PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION & Contemporary Social Issues

PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION
&
Contemporary Social Issues
PROF. DR. MUHAMMAD AMIN
In Collaboration With
INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION &

RESEARCH UNIVERSITY OF
PESHAWAR
PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION
&
PROF. DR. MUHAMMAD AMIN

Ex. Asstt: Educational Advisor
Ex. Director/ Member K.P.K.P. Text Book Board
Director Planning & Development
Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan
In Collaboration With
INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION &

RESEARCH UNIVERSITY OF
PESHAWAR
All rights reserved with the Author
Authors:
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Amin
Book:
Perspectives of Education and

1st Edition:
March, 2000
nd
August, 2001
rd
December, 2003
th
April, 2006
th
November, 2009
th
6 Edition:
February, 2013
Composer:
M. Nawaz Khan Abbasi
2 Edition:
3 Edition:
4 Edition:
5 Edition:
0345-9100738
Printers:
Ijaz Printers, Peshawar
Quantity:
1000
Price:
200/-
Available at all leading book shops
FOREWORD
Perspectives of Education and Contemporary Social Issues is,
no doubt a very important discipline in the galaxies of the prominent
subjects of Education. As a matter of fact utmost priority is given to this
besides being highly focused upon approximately, in all centers of research
and seats of learning. Furthermore, it plays significant role in the polishing
and brain washing of all learners as well as the aspirant researchers who
subsequently, attain the position of perfect educators. Being an important
subject, several books have been written on this topic, but by the grace of
Allah, the one that I have written, duly published for the first time in 2000
AD, is a unique one. The book under reference has got extreme popularity
since the first day of its coming into light.
This aim in view, the teachers and students of Education have
been persistently demanding this book of mine since its first publication,
several copies of which have been consumed during the last decade.
However, the edition before hand took comparatively longer span of time
to come to the surface. The reason was that I remained awfully engaged in
multifarious public duties, due to which I could not find time to get it
published. Just, recently, I found some time to pay attention to its revising
and reprinting in befitting manner. Since its last edition, in 2009 a large
number of its copies have been consumed and now we are proudly
presenting its 7th edition with minor changes (additions and alterations).
The most important additions & alterations made so far, are related to the
topics as given below:
1.
Education, Instruction and Curriculum. (old Unit (I) 1.4 in reference to

Instruction and Method of Herbart.)
2.
Influential Educators (Old Unit -3 )
3.
Education Policies
4.
Gender and Development (old Unit-9 No:9.2)
(Old unit-4)
ii
5.
Peace Education
(Old Unit-9 No: 9.4)
6.
Media and Advertising.(Old Unit-9 No: 9..5)
The following some more topics with revised version have been added in
the Units and places as mentioned above, respectively:
1. Herbart
Unit 2
Page
2. Froebel
Unit-2
Page
3. Maria Montessori,
Unit-2
Page
4. Education Poli, 2009
Unit 4
Page
5. Education and Conflict Resolution
Unit 5
Page
6. Gender Equality in Pakistan.
Unit-5
Page
7. Media and Education
Unit 5
Page
The changes made this time are the rectifications of the past errors
as well as addition/alterations of some more points. We can say that these
are not only changes for the sake of change, but these rectifications were
very much essential and unavoidable. It is hoped that the book, after the
said changes would accomplish its desired goals and the readers would
benefit from it in all respects. It is possible that there might be still some
short comings in this humble but important work of mine, but with the
appreciation and co-operation of the learned readers we would be able to
get it further refined.
The book before you is the result of years long research, hard
work and exhaustive educational/academic pursuits, which has now
reached to your hands. But, still we do not claim that all its contents are
final and authentically correct. Academic pursuits are nothing but
continuous processes and un-ending efforts. There may be some fruitful
and beneficial ideas in remote part of your mind which can further refine
this book. You are, therefore, requested to make it convenient to
communicate the same for further improvement.
iii
Thanks
Prof Dr. Muhammad Amin (Author)
iv
PREFACE
It was March the 6th, 2000 AD, when the first edition of my book i.e. Perspectives
of Education and Contemporary Social issues was published. At that time it was
very difficult to guess as to how many people or students would willingly accept
this as their favorite textbook for B.Ed. course, but within one year its second
edition was published which was again consumed with in the next one year.
My dear readers! All this became possible due to your appreciation and
encouragement. Now I am proud to issue the 3 rd edition of this book that contains
improved contents and well research topics. This book will serve students, as well
as teachers. You will find it as a new dimension towards Social Issues.
There are certain groups of people, who are involved in Piracy. Those people also
damaged my books, I found many books that were copied, with a minor change
from my books. I was shocked to see and find that they are not afraid of law to
print fake books. I consulted the authorities and they advised me to take action
against them, so I gave them legal notice. After my legal notice, they gave me
written apology and I accepted that. But they did it again and published the fake
book, which was copied from my book with minor change.
I am sure and confident that my well wishers and reading lovers will read my book
and avoid to buy the Piracy books. Piracy books will not give you the real taste of
knowledge, which you can find in my book. Also I appeal to the Government of
Pakistan to protect the Rights of Author and Stop the Piracy Culture by punishing
the people who are involved in Piracy.
I hope that this book in your hand shall be appreciated by all of you and you would
convey your comments to the undersigned for further improvement.
The Author
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD
PREFACE
III
TABLE OF CONTENTS
IV
UNIT-1:
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE
1.1
PHILOSOPHY
1.2
EPISTEMOLOGY (THEORY
1.3
THE GENERALLY KNOWN EDUCATIONAL THEORIES
15
1.4
NATURE VERSUS NURTURE:
29
1.5
EDUCATION
37
1.6
INDOCTRINATION, TRAINING
1.7
ANDRAGOGY VERSUS PEDAGOGY:
AND
AND
EDUCATION:
OF
KNOWLEDGE):
CULTURE:
AND
EDUCATION:
10
40
44
UNIT-2
47
PIONEERS IN EDUCATION
47
2.1
ROUSSEAU (JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU):
47
2.2
FROEBEL (1782
58
2.3
HERBART
74
2.4
MARIA MONTESSORI:
96
TO
1852)
UNIT-3
124
INFLUENTIAL EDUCATORS
124
3.1
IMAM GHAZALI:
124
3.2
JOHN DEWEY:
129
3.3
PAULO FREIRE:
140
3.5
ALLAMA IQBAL:
145
vi
UNIT-4
156
THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN 156

4.1
EDUCATIONAL CONFERENCE 1947:
156
4.2
REPORT OF
1959-60
158
4.3
THE EDUCATION POLICY 1972-80
167
4.6
NEW EDUCATION POLICY 2009:
189
COMMISSION
THE
ON
NATIONAL EDUCATION,
UNIT-5
202
CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL ISSUES
202
5.1
GLOBALIZATION
5.2
POPULATION GROWTH:
205
5.3
EDUCATION
224
5.4
GENDER EQUALITY
5.5
MEDIA
AND
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AND ITS
AND
CHALLENGES:
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
IN
PAKISTAN
EDUCATION
202
228
238
244
UNIT-1:
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVE
1.1 PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATION:
The Perspective and Philosophy of Education:
To know the past, present and the future problems of a teacher, the
study of the history of education in general and that of the contemporary
issues in particular is very much essential. Not only it plays an important
role to make him a successful teacher, but it gives courage and a moral
support to him. When he is aware of the odds and hardships faced by those
preceding personalities who were involved in the teaching/ learning
profession, he compares and contrasts his own atmosphere with that of
them; hence he learns more and more. Each system of education sets its
own aims and objectives which vary from time to time, environment to
environment and from nation to nation.
The following descriptions
proposition as stated above.
would
further
elaborate
the
1.
Apparently not of immediate importance or priority in the

teaching/ learning process in a class room, the acquisition of a
grounding of knowledge about the perspectives of education is
undoubtedly of great importance for everyone involved in work in
schools, as this helps in envisaging the future plans. The
collective memory of the past is vital for a teacher. By the very
nature of his work, the teacher will have a significant impact on
the future.
2.
Without recapitulation of the past theories, events, struggles,

movements and changes, it is difficult for anyone, including
2
teachers and educators of all kinds, to make sense of the
contemporary content in which they practice their profession. In
addition to that accurate comprehension of the education itself and
its allied complexes, could easily be attained with the help of this
study.
3.
Research, experimentation, procuring feedback and further

progress become more difficult for a teacher in the absence of the
knowledge of past histories.
4.
In the life of a teacher no improvement, development and

refinement tend to have a greater change of success if the
achievements and mistakes of the past are not acknowledged as
well as analyzed.
5.
The collective memory of the past is vital enabling the reader to

conceive a picture of a harmoniously developed human being
especially, a teacher.
6.
To reflect on the errors and the advancement made throughout the

world, so far, this study is much more essential for trainee
teachers.
7.
This study makes one educative and aware of the aggregation of

facts and events. It also bears upon to study the past, to know the
present and to build the future.
8.
This study further supplements the cognitive domain of the

teacher besides a lot more.
9.
He is acquainted with numerous new and old pedagogical

experimentation which helps in the refinement of his skill/job.
10.
This study enhances the performance of teachers, emancipates

them from the clutches of dependencies.
11.
Information like this and some more could be obtained from the
study under reference, which equips a teacher to meet challenges.
Education, its old and New Perceptions in

