties of Electrolytes vs Nonelectrolytes

Colligative properties of electrolytes are the physical Colligative properties of nonelectrolytes are the
properties of electrolytic solutions that depend on the physical properties of nonelectrolytic solutions that
amount of solutes regardless the nature of solutes. depend on the amount of solutes regardless the
nature of solutes.
Solute
Electrolytes provide more solutes to the solution via Nonelectrolytes provide low solute to the solution
dissociation; hence, the colligative properties are since there is no dissociation; hence, the colligative
considerably changed. properties are not considerably changed.
Effect on Colligative Properties
The effect of electrolytes on colligative properties is The effect of nonelectrolytes on colligative properties
very high compared to nonelectrolytes. is very low compared to electrolytes.
Example:
1.What is the vapor pressure of the solution containing 20 g of sugar (C 12H22O11)in 1.5 kg water at 25oC. Note:
Po water at 25oC is 24 torr.
Explanation:
1 mole of sugar (C12H22O11) is 342 g and 1 mole of water (H2O) is 18 g. The number of moles of each
component is computed as:
Activity: Answer the given questions.

1. State the difference between the colligative properties of electrolyte solution and nonelectrolyte solution.
2. Why solute in nonelectrolyte solution does not dissociate?
Name: ___________________________________ Grade & Section: ___________ Score : _____
School: ___________________________________Teacher : ___________Subject: Gen Chem 2
LAS Writer: Flory Vee A. Salanga Evaluator:
Lesson Topic: Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression Quarter 3 Week 5 LAS 13
Learning Targets: Calculate the boiling point elevation and freezing point depression from the
concentration of a solute in a solution
Publishing Inc. 2017, MELC (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-111) ; Torres et.al”Region II LAS in Earth
Science” Grade 12 2020 pp. 184-194
Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression
The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to
the prevailing atmospheric pressure. Boiling points measured under 1 atm pressure are called normal boiling
points.
The elevation of the boiling point; Δtb, can be calculated by multiplying the molal boiling point elevation
constant of the solvent, kb, by the molality of the solution,m.
That is, Δtb = mkbi
Wherein, Δtb = boiling point elevation
m = molality of the solution
kb = molal boiling point elevation constant of solvent
i = the number of particles formed when that compound dissolves (for covalent compounds,
this is always equal to 1)
The freezing point is the temperature at which the liquid changes to solid. At a given temperature, if a
substance is added to a solvent (such as water), the solute solvent interactions prevent the solvent from going
into the solid phase. The solute solvent interactions require the temperature to decrease further in order to solidify
the solution. A common example is found when salt is put on icy roadways. The salt is put on the roads so that
the water on the roads will not freeze at the normal 0°C but at a lower temperature as low as -9°C.
The freezing point depression is the difference in the freezing points of the solution from the pure
solvent. This is true to any solute added to a solvent; the freezing point of the solution will be lower than
the freezing point of the pure solvent.
The freezing point depression, Δtf, of a solution can be calculated from the molality of the solution and the
constant for the solvent, kf.
That is, Δtf = mkfi
Wherein, Δtf = freezing point depression
kf = molal freezing point depression constant of solvent
i = the number of particles formed when that compound dissolves
(for covalent compounds, this is always equal to 1)
Example:
At what temperature will the sugar solution boil if 20 g sucrose (C 12H22O11)is added to 1.5 kg of water?
Solve for Molality :20 g C12H22O11 x 1 mol C12H22O11 = 0.04C12H22O11 = 0.04 m
1.5 kg H2O 342 gC12H22O11 kg H2O
To solve for ∆Tb= Kbm

= 0.52oC x 0.04m
m
Thus, the boiling point of the solution is 100 oC + 0.02
o
∆Tb=0.02oC C is equal to 100.02oC
Activity 1: LET’S BOIL IT OUT!

Directions: Read and analyse each problem carefully. Identify the known variables and solve for the unknown
following the steps in solving a problem.
1. At what temperature will a solution that is composed of 0.73 moles of glucose (C6H12O6) in 650mL of water
(H2O) begin to boil?
2.At what temperature will a sucrose solution boil if it contains 1.55 moles of sucrose in 600mL of water? kb of
water is 0.51°C/m.
3. What is the boiling point elevation of a solution that contains 40.5g gylcerol,C 3H5(OH)3,in 100g of
water? kb of water is 0.51°C/m.
Name: ___________________________________ Grade & Section: _______________ Score: _____
School: ____________________________________ Teacher: __________________Subject: Gen Chem 2
LAS Writer: Flory Vee A. Salanga Content Evaluator:
Lesson Topic: Calculating Molar Mass Quarter 3 Week 5 LAS 14
Learning Targets: Calculate molar mass from colligative property data.
Publishing Inc. 2017, MELC (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-118); Ambabag et.al”Region II LAS in Earth
Science Grade 12 2020 pp. 195-205
Molar Mass from Colligative Property
Data from freezing point or boiling point can be used to determine the molar mass of an unknown solute.
Since we know the relationship between a decrease in freezing point and the concentration of solute, if we
dissolve a known mass of our unknown solute into a known amount of solvent, we can calculate the molar mass
of the solute. The kf or kb of the solvent must be known. We also need to know if the solute is an electrolyte or
a nonelectrolyte. If the solvent is an electrolyte, you would need to know the number of ions that is produced
when it dissociates.
Steps in finding for the molar mass from colligative property data.
1. List the known quantities from the given problem.
2. Find the molality of the solution using the freezing point depression (Δtf) or boiling point elevation (Δtb).
m = Δtf /kf
3. Use the molality equation to calculate the moles of solute.
mol solute = m x kg H2O
4. Divide the mass solute by the moles solute to determine the molar mass.
Molar mass = mass solute/moles solute
Sample Problem 1.
The Δtf of Camphor is 179.80°C and its kf is 39.7°C/m. When 0.2000g of a compound X is added to 100g
of camphor, its freezing point drops to 179.29°C. What is the molar mass of compound X?
a) Find the molality, m = Δtf /kf
m = Δtf /kf b) Calculate the number of moles X
m = (179.8°C – 179.29°C) / 39.7°C/m m = mol (X) / kg (camphor)
m = 0.013mol/kg m = 0.013mol/kg x 0.1000kg
m = 0.0013mol
c) Find the molar mass

