Predicting

Genotypes and
Phenotypes:
Understanding
the Laws of
Inheritance
 GENETICS
It is the study of heredity, exploring how traits are passed
down from parents to offspring through the study of
genes and DNA.

Genetics is a branch of biology

focused on a special type of
molecule called DNA, which
carries all the important
information for how living things
develop and function.
HEREDITY

• It is the process of traits being

passed down from parents to their
children, which is what makes
children resemble their parents.
• When parents reproduce, the DNA is
copied and given to their children.
• This passing down of genetic
material affects how the children
look and behave.
 DEFINITION OF LAWS OF
INHERITANCE

Laws of inheritance are the rules that describe how traits

are passed down from parents to offspring through genes.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING LAWS

OF INHERITANCE

Understanding the laws of inheritance helps us predict the

likelihood of traits in future generations and helps in fields
such as agriculture and medicine.
JOHANN GREGOR MENDEL
He was an Austrian monk and scientist who is
known as the “father of modern genetics”. He was
born in 1822 in what is now the Czech Republic and
lived until 1884. Mendel studied pea plants and
discovered the laws of inheritance, which describe
how traits are passed down from parents to
offspring.

His discoveries helped scientists understand how

traits are passed down from one generation to the
next and why some traits are more common than
others.
 MENDEL'S EXPERIMENTS
WITH PEA PLANTS
Mendel’s experiments with pea plants were groundbreaking in the field of genetics. He
studied seven different traits in pea plants, including seed color, seed shape, flower color,
flower position, pod color, pod shape, and stem length.
Mendel crossbred pea plants with different traits and observed the patterns of
inheritance in their offspring. He found that traits are passed down from parents to
offspring in predictable patterns and that some traits are more common than others.
 First Filial Generation (F1) Second Filial Generation (F2)
Tall x Short = Tall plant TallxTall = Tall & short plant

MENDEL'S EXPERIMENTS
WITH PLANTS BY GROWTH
Mendel's pea plant experiments revealed the first and second filial generations. In the
first filial generation (F1), all offspring were tall when he crossed tall and short plants. In
the second filial generation (F2), a predictable ratio of 3:1 emerged, with three-quarters of
the plants being tall and one-quarter being short. These findings demonstrated the
principles of dominant and recessive traits, showcasing the predictable patterns of
inheritance in offspring and laying the groundwork for modern genetics.
“Gregor Mandel, through his work on pea plants, discovered the fundamental laws
of inheritance.”
THREE LAWS OF INHERITANCE

Law of Dominance: This law states that some alleles are

dominant and others are recessive.

Law of Segregation: This law states that paired unit

factors (genes) must segregate equally into gametes such
that offspring have an equal likelihood of inheriting either
factor.

Law of Independent Assortment: This law states that

genes for different traits are inherited independently of
each other.
VOCABULARY

Trait refers to a specific characteristic or feature of an organism.

Gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for
building and controlling a specific trait.
Alleles are different forms or variants of a gene. (Genotype and
Phenotype)
Dominant refers to an allele that is expressed or observed in the
phenotype even if only one copy is present in the genotype.
Their alleles are represented by uppercase letters.
Recessive refers to an allele that is expressed in the phenotype
only if two copies of the allele are present in the genotype.
Recessive alleles are represented by lowercase letters.
 PUNNETT SQUARES

Punnett squares are tools used to predict the likelihood of

traits in offspring based on the genotypes of the parents.

HOW PUNNETT SQUARES WORK

Crossing parental genotypes: Punnett squares involve

crossing the genotypes of two parents.
Determining genotypes and phenotypes of offspring:
Punnett squares can be used to determine the possible
genotypes and phenotypes of offspring.
EYE COLOR
 LAW OF DOMINANCE
This law states that some alleles are dominant and others
are recessive.

GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE
refers to the genetic makeup of an
organism, specifically the combination refers to the physical or observable
of alleles an individual carries for a characteristics of an organism.
particular trait.
AA Homozygous Dominant Red-colored cherry
Aa Heterozygous Dominant Red-colored cherry
aa Homozygous Recessive Yellow-colored cherry
LAW OF DOMINANCE
This law states that some alleles are dominant and others
are recessive.

Phenotype:

Genotype: AA aa Aa
LAW OF SEGREGATION
This law states that paired unit factors (genes) must
segregate equally into gametes such that offspring have
an equal likelihood of inheriting either factor.
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

This law states that genes for different traits are inherited
independently of each other.

Seed color
Y – Yellow
y – green
Seed shape
R – Round
r - wrinkled
 TWO KINDS OF
INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

Monohybrid cross is a genetic cross between two

individuals that focuses on the inheritance of a single trait.

Dihybrid cross is a genetic cross between two individuals

that considers the inheritance of two different traits
simultaneously.
MONOHYBRID CROSS

• It is a genetic cross between two individuals that focuses on the

inheritance of a single trait.
• In this type of cross, only one gene, with two different alleles, is
considered.
• The individuals being crossed can be either homozygous (having
two identical alleles) or heterozygous (having two different
alleles) for the gene in question.

Example:
In pea plants, spherical seeds (A) are dominant to dented seeds (a).
In a genetic cross of two plants that are heterozygous for the seed
shape trait.
Identify the genotype and Phenotype of the offspring.
Example:
In pea plants, spherical seeds (A) are dominant to dented seeds (a).
In a genetic cross of two plants that are heterozygous for the seed shape trait.
Identify the genotype and Phenotype of the offspring.