reference to its Philosophical Perspective:
It is a well known fact that lexicographically education means
to enable one to know at least three Rs (as per old classic perception) i.e.
Reading Writing and Arithmetic. But idiomatically education is a
continuous social action/process, which depicts the society. As it has come
into being only to meet the social needs/requirements of the society, it is
made to correspond with its characteristics. The agriculturists society
would stress upon the study of agriculture and that of an industrialist one,
on the know-how of industry. Similar is the case with the ancient and
modem societies.
The old concept of education is very simple. In those days needs
of the society were very limited. It was depicting the traditional sentiments
of the society. Therefore, the concept of education was limited. To gain the
skills of writing, reading, arithmetic and adopt the customs of their forefathers, were the main contents of their education. The teacher used to be
considered as the highly qualified individual and the student to be totally
ignorant. The students were never supposed to be able to make any
addition or alteration in the sayings of their teachers. So far the disciplines
are concerned firstly, they were extremely limited in number and secondly
their contents were confined to information and theories/ideas only. The
best form of education would be to memorize the facts/events and
reproduce (verbally) the same. Other academic activities i.e. co-curricular
activities were considered useless. The main task before them was to
replenish their brains with information only. However, the whole of the
education was restricted to the four walls of the school. It had quite a
separate world away from all the other environments. Employment would
never be the responsibility of education. Its nature was always purely
literary and the students/disciples would be nothing more than imitators.
The modern education is totally in contrast with the old theory.
This is quite comprehensive, useful and it is covering all aspects of a
students life. Education, hitherto is .not the name of only
4
teaching/learning. It is an indicator to and torch-bearer of the physical,
psychological, aesthetic, financial, and social urgencies of students
personalities. Notwithstanding several other responsibilities, it is
obligatory on the educational institutions to take care of the physical health
of the students, arrange for the satisfaction of their aesthetic taste, fulfill
their psychological needs and teach them the manners of leading a social
life.
Simultaneously, arrangements may also be made for innovative
and variable activities, so that the students with the help of their
experiments may gain sound comprehension of these principles or
concepts. It means that the school should be able to represent the society in
reality and they may come closer to each other.
In the fields of science, arts and educational methodology, the
nature of education has quite a distinct position. Here all sciences and
humanities are being given due importance and they are equally regarded
useful. None of the disciplines is considered to be superior to the others.
Handicraft is no less important than any mental and intellectual
engagement. The importance of professional and vocational education is
increasing day by day. Artisans, engineers, lawyers, philosophers, doctors,
traders, artists, and writers all are important and respectable.
The student is being considered a minor scholar in the modern
educational system. The teacher is only an advisor and guide. It means that
education has become a bilateral project where the students and teachers
move forward and undergo multifarious experiments together. Tremendous
stress is laid on comprehension and practical activities instead of learning
by heart and memorisation. Instead of exhausting their mental potentiality
on theoretical issues, stress is laid to solve them practically. The students
play an active part in this type of education. To nourish the creativity of
thought and flourish the balanced personality of the students,.. are the
foremost objectives of education.
Philosophy and its role in education:

Philosophy literally means thinking and idiomatically, it is the
pursuit of wisdom, the study of realities and general principles. It is
concerned with a search for eternal truth. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, the
great Greek philosophers spent their lives in search of this eternal truth.
Any one who searches into the reasons and nature of things, who attempts
to reach at a certain general principles and applies these principles to his
daily life-conduct is consciously or unconsciously behaving like a
philosopher. It is often said that every one of us develops a philosophy for
his own life according to his reason and abilities. It is also said that every
teacher has a common-sense outlook. The philosophical method of
extending and refining common sense is quite different from the scientific
method. The scientific method aims at the solution of just a limited number
of factors and variables inherent in an educational problem and which can
be controlled experimentally. The philosophical method on the other hand,
aims at tackling every factor or variable which is either directly or
remotely relevant to the problem. The scope of philosophy is unlimited. It
answers many complicated and important questions. Such as what is life?
What is man? What are the aims of life? It does not only attempt the vital
problems of life but also seeks to synthesize all knowledge under some
basic principles. These principles are applied and practiced by them in their
lives. John Dewey says that philosophy signifies wisdom influencing the
conduct of life.
Educational Philosophy:
Educational philosophy is a branch of general philosophy.
Education to a large extent is dependent upon educational philosophy.
Philosophy forms the aims and objectives of education while in turn
influences the practice, the subjects of study and the methods of teaching.
A country first of all should evolve a philosophy of education in
conformity with its general philosophy.
Education:
Contrary to philosophy, education is defined by each thinker
according to his own observations and experiments of life. In their view
education originally is derived from Latin words, Educare, Educatum or
Educere. Educare and Educatum means to train, to bring up and to
nourish, while Educere means to lead out i.e. to lead out the inner
potentialities of an individual. The former implies that education is
something external to be imposed or put in from outside. The latter
indicates growth from within (education by Mrs. Tanveer Khalid page 3).
If all the definitions presented formerly by thinkers like Aristotle or by
latter thinkers and educationists like Dewey are analysed, one thing that is
To train is found to be common in its meaning. Aristotle had defined
education as process necessary for the creation of a sound mind in a
sound body, while John Dewey defined it as Education is a process of
living through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the
development of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him
to control his environment and fulfill responsibilities. The definition
implies that a child has some natural potentialities. These ought to be
developed in conformity with the demands of the society. Education is not
something static, but it is a continuous and life-long process contributing
towards his mental and physical maturity. Interestingly, the modern
educational theories stress on mental as well as physical development of a
child only, while old perspective includes in it the soul as well. Aristotle
while defining education says, A process necessary for the creation of a
sound mind in a sound body. That is why the importance of every subject
included in the Greek curriculum was a set in terms of its capacity to train
body, mind and soul. This proposition is also adopted by the latter thinkers
of all the ethical and Islamic nationalities. From Aristotle up to Ghazali and
from Dante up to Iqbal, all categorically asserted that the training of the
body, mind and soul is essential. Education void of any one of the said
three components would really be useless.
A child learns because somebody teaches him. Sometimes he
learns because he has seen or heard new things and sometimes because he
7
has tried to do something by himself. Every one tries to learn something
from other. In fact we all learn something from each other throughout our
lives. It continues from the cradle to the grave. But it is interesting to
note that such type of education, where no direct teacher is involved is
called informal education.
Education in its limited sense; includes the influences deliberately
planned, chosen and employed by the community for the welfare of its
coming generation. The purpose is to modify the behaviour of the child and
to shape his personality in a more desirable form than the one he would
have been without formal education. Schools are the specialized
institutions for imparting formal and what is generally known as
Academic education to the learners. This process of Academic learning
involves two parties; i.e. the teacher and the taught. If an informal
procedure of teaching / learning is properly planned, that would also, then
become a formal type of education.
It goes without saying that each philosophy and education depicts
its society. The life of the primitive people was simple, hence the content
of their education was simple. They taught their children the necessary
skills required for the survival while keeping them in the company of
adults. With the passage of time and with the accumulation, of new
experiments by the mankind, need for rapid transmitting them to the new
generation increased. So education started in the form of social groups
and hence schools came into being. Today all types of educational
institutions, such as schools, colleges and universities exist in all parts of
the world.
Educational Philosophy and the Relationship

between Philosophy and Education:
Philosophy is the contemplative procedure of the solution of the
important issues of life and the universal philosophy is based on the reason
and intellect. Its sphere is the sphere of logic. It evaluates the problems and
thoughts critically, presents its rationale and expresses its point of view. It
8
covers debating and finding of objects, facts as well as faiths and values.
Its world begins beyond the world of science. Its pursuit is purely
intellectual and contemplative. It bypasses the sphere of senses, but never
disconnects its relation with reason. It has concern, neither with revelations
nor with the traditionally reported sciences. It is in need of reason and
proofs. This is the reason that in the words of Russell, philosophy is the
second name of a contemplative effort and intellectual pursuit regarding
the important basic equation of life, universe and the human being. What is
good? What is evil? What is the nature of social justice and social equality?
What is the criterion for the truth and falsehood?. Dozens of questions like
this are being considered. What may be the issue, philosophy tries to cover
all aspects of the debatable issue and it is inclined towards generalisation
instead of specialization. Therefore, comprehensiveness and generality are
its two qualities. Reason and argument are its conscience and to visualize
the real manifestations of truth is its ultimate goal. The moon, apparently
appears what it in reality, is not. A philosopher is always in search of the
exact and factual spheres of things. Probably we may also be thinking like
him. This is called philosophical thinking but what is philosophy of
education?
Philosophy of Education:
When a thinker thinks about the problems of education and
presents his viewpoint about the same, he becomes a philosopher. It
means that whenever a philosophical thinking is executed in the
educational issues and concepts; and philosophical method is adopted
educational philosophy or philosophy of education comes into
existence. It is evident that when the general philosophies like Idealism and
Realism are followed in the educational system, so the same, after having
dived in the lake of education, shall be changed into the form of
educational philosophies. It has been happening in this way. Though the
name of philosophy is changed, its spirit and nature remains the same. You
will see that an idealist philosopher having gone into the field of education
still remains by nature an idealist. He even here, is fond of educational
9
theories instead of educational process and learning activities. He never
takes any interest in practical life. He constantly remains busy in training
the brains of teachers and students as well as in their broadening and
refinement. He, however, must discuss educational problems, and may
carry out their analysis. Similarly, each thinker of a philosophical thought
manifests his specific way of thinking and action. He critically analyses all
of the educational traditions and educational affairs/issues, He, after
rigorous pursuit, brings into public, the assumptions on which lie its
foundations. It, therefore, analyses the same properly and expresses its
viewpoint. Let us discuss philosophy and education in detail.
Relation between Philosophy and Education:

There is an extremely close relationship between education and
philosophy. Education is basically a practical performance, and philosophy
is a theory or thought. Education, as a matter of fact, is a continuous
infinite series of actions. Philosophy is providing theoretical foundation i.e.
rational proofs-and ideologies for it. It explores and interprets different
concepts. In this way it brings before us different viewpoints regarding a
thing; and having examined them critically, informs us of their fact and
usefulness. There is no aspect of education beyond the reach of philosophy.
Philosophy provides guidance about each aspect of education, e.g. what
should be the general aim of education? What values should be nourished,
and which of the social activities should be discouraged and why? For
practical use what means should be practised? Which educational source is
more authentic and dependable? What should be the nature of inter-relation
of education and life? What is discipline and administration and how it
should be maintained? Should or not a specific theory/concept be
inculcated in the minds of children and what is the justification of doing
so? Similarly, dozens of questions are to be faced in the process of
education. The answers to which are provided by philosophy. It is now up
to the nature of the question. The philosophy would be in conformity with
the question. The duty of the educationists is to provide the practical
manifestation of philosophy. It should not be taken for granted that the
10
teachers and educational administrators are engaged only in acting upon
theories/advices and they do not contemplate at all. They also think, to
some extent, but their contemplation is not as organized and
comprehensive as that of a philosopher of education.
1.2
EPISTEMOLOGY (THEORY OF
KNOWLEDGE):
Epistemology or Theory of knowledge as described by the