Molar mass = grams (X) / mol (X)
Molar mass = 0.2000g / 0.0013mol
Molar mass = 153.85g/mol
Activity:
1. A solution is prepared by dissolving 38.7g of nonelectrolyte into 218g of water. The freezing point of the
solution is measured to be -5.53°C. Calculate the molar mass of the solute. The kf of water = 1.86°C/m.
2. When 36g of a nonvolatile, molecular substance is dissolved in 100g of water, the solution begins to
freeze at -37.2°C. What is the molar mass of the solute? The kf of water = 1.86°C/m.
Name: ___________________________________ Grade & Section: __________Score:____________
School: ___________________________________Teacher : __________Subject: Gen Chem 2
LAS Writer: Flory Vee A. Salanga LAS Evaluators:
Lesson Topic: Laboratory Solution Preparation Quarter 3 Week 5 LAS 15
Learning Targets: Describe laboratory procedures in determining concentration of solutions.
(STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-119);Abuzo et.al. Region II LAS in Earth Science Grade 12 2020 pp. 206-
216
Laboratory Solution Preparation
Basic Concepts of Preparing Solutions
If starting with a solid, use the following procedure:
1. Determine the mass in grams of one mole of solute, the molar mass, MMs.
2. Decide volume of solution required, in liters, V.
3. Decide molarity of solution required, M.
4. Calculate grams of solute (gs) required using equation 1.eq. 1. gs = MMs x M x V
If starting with a solution or liquid reagent:
1. When diluting more concentrated solutions, decide what volume (V2) and molarity (M2) the final solution
should be. Volume can be expressed in liters or milliliters.
2. Determine molarity (M1) of starting, more concentrated solution.
3. Calculate volume of starting solution (V1) required using equation
Note: V1 must be in the same units as V2.

M1V1= M2V2
Example
Prepare 800 mL of 2 M sodium chloride. Example:
MMNaCl = 58.45 g/mol)
gNaCl = 58.45 g/mol x 2 mol/L x 0.8 L Prepare 100 mL of 1.0 M hydrochloric acid
gNaCl = 93.52 g NaCl from concentrated (12.1 M)hydrochloric acid.
M1V1= M2V2
Dissolve 93.52 g of NaCl in about (12.1 M)(V1) = (1.0 M)(100 mL)
400 mL of distilled water, then add more V1 = 8.26 mL conc. HCl
water until final volume is 800 mL. Add 8.26 mL of concentrated HCl to about
50 mL of distilled water, stir, then add water up
to 100 mL.
Activity 1: PROBLEM SOLVING ON SOLUTION PREPARATION

Directions: Calculate the problems and describe the result.
1. 23.5g of NaCl is dissolved in enough water to make .683 L of solution.
a) What Is the molarity (M) Of the solution?
b) How Many moles of NaCl Are contained in 0.0100 L Of the above NaCl solution?
c) What Volume (L) Of this NaCl Solution would contain 0.200 Moles of NaCl?
Supposed groceries ran out of stock for disinfectant products and you found out that there
is still 1L household bleach left in your home. Apply your learnings from this material to perform
the needed calculations in order for you to produce your own homemade disinfectant.
2. From 1 L of household bleach available,

a. How much volume of 1:10 house hold bleach solution will you be able to prepare?
b. How much volume of water is needed?
c. It has been mentioned earlier that household bleach is a solution of sodium hypochlorite which generally
contains 5% (50 g/liter or 50 000 ppm) available chlorine, how many percent of chlorine is present in this
solution?
Name: ____________________________ Grade & Section: ____12_______ Score: _______________
School: ___________________________ Teacher: ___________________ Subject: General Chemistry 2
Lesson Topic: Difference Between the Colligative Properties of Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions
(Quarter 3, Week 4, LAS 3)
Learning Targets: Differentiate the colligative properties of nonelectrolyte solutions and electrolyte solutions
Publishing Inc. 2017, MELC (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-111); Torres et.al…” Region II LAS in
Earth Science” Grade 12 2020 169-184
Difference Between the Colligative Properties of Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes Solution
Colligative properties are physical properties of a solution that depends on the amount of a solute but
not on the nature of solute. This means similar amounts of completely different solutes can alter these
physical properties in similar quantities.
Electrolytes are substances that can form solutions that are able to conduct electricity through this
solution. Such solutions are known as electrolytic while Nonelectrolytes are substances that are not capable
of forming electrolytic solutions. Both these types (electrolytes and nonelectrolytes) have colligative
properties.
Colligative Properties of Electrolytes vs Nonelectrolytes

Colligative properties of electrolytes are the Colligative properties of nonelectrolytes are the
physical properties of electrolytic solutions that physical properties of nonelectrolytic solutions that
depend on the amount of solutes regardless the depend on the amount of solutes regardless the
nature of solutes. nature of solutes.
Solute
Electrolytes provide more solutes to the solution via Nonelectrolytes provide low solute to the solution
dissociation; hence, the colligative properties are since there is no dissociation; hence, the colligative
considerably changed. properties are not considerably changed.
Effect on Colligative Properties
The effect of electrolytes on colligative properties is The effect of nonelectrolytes on colligative
very high compared to nonelectrolytes. properties is very low compared to electrolytes.
Example:
1.What is the vapor pressure of the solution containing 20 g of sugar (C 12H22O11)in 1.5 kg water at 25oC.
Note: Po water at 25oC is 24 torr.
Explanation:
1 mole of sugar (C12H22O11) is 342 g and 1 mole of water (H2O) is 18 g. The number of moles of each
component is computed as:
Activity: Answer the given questions.