Parents Genotype: Aa x Aa

A a GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE
AA Spherical Seeds
A AA Aa Aa Spherical Seeds
a Aa aa aa Dented Seeds
GENOTYPIC RATIO: 1:2:1 PHENOTYPIC RATIO: 3:1
DIHYBRID CROSS

• It is a genetic cross between two individuals that considers the

inheritance of two different traits simultaneously.
• In this type of cross, two genes located on different
chromosomes are involved, with each gene having two alleles.
• They are used to study the inheritance of multiple traits and the
interaction between genes.

Example:
A pea plant that is heterozygous for round, yellow seeds is self-
fertilized, what are the phenotypic ratios of the resulting offspring?
Example:
A pea plant that is heterozygous for round, yellow seeds is self-fertilized, what are
the phenotypic ratios of the resulting offspring?

Let us use “R” for the seed shape and “Y” for the seed color.
RrYy x RrYy
RY Ry rY ry
(RrYy)(RrYy)
RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
PARENT 1 PARENT 2
F – RY F – RY
Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy
O – Ry
I – rY
O – Ry
I – rY
rY RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYY
L – ry L – ry ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
 GENOTYPE PHENOTYPE
RRYY Round and Yellow
RY Ry rY ry RRYy Round and Yellow
RrYY Round and Yellow
RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy
RrYy Round and Yellow
Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy Rryy Round and green

rY RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYY Rryy Round and green

rrYY wrinkled and Yellow
ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy
rrYy wrinkled and Yellow
rryy wrinkled and green
GENOTYPIC RATIO: PHENOTYPIC RATIO:
4:2:2:2:2:1:1:1:1 9:3:3:1
GENETICS
It is the study of heredity, exploring how traits are passed
down from parents to offspring through the study of
genes and DNA.

DEFINITION OF LAWS OF
INHERITANCE

Laws of inheritance are the rules that describe how traits

are passed down from parents to offspring through genes.
THREE LAWS OF INHERITANCE

Law of Dominance: This law states that some alleles are

dominant and others are recessive.

Law of Segregation: This law states that paired unit

factors (genes) must segregate equally into gametes such
that offspring have an equal likelihood of inheriting either
factor.

Law of Independent Assortment: This law states that

genes for different traits are inherited independently of
each other.
24 6/15/2023 Add a footer
 SEX LINKAGE
AND
RECOMBINATION
STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-2
SEX
LINKAGE
 DEFINITION OF TERMS
SEX LINKED TRAIT X-LINKED TRAIT Y-LINKED TRAIT
The gene (pair) A sex-linked trait is A sex-linked trait
that determines a where the gene or where the gene or
character is allele for the trait allele for the trait
located on the sex is found on the X is found on the Y
chromosomes. chromosome. chromosome.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
HEMOPHILIAC HOLANDRIC
a person located on Y
affected with chromosome
hemophilia
Role of Sex
Chromosomes in Humans
1. X Chromosomes contains genetic information for
both
sexes
2. Male determining gene is on the Y chromosome
3. Absence of Y results in femaleness
4. Genes affecting fertility on both X and Y
chromosomes
5. Addition chromosomes (X) may upset development
in both males and females
TYPES OF SEX
LINKAGE
1. X LINKED TRAIT
01  C O L O R B L I N D N E S S
◦ An X-linked recessive trait where an affected
individual could not distinguish red from green color
(red green color blindness)
◦ Most common form of color deficiency
◦ Affects red and green photoreceptors of the
retina of the eyes
02 H E M O P H I L I A
◦ An X-linked recessive trait where an affected
individual suffers from delayed blood clotting
during injuries because of the absence of
certain blood clotting factors
◦ Royals or bleeders disease
 LAB PICTURE
Images help us understand the theory.
03 F R A G I L E X S Y N D R O M E
An X-linked dominant disorder caused by
mutations in genes on the X chromosome
Causes a range of developmental problems
including learning disabilities and cognitive
impairment.
Usually, males are more severely affected by
this disorder than females.
2. Y LINKED TRAIT
01 HYPERTRICHOSIS PINNAE AURIS
A Y-linked trait where affected males have
hair growing from their external ears
If a male has the allele responsible for the
trait, then his Y chromosome will possess
that allele
SEX-INFLUENCED TRAIT
Genes are located on autosomal loci of both sexes
Hormonal or physiological differences between
the sexes cause differences of expression of
certain genes
Baldness in humans as an example of a sex-
influenced trait.
B as the dominant allele for baldness and b as the
recessive normal allele.
 RECOMBINATION
Recombination is a process by which
pieces of DNA are broken and
recombined to produce new
combinations of alleles. This
recombination process creates
genetic diversity at the level of genes
that reflects differences in the DNA
sequences of different organisms.
 RECOMBINATION
One of the most notable examples of recombination takes place during meiosis (specifically, during
prophase I), when homologous chromosomes line up in pairs and swap segments of DNA.