Encyclopedia of Britannica, are similar words. The study of the nature and
validity of human knowledge is called epistemology or theory of
knowledge. In the evolution of thought knowledge or epistemological
inquiry succeeds the speculations of the early thinkers, who concerned
themselves primarily with attempt to explain existence. A brief treatment
of epistemology/knowledge follows ( Theory of knowledge is the old name
of epistemology.)
The term epistemology was first used in the 19th century, as a
synonym for the theory of knowledge; but Western philosophical thought
on the subject has a history reaching back to Plato and Aristotle.
Traditionally, the range of its problems has served to contrast it on the one
hand with metaphysics, related with the nature of reality, and on the other
hand with logic, related with the forms of valid arguments.
With modem recognition that much, that had actually, previously
been regarded as philosophys function, properly belonged to the natural
sciences, what was left of metaphysics tended to be absorbed into
epistemology. This process began with Descartes and was carried on by
Locke and the British empiricists and above all, by Kant, whose
investigations into the extent and conditions of the possibility of
knowledge by the same understanding were intended to determine the
boundaries between knowledge and rational beliefs on the one hand and
what he regarded as the illusions of metaphysics on the other.
11
Typically, experiments examine the degrees of certainty and
probability in knowing (with certainty) and believing (without being
certain). The epistemologist seeks to provide knowledge about
knowledge. Two competing epistemological orientations are Rationalism,
which stresses the role of reason in providing certainty, and empiricism,
which stresses that of sensory perception.
From all this-statement, it could be derived that there are only two
theories regarding knowledge i.e. Rationalism and Empiricism.
1.
Rationalism: What is rationalism? Rationalism, in Philosophy,

is a method of inquiry that regards reason as the chief source and
test of knowledge and in contrast to empiricism tends to
discountenance sensory experience. It holds that because reality
it self has an inherently rational structure, there are especially
logic and mathematics but also in ethics and metaphysics.... that
the intellect can grasp directly. In ethics, rationalism relies on
natural light and in theology it places supernatural revelation
with reason.
According to the extreme rationalist doctrine all the truth of
physical science and even history could in principle be discovered
by pure thinking and set forth as of consequences of self evident
premises. In this theory, stress is made to utilize reason and
intellect. Its followers consider reason to be superior to any thing
else. Most of the exponents of this theory are in favour of the use
of only mind and nothing else. Aristotle, therefore, seeks within
the objective facts of nature and social life. He used inductive and
deductive method for finding out knowledge. He was the first to
formulate the logic of these subjects. Aristotle is recognized as the
greatest of all other theorists.
2.
Empiricism: It means believing in experimentation/learning by

experiences. Try and error has been one of the oldest methods
regarding learning and attaining knowledge. In this theory, stress
is made on using all the sense organs to achieve knowledge. The
12
latest and modern educationists especially the scientists have
supported this theory. All the later developments have supported
this theory. All the later developments have occurred due to the
propagation of this theory. This theory, as presumed by all
thinkers, whether Jewish, Muslim or Christian, was mostly
advocated by Aristotle. Aristotle was always in search of truth and
truth could be achieved only through sensory method. But the
religious bodies are quite against this theory.
They say that it is defective in its metaphysic and limited to the
earthly life in its ethics; and. they have accused its followers of
being Rationalists or Empiricists. Basically, both of the above
mentioned theories are correlated and they are the two sides of a
coin. They are named differently, only to identify the nature of the
activity being carried out for attaining knowledge while the
objective of both the theories is one and the same.
Conclusions
Etymological Explanation of Education
The word education is derived from the Latin word educare
which means to bring up. There is yet another Latin word educere, which
means to bring forth. Education, therefore, means both to bring forth as
well as bring up. It was the Latin author Varro who said Educit obstertrix,
educate, nutrix, institute, pedagogues, docet, magister which means, the
mid-wife brings forth, the nurse brings up, the tutor trains, and the master
teaches. Accordingly education does not merely mean the acquisition of
knowledge or experience but it means the development of habits, attitudes
and skills which help a man to lead a full and worthwhile life.
Some theorists give a different explanation of the word educate.
They say e means out of and duco means to lead i.e. to educate means to
lead forth or to extract out the best in man. This explanation presumes
that all knowledge is inherent in children. Only methods are to be found
13
out to tap their brains and the knowledge will automatically flow. Addison
supports this view believing that education, when it works upon a noble
mind draws out to view every latent virtue and perfection. We also
support this theory, I mean an all round drawing out of the best in the child
and man---body, mind and spirit. These two views of education can be
accepted with a pinch of salt. We cannot draw out anything unless we put
in something before. The child is not like an artesian well, where we put a
funnel and water will gush out. He is like a bank, where something must be
put before, we expect to draw out. It may be that once or twice a bright and
quick child may give a promise of talents, but is not always true. Unless
knowledge and experience is given to the child we cannot draw out the
best in him.
Historically, Philosophers have, from ancient times, given their
views on education. Socrates (470-399 B.C.) was one of the first to do so.
His father was a sculptor and his mother was a midwife. Socrates preferred
to describe education by comparing it with his mothers profession.
Education is Midwifery. A teacher, like a midwife, only helps the mother to
give birth. The teacher is not the mother. So also, the pupil himself
conceives the idea, (Called concept) and the teacher only helps.
But a teacher is not like a Sculptor, who carves out a block of
stone entirely by himself, leaving the stone passive. The student is not
passive, like a stone, so teacher cannot be compared to a sculptor.
This idea was repeated by Aquinas (1225-1274 A.D.) who, in
reply to famous question: Can one man teach another? answered: yes,
provided that the student goes through a process of thought which is
similar (analogical) to that of his teacher.
Other thinkers are divided over the problem of whether the mind
contains Innate ideas which the teacher must help to bring out, or
whether the mind is a blank Slate (Tabula Rasa) upon which the teacher
writes, while the student remains passive. Or, in other words (as Socrates
would say) whether a Teacher is a Midwife or a Sculptor.
14
The truth is in the middle: there must be, in Education, an internal
element (Mind) and an external element (data form the senses) and both
play an indispensable part in education.
(Modern Phito-Brubacher Philosophies of Education, New
York, 1969, p. 309-312) divides education into three kinds, depending on
which approach is used to acquire it. The common Sense Approach is that
idea of education which every teacher has, is based on observation,
experience and practice. But when disputes arise between persons
something more objective may be required, and hence we have:
Epistemology/Theory of Knowledge
Epistemology is the study of the origin, nature, and limits of
human knowledge. The name is derived from the Greek words episteme
Knowledge and logos reason. Epistemology has had a long history
spanning the time of the pre-Socratic Greeks up to the present. Along with
metaphysics, logic, and ethics, it is one of the four main fields of
philosophy, and nearly every great Philosopher has contributed to the
literature on this topic.
The major issue with respect to the origins of knowledge is
whether all knowledge is derived from experience. There are two sharply
opposed traditions, that which affirms this view, and that which rejects it.
Rationalitsts believe there are innate ideas (i.e. concepts man has
independent of experience) such as the notion of equality, which are not
found in experience. Some rationalists contend that these notions are
derived form the structure of the human mind, others say that they exist
independently of the mind and are apprehended by the mind when it
reaches a certain degree of sophistication. Empiricists, by contrast, deny
that there are any concepts that exists prior to experience, and accordingly
they assert that all knowledge is a product of human learning in which
perception plays the main role. Perception itself is problematic, however,
since visual illusions and hallucinations show that perception cannot
always depict the world as it actually is. Another problem for empiricists
15
whose truth conditions do not depend on experience and seem to be known
a priori (i.e. prior to experience). The empiricist response to this claim is
that mathematical theorems are empty of cognitive content and merely
express the relationship of certain concepts to one another.
The great achievement of the 18th century German philosopher
was to have worked out a compromise between these competing views. He
argued that human beings do have knowledge that is prior to experience
and yet is not devoid of cognitive significance, the principle of casualty
being one such example. Kants view can be summarized in the maxim that
there are a priori synthetic concepts.
The issues about the origins of knowledge are connected with
questions about its limits. Many empiricists such as, Descartes, Aristotle
and Locke and non empiricist, such as Kant, agree that the human mind
has the capacity to generate questions that no possible appeal to experience
could answer, such as whether there is a God, whether the world has a first
cause or is uncaused, and whether there is a reality behind that
apprehended by the sense. Kant labeled such questions transcendental (i.e.
going beyond the limits of rational inquiry), and in the 20th century; socalled logical, such as Moritz Schlick, Rudolf Carnap, and A.J Ayer, have
declared such questions to be metaphysical and void of cognitive
significance.
Questions about the nature of knowledge span of knowing a wide
range, including, inquiries as to whether knowledge is a type of belief or is
different from belief, and whether knowledge is a special faculty in the
mind or is a disposition to act in certain ways. There is some measure of
agreement in dealing with such questions. Thus it is generally accepted that
any analysis of knowledge must satisfy the conditions that if a person A
can truly be said to know that p where p is a proposition, p must be
true, and A cannot be mistaken. This characterization connects
knowledge with certitude and thus with issues raised by ancient and
modern Skeptics, such as whether a person can achieve certitude about the
world, about the past, the mind of another person, or about oneself.
16
1.3
THE
GENERALLY
EDUCATIONAL THEORIES
KNOWN
Though with changing values and introduction of innovative

ideas, it is a fact that so many new theories are coming in to existence since
long, yet the most commonly known theories are the following:
1.
Perennialism
2.
Essentialism
3.
Progressivism
4.
Reconstructionism
5.
Existentialism
1.
Perennialism or Idealism:
Perennialism is the oldest philosophy or say theory. This is a

philosophy founded on the pillars of the past. This theory is fond of the
Educational masterpieces of the Great philosophers, the oldest concepts
and trends. Generally it is called a regressive theory. The perennialist
philosophers say that truth is that which is not variable and basic realities
never change. These basic realities were first discovered by great
philosophers. We should benefit from their great discoveries. We should
establish our education on concrete foundations and not to raise it on new
and unripe thoughts, as the Progressives think. This is why the
perennialists have deep faith in the great philosophical and literary
masterpieces of the philosophers of the past. They are afraid of variation
and modernization. They die after the thoughts of special personalities
instead of the great ones They use the intellectual and logical reasoning for
this approach to the reality. Further more, they prefer the concepts and
theories to practice. According to them, the aim of education is to shine the
wisdom and reasoning and not to make it practically useful. They are of
the view that if an individual could sharpen the nail of his reason, he would
be able to find solution to any of the problems faced by him somewhere in
future. Therefore, neither there is any need of including practical problems
17
in the curriculum nor to waste time in their solution. That is why, the
perennialists are concerned with theoretical problems of the educational
institutions. Here, the students and the teachers discuss the special
problems of their atmosphere.
The basic principles of Perennialism: If we understand the basic principles of Perennialism, we can
prepare, in their light a perennial curriculum and issue special instructions
for the students and teachers. The basic examples of this school of thought
are given below.
1.
The human nature never changes, hence there should be

uniformed education everywhere for each nation of the world.
The local atmosphere and the contemporary needs should not
influence the educational process. They agree that the
fundamental components of the soul are intention, reason and
aesthetic sense. Till this day, there has neither occurred any
change in them, nor seems possible to be there in future. It means
that the human nature has permanent qualities and the education
should take care of the same.
2.
Education is preparation for life and it is not totally copying it.

