FORCE AND PRESSURE (Ch 11)

Force could be a push or a pull. Force arises due to the interaction between two objects.
Force has magnitude as well as direction. Change in the speed of an object or the direction of its motion

or both implies a change in its state of motion.

Force acting on an object may cause a change in its state of motion or a change in its shape.
A force can act on an object with or without being in contact with it.
Force per unit area is called pressure. Liquids and gases exert pressure on the walls of their containers.
The pressure exerted by air around us is known as atmospheric pressure.
The strength of forces expressed by its magnitude
The force resulting due to the action of muscles is known as the muscular force.
The force acting on a unit area of a surface is called pressure
The force exerted by a charged body on another charged or uncharged body is known as electrostatic
force

FRICTION (ch-12)

In science, the common name of gases and liquids is fluids

The frictional force exerted by fluids is also called drag
Static friction comes into play when we try to move an object at rest. Sliding friction comes with play
when an object is sliding over another. Sliding friction is smaller than

static friction.
The substances which reduce friction are called lubricants.

SOUND (ch-13)

Sound is produced by vibrating objects.

In human beings, the vibration of the vocal cords produces sound
Sound travels through a medium (gas, liquid or solid).
It cannot travel in vacuum.
The loudness is expressed in a unit called decibel (dB).
Audible frequency is 20 to 20,000 Hz

CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT (ch 14)

The passage of an electric current through a conducting liquid causes chemical reactions. The resulting effects
are called chemical effects of currents.
The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material, by means of electricity, is called
electroplating

In 1800, a British chemist, William Nicholson (17531815), if electrodes were immersed in water, and a current
was passed, bubbles of oxygen and hydrogen were produced

SOME NATURAL PHENOMENA (ch-15)

There are two kinds of charges positive charge and negative charge
The electrical charges produced by rubbing are called static charges
An electroscope may be used to detect whether a body is charged or not
The process of transfer of charge from a charged object to the earth is called earthling
The process of electric discharge between clouds and the earth or between different clouds causes

lightning.
earthquake is a sudden shaking or trembling of the earth
Destructive energy of an earthquake is measured on the Richter scale. The earthquake measuring 7 or
more on Richter scale can cause severe damage to life and property.

The tremors produce waves on the surface of the earth. These are called seismic waves. The waves are recorded
by an instrument called the seismograph
Since earthquakes are caused by the movement of plates, the boundaries of the plates are the weak zones where
earthquakes are more likely to occur. The weak zones are also known as seismic or fault zones

LIGHT (ch 16)

Light is reflected from all surfaces. Regular reflection takes place when light is incident on smooth, polished
and regular surfaces.
Diffused/irregular reflection takes place from rough surfaces.
Two laws of reflection are
(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal drawn at the point of incidence to the
reflecting
surface,lie in the same
The light ray, which strikes any surface, is called the incident ray.
The ray that comes back from the surface after reflection is known as the reflected ray
Image formed by a mirror the left of the object appears on the right and the right appears on the left. This is
known as lateral inversion.
All the parallel rays reflected from a plane surface are not parallel, the reflection is known as diffused or
irregular reflection
Splitting of light into its colours is known as dispersion of light
Our Eyes
Its transparent front part is called cornea
dark muscular structure called iris
In the iris, there is a small opening called the pupil. The size of
pupil is controlled by the iris.

the

The lens focuses light on the back of the eye, on a layer called retina
There are two kinds of cells
(i) cones, which are sensitive to bright light and
(ii) rods, which are sensitive to dim light
At the junction of the optic nerve and the retina, there are no sensory cells, so no vision is possible at that spot.
This is called the blind spot
Louis Braille, himself a visually challenged person, developed a system for visually challenged persons and
published it in 1821