Genetic recombination during Meiosis

APPLICATIONS
OF
RECOMBINANT
DNA
BENEFITS WE CAN GET FROM
RECOMBINANT DNA

1. AGRICULTURE
2. MEDICINE
3. FOOD INDUSTRY
1 AGRICULTURE

TRANSGENIC PLANTS
or plants that contain genes from
other organisms. This technology
reduces the need for synthetic or
artificial insecticides
and pesticides.
BACTERIA USED IN RECOMBINANT
DNA TECHNOLOGY

1. PSEUDOMONAS SYRIANGE

2. PSEUDOMONAS FLOURESCENS

3. AGROBACTERIUM TUMEFACIENS
 OTHER APPLICATIONS
OF RECOMBINANT DNA
TO AGRICULTURE
B. GENETICALLY ENGINEERED
TRAITS: THE BIG SIX
A. CROP 1. Herbicide Resistance C. BIOTECH REVOLUTION:
IMPROVEMENT 2. Insect Resistance COLD AND DROUGHT
3. Virus Resistance TOLERANCE AND
4. Altered Oil Content WEATHER- GUARD GENES
5. Delayed Fruit Ripening
6. Pollen Control
2 MEDICINE

An important contribution of recombinant DNA

technology in the field of medicine is the use of
bacteria to create substances that our body
needs whether to maintain good health or to
treat a disease. For example, human insulin is
create using recombinant DNA to help diabetics.
 OTHER MEDICAL
APPLICATIONS OF
RECOMBINANT DNA
TECHNOLOGY

1. PRODUCTION OF PROTEINS FOR REPLACEMENT THERAPY

(E.G. INSULIN), DISEASE PREVENTION (E.G. VACCINES) AND
DIAGNOSTIC TESTS (E.G. MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES).

2. TREATMENT OF GENETIC DISEASES (GENE THERAPY).

3 FOOD INDUSTRY
Some of the crops that we eat are now resistant
to pests, diseases, and environmental stress. As
a result, crop yields have increased and
production costs have been kept lowered.
Recombinant crops are also beneficial because
of their improved nutritional quality and longer
shelf life.
The greatest single achievement
of nature to date was surely the
invention of the molecule DNA.
- Dr. Lewis Thomas
 Molecular
Structure of
DNA, RNA, & Proteins
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID
 DNA in Forensic Science
Crime Scene
DNA fingerprinting is an
Sample Suspect 1 Suspect 2 Suspect 3
essential tool in forensic
Locus 1 science. It does not precisely
determine the suspect's
identity but helps narrow it
Locus 2
down.

Locus 3 Which suspect's DNA closely

matches the sample from the
crime scene?
 THE DISCOVERY

James Watson and

Francis Crick
In 1953, they concluded that the
DNA molecule appears as a
three-dimensional double helix.

Rosalind Franklin
and Maurice Wilkins
They used X-ray crystallography
to study DNA's structure, which
helped Watson and Crick with
their discovery.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DNA

DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
Made of monomers; building
blocks of any nucleic acid called
nucleotides.
DNA Double Helix
Consists of two nucleotide chains
Each nucleotide consists of a
sugar molecule, a phosphate
group, and a nitrogen-containing
base.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DNA

Hydrogen bonds between complementary bases hold DNA's two

polynucleotide chains.

Complementary Base Pairs of DNA

Adenine (A) bonds with thymine (T).

Cytosine (C) bonds with guanine (G).

 APPLE IN THE TREE CAR IN THE GARAGE

Adenine in the Thymine Cytosine in the Guanine

 DNA STRUCTURE

DNA has three main components; Sugar-

Phosphate
Backbones
1 NITROGENOUS BASE
(A, T, C, or G) Base Pairs

PHOSPHATE
3
GROUP 2

SUGAR
Deoxyribose
Cytosine - Guanine
Adenine - Thymine
Did You Know?
The sequence or order of the
bases in a specific DNA strand is
related to the expression of
specific traits and qualities.

For example, the sequence GTC

ATT might be responsible for
curly brown hair, while GTC AAT
might be responsible for straight
black hair.
 FUNCTIONS OF DNA

It stores genetic information necessary for

organisms to develop, survive, and reproduce.

Damage to DNA may cause cells to stop

dividing, cell death, or become malignant.
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
 THE DISCOVERY

Friedrich Miescher
In 1861, the discovery of RNA
began with the discovery of
nucleic acids by Friedrich
Miescher who called the material
'nuclein' since it was found in the
nucleus.
 WHAT IS RNA?

RNA or Ribonucleic acid is a polymeric

molecule essential in various
biological roles in coding, decoding,
regulation and expression of genes.
It is a molecule that is present in the
majority of living organisms and viruses.
It is made up of nucleotides, which are
ribose sugars attached to nitrogenous
bases and phosphate groups.
 STRUCTURE OF RNA

RNA mostly exists in the single-stranded

form, but there are special RNA viruses
that are double-stranded.

Made up of nucleotides, which are

ribose sugars attached to nitrogenous
bases and phosphate groups.
STRUCTURE OF RNA
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RNA

The means of RNA synthesis

and the way that it functions
differs between eukaryotes and
prokaryotes.