The duty of the school is to prepare children for the future life.
Such methods may be arranged to enable the students to settle
their affair successfully, when they enter the field of practical life,
but during education there is no need of making them see the real
life or its glimpses.
3.
To impart knowledge of eternal realities is the most important

obligation of education. Realities of temporary nature and that of
eternal nature were never considered to be equally important. A
sensible person shall try to procure eternal and invariable realities
during his learning process and all such realities are available in
masterpieces of the great philosophers.
18
4.
Reason and argumentation are the distinct features of mankind

and it should use it for its own guidance. Reason is to decide the
wrong and right, legal and illegal. The human reason and
conscience are the most valuable things. A person must fully use
his reason in identifying the goals.
5.
Discipline provides freedom of thought (liberal arts) and is

comparatively studied more. In this theory stress is always being
laid on the study of those subjects which are causing aspiration for
free thinking.
2.
Essentialism:
Definition:
A school of thought deeply related to Perennialism is called
Essentialism. The movement based on this point of view was started in the
third decade of the 20th century. Masson, Bagley and Kandel were its
enthusiastic exponents. If over all analyses of all countries through out the
world including Pakistan is done, probably the people upholding this
theory would be in greater number. When Russia superseded America in
sending an object to the space (for the first time), there was a great hue and
cry in the political, educational and defence circles of America. They were
crying with sorrow that they were left behind. The analysts were of the
view that it happened because standard of science and Arithmetic was very
high in Russia. The students are made to work more, while in America the
situation is quite changed. However, despite all this, a team of educational
critics led by Mr. Rickover, the inventor of atomic submarine came
forward. These people again succeeded in proving the superiority of
knowledge and arts on the like and dislike of the children. It was said that
though sciences and Arts have their own urgencies (importunities), yet in
selecting the instructional material, the discipline (subject matter) must be
preferred to the liking and disliking of the students. It meant that contrary
to the philosophy of interest of John Dewey, now, discussion on the
19
concept of necessity (essentialism) and the subject matter started. Hence
enthusiasm and interest in essentialism again erupted.
Similar to Perennialism, the Essentialistic school of thought, seeks
guidance from the past. But there is a vast difference between their
behaviours. The exponent of essentialism are not so conservative to die for
each tradition of ancient era and consider the oldest instructions only to be
mentionable. But rather, they love the useful and time tested cultural
heritage of the near past. They do not mean by the near past forty or fifty
years but generally they mean two three centuries. Any how, they are of the
view that all those educational traditions which could not go along with
time and were rejected and remained unheard after the passage of a long
span, they should be ignored. How ever, those educational traditions which
are still existing and in spite of having undergone several tests/hardsbips
they are surviving and making progress, they deserve to be followed.
Furthermore, those ones the position of which is stable and universally
accepted, they are worthy of being adopted and they are worthy to be
managed to be taught. It means that only the useful and stable cultural
heritage may be adopted.
As a matter of fact this school of thought focuses on the social
stability and on permanent institution. It means that the things which are
sustaining and surviving after having undergone the buffet and gush of the
time, also those which are still regarded by the people very useful and
beneficial, there is a need of adopting and preserving them. This is a
precious cultural heritage which has proved its existence, fruitfulness and
importance. This heritage is very widely known with the name of
Educational Essentials, the knowledge of which is very direly needed for
every student.
It is necessary to explain that essentialism is not confined to the
century old experimented educational heritage only, but it includes the
tested and useful sciences and Arts, traits and behaviours, principles and
skills of the modern civilisation. How ever, unless an educational
innovation is tested (experimented) and witnessed by the world, it cannot
20
be admitted into the Essentialism. That is why, Brameld has called the
theory of -Essentialism the traditionalist (Perennialist) highway of the
culture.
It is now quite evident that the philosophy of essentialism is a
composite of the idealism and realism. It plays the role of a bridge between
the ancient and modern theories. Neither this is the interpreter of the elite
class, nor exponent of the modernists. This appears to be the philosophy of
the middle class. What so ever may be its name, central importance in it is
given to the selection and exploitation of authentic, useful and
experimented educational materials.
The basic principles of Essentialism:

The theories of essentialism become crystal clear during the study
of its principles. Let us cast a look at these principles and find as to how
much they could be benefited.
Principles of Essentialism:
1.
Consistent hard work and diligence: If knowledge is to be sought

the students will have to undergo consistent labour and hard work.
The knowledge deemed essential must be taught to the students,
whether they take interest in it or not. Education and knowledge is
not a sweet drink, it could be bitter, as well.
2.
During the educational process instead of student, the teacher

should take steps and perform: The teacher has the knowledge of
his own subject and it is his obligation to impart education to the
children. It is the duty of the students to benefit from the teachers
and collect, as much as possible, the educational facts and hints
from them.
3.
Gaining solid educational material is the spirit of educational

process: It is the urgency of the life that the students should be
aware of the solid educational facts and the same may be
21
preserved in their mind as well, so that they are exploited when
needed.
4.
To adapt the traditional methods to sharpen the mind and make it

brilliantly shine: To make the mind shine brilliantly and get it
polished is the foremost obligation of education. The traditional
methods are very suitable for strengthening the mind (mental
discipline). Command over the educational material is gained,
comparatively, in better form through the traditional methods.
3.
Progressivism
Definition:
The Americans are very practical people and a nation of
experimentation. They learn from their experiences and move forward.
Therefore, their philosophy of life is called Progressivism. Here instead of
past, the present is loved. All new things are adopted very happily and are
tested experimentally; and the good/useful things are further promoted.
The cost and value of each thing is its usefulness. Though the roots of this
philosophy are as old as the ancient era, yet it gained fame in the 3 rd and 4th
decades of the 20th century. Peterson and William James were its pioneers.
They were of the opinion that life is ever variable. It moves forward
constantly we should, therefore, remain every time ready for a new
solution and re-framing. In this philosophy, variation, evolution, freedom
(liberty), experimentation, fruitfulness and continuous diligence hold very
important position.
Progressivism is the instructional/educational shape of
Pragmatism. This is called the Progressive philosophy of education.
Brameld names it as a free high way of culture because an individual
enjoys (in this system) the maximum freedom. One can realise that this
philosophy is very liberal, flexible and progressive. It always looks to the
forward. Here variation, development, endless hard work and the zeal for
moving forward are highly respected. In the teaching methods,
22
examination and their standard but even in each thing variations are
possible. The teachers and students are, therefore, urged to remain ready
for the changes but rather bring about the same by themselves. The
students are trained to solve the practical problems. So that they may be
able to lead a successful life and not to remain a strayed only in simple
theoretical and educational things. The central importance in the education
is the student. All the educational curriculum is revolving around his
interests and urgencies. Curriculum is developed after knowing the
interests and needs of the student. Any curriculum prepared prior to
knowing the said things is considered useless. John Dewey and Kilpatrick
have expressed their assertions with great enthusiasm and they are the
torch-bearers of the progressive school of thought. Once, John Dewey
established the fame of his philosophy through out the educational world
and even today its effects are visible. How ever in 1955, Progressivism, as
a movement came to an end. The Russian stepping in the space inflicted
badly upon the doctrine of interest. In spite of this, the factual position is
that the spirit of this philosophy is still running in the modem educational
institutions.
The Principles of Progressivism:

1.
Education in itself is a life and it is not a preparation for life. This

principle means to make the students do, during learning such
works which are related to the practical life. They should not be
made to do all those practical and useful jobs which are faced by
the individuals in their practical life.
2.
The interests and trends of the children are the real basis of
learning. This principle means if anything is intended to be taught
to the children. then the areas of students interests as well as, this
inclination must be ascertained. If they have no interest in any
thing at all, so nothing could be expected to be learnt by them.
3.
Problems-learning oriented program maintains supremacy on

cramming the subject matter only. When students are learning
23
through problems and their solution method, this is called
Problem-oriented education or learning. If the educational or
instructional materials are presented in the shape of problems and
they are simultaneously taught the ways to solve them, so the
knowledge attained thus would be far better than that which is
restricted to facts, events or principles, rules and educational
concepts etc or to cramming.
4.
Teacher is the guide and leader. The teacher should guide and lead
the students whenever the need arises. He should not, in person,
dominate each thing every time. His right and suitable role is to
act as a consultant advisor but he himself should remain behind
the curtain as much as possible during the educational process. He
should forward the students to play an active part and show
dynamism, all the time.
5.
The school should emphasise on co-operation and association.

Healthy competition is a good thing, but educational and social
co-operation is always preferred to over co-operation. The
Progressives believe that for the prosperity or stability of
democracy, co-operation and unity are more useful/important than
personal benefit and enthusiasm of competition.
6.
The school should be run on the principles of Democracy.