1. State the difference between the colligative properties of electrolyte solution and nonelectrolyte solution.
2. Why solute in nonelectrolyte solution does not dissociate?
Name: _____________________________ Grade & Section: ____12______ Score: _____________
School: ____________________________ Teacher: __________________ Subject: General Chemistry 2
Lesson Topic: Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression (Quarter 3, Week 5, LAS 1)
Learning Targets: Calculate the boiling point elevation and freezing point depression from the concentration
of a solute in a solution
Publishing Inc. 2017, MELC (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-111); Torres et.al…” Region II LAS in Earth
Science” Grade 12 2020 pp. 184-194
Boiling Point Elevation and Freezing Point Depression
The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is
equal to the prevailing atmospheric pressure. Boiling points measured under 1 atm pressure are called
normal boiling points.
The elevation of the boiling point; Δtb, can be calculated by multiplying the molal boiling point elevation
constant of the solvent, kb, by the molality of the solution,m.
That is, Δtb = mkbi
Wherein, Δtb = boiling point elevation
kb = molal boiling point elevation constant of solvent
i = the number of particles formed when that compound dissolves (for covalent compounds,
this is always equal to 1)
The freezing point is the temperature at which the liquid changes to solid. At a given temperature, if a
substance is added to a solvent (such as water), the solute solvent interactions prevent the solvent from
going into the solid phase. The solute solvent interactions require the temperature to decrease further in order
to solidify the solution. A common example is found when salt is put on icy roadways. The salt is put on the
roads so that the water on the roads will not freeze at the normal 0°C but at a lower temperature as low as -
9°C.
The freezing point depression is the difference in the freezing points of the solution from the
pure solvent. This is true to any solute added to a solvent; the freezing point of the solution will be
lower than the freezing point of the pure solvent.
The freezing point depression, Δtf, of a solution can be calculated from the molality of the solution and
the constant for the solvent, kf.
That is, Δtf = mkfi
Wherein, Δtf = freezing point depression
kf = molal freezing point depression constant of solvent
i = the number of particles formed when that compound dissolves
(for covalent compounds, this is always equal to 1)
Example:
At what temperature will the sugar solution boil if 20 g sucrose (C 12H22O11)is added to 1.5 kg of water?
Solve for Molality :20 g C12H22O11 x 1 mol C12H22O11 = 0.04C12H22O11 = 0.04 m
1.5 kg H2O 342 gC12H22O11 kg H2O
To solve for ∆Tb= Kbm
= 0.52oC x 0.04m
m
Thus, the boiling point of the solution is 100 oC + 0.02
o
∆T =0.02oC C is equal to 100.02oC
b
Activity 1: LET’S BOIL IT OUT!

Directions: Read and analyze each problem carefully. Identify the known variables and solve for the
unknown following the steps in solving a problem.
1. At what temperature will a solution that is composed of 0.73 moles of glucose (C6H12O6) in 650mL of
water (H2O) begin to boil?
2. At what temperature will a sucrose solution boil if it contains 1.55 moles of sucrose in 600mL of water?
kb of water is 0.51°C/m.
3. What is the boiling point elevation of a solution that contains 40.5g gylcerol,C 3H5(OH)3,in 100g
of water? kb of water is 0.51°C/m.
Lesson Topic: Calculating Molar Mass (Quarter 3, Week 5, LAS 2)
Learning Targets: Calculate molar mass from colligative property data.
Publishing Inc. 2017, MELC (STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-118); Ambabag et.al…” Region II LAS in
Earth Science Grade 12 2020 pp. 195-205
Molar Mass from Colligative Property
Data from freezing point or boiling point can be used to determine the molar mass of an unknown solute.
Since we know the relationship between a decrease in freezing point and the concentration of solute, if we
dissolve a known mass of our unknown solute into a known amount of solvent, we can calculate the molar
mass of the solute. The kf or kb of the solvent must be known. We also need to know if the solute is an
electrolyte or a nonelectrolyte. If the solvent is an electrolyte, you would need to know the number of ions
that is produced when it dissociates.
Steps in finding for the molar mass from colligative property data.
1. List the known quantities from the given problem.
2. Find the molality of the solution using the freezing point depression (Δtf) or boiling point elevation (Δtb).
m = Δtf /kf
3. Use the molality equation to calculate the moles of solute.
mol solute = m x kg H2O
4. Divide the mass solute by the moles solute to determine the molar mass.
Molar mass = mass solute/moles solute
Sample Problem 1.
The Δtf of Camphor is 179.80°C and its kf is 39.7°C/m. When 0.2000g of a compound X is added to 100g
of camphor, its freezing point drops to 179.29°C. What is the molar mass of compound X?
a) Find the molality, m = Δtf /kf
m = Δtf /kf b) Calculate the number of moles X
m = (179.8°C – 179.29°C) / 39.7°C/m m = mol (X) / kg (camphor)
m = 0.013mol/kg m = 0.013mol/kg x 0.1000kg
m = 0.0013mol
c) Find the molar mass

Molar mass = grams (X) / mol (X)
Molar mass = 0.2000g / 0.0013mol
Molar mass = 153.85g/mol
Activity:
1. A solution is prepared by dissolving 38.7g of nonelectrolyte into 218g of water. The freezing point of
the solution is measured to be -5.53°C. Calculate the molar mass of the solute. The kf of water =
1.86°C/m.
2. When 36g of a nonvolatile, molecular substance is dissolved in 100g of water, the solution begins to
freeze at -37.2°C. What is the molar mass of the solute? The kf of water = 1.86°C/m.
Lesson Topic: Laboratory Solution Preparation (Quarter 3, Week 5, LAS 3)
Learning Targets: Describe laboratory procedures in determining concentration of solutions.
(STEM_GC11PPIIId-f-119);Abuzo et.al... Region II LAS in Earth Science Grade 12 2020 pp.
206-216
Laboratory Solution Preparation

Basic Concepts of Preparing Solutions
If starting with a solid, use the following procedure:
1. Determine the mass in grams of one mole of solute, the molar mass, MMs.
2. Decide volume of solution required, in liters, V.
3. Decide molarity of solution required, M.
4. Calculate grams of solute (gs) required using equation 1.eq. 1. gs = MMs x M x V
If starting with a solution or liquid reagent:
1. When diluting more concentrated solutions, decide what volume (V2) and molarity (M2) the final solution
should be. Volume can be expressed in liters or milliliters.
2. Determine molarity (M1) of starting, more concentrated solution.
3. Calculate volume of starting solution (V1) required using equation
Note: V1 must be in the same units as V2.

M1V1= M2V2
Example Example:
Prepare 800 mL of 2 M sodium chloride.
MMNaCl = 58.45 g/mol) Prepare 100 mL of 1.0 M hydrochloric acid
gNaCl = 58.45 g/mol x 2 mol/L x 0.8 L from concentrated (12.1 M)hydrochloric
gNaCl = 93.52 g NaCl acid.
M1V1= M2V2
Dissolve 93.52 g of NaCl in about (12.1 M)(V1) = (1.0 M)(100 mL)
400 mL of distilled water, then add more V1 = 8.26 mL conc. HCl
water until final volume is 800 mL. Add 8.26 mL of concentrated HCl to
about 50 mL of distilled water, stir, then add
water up to 100 mL.
Activity 1: PROBLEM SOLVING ON SOLUTION PREPARATION