Transcription is the process of

RNA formation from DNA, and
translation is the process of
protein synthesis from RNA.
 TYPES OF RNA

In all prokaryotic and eukaryotic

organisms, three main classes of RNA
exist

1.) Messenger RNA (m RNA)

2.) Transfer RNA (t RNA)
3.) Ribosomal RNA (r RNA)

The other are

•small nuclear RNA (SnRNA)
•micor RNA (mi RNA) and
• small interfering RNA (Si RNA)
•heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA)
 FUNCTIONS OF RNA

The primary function of RNA is

to create proteins via
translation. RNA carries genetic
information that is translated
by ribosomes into various
proteins necessary for cellular
processes. mRNA, rRNA, and
tRNA are the three main types
of RNA involved in protein
synthesis.
 FUNCTIONS OF RNA

RNA also serves as the primary

genetic material for viruses.
Other functions include RNA
editing, gene regulation, and
RNA interference. These
processes are carried out by a
group of small regulatory RNAs,
which include small nuclear
RNA, microRNA, and small
interfering RNA.
COMPLEMENTARY BASE PAIR OF
RNA

The base pair of RNA shares

Adenine (‘A’), Guanine (‘G’) and
Cytosine (‘C’) with DNA, but
contains Uracil (‘U’) rather than
Thymine.
 APPLE IN THE TREE CAR IN THE GARAGE

Adenine in the Uracil Cytosine in the Guanine

Summary: Features of DNA and RNA

DNA RNA

Involved in protein synthesis

Repository of genetic and gene regulation; carrier of
Function
information genetic information in some
viruses

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Structure Double helix Usually single-stranded

Bases C, T, A, G C, U, A, G
Difference between DNA and RNA
PROTEINS
 WHAT IS PROTEINS?

Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many

critical roles in the body. They do most of the work in
cells and are required for the structure, function, and
regulation of the body’s tissues and organs.
Proteins are made up of hundreds or thousands of
smaller units called amino acids, which are attached to
one another in long chains. There are 20 different types
of amino acids that can be combined to make a protein.
The sequence of amino acids determines each protein’s
unique 3-dimensional structure and its specific function.
Amino acids are coded by combinations of three DNA
building blocks (nucleotides), determined by the
sequence of genes.
 THE DISCOVERY

The importance of proteins was

recognized by chemists in the
early 19th century, including
Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob
Berzelius, who in 1838 coined the
term protein, a word derived
from the Greek prōteios,
meaning “holding first place.”
 STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS

Biochemists have distinguished several

levels of structural organization of proteins.
They are:

1. Primary structure
2. Secondary structure
3. Tertiary structure
4. Quaternary structure
 STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS

The primary structure is comprised of a linear

chain of amino acids. The secondary structure
contains regions of amino acid chains that are
stabilized by hydrogen bonds from the
polypeptide backbone. These hydrogen bonds
create alpha-helix and beta-pleated sheets of
the secondary structure. The three-
dimensional shape of a protein, its tertiary
structure, is determined by the interactions of
side chains from the polypeptide backbone.
The quaternary structure also influences the
three-dimensional shape of the protein and is
formed through the side-chain interactions
between two or more polypeptides.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTEINS

Contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

nitrogen, and sulfur
Serve as structural components of
animals
Serve as control molecules (enzymes)
Serve as transport and messenger
molecules
Basic building block is the amino acid
 FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

Protein is vital in the maintenance of body tissue, including

development and repair.
Protein is the major source of energy.
Protein is involved in the creation of some hormones, help
control body functions that involve the interaction of
several organs and help regulate cell growth.
Protein produces enzymes that increase the rate of
chemical reactions in the body.
Proteins transport small molecules through the organism.
Hemoglobin is the protein that transports oxygen to the
cells and it is called as transport protein.
 FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

Proteins called antibodies help rid the body of foreign

proteins and help prevent infections, illnesses, and
diseases.
Protein help store other substance in the organism. For
example, iron is stored in the liver in a complex with the
protein ferritin.
Proteins help mediate cell responses, such as the protein
rhodopsin, found in the eye and involved in the vision
process.
Proteins make up a large protein of muscle fiber and
help in the movement of various parts of our bodies.
Skin and bone contain collagen, a fibrous protein.
 Steps in DNA
replication and
protein
synthesis
GROUP 4
STEPS IN DNA
REPLICATION
DNA REPLICATION
1. INITIATION
The replication of DNA starts at a
specific site called the origin of
replication. An enzyme called
helicase unwinds the double helix
and breaks the hydrogen bonds
between the complementary
nitrogenous bases, separating the
two strands of DNA.
3. TERMINATION
Once the DNA polymerase
2. ELONGATION reaches the end of the
The next step is elongation, template strand, it falls
during which the enzyme off the DNA molecule. Two
DNA polymerase adds new identical DNA molecules are
nucleotides to the original produced, each consisting
template strands. The of one original and one new
nucleotides are added in a strand.
specific order,
complementary to the
original strand.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
1. INITIATION
Transcription starts when RNA
polymerase binds to a specific site
on the DNA molecule called the
promoter region. The DNA double
helix is unwound, and one of the
strands serves as the template for
RNA synthesis.
3. TERMINATION
2. ELONGATION When the RNA
RNA polymerase adds polymerase reaches a
nucleotides to the growing specific site on the DNA
RNA molecule in a specific molecule called the
order, complementary to terminator region, it
the DNA template strand. As falls off the DNA
the RNA polymerase moves molecule. The newly
along the DNA, the double synthesized RNA
helix reforms behind it. molecule is released.
GENETIC
ENGINEERING
PROCESS
Genetic engineering refers to
the process of manipulating an
organism's genetic material to
introduce specific changes or
traits. It involves altering the
DNA sequence of an organism,
which can be achieved through
various techniques.
STEP 1:
Collection of Donor
(Human) DNA
STEP 2:
Isolation of Plasmid
from Bacteria
STEP 3:
Enzymes cut DNA
into pieces.
STEP 4:
Insulin Genes and
Plasmid Pieces Join
Making Complete
Plasmids.
STEP 5:
Bacterial cells take in
plasmids by
transformation.
STEP 6:
Bacteria with the
insulin gene are
separated and grown
STEP 7:
Large amount of
bacteria are grown:
insulin is produced
and collected.
STRUCTURAL AND
DEVELOPMENTAL
CHARACTERISTICS
OF DNA
 Lesson Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