Democracy is the religion and faith of the Progressives. The real
nourishment of the students is possible only in a Democratic
atmosphere. The students should be provided with comparatively
more opportunities to know the democratic perception and
democratic way of life, even during the process of learning.
4.
Reconstructionism.
Introduction:
The philosophy of reconstructionism is the claimant of the fact
that there is a dire need of bringing about basic and revolutionary changes
24
in the different societies of the world, because neither the minor
reformative steps work in the present day conditions nor the old
prescription or tips could deliver goods (could benefit). In addition to that
it is also a fact that there is a dire need of reconstruction in all fields of life,
which could best be done by education. It is an obligation of the teachers to
provide leadership to the nation and produce such youths who could adopt
themselves according to the urgencies of the new era. This era is the era of
different turmoils (crises) i.e. we are faced with political, economical,
educational, industrial say with several kinds of crises. To meet all these
crises we are to bring about fundamental changes in the field of education.
These changes should not be less, if not more than explosions, because
they are unavoidable and indispensable. If there is any negligence in this
respect, the collective and social lives of the nations would become bitter
and so many disturbances would take place. In 1932 Mr. George, S. Counts
supporting/encouraging the American schools, had presented his
proposition and program in America. The topic was The school should
come forward to lay the foundation of new system. Harold Rugg
promoted it further and Brameld presented it in a more organised and
comprehensive form. Anyhow, there are such educationists in different
nations of the world, who are the claimant of re-founding education on
revolutionary foundations. But it is true that they see it in the light of their
own society and environment. The presence of differences of viewpoint is
quite credible.
It is pertinent to note that philosophy of re-constructionism is a
social philosophy, which prefers to group and nation instead of an
individual. In this theory, preference is given to collective interests,
problems and needs. This philosophy is the torch bearer of collectivism
instead of progressivism. In its curriculum the central figures are the
collective problems and the collective affairs of the society. In a way it is a
collective revolutionary model of education. Not only the objectives and
goals of education need to be changed, but even all of the instructional
material, its organization/composition, teaching methodologies and
evaluation techniques must also be reconstructed. Anyhow, it is necessary
25
to bring about all these changes in consultation with all the social groups,
adopting a democratic attitude. This is also necessary to bring about great
meaningful changes and not to do only plastering and mud washing. It
means to demolish the old building completely and reconstruct purely a
new one on fresh foundations.
The basic principles of Reconstructionism:

1.
The education should undertake the experimentation of new social

system immediately. The running century is the century of huge
problems and severe crisis. Now, there is a danger of getting the
civilisation and culture to become obsolete things (there is the
danger of the civilisation and culture to obliterate).
2.
The new society must be a democratic one in the real sense. This
is the second principle of Reconstructionism. To bring changes is
unavoidable and they must be brought, but not in a socialistic or
dictatorial manner. They must be brought by the mutual
consultation with different groups of the society.
3.
Social and cultural factors are bound to influence/affect the child,

school and educational process. The torch bearers of the social
revolution say that the over all atmosphere of the society
extremely influences the individuals. All the individuals depict
their societies (The individuals would definitely, be similar to
their society). The thoughts and actions of an individual bear the
colour of the society. An agriculturist, an industrialist, capitalistic,
socialistic societies and the Islamic society are to colour the
individuals in their own nature.
4.
The teacher may convince the students about the need of the
reconstruction. It is obligatory for a teacher to present honestly all
aspects of the problems faced by the society and should not hide
any one of them. Similarly, he may express, his own point of view
to the students, if need be, but should never intentionally try to
impose it on them.
26
5.
There is due need of the reconstruction of the educational

objectives and resources. It is imperative to review the
educational objectives and resources. The society is faced with so
much complicated and perplexed problems that, now, neither the
old objectives of education are effective nor the ancient ways,
methodologies and resources are sufficient. The modem
contemporary demands are urging the new educational goals and
similar resources, it means that reorganisation of education is
extremely needed.
5.
Existentialism:
Definition:
The philosophy of Existentialism has quite distinct splendour
among all the traditional philosophies. It gives quite a new meaning to the
old philosophical terms of the soul and body. It, setting the old
philosophical procedure, to a side, presents totally a new way of thinking.
Here, instead of soul, reason and thought, the human existence and
sentiments/feelings respectively are discussed more. Existentialism, as a
matter of fact, is a protest against the conceptual and analytical philosophy
of Plato and Haigal. This theory is allergic to dried logical discourses and
void of the rapture of objective reasoning. In this theory it is tried to go
along with enthusiasm and reason, the explicit and intrinsic or latent
together. The exciting enthusiastic argumentation is not considered only
pleasant and agreeable but rather it is extremely essential. This is not an
emotional argumentation but rather a complete and natural one. Because
the excitement and reason are to discover the reality together. Mankind is
the bearer of emotions and a personality to do deliberations and thinking
too. To express abstract thoughts without any enthusiasm and sentiments,
is like pinching the dead bones. The existentialists claim that solution of
the problems of the modern man is not existing in the old theories. Only
Existentialism can present their satisfactory solution.
27
The philosophy of Existentialism came to existence, when a well
known philosopher of Denmark, Mr. KierkeGarrel, strongly advocated
and expressed this theory in his books. Therefore, several kinds of people
began to advocate it. This is the reason that ssExistentialism has so many
colours/aspects i.e. religious, half religious, secular, literary etc. Martin
Hedgar, Zan Paul Safter, Karl Jaspers, Marshall and Beuber are the great
exponents of this school of thought. Sarter was the famous writer and
novelist of France. He was an enthusiastic commentator of Existentialism,
but he was a secular minded man, while Marshall was Christian and
Beuber was a Jew. Everyone presented and found his own fancy in
(through) Existentialism. However, all found place in it. The philosophy of
Existentialism is critical of both the Metaphysical as well as skeptical
philosophies and refutes them as well. It claims that man can discover the
fundamental realities of his existence and the reality is that which is a
living and dynamic fact. An imaginary fact is only an illusion having no
reality or existence. While narrating reality, we must mention the human
particulars and personal feelings. We should express exactly what we
experience. To contemplate with out sentiments is an unrealistic and
incomplete action. The correct thought or reflection is the mixture of the
objective and subjective (form), where in the basic importance is given to
the subject i.e. his own person. impartiality and cold objective
contemplation are not so much valuable things. The philosopher should do
argumentation full of emotions. Because it is only the emotion that unveils
in the conditions of the elevated feelings, the highest realities. Without
feelings/emotions, the realities cannot be discovered by reason only.
According to Existentialism, the Universe has no meaning
without human being. It is the presence of mankind which creates
meaningfulness in the Universe and life. The mankind is not indebted to
nature but rather it is under obligation to its own person. All of its hustle
and bustle and activities are due to the Existence of life but
Existentialism is to come first and all other things are counted later on.
First of all, the mankind comes into life, then he is moulded in a special
materice and makes appearance. Thereafter, a personal identity is attained
28
by him. Anyhow, a mankind develops his character with his own
deeds/performances in life. He, himself is the creator of his fate No one
else can do this. Personality cannot develop with the help of the
combination of sense, action, contemplation and the freedom of selection.
If there is an impression of ones own person on ones personality, then it is
the negation of ones ego and life. All my wishes, my aspirations, my
ambitions, my affections, my worries, my successes and failures are mine.
The honour and prestige of my innerself is due to the fact as mentioned
earlier. To be shy of ones own person is an inhuman act. According to
Sarter man makes his person himself. Each individual has the right to build
and form his personality himself. The majority has no right to oppress and
impose their will on the minority, killing in this way, the personal
ambitions and aspirations of individuals. Existence is the central point of
Existentialism. Dekart was quoted to have said that as he was thinking,
hence he was existing. The Existentialism, contrary to that, says I am
existing hence I am doing contemplation. It means that the first
philosopher had acknowledged his existence after the act of thinking; while
the second one recognised his existence first and there after contemplation
came into being. In existentialism the human existence is the greatest
reality. The person and its existence are the main spring of all realities. The
person and existence come first into being and thereafter the thought and
concepts shoot up from them. Consequently, existence has preference over
thought, concepts and mind; and it proves dependable in the real sense.
Every person is always aware of his existence, intuitively, for which no
rational argument is needed.
Principles of Existentialism:
1.
First existence and then the essence or soul. The body is the most
favourable thing while the soul is its essence. The actual reality is
the body and the soul retains secondary position. Most of the
Existentialists negate the presence of soul. To them, the real soul
is that man should be completely free in his will and choice. He
29
may do what ever he likes. Complete liberty is the real essence (of
the life and universe).
2.
The life and Universe are aimless: The life in itself, has no aim.
Every person himself should specify the aim for himself. He
should, completely, be free in gaining the aim. The society should
avoid to impose the collective objectives and goats or aims, on
individuals.
3.
Human being is free and he himself is answerable to his own

deeds: Complete freedom is natural right of human being.
Whatever, he may like, he may contemplate and take to finality
his freedom, in the way he likes. To lay social, religious and
political restrictions on him are illegal.
4.
Man himself is the builder of his future: Life comes to existence

because of action. On account of continuous struggle and effort
man can build his personality. Simply gossiping and talking are
not to make a success flourish. Those who want identification of
their personality, they should demonstrate their practical deeds.
5.
Mankind is the mixture of Reason and enthusiasm and there must

be unity between them while taking any decision: Those decisions
which are based merely on reason and there is no role of
emotions/enthusiasm in it they are incomplete and unrealistic.
Man possesses emotions beside reason. Rather the best exposure
of the humanity of a man is best made on account of his
demonstration of emotions.
6.
Mankind should be concerned with the long lasting Problems:

General problems are not worth focusing. More attention should
be focused on those problems/issues which are extremely
important and which retain equal importance for all the humanity.
An individual should try to know the mystery of death and life,
they should know the grief (depth of feeling) of love and affection
of separation.
30
1.4 NATURE VERSUS NURTURE:

Definition:
Prior to presenting complete deliberation on the subject matter, I
would like to probe first into the definition of Nature and Nurture with
reference to certain educational theories as well as some renowned
educators.
Nature, literally means things essential qualities. According
to Oxford Advanced Learners dictionary, Nature, is the inherent or
essential quality or constitution of a thing, the innate disposition or
character of a person or animal or of a human kind, generally. Also an
individual element of character, disposition, etc; a thing or person of a
particular quality or character; a kind, a sort, a class. Idiomatically, it is
used for the whole phenomenon of the universe, in its original form. In
addition to that, Nature is also used to denote the instinct of a thing or a
person. The physical and biological constitution of the body is also called
Nature. Similarly, the role of heredity with out environment in education
is named Nature. Also it is used in denoting positive and a good state of
affairs, negating the adverse or negative approaches. From the origin of
Nature words like Natural by Natural Naturalist and Naturalism are
made. The essence of the same meaning is denoted by all the forms of
Nature. When we say that this thing or action is quite natural, we mean by
that to be an original and positive one. Similarly, when we say Naturally
in response to some bodys question, it means as expected or of course
besides using it as a verb i.e. Naturalise, which means to make a person
co-citizen and make him free from all formal limitations and barriers.
Naturalism is one of the educational theories, the basis of which
is the word nature. In this theory, teaching learning process is usually
considered to be based on Naturalism. This theory in a formal shape was
first introduced by the French Psychologist, Rousseau. But it is also found
present, though in an un-organised form, in the teaching of Aristotle and
his early followers. But in the modern era, it got much popularity among
31
the philosophic cum educational circles. In the recent past Rousseau was
the first educator who upheld this philosophy in the 18th century and
revived it again. To him (a) The state of time (b) Extremely varied
experiences of his life and (c) His impulsive as well as emotional nature
(these three items) are the real factors that have influenced him and his
thoughts. His philosophy is usually designed by the term Naturalism.
The key note of his philosophy is to have a state of Nature, Natural
man and Natural civilisation. He contends that all the ills and miseries
of civilisation are due to a departure from a State of Nature. Return to
Nature was his method to cure the work of ills and miseries. In the
opening sentence of his book Emile, Rousseau gives the indication of his
philosophy and says Every thing is good as it comes from hands of the
author of nature but every thing degenerates in the hands of man.
Wordsworth, a renown English poet has also followed Rousseaus theory
of Naturalism for education and said that one should throw the book and
learn from the Great Book of Nature because Nature is the best teacher.
Again Rousseau has observed, Civilised man is born, lives and dies in a
state of slavery at his birth, he is stitched in swaddling (bandage, bind with
clothe) at his death he is nailed in his coffin and as long as he preserves the
human form, he is fettered by our institutions. Leave him alone.
The theory of liberalism, to some extent in the modern theories,
resembles with Naturalism. But their principles differ from each other. In
Naturalism, the following three are the main sources of education.
(a)
Education of Nature: The constitutional exertion of our organs

and faculties is the education of Nature. The role of heredity in
education is also called Nature.
(b)
Education from Circumstances: And in the acquisitions made by

our own experience, on the objects that surround us, consists of
our education from circumstances e.g. learning from
environment.
32
Nurture:
Lexicographically, Nurture means To bring up, To nourish,
and To nurse a person. Idiomatically, it means the overall brought up of
a child. To use all possible techniques to fulfill the needs of a man kind i:e.
the needs of his body, mind and soul. As is evident from its lexicographic
meaning apparently Nurture is understood to be confined only to feeding a
child, but this food would not be only for the stomach, but while doing
nourishment of a child or a student, we would have to arrange it for all of
his three potentials e.g. body, mind and soul.
Nurturing or nourishing a student or helping youngsters in their
nourishment etc. is not only restricted to the environment of a home or a
family. In the larger sense, this is now being used and understood as a
teaching methodology. To some it may appear to be a strange assertion, but
it is a fact that neither leaving a child only to the nature can solve the
problem of better education nor nurture can do it alone. It is a reality that
both i.e. providing a natural atmosphere and standardised nurture to the
students, would help to improve the quality of education. This is also a fact
that the exponents of Naturalism are also not totally against nurture, but
they only object to some of the extreme forms of limitations and
confinements. There is a delicate difference between an unbridled liberal
form of naturalistic teaching techniques and that of useful as well as liberal
but not unethical system. The whole assertion of Rousseau advocates free
as well as slightly man guided education.
The main stress is laid by Rousseau on how to handle a child.
Man making education, Rousseau has observed, it matters little to me,
whether any pupil be designed for army, the bar, or the pulpit. Nature has
destined us to offices of human life. To live in the profession I would teach
him. When I have done with him, it is true, he will either be a lawyer, a
soldier or a driver. Let him first be a man, he will on occasion as soon
become any thing else, that a man ought to be, as any other person what
ever fortune may remove him from one rank to another as she pleases he
will be always sound in his place. It is true that education by nature will
33
restore unsophisticated man, whose sole function is to be a man. In the
natural order of things, all men being equal their common vocation is
manhood, and who ever is well trained for that, cannot fail to perform any
vocation connected with it.
Characteristics of Rousseaus Naturalism:

Rousseau believes in freedom of the child. To develop his inborn
and innate capabilities, a child may be provided a free atmosphere. That
free atmosphere (free form all hindrances) is the main factor in making his
theory of Naturalism. He does not believe in punishing the child so as to
correct his future behaviour. The reason behind this assumption, according
to Rousseau is very simple. The child is not able to link up the punishment
administered and the mischief done by him. Children therefore, should be
left alone to experience the consequences of the nature. If children commit
mistakes and violate the principles of nature, they naturally invite the
retribution of nature. This conception in the filed of education is known as
Discipline by natural consequences.
Secondly, in the field of natural education, Rousseau starts with
the assumption that the nature of child is essentially good, hence he should
have freedom in his actions. This notion seems to have been taken by him
from Islam. Not his all assertions could be claimed to be based on the
Islamic theory about children, but the half of it. i.e. the nature of child is
essentially good is truly based on it. Islam (the prophet of Islam--- SAW)
says that each baby is born on Nature. Thereafter, they are the parents to
make him a Jewish, a Christian or Zoroastrian (Magus). But Islam does
impose restriction and supports light punishment to the children after
having attained the age of ten years and above. While Rousseau, does not
agree to this. Firstly he believes that the child will not commit any immoral
act and secondly even if he commits any, he will learn morality by the
natural consequences of the action done
The main source, through which his teachings and educational
concepts could be understood is Rousseaus own book namely Emile. He
34
has given an idea as derived from his assertion, of Natural Negative
Education.
Natural and Negative Education

The approach of Rousseau in the filed of education is through out
naturalistic. He had no faith in the established and set order of the society.
When he talks of negative education, he means that the child should be
subject to a natural order and free from a social order. Negative education
means to allow the child to move freely in nature, so that he is able to
perfect the organs of his body, which are the instruments of acquiring
knowledge. This free movement will not mean teaching virtue or truth, but
protecting the heart of child from the evil ways of the society.
The negative education of Rousseau has the following implications.
1.
To lose the time wisely: Rousseau was of the opinion that

childhood was meant only for losing and gaining nothing.
However, a child may be provided the opportunity to lose time
wisely and freely. It is not a period when time is to be saved for an
intensive study of books. The child should be given plenty of
opportunities to run, jump, play all a long. Thus developing his
organs which will enable him to acquire knowledge when the
right occasion comes for it.
2.
No Normal or Formal Lesson: According to Rousseau, the child

is not in need of formal teaching in the class. He believes that
verbal lessons are useless burden on the memory of the child and
a sheer waste from the educational point of view. The child is not
able to interpret and assimilate on the basis of cause and effect
theory, hence it is easily forgotten.
3.
No Place for Book Learning: To Rousseau formal education has

no importance. He is totally against imparting education with the
help of books. He holds that reading is a curse and books have no
place in the education of the child. He advocated that the child
35
should think for himself and learn with his own efforts, as the first
ever born person did in the world
4.
No Need of Moral Education: Rousseau is extremely opposed to

imparting moral education to a child. He advocates non-moral
type of education. In his view the child is the purest thing in
nature and therefore, there is no need for his moral teaching.
Morality is something which is beyond the understanding power
of children. The reason behind this assumption is that to him
morality and reasoning do not go together. The child, therefore,
should be left to learn form the lessons of nature. If he commits a
mistake, he will suffer and learn in a natural way as it is said that
a burnt child dreads the fire.
5.
No Habit Formation: Rousseau is not in favour of any habit

formation during childhood. He however, favours natural habits
and holds that the child should be left alone to have natural habits.
He does not believe in any habit formation at this stage and is
believed to have said, the only habit a child is to form is not to
form any habit. He believes that every body is a slave to his
habits and the same may be true about the child.
6.
Back to Nature: Rousseau is of the view that the state of nature

in which man lived long ago was a blissful state. Modern
civilisation is the main cause of the misery of mankind. The
alternative before mankind is back to nature. The customary
procedures of the civilised society should be done away with and
the natural state may, be accepted again. He is against the formal
shape of discipline. He says that the nature is the best retributer.
This theory of his is known as Discipline by Natural
consequences.
36
Contribution
of
Education
Rousseau
Naturalism
to
Nurture:
Rousseau does not allow strict discipline in nurturing or
nourishing. So far the rest of educationists are of the view that discipline is
very much essential for education. John Dewey, Froebel, Pestelozi and
other so many educators uphold this. Dewey, is also the follower of nature
and nurture simultaneously. However, in view of all the educationists, the
influence of Nurture would be more as compared to Nature in the
education of a child. Rousseau, though advocating negative education, yet
we see him while educating Sophy he himself frames rules for her
education. Also he applies some different method for her teaching. Also
tries to make her follow a sort of discipline in her life i.e. the woman is
made specially to please man. She is, therefore, to suffer and bear the
wrongs of her husband without complaint. From all his similar assertions it
is evident that he also indirectly keeps himself involved in teaching as
well as nurturing. His love for simplicity in all things is misconceived as if
he does not support discipline. He permits discipline to some extent even
in childhood. In his view the nature of a womans duty towards man is to
train him in childhood, to tend him in manhood and to counsel him
throughout his life. However, he is not favouring the children more
intellectual than, being natural and simple. He says, I would hundred
times prefer a simple girl, rudely brought up to a girl of learning.
Such types of traditional concepts have misled several critics to
think that Nature and Nurture are two opposite theories, but the real
contents of Rousseaus teaching and that of the remaining experts of social
sciences are that both of these methods are supplementary as well as
complementary to each other to some extent. In the brought up of a child
observance of the principles of nature as well as nurture are equally
essential. However, the extreme forms of both are to be neglected as they
are impracticable.
37
Demerits of Naturalism/or Negative Education:

(all demerits of Naturalism are the merits
of Nurture)
1.
Naturalism in its extreme form neglects books and other media. It

is very difficult to assume that we can neglect the vast quantities
of printed materials.
2.
Physical nature alone is not sufficient for providing education still

we need some more things to provide. Absolute freedom to child
is a myth. It cannot exist and practise. Child cannot be allowed the
freedom to hang himself.
3.
Naturalism ignores higher ends in the educational process (but

nurture gives importance to them).
4.
It is very difficult to find naturalistic surroundings for locating

educational institutions.
5.
Naturalism assigns very little importance to the teacher in the

educational process, hence no new thoughts and developmental
tasks could be promoted.
6.
Rousseau does not allow habit formation but a set of good habits
is also essential for good character.
7.
His doctrine of discipline by natural consequences is also

doubtful. The child at his tender age without foresight, without
reason and without developing his correct understanding cannot
correct or improve his character. At such stages he requires
guidance i.e. nurturing.
1.5 EDUCATION AND CULTURE:

Definition:
Education means To train, to bring up and to nourish. In the
view of Aristotle, education is a process necessary for the creation of a
38
sound mind in a sound body. As assumed by Mrs. Tanveer Khalid by
saying, the importance of every subject included in the Greek curriculum
was assessed in terms of its capacity to train body, mind and soul. The
definition of education, presented by John Dewey is more closely related to
the above captioned topic. He says, education is a process of living
through a continuous reconstruction of experiences. It is the development
of all those capacities in the individual which will enable him to control his
environment and fulfill his possibilities. On the other hand -culture means
a blend of a nations rituals, customs, historical heritage and social norms.
To analyse the components of education and that of culture, it is concluded
that they are inter depended. Furthermore, both of them are very closely
related.
It is well said that if education is not some thing static, but it is a
continuous and life long process. Culture and its conservation is also one
of its aims. Education and culture are complementary to each other. The
former definition of education implies that a child has some natural
potentialities. These ought to be developed in conformity with the
demands of the society. From here the creation, preservation and
conservation of culture take place. It means that in framing the aims of
education as well as in its progress, culture plays an important role. While
on the other hand education provides new ways and means for
strengthening culture. Both of them are supporting each other.
Background:
Soon after the birth of a man and through out his life he under
goes varied experiences and continuously learns one way of behaviour or
another, finally becoming a part of the prevailing culture. The human
culture is as old as man himself. Same is the case with education.
Education and philosophy are very difficult to be separated and similarly
culture and education are, too. Due to the external, social and cultural
pressures, an individual is subjected to varying and changing conditions of
life and circumstances. During the learning stage of his life, a child learns
so many things from others. Certain habits and attitudes are adhered by
39
him as well. All this is called culture. In fact we all learn from each other,
through out lives. Having learnt from their elders, the contemporary
personalities pass their values and culture to the coming generations. This
exercise is possible only through education. People learn how to get along
with their fellow beings just by living among them.
The relation between education and culture:

Teachers take the responsibility of educating the youth of a nation.
They have to look after their all round development. Teachers are the
ultimate builders of a nation. While a nation with out a culture cannot be
differentiated from other nations, hence, it is proved that the process of
teaching, learning is a much strong way/mean of the culture to flourish.
The teachers are also supposed to translate and to practise a countrys
educational theories and policies by implementing them in a real and
practical situation.
Above all, as in the process of education, History is being studied
which is the main and basic record of culture, hence it cannot be denied
that it is being nourished by education. Similarly, the purposeful and
befitting education helps in the strength and spread of culture. The needs of
the society, whether religious, social, cultural or psychological - all are
fulfilled only by education. Mrs. Tanveer Khalid while narrating the
interdependence of education and Culture says that one of the important
functions of education is the conservation of culture. Continuity in mans
social life is possible through this process. The valuable cultural heritage,
which has accumulated a vast store of human knowledge and experience, is
transmitted to coming generations through this process. The valuable
cultural heritage, which has accumulated a vast store of human knowledge
and experience, is transmitted to the coming generations through
education, other wise each generation would have to go over them again.
Culture includes arts, sciences, religions and the social customs developed
gradually by many people contributing to it. It has to be conserved and
transmitted to the youth for their own benefits because past benefits are
useful in learning the new ones.
40
It is the oriental type of education which is, simply, aimed at the
recapitulation on the past. In the education system of the primitives, the
educational aims were identical to those of their parents. The youth aimed
to learn what they expected to do as adults. What they expected to do as
adults was exactly the same that their parents have been doing. Thus the
aim of education was to conserve their culture or to enhance further the
amount of their social experiences. In fact group survival was not only the
group aim but the individual aim as well.
It is generally believed that even those early civilisations which
had advanced far beyond the primitive level were distinctly conservative in
their educational aims. So far the ancient Chinese is concerned, it had an
educational system which aimed at the perpetuation of a static social order.
The early Occidental civilisation of Greece also reflected some of the
conservative perceptions of the Orient. The aim of Spartan education, for
example, was conservative. In Sparta, social survival depended largely
upon the military ability of the Spartans. Consequently the chief aim of
their education was identical with the military virtues, such as courage,
respect and obedience for superiors, patriotism and loyalty to the state etc.
To conclude, it is advisable to say that whether it was the
education of the old or new Greek period or Homeric or Spartan period, it
has been a main instrument of conserving as well as nurturing human
culture. Similarly, may it be a very barbarian culture and civilisation but
still the process of education is visible there. All activities, according to
the prevailing conditions have been seen through out all these ages, which
supported education. Neither culture nor education can survive in isolation.
They will have to go along with each other for so many years to come.
41
1.6
INDOCTRINATION,
EDUCATION:
TRAINING
AND
Definition:
Indoctrination is derived form the word sDoctrine. Doctrine
means a body of instruction. While idiomatically it is used in the
meaning of faith, theory or ideology. This refers to the introduction of
ideology, whether religious or otherwise in the instructional process and
the educational system. Indoctrinate means to imbue with an idea or
doctrine or to teach systematically to accept ideas uncritically. The word
Brain wash is also used in the same sense. As such indoctrination
means the use of formal instruction in the process of learning or the
inclusion of religious or political education in the curriculum. In the
ancient days, education and knowledge were sought for the sake of
education and knowledge respectively. With the passage of time several
factors and multifarious considerations emerged which influenced the
educational process through out the world. So far indoctrination is
concerned, it stresses on the inclusion of ideological materials in education,
which is not recommended by other group of educators. In other words
they mean to purify the educational theories, principles, texts, models and
methodology from the influence of all other factors except educational as
well as humane.
In most of the countries, the theory of nationalism was, once
prevailing very commonly. Similarly, certain other considerations were
dominating. For example, the Germans, the Arabs and the English along
with the people of the sub-continent were very much fanatic nationalists.
They would pay no heed to any other factor except that of the nationalistic
one. The effect of nationalism would even prevail in their educational
system. They would teach, hand in hand with the subject matter, the sense
for their nationalism, as in the pre-Islamic period was the condition of
Arabia as well. Before, the advent of Islam, the followers of Judaism and
Christianity would emphasise on their rituals to be included in the
curriculum etc. This perception in mind the followers of Islam, due to deep
42
regard for it, liked their teaching/learning process, from the core of their
heart to be adorned with the glory of their -religion. However, contrary to
other religions, Islam did not stress upon man to keep himself purely
restricted to religious education. As Christianity, in the earlier period would
not allow its followers to study philosophy, logic and science. But Islam
advocates their learning. The difference is that Islam would like first to
make those subjects Islamised or study them in such a way to ensure that
the learner would not become an infidel etc.
Simultaneously, with the emergence of certain other philosophies
and issues in the world, education also began representing the same. In
capitalistic countries, the overall picture of each and every field turned to
be wearing that colour. The educational courses and text books would
present materials based on capitalistic approaches. While the education
system in the socialistic countries would represent their notion about life,
even if they restricted all of their activities to the promotion of dialectical
materialism, it was the centre of their education. However, it is very
difficult to identify as to how far inclusion of such doctrine in the
educational process is useful and permissible. If we make resort to the
theory of Aristotle and Rousseau then there would be no place for this type
of indoctrination in education. Because, the real philosophers and genuine
educationists are totally against indoctrination.
Though the exponents of nationalism, communism and religion
are of the view that such inspirations are very much essential for the
training of a person, yet the humanistic group does not agree with them.
They advocate keeping of the educational process free from all such trends
which hampers human beings form developing their personalities properly.
Situation In Pakistan
In view of the conditions prevailing in our country, Pakistan, the review of
the curricula and ecucational system had become imperative. All the
43
countries of the sub-continent in general and that of Pakistan in particular
had quite a different story. They had been freed after more than 200 years
of foreign domination. The British rulers had been running this country and
all its departments according to their own objectives. Most of the
inhabitants of this country were made (in the words of Lord Maccaulay)
to be Indian in blood and colour but English in taste and opinion, in moral
and intellect.
Furthermore, purely secular education was being imparted in the subcontenent in addition to their missionary designs, in the pre-independence
era which had developed adverse effects, the repucussions of which being
felt till the eve of independence.
Circumstances like this necessiated this change in our educational
mythology, plus the view of bridging the gapes so left, since long, in the
brought up of this Muslim nation. Islamic faith and ideology of Pakistan
was ever being Emphasised. There was another good reason for including
the faith of Islam in the curricula and that was the fact that this country
had come into existence on the basis of the same faith.
Islamic Ideology and the Role of Education in an