Directions: Calculate the problems and describe the result.
1. 23.5g of NaCl is dissolved in enough water to make .683 L of solution.
a) What Is the molarity (M) Of the solution?
b) How Many moles of NaCl Are contained in 0.0100 L Of the above NaCl solution?
c) What Volume (L) Of this NaCl Solution would contain 0.200 Moles of NaCl?
Supposed groceries ran out of stock for disinfectant products and you found out that
there is still 1L household bleach left in your home. Apply your learnings from this material to
perform the needed calculations in order for you to produce your own homemade disinfectant.
2. From 1 L of household bleach available,

a. How much volume of 1:10 house hold bleach solution will you be able to prepare?
b. How much volume of water is needed?
c. It has been mentioned earlier that household bleach is a solution of sodium hypochlorite which generally
contains 5% (50 g/liter or 50 000 ppm) available chlorine, how many percent of chlorine is present in
this solution?
Name: ______________________________Grade & Section: _____12________ Score: _____________
School: _____________________________Teacher: _____________________ Subject: General Chemistry 2
LAS Writer: Lea N. Dionaldo
Evaluators: Retchie Joy B. Pisaña, Christine Joy G. Sua, Eda A. Fale
Lesson Topic: The First Law of Thermodynamics (Quarter 3, Week 6, LAS 1)
Learning Targets: To explain the first law of thermodynamics and solve related problems
Reference(s): Baguio, Sol Saranay. 2017. Breaking Through General Chemistry for Senior High School 2 C & E
Publishing Inc. pp. 100-103; Abuzo et al. 2020. Region II LAS in Earth Science Grade 12 pp. 225-
233
The First Law of Thermodynamics
In any chemical or physical process, energy cannot be created nor destroyed. This is what the first law
of thermodynamics, the Law of Conservation of Energy. The sum of energy in the system and in the
surroundings is constant. Energy can be transferred from the system to the surroundings, and vice versa, in the
form of heat (q) and work (w). The sum of kinetic and potential energy found in a system is known as Internal
energy (U). The change in internal energy (∆U) of the system indicates that the system either lost or gained
energy. The formula for finding (∆U) is ∆U = q + w
Where; ∆U = the change in internal energy of the system
q = the heat exchanged between the system and the surroundings
w = the work done by the system (-) or work is done on the system (+)
A positive ∆U indicates that energy is gained by the system from the surroundings while a negative ∆U
tells us that energy is lost by the system to the surroundings.
In terms of work where pressure and change in volume(P∆V) is used, such as in expansion and
compression, w and P∆V have opposite signs because when a gas expands (∆V is positive), work flows into the
surroundings (w is negative).
Example:
A gas in a system has a constant pressure. The surroundings lose 80 J of heat and does 450 J of work
to the system. What is the change in the internal energy of the system?
Given:
q = 80J (it is positive since heat is lost by the surroundings and added to the system
w = 450J (it is positive since the work is done to the system)
∆U = q + w
= 80J + 450J
∆U = 530J
530J of energy is gained by the system from its surroundings
Activity.
Answer the following questions based on the given problems.
A. A system has a constant volume (∆V=0) and 125 joules of heat is added to the system.
1. What is the q for this system?
2. What is ∆U for the system?
3. Is the ∆U positive or negative? Why?
B. 300J of heat is added to the system and 180 J of work is done by the system through expansion.
4. What is the q for the system?
5. What is the sign of q for the system? Why?
6. What is the w for the system?
7. What is the sign of w for the system? Why?
8. How many joules is the change in internal energy of the system?
9. Is ∆U positive or negative? What does it mean?
C. A car engine releases 325 J of heat and pushing the piston doing 400J of work.
10. What is the q for the system?
11. What is the sign of q for the system? Why?
12. What is the w for the system?
13. What is the sign of w for the system? Why?
14. Does the system gained or lost energy? By how much?
15. What does the first Law of Thermodynamics tells us?
Lesson Topic: The Enthalpy of Reaction (Quarter 3, Week 6, LAS 2)
Learning Targets: To describe enthalpy of reaction and solve related problems.
Publishing Inc. pp. 113-116; Abuzo et al. 2020. Region II LAS in Earth Science Grade 12 pp. 234-
244
The Enthalpy of Reaction
To measure the energy changes that occur in chemical reactions, chemists use a quantity known as
enthalpy (H). Enthalpy is the sum of internal energy U plus the product of its pressure P and volume V.
H = U + PV
Because internal energy, pressure and volume are all state functions, enthalpy is also a state function.
So, we can define a change in enthalpy or heat of reaction as ∆H = ∆U + P∆V, if work is too small, ∆H = ∆U.
Reversing a reaction or process changes the sign of ∆H. If icemaking has a negative ∆H then, melting of ice has
a positive ∆H.
1.) 2NaHCO3(s)  Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) ∆H = 85 kJ
A positive ∆H means the system absorbs heat, thus the enthalpy of the product is greater than the
enthalpy of the reactants, hence it is endothermic reaction.
2.) CaO(s) + H2O(l)  Ca(OH)2(s) ∆H = -65.2 kJ
The negative value means that the system releases heat and the enthalpy of the product is lesser than
the enthalpy of the reactants, therefore an exothermic reaction.
3.) Calculate the amount of heat in kJ required to decompose 4 moles of Fe 2O3(s).
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g)  2 Fe(s) + 3 CO2(g) ∆H = + 26.3 kJ
Solution: Given: ∆H =26.3 per mole of Fe2O3 Conversion factor: 26.3 kJ
Find: for 4 moles Fe2O3 mol Fe2O3
Using the conversion factor, solve for ∆H.
26.3 𝑘𝐽
∆𝐻 = 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 𝑥
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3
= 105.2 kJ
4.) How much heat is needed to raise the temperature of 50g of water by 40oC?
The specific heat for water is 4.18J/goC.
Q = (m) (c ) (∆T) where Q = heat ; m = mass ; c = specific heat; ∆T = change in temp
= (50g) (4.18 J/goC) ( 40o)
= 8,360 J or 8.36 kJ
Activity:
A. Identify the type of reaction, as exothermic or endothermic, in the following situations. Number 1 is given as
an example.
1. Evaporation of water – endothermic reaction
2. melting of ice
3. Photosynthesis
4. Burning of paper
5. freezing of water
6. Drying of clothes
7. Combustion of gasoline
8. Formation of Ca(OH)2 from CaO and H2O
9. Rusting of iron
10. Sublimation of naphthalene balls
B. Answer the questions being asked based on the given problems.