Determine the structural and developmental

01
characteristics of DNA;
Identify the unique/ distinctive characteristics of a
02
specific taxon relative to other taxa;
Differentiate the 5 kingdom scheme of classification
03
of living things.
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Contains information that determines inherited
characteristics; found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.i
Every cell are passed down from parents to their
offspring.

DNA is made up of nucleotides that contains a phosphate

group, a sugar group, and a nitrogen base;

The DNA molecule consists of two strands that wind around

one another to form a shape known as a double helix.
 But DNA is not the direct template for protein production.
To make a protein, the cell makes a copy of the gene, using not
DNA but ribonucleic acid, or RNA. This RNA copy, called
messenger RNA, tells the cell's protein-making machinery which
amino acids to string together into a protein, according to
"Biochemistry" (W. H. Freeman and Company, 2002). DNA
molecules are long so long, in fact, that they cannot fit into
cells without the right packaging. To fit inside cells, DNA is
coiled tightly to form structures called chromosomes. Each
chromosome contains a single DNA molecule. Humans have 23
pairs of chromosomes, which are found inside each cell's
nucleus.
DNA model Phospate deoxyribose
nitrogen bases

Adenine purines;
Guanine 2 ring structure

thymine pyramidines;
cytosine 1 ring structure

adenine
(AT2)
thymine 2 HYDROGEN BOND

(cg3)
guanine 3 HYDROGEN BOND
JAMES WATSON AND FRANCIS CRICK cytosine
MAURICE WILKINS AND ROSALIND FRANKLIN
 The DNA molecule consists of two strands that wind around
one another to form a shape known as a double helix. Each
strand has a backbone made of alternating sugar (deoxyribose)
and phosphate groups. Attached to each sugar is one of four
bases--adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).

DNA has three types of chemical component: phosphate, a

sugar called deoxyribose, and four nitrogenous bases- adenine,
guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Two of the bases, adenine, and
guanine, have a double-ring structure characteristic of a type
of chemical called a purine. Whereas pyrimidine is an aromatic
heterocyclic organic compound like pyridine
 A molecule of DNA consists of two strands that form a
double helix structure. DNA is a macromolecule consisting of
two strands that twist around a common axis in a shape
called a double helix. DNA is made up of molecules called
nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a
sugar group, and a nitrogen base.
 Four chemical bases make up DNA coding: adenine (A), guanine
(G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). Base pairs are created when
bases A and T pair up and bases C and G pair up. These base
pairs link to a phosphate molecule and a sugar molecule,
creating a larger structure known as a nucleotide. Nucleotides
are arranged into spiral formations called double helixes. The
double helix is built similarly to a ladder - the rungs are made of
base pairs (either A&T combinations or C&G combinations) and
the side pieces are made of sugar and phosphate molecules.
DNA replication is critical to new cells. All new cells must have an
exact copy of the DNA that was present in originating cells.
 A copy of the hereditary "blueprint" is important because it
directs cellular activity and overall biological development.
Fortunately. each strand of the double helix can serve as a
pattern for duplication. DNA sequencing is unique in humans. Aside
from rare cases of identical twins, no two people will share the
same exact DNA. However, of the roughly three billion base pairs
that complete the human genome, more than 99 percent are the
same in all people. The closest living relative to humans, the
chimpanzee, shares 96 percent of our DNA. Despite a seemingly
high comparison rate, human, and chimpanzees still have 40 million
different DNA molecules.
DNA IN CLASSIFYING
LIVING THINGS
 Very likely your mental image was a visual one like the
picture. Humans primarily emphasize traits that can be seen
with their eyes since they mostly rely on their sense of vision.
However, there is no reason that an elephant or any other
organism could not be described in terms of touch, smell,
and/or sound as well. Think about an elephant again but this
time in terms of non-visual traits. The field of study that
determines how living things are classified is called taxonomy.
Scientists look the DNA sequence of the organism and compare
it to other living organisms. In some genes, the DNA sequence is
the same for all members of the same species.
 A DNA barcode is simply the sequence of molecules in a
specific stretch of DNA. It identifies a species at the
molecular level. DNA barcoding improves on Linnaean.
taxonomy. Scientists classify living things at eight
different levels: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order,
family, genus, and species. Besides domains, the largest
groupings are called kingdoms, and there are five kingdoms
into which living things fit: Monera, Protist, Fungi, Plant,
Animal. Scientists can now classify living things according
to DNA.
 THE UNIQUE/ DISTINCTIVE
CHARACTERISTICS OF A SPECIFIC
TAXON RELATIVE TO OTHER TAXA
 TAXONOMY
Is the science of classifying organisms. It results in
classifications that allows storage, retrieval, and
communication of information about organisms.

