BIOLOGY OF HEREDITY( GENETICS)

The branch of Biology that is concerned with the study of heredity and variation in organism is
called genetics.

Heredity: Is the transmission of characters or traits in organisms from parents to offspring. It is

observed that offspring of a man, other plants and plants usually resemble their parents and also
resemble one another. This is because the offspring inherit characters or traits from their parents.

However, no offspring is exactly like their parents and no two children of the same parents are
exactly alike. The differences in characters that exist between parents and offspring is known as
variation.

Variation: The morphological and physiological differences which occurs within a species which
could be hereditary or acquired from the environment .

Characters that are can be transmitted are those controlled by genes and the sum total of the
genes that an offspring inherits from its parents is known as its genotype or genetic make – up. It
usually sets the limits within which characters can vary.

Variations shown by inherited characters may be due to’

1. The effect of the environment or

2. The use or misuse of body parts.
For example, a person may inherit genes for the development of light – coloured skin, but the
exact colour of any part of the skin is determined by extent to which it is exposed to sunlight.
The actual physical expression of characters is the organism’s phenotype, which is due to the
interaction between an organism genotype and its environment.

Some common terms used in genetics

These terms provide a foundational understanding of genetics and are essential for studying the
inheritance of traits and genetic variation.

1. Gene: A segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building a specific protein or
performing a specific function in an organism. Or basic units of inheritance responsible for
the transmission of characters from parents to offspring.
2. Allele: Different forms or variants of a gene. Alleles can be dominant or recessive.
3. Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism, often represented by the combination of
alleles for a particular gene.
4. Phenotype: The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism, which
result from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
5. Homozygous: When an individual has two identical alleles for a particular gene
(e.g., AA or aa).
6. Heterozygous: When an individual has two different alleles for a particular gene (e.g., Aa).
7. Dominant: An allele that, when present, will determine the phenotype, even if a recessive
allele is also present. Dominant alleles are typically represented with capital letters
(e.g., A).
 8. Recessive: An allele that is only expressed when two copies are present (homozygous).
Recessive alleles are typically represented with lowercase letters (e.g., a).
9. Chromosomes: Thread-like structures in the cell nucleus that carry genetic information in
the form of genes. Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
10. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The molecule that carries the genetic information in all
living organisms.
11. Mutation: A permanent change in the DNA sequence of an organism. Mutations can be
beneficial, harmful, or have no effect on an organism.
12. Genetic Trait: A specific characteristic or feature that is determined by one or more genes.
13. Codominance: When two different alleles for a gene are both expressed in the phenotype.
14. Incomplete Dominance: When the phenotype of a heterozygous individual is
intermediate between the two homozygous forms. For example, in incomplete dominance,
a red flower crossed with a white flower might produce pink flowers.
15. Pedigree: A chart or family tree that tracks the inheritance of a particular trait through
generations.
16. Genetic Disorder: A condition caused by abnormal or mutated genes, leading to health
problems or abnormal traits. Examples include cystic fibrosis, Down syndrome, and sickle
cell anemia.
17. Genetic Engineering: The modification of an organism's DNA to introduce or change
specific traits. It is often used in biotechnology and agriculture.
18. Genetic Counseling: A process in which individuals or couples at risk for inherited genetic
disorders receive information and support regarding their risks and options.
19. Filial generation: The offspring of parents make up the filial generation. The first, second
and third generations of offspring are known as the first, second and third filial generations
respectively and denoted by the symbols F1, F2 and F3 respectively, too.

TRANSMITTABLE CHARACTERS IN HUMAN BEINGS

- Body stature or shape
- Shape of head, nose and ear, also size of head, nose and ear.
- Colour of skin, hair and eye.
- Voice or speech, intelligence, height, blood grouping, baldness, tongue rolling, sickle cell
anaemia etc.
In plants, some characters can be transmitted, these includes;
- Height of plant
- Size or weight of fruit
- Sizes of leaf
- Taste of fruit, etc.

HOW CHARACTERS GET TRANSMITTED

Inherited characters are determined by genes. A diploid organism has two sets of chromosomes
referred to as homologues. Such an organism has two copies of each gene, with the copies
occupying identical locations or loci on the homologous chromosomes.

Diploid organisms produce gametes by meiosis in their reproductive organs. A male produces
sperm and female, egg cells. During – meiosis, the number of chromosomes in a cell is halved. The
gametes are therefore haploid, containing one set of chromosomes, hence only one copy of ech
gene.

During sexual reproduction, the gametes of a male and female fuse to form a zygote. Each zygote is
diploid as it gets one set of chromosomes from the gamete of each parent. Characters determined
by genes are thus transmitted from parents to offspring via gametes.

Male and female individuals that produce gametes form the parent(P) generation. Their offspring
form the first filial(F1) generation. The sexual union or mating is termed a cross (X).

A gene for a particular character may have alternative forms which the character in different way.

Gregor Mendel (1822 – 1884 ) is often referred to as the father of genetics. Gregor Mendel used
two major methods in conducting his experiments, there are monohybrid heritance and dihybrid
inheritance.

Monohybrid Inheritance

Monohybrid inheritance – mendel used artificial method to cross two different plants at a time
which differed in constrasting characters e.g tall and short plants. It is monohybrid and an
example of complete dominance.

The genotype for F1 is T t

The phenotype – all tall, but they are heterozygous(not – pure breed)

If there is self pollination to obtain second generation, we the following outcome below;

Genotypic ratio: 1 : 2 : 1

Phenotype: 3 : 1
Mendel’s First law of inheritance called law of segregation of genes state that genes are
responsible for the development of the individual and that they are independently transmitted
from one generation to another without undergoing any alteration. In other word, it can be stated
as, “each individual has two alleles for each trait, one inherited from each parent.

During gamete formation, these alleles segregate , so each gamete carries only one allele for each
trait.

Dihybrid Inheritance

Gregor mendel also carried out experiment in which he crossed plants with two pairs of
contrasting characters.

E.g a round and wrinkled seeds, also colour in yellow and green.

F2 cross pollinated each other.

RY Ry rY ry

RY RRYY RRYy RrYY RrYy

Ry RRYy RRyy RrYy Rryy

rY RrYY RrYy rrYY rrYy

ry RrYy Rryy rrYy rryy

4 types of seeds were produced from F1 generation

- Round and yellow seeds

- Wrinkle and tallow seeds
- Round and green seeds
- Wrinkle and green seeds
The phenotype is 9 : 3 : 3 : 1
Mendel second law of inheritance which is also known as law of independent assortment, it states
that, each character behaves as a separate unit and is inherited independently of any other
character. This means that the inheritance of one trait does not influence the inheritance of
another trait.

Law of Dominance: While not one of Mendel’s original laws, the concept of dominance is crucial to
his work. It suggests that one allele in a gene pair can mask the expression of the other,
determining the phenotype (observable trait). The dominant allele is expressed, while the
recessive alleles are present.

These laid the foundation for modern genetics and our understanding of how genetic traits are
inherited and passed down from one generation to the next.