11-13. The decomposition of NaHCO3(s) is an endothermic reaction.
2 NaHCO3(s) + 85 kJ  Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
11. What is the amount of heat needed to decompose 2 moles of NaHCO 3?
12. How will you write the conversion factor?
13. How many kilojoules of heat is needed to decompose 3.5 moles of NaHCO 3?
14-15. Fifty grams of H2O is cooled from 75oC to 50OC.
14. What is the amount of heat involved in this process? Is it endothermic or exothermic?
15. Describe enthalpy of a reaction.
Lesson Topic: Enthalpy of Reaction or Standard Heat of Reaction (Quarter 3, Week 6, LAS 3)
Learning Targets: To use the standard enthalpies of formation in finding heat of reaction
Reference(s): Baguio, Sol Saranay. 2017. Breaking Through General Chemistry for Senior high School 2 C &
E Publishing Inc. pp. 104-105; Pascual et al. 2020. Region II LAS in Earth Science Grade 12 pp.
245-255
Enthalpy of Reaction
The heat of reaction, ∆Hrxn is also called enthalpy of reaction. It is an extensive property. Varying the
amount of reactants also varies the magnitude of ∆H. To compute for the enthalpy of reaction, enthalpies of
formation can be used.
∆Horxn = m∆Hof, products - m∆Hof, reactants
The enthalpy of formation is the energy change occurring when 1 mole of a compound is produced from
its elements at standard state, 1 atm and 25 oC. For the elemental form of atom, the heat of formation in standard
state is zero, ∆Hof = 0.
Standard Enthalpies of Formation, ∆Hof at 25oC
Substance Formula ∆Hof (kJ/mol) Substance Formula ∆Hof(kJ/mol)
Methane CH4(g) -75.85 Water H2O(l) -285.8
Carbon dioxide CO2(g) -393.51 Sodium chloride NaCl(s) -411.0
Carbon Monoxide CO(g) -110.5 Sodium hydroxide NaOH(s) -425.6
Nitrogen dioxide NO2(g) 33.85 Propane C3H8(g) -103.85
Nitrogen monoxide NO(g) 90.4 Hydrogen chloride HCl(g) -92.30
Ammonia NH3(g) -46.19 Ammonium chloride NH4Cl(s) -314.4
To calculate for heat of reaction;
1. Calculate the standard heat of reaction for the reaction of nitrogen monoxide gas with
oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide gas.
Step 1. List the given and the unknown quantities.
∆Hof of NO(g) is 90.4 kJ/mol ∆Ho = ?
∆Hof of O2(g) is 0 (element)
∆Hof of NO2(g) is 33.85 kJ/mol
Step 2. Write the balanced equation then apply the equation to calculate the standard heat of
reaction from standard heat of formation.
2NO(g) + O2(g)  2NO2(g)
∆H rxn = m∆Hof, products - m∆Hof, reactants
o
∆Horxn = 2mol NO2(g)(33.85kJ/mol) – [2mol NO(g)(90.4 kJ/mol) + 1mol O2(g) (0)]

∆Horxn = -113.1 kJ
2. Find the heat of reaction in the formation of NaCl from sodium and chlorine gas.
1
Na(s) + Cl2(g)  NaCl(s)
2
∆Horxn = m∆Hof, products - m∆Hof, reactants
1
∆Horxn = 1 mol of NaCl(s) ( -411.0kJ/mol) – [1mol Na(s)(0) + mol Cl2(g)(0)]
2
∆Horxn = -411.0kJ/mol
It is an exothermic reaction releasing 411kJ of heat
Activity :
Find the ∆Horxn for each of the ff. reactions. (3 points each) Number 1 is done for you.
1. 2 CO(g) + O2(g) -------> 2CO2(g)
∆Hof of CO(g) is -110.5 kJ/mol ∆Ho = ?
∆Hof of O2(g) is 0 (element) ∆Horxn = m∆Hof, products - m∆Hof, reactants
∆H f of CO2(g) is -393.51 kJ/mol
o
= 2mol CO2(g)(-393.51 kJ/mol) –[2 molCO(g)(-110.5kJ/mol)+ 0]
= -787.02 kJ – (-221kJ)
∆Horxn = -566.02 kJ
2. NaOH(s) + HCl(g) -------> NaCl(s) + H2O(g)

3. CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) ------> CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l)
4. N2(g) + 3 H2(g) --------> 2 NH3(g)
5. NH3(g) + HCl(g) -------> NH4Cl(s)
Lesson Topic: Hess’ Law of Heat Summation (Quarter 3, Week 7, LAS 1)
Learning Targets: To calculate the change in enthalpy of a given reaction using Hess’ Law
Reference(s): Baguio, Sol Saranay. 2017. Breaking Through General Chemistry for Senior High School 2 C &
E Publishing Inc. pp. 113-114; Pascual et al. 2020. Region II LAS in Earth Science Grade 12 pp.
245-255
Hess’ Law of Heat Summation
Some reactions proceed too slowly or may have side reactions producing other substances aside from
the desired compound. In this case, the ∆H can be determined using Hess’ law of heat summation. Hess’ Law
states that the total enthalpy of a chemical reaction is the sum of the enthalpy changes of its individual steps.
The steps to be followed to determine the enthalpy of a reaction is given in the example.
1
N2(g) + O2(g)  NO2(g) ∆H = 33.18 kJ
2
1 1
N2(g) + O2(g)  NO(g) ∆H = -90.37 kJ
2 2
1
NO(g) + O2(g)  NO2(g) ∆H = ?
2
Steps:
1. Identify the net equation whose ∆H is unknown. Make sure the reaction is balanced.
1
NO(g) + O2(g)  NO2(g) ∆H = ?
2
2. Manipulate equations where ∆H is known, so that the correct moles of reactants and products are in correct
sides. Remember that reversing the direction of the reaction will give ∆H the same magnitude but with opposite
sign. Multiplying or dividing the reaction by a factor should be done to both the ∆H value and the reaction.
1 1
N2(g) + O2(g)  NO2(g) ∆H = 33.18 k → N2(g) + O2(g)  NO2(g) ∆H = 33.18 kJ
2 2
1 1 1 1
N2(g) + O2(g)  NO(g) ∆H = -90.37 kJ → NO(g)  N2(g) + O2(g) ∆H = 90.37 kJ
2 2 2 2
3. Add these individual reactions to get the net reaction. The value of the unknown ∆H is the sum of the
individual manipulated ∆H.
1
O2(g)
2
1
N2(g) + O2(g)  NO2(g) ∆H = 33.18 kJ
2
1 1
NO(g)  N2(g) + O2(g) ∆H = 90.37 kJ
2 2
1
NO(g) + O2(g)  NO2(g) ∆H = 123.55 kJ
2
Activity Perform the needed calculations in the following problems. Number 1 is done for you. (5 points each)
1. Find the enthalpy change for the reaction
CS2(l) + 3O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2 SO2(g) when,
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g) ∆H = -393.5 kJ → C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g ∆H = -393.5 kJ
S(s) + O2(g)  SO2(g) ∆H = -296.8 kJ → 2S(s) + 2O2(g)  2SO2(g) ∆H = -593.6 kJ
C(s) + 2S(s)  CS2(l) ∆H = + 87.9 kJ → CS2(l)  C(s) + 2S(s) ∆H = - 87.9 kJ
CS2(l) + 3O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2 SO2(g ∆H = -1075 kJ
2. Find the enthalpy change for the reaction C(s) + ½ O2(g) → CO(g) If
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆H = -394 kJ
and CO(g) + ½ O2(g) → CO2(g) ∆H = -283 kJ
3. The standard enthalpy changes for the formation of aluminum oxide and iron (III) oxide are
3
2 Al(s) + O2(g) → Al2O3(s) ∆H= -1676 kJ
2
3
and 2 Fe(s) + O2(g) → Fe2O3(s) ∆H= -824 kJ
2
Calculate ∆H for the reaction: Fe2O3(s) + 2 Al(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2 Fe(s)
4. Calculate the heat of hydrogenation of ethane (C2H6) given the following thermochemical equations:
2C (graphite) + 3 H2 (g) —> C2H6 (g) ΔHf = - 84.5 kJ/mol
2C (graphite) + 2 H2 (g) —> C2H4 (g) ΔHf = 52.3 kJ/mol
Lesson Topic: Factors that Influence the Rate of Reaction (Quarter 3, Week 7, LAS 2)
Learning Targets: To describe how various factors influence the rate of reaction.
Publishing Inc. pp. 144-146; Pascual et al. 2020. Region II LAS in Earth Science Grade 12 pp.
256-268
Factors Affecting Reaction Rate
There are five general factors affecting the rate of a reaction. These are the ff; nature of reactants,
concentration, surface area, catalysts and temperature.
The rate of reaction depends on a particular reactant and the number of bonds to be broken or formed.
Reactions involving ionic substances are generally fast while those involving covalent substances are usually
slow. Homogeneous reactions (reactants have the same state or phase) especially gases, proceed more
quickly than liquids and slowest on solids.
An increase in concentration means that there are more molecules to participate in the reaction,
promoting more collisions, therefore increasing the reaction rate.
The size of particles is related to the surface area. The smaller the size of particles, the larger the
surface area Exposing more molecules to the reaction, thereby, increasing the reaction rate.
Catalysts are substances that speeds up chemical reactions but is not being used up in the reaction. It
provides an alternative pathway of lower activation energy. There are times when it is undesirable to speed up
chemical reactions so that inhibitors (negative catalysts) are used to slow down the chemical reaction.
An increase in temperature generally increases the rate of reaction. According to the collision theory as
the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of molecules increases, therefore more collisions occur resulting
to a faster reaction.
The following are examples on how the different factors influence the rate of reaction.
Nature of Reactants - Sodium reacts readily with oxygen in air while it takes months for iron. Sodium is
more reactive than iron.
Concentration – To remove stains in our clothes, we use bleach. Using a concentrated bleach solution
removes stain faster than using a diluted one.
Size of particles – It is easier to start a fire using dry twigs than a block of wood.
Catalysts – Enzymes are needed by the body to hasten chemical reactions. Without digestive enzymes
we will experience indigestion.
- Food preservatives, slow down the rate of spoilage and are examples of negative
catalysts or inhibitors.
Temperature – Food spoils faster during summer or at high temperature. In order to slow down the
process, we refrigerate our food.
Activity
What factor that influence reaction rate is involved in each of the following?
Chemical Reaction Factor influencing the rate of reaction
1. Rusting of iron but not gold
2. More cases of fire outbreak during summer
3. Powdered sugar dissolves faster than sugar in
cubes
4. Copper oxide speeds up the decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide
5. Food once opened should be refrigerated
6. Taking 2 tablets of antacid neutralizes stomach
acid faster than taking 1 tablet
7. Protein in the stomach is broken down by pepsin
8. Ascorbic acid is added to chorizo as preservative
9. Fireworks easily catches fire
10. Iron oxide is added to accelerate the production of
ammonia
11. Grinding of calcium carbonate before calcining
12. Zinc dropped to 6M HCl produced more bubbles
than 1M HCl
13. Iron corrodes while gold does not
14. Smaller pieces of potatoes cook faster than bigger
once
15. Fruits last longer inside the refrigerator
Lesson Topic: Order of Reaction (Quarter 3, Week 7, LAS 3)
Learning Targets: To differentiate zero, first-, and second-order reactions
E Publishing Inc. pp. 149-150; Basug et al. 2020. Region II LAS in Earth Science Grade 12 pp.
289-293
Order of Reactions
Reactions are categorized as zero-order, first-order, second-order or mixed-order (higher order)
reactions. The order of reaction with respect to a reactant is the exponent of its concentration term in the rate
expression.
Rate = k [A]x [B]y
Reaction order can be calculated from the rate law by
Where:
adding the exponent values of the reactants in the rate law. The
x = order with respect to A
exponents x, and y are frequently, but not always integers.
They must be determined experimentally and cannot be y = order with respect to B
obtained by simply looking at the balanced equation. x and y can be 0, 1, 2 or fractions The
A zero-order reaction proceeds at a constant rate and total reaction order is the sum of all
independent of the concentration of reactants. The rate law is: exponents on all concentration of
rate = k, with k having the units of mol/L.sec. terms;
A first-order reaction rate depends on the Total order = x +y
concentration of one of the reactants. A common example of a
first-order reaction is radioactive decay, the spontaneous process through which an unstable atomic
nucleus breaks into smaller, more stable fragments. The rate law is: rate = k[A] (or B instead of A), with k having
the units of sec-1
A second-order reaction rate is proportional to the square of the concentration of a reactant or the
product of the concentration of two reactants. The formula is: rate = k[A]2 (or substitute B for A or k multiplied
by the concentration of A times the concentration of B), with the units of the rate constant L/mol.sec
Mixed order reactions have a fractional order for their rate, such as: rate = k[A]1/3, with units
2 2
L /mol .sec
Table 1. Experimental data in the reaction between O2 and NO
Example: Experiment Initial Reactant Concentration Initial Rate (mol/L.s)
Rate = k[O2]x[NO]y [O2] [NO]
1 1.10 x 10-2 1.30 x 10-2 3.21 x 10-3 2x