Taxonomy is the branch of biology that groups and names

organisms based on studies of their shared characteristics
The method of taxonomy includes: the discovery of species, the
recognition and diagnosing of taxa based on characters (e.g.,
morphological,molecular, behavioral, etc.), the formal description and
naming of species, and the placement of species within a hierarchical
classification.
 TAXONOMIC GROUPS

In Linnaean classification, species are placed in groups

within moreinclusive groups. Living organisms are divided
into taxa (singular, taxon).

The taxa range from having very broad characteristics

into much more specific characteristics.
• As you can see from Figure 1.3, a
comparison between a raccoon and
a guinea pig’s taxonomic groups,species is the most
specific group. A genus is a group of similar species. A
family is a taxon of similar genera. An order is a taxon of
similar families. A class is a taxon of similar orders. A
phylum is a taxon of similar classes, sometimes described
asdivision. A kingdom is a taxon of similar phylum or phyla.
Lastly, a domain is a taxon of similar kingdom.
Most of us know that early scientists classified organisms into
two kingdoms: plants and animals. However, in the late 1960s,
many biologists have organized and recognized a five (5) kingdom
scheme.
 KINGDOM MONERA

Monera is a kingdom in biology that comprises prokaryotes, which are single-celled

organism that have no true nucleus.

Monera is the most ancient group of organisms on earth, as well as the

most numerous.
 KINGDOM PROTISTA

Protists are simple eukaryotic organisms that are neither plants nor
animals or fungi. Protists are unicellular in nature but can also be found as
a colony of cells. Most protists live in water, damp terrestrial
environments or even as parasites.
KINGDOM PLANTAE
 KINGDOM PLANTAE
The kingdom plantae can be defined as multicellular, autotrophic
eukaryotes, which conduct photosynthesis. All member of this
family comprises of true nucleus and advanced membrane
bound organelles.

The Kingdom Plantae contains about 300.000 different

species of plants. Among the five kingdoms, Kingdom
plantae is a very important, as they are the source of
food for all other living creatures present on planet
earth, which depends on plants to Survive.
KINGDOM FUNGI
 KINGDOM FUNGI
Eukaryotic organisms.
Can be unicellular or multicellular.
Their cells have a chitin cell wall.
Immobile organisms.
They live preferably in humid places.
They grow in the soil, on plants, on food ...
Can be classified into yeasts, molds and fungi that form
mushrooms.
KINGDOM ANIMALIA
 KINGDOM ANIMALIA
Is a large group that consists of
eukaryotic, multicellular organisms
that are heterotrophic in nature. As
such, they obtain their nutrition from
external sources. Although they are
unable to produce their own food, which
is one of the main defining
characteristics of plants, animal cells
lack a cell wall that is present in plant
cells.
TWO MAJOR GROUPS OF KINGDOM ANIMALIA

VERTEBRATES
Are organisms which have an internal
backbone surrounded by bone. They
have a hard skeleton made of bone,
that supports the body's tissue and
anchor muscle.
Example:
INVERTEBRATES

An invertebrate is an
animal without a
backbone.

About 98 percent of
all animals are
invertebrates.
Lesson: Sex Linkage and Recombination
Sex linkage refers to the inheritance of certain traits that are associated with the sex
chromosomes. In humans, sex determination is controlled by two sex chromosomes: X and Y.
Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
The presence of genes on the sex chromosomes can lead to unique patterns of inheritance.
1. Sex-Linked Inheritance:
- Genes located on the X or Y chromosome are called sex-linked genes.
- Since males only have one copy of the X chromosome, any allele present on the X
chromosome will be expressed, regardless of whether it is recessive or dominant.
- In females, the presence of two X chromosomes allows for the possibility of being a carrier for
a recessive sex-linked trait.
- Common examples of sex-linked traits in humans include color blindness and hemophilia.
2. X-Linked Inheritance:
- X-linked inheritance refers specifically to the inheritance of genes located on the X
chromosome.
- If a female carries a recessive allele for an X-linked trait, she will generally not express the trait
unless she has two copies of the recessive allele.
- Males, on the other hand, have a higher chance of expressing X-linked traits because they only
possess one X chromosome.
- X-linked recessive disorders, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, are more commonly
observed in males.
3. Recombination:
- Recombination is the process by which genetic material is exchanged between homologous
chromosomes during meiosis.
- It occurs during the formation of gametes (sperm and eggs) and leads to the creation of
genetically diverse offspring.
- During recombination, maternal and paternal chromosomes align and exchange segments of
genetic material through crossover events.
- The frequency of recombination can vary across different regions of chromosomes.

Lesson: Application of Recombinant DNA

Recombinant DNA technology has revolutionized various fields, including medicine, agriculture,
and biotechnology. It involves the manipulation and combination of DNA from different sources to
create novel genetic constructs. Here are some applications of recombinant DNA:
1. Medical Applications:
- Production of therapeutic proteins: Recombinant DNA technology allows for the production of
important proteins, such as insulin and growth hormones, in large quantities. These proteins can
be used for the treatment of various diseases.
 - Gene therapy: Recombinant DNA techniques are employed to deliver functional genes into
cells to correct genetic disorders or treat diseases caused by faulty genes.
- DNA fingerprinting: DNA analysis techniques based on recombinant DNA technology, such as
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), are used for forensic investigations and paternity testing.
2. Agricultural Applications:
- Crop improvement: Recombinant DNA technology enables the introduction of desirable traits,
such as pest resistance, drought tolerance, and improved nutritional content, into crops.
- Genetically modified organisms (GMOs): Recombinant DNA techniques are used to create
genetically modified plants and animals with enhanced characteristics, such as increased crop
yield or disease resistance.
3. Environmental Applications:
- Bioremediation: Recombinant DNA technology can be used to engineer microorganisms
capable of degrading or detoxifying environmental pollutants.
- Biofuel production: Recombinant DNA techniques are employed to develop microorganisms or
plants that can efficiently produce biofuels as a renewable energy source.
4. Research and Biotechnology:
- Production of recombinant proteins: Recombinant DNA technology allows for the production of
proteins for research purposes or as therapeutic agents.
- Creation of transgenic animals: Recombinant DNA techniques are used to introduce foreign
genes into animals, enabling the study of gene function and disease modeling.
In conclusion, recombinant DNA technology has diverse applications across various fields,
contributing to advancements in medicine, agriculture, environmental remediation, and scientific
research. Its ability to manipulate genetic material has opened up new possibilities for solving
problems and improving the quality of life.
Lesson: Molecular Structure of DNA, RNA, and Proteins
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid), RNA (Ribonucleic Acid), and proteins are fundamental biomolecules
that play crucial roles in the functioning of living organisms. Understanding their molecular
structures is essential for comprehending their functions and interactions within cells.
1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):
- DNA is a double-stranded nucleic acid that carries the genetic information in all living
organisms.
- Molecular Structure:
- DNA consists of two long strands twisted around each other in a double helix shape.
- Each strand is composed of repeating units called nucleotides.
- A nucleotide consists of three components: a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate
group, and a nitrogenous base.
- There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G),
and thymine (T).
- Adenine pairs with thymine, and cytosine pairs with guanine through hydrogen bonds, forming
complementary base pairs.
- The double helix structure of DNA is stabilized by these base pairing interactions.
2. RNA (Ribonucleic Acid):
- RNA is a single-stranded nucleic acid that plays a vital role in gene expression and protein
synthesis.
- Molecular Structure:
- RNA shares similarities with DNA but has some structural differences.
- It contains the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose found in DNA.
- RNA also has the same nitrogenous bases as DNA (adenine, cytosine, guanine) except
thymine is replaced by uracil (U).
- RNA can fold into complex secondary and tertiary structures, enabling it to perform various
functions.
- There are different types of RNA, including messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA),
and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), each with specific roles in protein synthesis.
3. Proteins:
- Proteins are essential macromolecules involved in various cellular processes and functions.
- Molecular Structure:
- Proteins are polymers composed of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
- Amino acids are small organic molecules with a central carbon atom, an amino group, a
carboxyl group, and a variable side chain (R-group).
- The sequence of amino acids determines the primary structure of a protein.
- Proteins can fold into intricate three-dimensional structures dictated by the interactions
between amino acid side chains, forming secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.
 - The specific structure of a protein determines its function, such as enzymatic activity,
transport, or structural support.
In conclusion, DNA, RNA, and proteins have distinct molecular structures that contribute to their
unique functions in cellular processes. DNA carries genetic information, RNA participates in gene
expression and protein synthesis, and proteins execute a wide range of essential functions within
living organisms. Understanding their structures is crucial for comprehending their roles in
biological systems.

Lesson: DNA Replication and Protein Synthesis

DNA replication and protein synthesis are vital processes that occur within cells, enabling the
transmission of genetic information and the production of functional proteins. Let's explore the
steps involved in each process.
1. DNA Replication:
- DNA replication is the process by which a cell makes an identical copy of its DNA during cell
division.
- Steps in DNA Replication:
1. Initiation: Replication begins at specific sites called origins of replication. Enzymes called
helicases unwind and separate the DNA double helix, creating a replication fork.
2. Elongation: DNA polymerase enzymes add complementary nucleotides to each separated
DNA strand. The leading strand is synthesized continuously, while the lagging strand is
synthesized in small fragments called Okazaki fragments.
3. Priming and Primase: Primase synthesizes short RNA primers on the lagging strand to
initiate DNA synthesis.
4. DNA Synthesis: DNA polymerase adds nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction, using the parental
DNA strands as templates. The leading strand is synthesized continuously, while the lagging
strand is synthesized in a discontinuous manner.
5. Proofreading and Repair: DNA polymerase proofreads the newly synthesized DNA,
correcting any errors. DNA ligase joins the Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand, creating a
continuous DNA strand.
6. Termination: Replication is completed when the entire DNA molecule is replicated, resulting
in two identical DNA molecules.
2. Protein Synthesis:
- Protein synthesis, also known as translation, is the process by which cells produce proteins
based on the instructions encoded in the DNA.
- Steps in Protein Synthesis:
1. Transcription: In the nucleus, DNA is transcribed into mRNA (messenger RNA). RNA
polymerase binds to a specific region of DNA called the promoter and synthesizes a
complementary mRNA molecule.
2. RNA Processing: The initial mRNA transcript, called pre-mRNA, undergoes processing.
Introns (non-coding regions) are removed, and exons (coding regions) are spliced together to form
mature mRNA.
 3. mRNA Export: The mature mRNA molecule is transported out of the nucleus and into the
cytoplasm, where protein synthesis occurs.
4. Translation: In the cytoplasm, mRNA binds to ribosomes, and the process of translation
begins. Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules bring amino acids to the ribosome, guided by the codons
(three-nucleotide sequences) on the mRNA. The ribosome catalyzes the formation of peptide
bonds between the amino acids, forming a polypeptide chain.
5. Protein Folding and Modification: After translation, the polypeptide chain folds into its three-
dimensional structure, guided by chaperone proteins. Post-translational modifications, such as
adding sugar groups or phosphate groups, may occur to activate or modify the protein's function.
6. Protein Transport and Targeting: Some proteins undergo further processing and are
transported to specific cellular compartments or secreted outside the cell.
In conclusion, DNA replication ensures the accurate transmission of genetic information during cell
division, while protein synthesis translates the genetic code into functional proteins. Understanding
the steps involved in these processes is crucial for comprehending the mechanisms underlying
cellular function and inheritance.