2x
2 2.20 x 10-2 1.30 x 10-2 2x 6.40 x 10-3 4x
To find the order of 3 1.10 x 10-2 2.60 x 10-2 12.8 x 10-3
with respect to O2 using the
change in O2 while NO is held constant. The change in concentration of O 2 is doubled and the rate is also
doubled. Since the increase in rate is also proportional to the increase in concentration, the reaction with
respect to O2 is first order. x=1
To find the order with respect to NO using the change in NO while O 2 is held constant. The change in
concentration of NO is doubled and the rate of reaction increases four times. The increase in the rate is the
square of the increase in concentration. Thus, the reaction with respect to NO is second order.
y= 2
The overall order of the reaction is the sum of the exponents which is 1 and 2. Thus the overall order of
the reaction is third order. Rate = k[O2]1[NO]2
Over all order = x+ y =1 + 2 = 3
Activity
The following data were obtained for the reaction. Kindly refer to Table 2. (15 pts)
A2(g) + B2(g) + 3C(g)  D(g) Table 2. Reactant Concentration and Rate of Reaction
1. What is the order of the Experiment Reactant Concentrations Rate of Reaction
reaction with respect to Number [A] [B] [C] (mol.L.s)
a. substance A 1 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.0090
b. substance B 2 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.0360
c. substance C 3 0.20 0.60 0.30 0.1080
2. What is the overall order of 4 0.20 0.20 0.60 0.0360
the reaction?
3. Write the rate equation.
4. What is the unit of k for this reaction?
5. Differentiate zero, first and second-order reaction.
Lesson Topic: Collision Theory (Quarter 3, Week 8, LAS 1)
Learning Targets: To explain reactions qualitatively in terms of molecular collisions
E Publishing Inc. pp. 137-138; Vinagrera et al. 2020. Region II LAS in Earth Science Grade 12
pp. 314-313
Collision Theory
Collision theory states that for a chemical reaction to occur the reacting particles must collide in order to
react. It explains how reactions occur at different rates. An effective collision leads to the formation of products
while ineffective collision does not.
The two requirements for an effectiveness of collision are; sufficient energy and proper orientation.
The minimum energy required to start the reaction is called activation energy. In some reactions, catalyst is
used to lower the activation energy. Even if two molecules collide with sufficient activation energy but there is no
proper orientation, the collision will not be successful. Chemical reactions involve breaking of old bonds and
forming new bonds. Molecules also need to collide with the right orientation, so that the proper atoms line up
with one another, and bonds can break and re-form in the necessary fashion. If colliding particles have enough
kinetic energy and collide at the right orientation, they can react to form a new product. If any of these factors
are absent, then there will be no chemical reaction.
Given the following conditions (see illustration
on the right side below) we can predict if there will be
effective collision or none.
In the first illustration, there is proper
orientation but insufficient energy, so no reaction
takes place.
In the second illustration, there is sufficient
energy but no proper orientation, so no reaction takes
place.
In the last illustration, reactants have sufficient energy
and with proper orientation resulting to a successful
chemical reaction.
Photo taken from:
https://saintschemistry10.weebly.com/uploads/5/1/9/3/51932861/gw500h283_
orig.jpg
Activity.
A. Answer the following questions.
1. What are the three conditions that will favor the occurrence of chemical reaction?
2. If any of these conditions is absent, will there be chemical reaction? Why?
3. When can you say that the collision is an effective collision?
4. What is an ineffective collision?
5. Is it possible for a chemical reaction to occur without collision of reactant particles?
6. Do all collisions result to a chemical reaction?
7. What happens if the energy of the reactants is lower than the activation energy?
8. What is the role of catalyst in relation to activation energy?
9. What is the relationship between the energy of reactants and the number of collisions?
10. What happens if reactants are not properly oriented with each other?
B. Tell whether a reaction will occur or not. Put √ if reaction will occur X if not.
___11. Reactants have proper orientation, with sufficient energy, but no collision
___12. Reactants have proper orientation, no sufficient energy, have collision
___13. Reactants have no proper orientation, with sufficient energy, have collision
___14. Reactants have proper orientation, no sufficient energy, have collision
___15. Reactants have proper orientation, with sufficient energy, have collision
Las Writer: Lea N. Dionaldo
Lesson Topic: Activation Energy and Catalysts in a Chemical Reaction (Quarter 3, Week 8, LAS 2)
Learning Targets: To explain activation energy and how a catalyst affects reaction rate.
Publishing Inc. pp. 137-138; Vinagrera et al. 2020. Region II LAS in Earth Science Grade 12 pp.
314-329
Activation Energy and Catalysts in a Chemical Reaction
The minimum energy required to start the reaction is called activation energy. All molecules possess a
certain amount of energy. This can be in the form of kinetic energy or potential energy. When molecules collide,
the kinetic energy of the molecules can be used to stretch, bend, and ultimately break bonds leading to chemical
reactions. To get the bonds into a state which allows them to break, the molecule must be contorted (deformed,
or bent) into an unstable state called the transition state (activated complex). The transition state is a high
energy state, and some amount of energy – the activation energy – must be added for the molecule to reach it.
Because the transition state is unstable, reactant molecules do not stay there long, but quickly proceed to the
next step of the chemical reaction. In most chemical reactions the activation energy is too high for the chemical
reactions to proceed significantly at ambient temperature. Fortunately, activation energy can be lowered by
adding a catalyst through the process known as catalysis.
Generally, this happens because the catalyst changes the way the reaction happens
(the mechanism). We can visualize this for a simple reaction coordinate in the following way.
Energy Diagram for catalyzed and noncatalyzed Reaction

Photo taken from: http://ch302.cm.utexas.edu/kinetics/catalysts/catalysts-all.php
Enzymes are biological catalysts. They are proteins that fold into particular
conformations such that they can help speed up very particular chemical reactions. For biochemical reactions,
the reactant is typically called the substrate. The substrate is converted into the product. The mechanisms for
many enzymes are very similar. The substrate(s) and the enzyme bind into a complex. The physical location on
the enzyme in which the substrate binds is called the "active site". Once bound this complex can then weaken
particular bonds in the substrate such that chemistry occurs to form the product. The product is weakly bound to
the substrate such that it now dissociates and the enzyme is free to bind another substrate molecule.
Activity. A. Answer the following questions.