Lesson: Processes Involved in Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering refers to the manipulation and alteration of an organism's genetic material to
introduce desired traits or produce specific products. It involves several key processes that enable
scientists to modify genetic information. Let's outline the main steps involved in genetic
engineering.
1. Gene Isolation:
- The first step in genetic engineering is to isolate the specific gene of interest from the source
organism's DNA.
- Various methods can be employed, such as restriction enzyme digestion, PCR (Polymerase
Chain Reaction), or gene synthesis.
2. Gene Cloning:
- Cloning the isolated gene allows for its amplification and subsequent manipulation.
- The gene is inserted into a suitable cloning vector, such as a plasmid or a viral vector, using
specific enzymes (e.g., DNA ligase) to create a recombinant DNA molecule.
- The recombinant DNA is then introduced into host cells, such as bacteria, using transformation
techniques.
3. Transformation and Host Cell Cultivation:
- Transformation involves introducing the recombinant DNA into host cells to enable them to
replicate and express the inserted gene.
- The transformed cells are cultivated under controlled conditions, allowing for the production of
large quantities of the desired gene or protein.
4. Gene Expression and Protein Production:
- Within the host cells, the recombinant gene is transcribed into mRNA and then translated into
the corresponding protein.
- The expressed protein can be harvested and purified for various applications.
5. Genetic Modification and Engineering:
- Additional genetic modifications can be made to the cloned gene or organism to enhance or
alter its characteristics.
- Techniques such as site-directed mutagenesis, gene knockout, or gene editing technologies
like CRISPR-Cas9 are employed to modify specific genes.
6. Applications of Genetic Engineering:
- Genetic engineering finds applications in various fields, including medicine, agriculture, and
industrial biotechnology.
- Examples include the production of therapeutic proteins, development of genetically modified
crops with improved traits, creation of disease models, and the production of enzymes or biofuels.
In conclusion, genetic engineering involves a series of steps, including gene isolation, cloning,
transformation, gene expression, and genetic modification. These processes enable the
manipulation and modification of genetic material, leading to advancements in various fields and
the development of novel products and technologies.

Lesson: Classification of Living Things and Identifying Unique Taxonomic Characteristics

1. Classification based on DNA Sequences:
- DNA sequences provide valuable information for classifying living organisms and determining
their evolutionary relationships.
- Structural and Developmental Characteristics:
- DNA sequences encode the genetic information that influences an organism's structural and
developmental characteristics.
- Variations in DNA sequences can lead to variations in physical traits, such as morphology,
physiology, and behavior.
- By comparing DNA sequences among different organisms, scientists can identify similarities
and differences in their genetic makeup.
- Relatedness of DNA Sequences:
- DNA sequences that are more similar between two organisms indicate a closer evolutionary
relationship and a more recent common ancestor.
- Comparing DNA sequences allows for the construction of phylogenetic trees, which illustrate
the evolutionary relatedness among different taxa.
2. Identifying Unique Taxonomic Characteristics:
- Taxa are hierarchical groups used to classify and categorize living organisms into different
levels, such as domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
- Each taxonomic level possesses unique characteristics that distinguish it from other taxa.
- Examples of Taxonomic Characteristics:
- Domain: Distinctive cellular structures, such as the presence of a nucleus (Eukarya) or
absence of a nucleus (Bacteria and Archaea).
- Kingdom: Mode of nutrition (e.g., autotrophs in Plantae, heterotrophs in Animalia).
 - Phylum: Structural features, body plans, or specialized adaptations (e.g., chordates in
Chordata).
- Genus and Species: Specific morphological traits, genetic markers, reproductive compatibility,
or ecological niches.
3. Comparative Analysis:
- Comparative analysis involves examining the characteristics of a specific taxon in relation to
other taxa to identify its unique or distinctive features.
- This analysis may include:
- Morphological features: Examining physical characteristics, such as body shape, size,
coloration, or specialized structures.
- Behavioral traits: Observing specific behaviors or patterns of activity.
- Genetic markers: Analyzing DNA sequences or genetic markers specific to the taxon.
- Ecological niche: Identifying the specific habitat, ecological role, or feeding habits of the taxon.
4. Importance of Unique Characteristics:
- Unique taxonomic characteristics help differentiate one taxon from others, providing valuable
information for classification and identification purposes.
- These characteristics also contribute to our understanding of an organism's evolutionary
history, adaptations, and ecological role.
In conclusion, DNA sequences, structural and developmental characteristics, and unique
taxonomic traits are essential tools in classifying living organisms and determining their
evolutionary relatedness. Comparative analysis allows for the identification of distinctive features
that set a specific taxon apart from others, aiding in their classification and understanding their
unique biological characteristics.