1. What is the activation energy of a reaction, and how is this energy related to the activated complex of the
reaction?
2. Describe the relationship between activation energy and the rate of a chemical reaction.
3. What happens when a catalyst is used in a reaction?
4. What effect does a catalyst have on the stoichiometry of a reaction?
B. Arrange the following events of catalyzed reaction in correct sequence by writing a number on the squares.
Molecules of react
The product leaves the
ant A come close to active sites on surface of the
surface of the catalyst.
catalyst.
Molecules of reactant A
Molecules of reactant B align itself alongside
form bonds with the active sites on the catalyst. The
reactant A
bonds in between the atoms of the molecule start to
break.
Bonds between the atoms in reactant B start to break as new ones are formed between the atoms of
reactant A and B
Lesson Topic: Types of Catalyst (Quarter 3, Week 8, LAS 3)
Learning Targets: To identify and differentiate the types of catalysts.
Reference(s): Baguio, Sol Saranay. 2017.Breaking Through General Chemistry for Senior High School 2 C & E
Publishing Inc. p. 145; Vinagrera et al. 2020. Region II LAS in Earth Science Grade 12 pp. 330-
349
Different Types of Catalysts
Catalysts are of three main types; homogeneous catalysts (acid-base catalyst), heterogeneous
catalysts (surface catalyst) and biocatalysts (usually called enzymes). A reaction is
considered homogeneously catalyzed when the catalyst is in the same physical state or phase (gas or
liquid) as the reactant. Acid catalysis, organometallic catalysis, and enzymatic catalysis are examples of
homogeneous catalysis. An advantage of homogeneous catalysis is that the catalyst mixes into the reaction
mixture, allowing a very high degree of interaction between catalyst and reactant molecules. However, the
homogeneous catalyst, unlike heterogeneous catalyst, is often irrecoverable after the reaction has run to
completion. A reaction is considered heterogeneously catalyzed when the catalyst and the reactant(s) are
in different phases, with the reaction occurring at the interface between them (most commonly, the gas-solid
"border"). Typical examples involve a solid catalyst with the reactants as either liquids or gases. One or more
of the reactants are adsorbed on to the surface of the catalyst at active sites. At this stage, both of the reactant
molecules might be attached to the surface, or one might be attached and hit by the other one moving freely in
the gas or liquid. The product molecules break away (desorption) leaving the active site available for a new set
of molecules to attach to and react. Enzymes are proteins that function as catalysts in living systems. These
enzymes have components called substrate binding sites, or active sites, where the molecules involved in the
reaction under catalysis become attached. In general, when more substrate and more of an enzyme are present,
the reaction will proceed more quickly.
Examples:
Examples of each type of catalysts and its uses
Homogeneous Catalysts Heterogeneous Catalysts Biocatalysts
Acid catalyst - breaks down Platinum, palladium and rhodium - Amylase – hydrolyzes glycosidic
sucrose to glucose and catalytic converter in gasoline fueled bonds in starch molecules
fructose cars
Transition metal complexes- Platinum or Nickel - industrial Transferase – transfers group of
production of biopolymers hydrogenations of margarine, ammonia, atoms from a donor substrate to
benzene-to-cyclohexane an acceptor compound
Metalloenzymes- hydrolyze Iron with small amounts of Al2O3 and Isomerases – structural
esters and amides K2O -used in the synthesis of ammonia rearrangement of molecule
from H2 and N2
Activity. A. Identification/Fill in the blanks.

1. These speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction in a living organism.
2. This refers to the collection of one substance on the surface of another substance.
3. The usual phase of heterogeneous catalyst.
4. It is termed as any reaction that makes use of a catalyst.
5. A part of the enzyme molecule where a specific substrate (a reactant molecule) binds forming an enzyme-
substrate complex as a reaction intermediate.
6. The term which means the products were released from the surface of the catalyst.
7. It is a type of catalysis wherein the catalyst and the reacting substances are present together in a single
state of matter.
8. It is a substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction without itself being consumed in the reaction.
9. Enzymes are usually ___________ that help control the rate of chemical reactions in the body of living
organisms.
10. In cases of homogeneous catalysis, the catalyst and the reacting substances are usually present together
in a single state of matter as a ______ or a ________.
B. Provide the differences of the different types of catalysts in terms of the given criteria. (5 pts)
Types of Catalysts Phases of the catalysts Recovery after reaction (can be
recovered/ cannot be recovered)
Homogeneous catalysts
Heterogeneous catalysts
Biocatalysts

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Name: _____________________________ Grade & Section: ____12_________ Score: _____________

School: ____________________________ Teacher: _______________ Subject: General Chemistry 2

Kinetic Molecular Theory of Solids and Liquids

Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

Dispersion Ion – Dipole

Dipole – Dipole Hydrogen Bond

Table 1. Examples of Intermolecular Forces

2. Answer the following questions based on the data in table 2 and

Phase Changes and Phase Diagram of Water and Carbon Dioxide

Ways of Expressing Concentration of Solutions

3. Parts Per Million (ppm) is a measurement of the concentration of a solution.

Activity: Perform the needed calculation in the following problems

Mole fraction of component A: Mole fraction of component B:

Calculate the molarity of the solution:

Activity: Perform the needed calculation in the following problems

STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS FOR REACTIONS IN SOLUTION

Stoichiometry is the calculation of reactants and

a. How many moles of O2 is needed to produce 8 moles of water?

b. If 64 g of O2 is used in the reaction. How many moles of water will be produced?

Activity 1: SIMPLE STOICHIOMETRY

3.Why does Ice float in the water surface?

Colligative Properties of Electrolytes vs Nonelectrolytes

Activity: Answer the given questions.

To solve for ∆Tb= Kbm

Activity 1: LET’S BOIL IT OUT!

c) Find the molar mass

Note: V1 must be in the same units as V2.

Activity 1: PROBLEM SOLVING ON SOLUTION PREPARATION

2. From 1 L of household bleach available,

Difference Between the Colligative Properties of Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes Solution

Colligative Properties of Electrolytes vs Nonelectrolytes

Activity: Answer the given questions.

Activity 1: LET’S BOIL IT OUT!

Molar Mass from Colligative Property

1. List the known quantities from the given problem.

c) Find the molar mass

Laboratory Solution Preparation

Note: V1 must be in the same units as V2.

Activity 1: PROBLEM SOLVING ON SOLUTION PREPARATION

2. From 1 L of household bleach available,

The First Law of Thermodynamics

The Enthalpy of Reaction

B. Answer the questions being asked based on the given problems.

∆Horxn = 2mol NO2(g)(33.85kJ/mol) – [2mol NO(g)(90.4 kJ/mol) + 1mol O2(g) (0)]

2. NaOH(s) + HCl(g) -------> NaCl(s) + H2O(g)

Hess’ Law of Heat Summation

1 1.10 x 10-2 1.30 x 10-2 3.21 x 10-3 2x

Energy Diagram for catalyzed and noncatalyzed Reaction

Activity. A. Answer the following questions.

Activity. A. Identification/Fill in the blanks.

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Name: _________________________ Grade & Section: 12_ Score: _________

School: ______________ Teacher: _ Subject: General Chemistry 2