Islamic Country:
The pre-independence history of education in our country is replenished
with such incidents and events which show that the inhabitants of this area
were, forcefully deprived of the right of exhibiting their religious as well as
ideiological relationship with their religion Islam. The rulers like
Maculay had prepared such a scheme of studies for the people of subcontinent which would make them subservient to the English rulers,
besides making them Indians in colour but English in opinion and
behaviour. Just after having attained self rule in our country Pakistan, our
elders and leaders felt the need to review the education system. The first
and the foremost task before them was to reconstruct the basic foundations
of all the compulsory pillars of society. Simultaneously, work was started
on improving the education system of the country . First of all stress was
44
laid on providing Islamic sand indigenous system to go along with the
prevailing conditions.
While framing the objectives of education several seminars, workshops
and conferences were held intermittently which ended at the conclusion
that Islam must be the back bone of all of our systems.
To go through the reports of different policy makers and commissions it is
found that approximately all of them have been unanimous in putting
Islamic values at the top, while selecting the objectives. The first
conference of 1947, indicated several objectives including Islam for
education. There after, in 1951, a conference was held under the
supervision of the central ministry of education which was attended by the
provincial ministers, secretaries of education, Vice Chancellors and the
directors of public instructions who determined the basis of national plan
the development of education in Pakistan. They also recommended that the
deficiency in the courses and that curriculum should be recovered. Further
more, the report of another commission on national education framed in
1959, is also a valueable document. In this report the need of national unity
was much stressed. At that time unity could only be retained by adopting
Islamic system of education.
With the passage of time, the masses were reawakened. Emphasis on
adopting purely Islamic system of education or at least including Islamic
values as an objective in the course of study was made. By that time in
1972, an education policy was framed which has categorically supported
the Islamic value to be included in the courses. In those days extreme
pressure was developed by the public the introduction of Islamic system,
which compelled the people at the helm of the affairs to announce the
Islam to be the official religion of Pakistan i.e the constitution of 1973,
clearly contains these words.
Last but not the least, the education policy of 1979 was totally based on
Islamic teachings and the ideology of Pakistan. According to this policy all
the curricula were revised and reframed in the light of said policy though,
there were some elements against the introduction of certain subjects in the
45
schools i.e Arabic as a compulsory subject, yet still it was widely
welcomed. In this way Islamic ideology and Islamic values gained
popularity in Pakistan. Adoption of Islamic ideology in fields of our life is
now the dire need of the time. Therefore, it must be retained and followed
in our education system. Because the generations to come would be the
real builders of the nation. While the nation could be kept intact only
through adopting Islamic values and Islamic ideology. If we follow and act
upon Islamic ideology, regionalism, provincialism and sectarianism would
come to an end. The life would also become peaceful and prosperity would
prevail every where.
Based on the above mentioned significances, all the education policies
have specifically made Islamic education as the back bone of all curricula.
We shall study all the education policies in chapter titled The
Development of Education in Pakistan. After the policy of 1979 two more
policies namely 1998-2010 and 2009 policies have been framed by the
then and the current governements respectively.
1.7 ANDRAGOGY VERSUS PEDAGOGY:

Definition:
If pedagogy, literally means the science of teaching Andragogy
is the science of self directed learning. Both are usually used to stand for
the science of teaching. However, their models and instances are
definitely different from each other. Usually, Andragogy and Pedagogy are
used for the principles of training and educating adults. This term is also
used for the principles of teaching and learning, based mostly on the
psychological grounds of education.
Background.
In the educational psychology, constant developments have been
taking place since long. Towards the middle of the 20 th century, a very
common feeling was found, among the educationists, influenced by
46
Aristotle, Rousseau and John Dewey, that pupils centred curriculum should
be introduced. Several experiments were carried out and so many schools
were established where each educator, would test his own pedagogy. The
stress was always laid to let the pupil feel free and give him contents based
on psychomotor skills, to comprehend the same on his own, with out
depending much on the teacher.
However, this shift from ages long system based on pedagogy,
cannot be made over night. It will take time. But still there are several
educators who advocate Andragogical contents, instead of depending on
stereo type pedagogical ones. While there is an enough number of those
opting for a third procedure i.e. Malcoims Knowles writes, if a learner is
entering in particular, into a totally strange content area, he or she will be
dependent on a teacher until enough content has been acquired to enable
self-directed inquiry to begin. This means, that the observance of teachers
is required but not his stereo-typed guidance and extremely constant
interference to the limits to negate the self dependence of the learner.
Being mostly standing for the principles and theories learning and
educating adults, this has to be experimented in comparatively higher
classes, where the cognitive domain of a learner has expanded. It is
observed by an educator, (name not yet known), I too, wondered after
reading (this theory), in what instances the pedagogical model would be
more appropriate than the andragogical. Our text offers the example of a
leaner who is introduced to content that is totally strange and involves
precise psychological skills. A text I bought for another class frames it in
a similar content.
To be realistic, none of us can do away with pedagogy, but it is
sure that to some extent its unwanted influence could be minimized.
Interestingly, the above quoted educator further says, overall I am getting
the impression that most consider pedagogy to be the least desirable model
to practice and for obvious reasons. This type of model encourages the
students not to depend on themselves or trust their own thinking. A
personal example that comes to mind is a literature class that I took as an
47
undergraduate. The instructor wanted us to keep journals as we read our
books to record our thoughts, feelings (and so on and so forth) etc. I
distinctly remember being very frustrated and kept producing (pricking)
her into divulging what she wanted up to write. She always responded
with, that is up to you. At that time, it was truly a process for me to
trust my own judgment and thinking. No one had really ever expected or
required it before. In retrospect, I laugh because I was so dependent on her
thinking and not my own. However, at the time, it was not funny.
Though, this theory is yet under process and it has not been totally
implemented, yet the desires for its introduction in our teaching
institutions, is growing day by day. Time is yet to come to increase the
creativity and I.Q. of the people of this part of the land i.e. Pakistan, so as
to be able to go along with such practices. However, in the developed
countries and those ambitious one which are influenced by the teaching of
Aristotle, Rousseau and John Dewey very rapid approach is being made to
it. It is said, self directed learning, models andragogical models should be
implemented as early as possible. I know that personally, (had it been
adopted earlier) it would have drastically changed my personal and
academic achievement.
48
UNIT-2
PIONEERS IN EDUCATION
2.1 ROUSSEAU (JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU):
His Life History:
According to the narration of historians like Mrs. Tanveer Khalid,
Jean Jacques Rousseau was born in Geneva (Switzerland), in 1712, in the
house of a poor watch maker. It is the consensus opinion of all the
educators that if Voltaire was the leader of the Naturalistic movement in
the earlier stages, Rousseau was that of the later stages. Due to his familys
poverty he could not get proper education. He had no literacy training or
knowledge. However, it was only for sometime that he received a little
education from his father informally at home. Form the age of 12 to 29
years, he remained a vagabond and during this period be traveled from
place to place and developed sympathy for the poor and the miserable.
Thus, he learnt to love nature and to dislike the conventional rules of the
society. During his interaction with the family of M.Dc. Malby, as tutor of
his two sons, he was motivated to get higher education.
For the first time, he participated in an essay writing competition,
in 1750, held under the auspices of the Academy of Dijon. The topic of the
essay was, Has the restriction of the Arts and Sciences. contributed to the
purification of morals? This opportunity marked the beginning of his
literacy fame and of his anti-social bias. To him the main cause of the
existing operation and corruption of the society is the advancement of the
civilization. Again, on a similar topic, he wrote his second book The
Origin of Inequality Among Men in 1753. To him civilization is the chief
cause of bringing inequality and differences among men. In this way,
gradually, Rousseau emerged totally an anti-social and revolutionary
49
moded man. He produced his other two important works, The social
contract and Emile. in 1762. These two have very perfectly, classified his
educational philosophy, besides his theory about the existence of a society.
Once Rousseau had to leave Paris. His anti-social and anti-state
thoughts were the real cause of his desertion. The Arch Bishop of Paris,
just after the publication of Emile, had condemned it as an irreligious
book and ordered it to be burnt by the public prosecution. However, in the
latter stages of his life, he came back to Paris and after few years died
there. He was a genuine educator.
His Contributions:
As earlier stated, Rousseau wrote several books. The prominent
among them were:
(1)
His essay on, Has the restoration of the arts and sciences
contributed to the purification of morals?
(2)
His second book is, The origin of inequality among men
(3)
His third book is, The social contract.
(4)
His fourth and the last book is, Emile duly published in 1762.
His Philosophy and Principles of Education:

(1)
His philosophical as well as educational concept revolves around

the Naturalistic Movement. More than philosophy, his concept
of education is Naturalistic. He is totally against the traditional or
formal education. To him such type of education is undesirable, as
it is man made instead of being natural.
(2)
The main sources of knowledge/education are three i.e. (i) nature

(ii) man and (iii) things. In addition to this, he regards nature,
equivalent to endowment. Education according to nature is
frequently interpreted to mean nothing more than the spontaneous
development of the innate disposition, of the child. To him
50
education does not mean merely imparting of information or
seeking knowledge but it is the development of the child under
disposition.
The impact of social relations and various social groups constitutes
education from men. The child has to live in a society, wrong or
right but he has to get impressions and influences from it. He
believed that education from man and things should, however, be
sub ordinate to that from nature. He himself preferred the latter one
because to him emotions were more trust worthy experiences which
are received in a society. To him the aim of education was the
development of the abilities of the learning, besides the liberty and
happiness of the child. While another aim according to him is not
only preparation for life, but participation in it.
3)
Child is always born good: during the Christian era, the child was
considered as the product of sin of the man, hence was treated,
previously, very harsh , but to Rousseau, a child is born good. He
might have borrowed this idea from Islam. Child is not a grown
up man; hence we should not expect him to behave like matured
people. He says, Beware of anticipating teaching which desired
more maturity of mind.
4)
Nature: To him, before our innate tendencies are wrapped by our

prejudices they are called, nature. Furthermore To Rousseau
that which is natural is good and anything that is conventional or
artificial is evil. Nature and society thus become opposed to each
other. Nature is an endowment lastly; he sees nature of
universe is governed by a divine authority. Its one other
interpretation is to live according to nature .... He should live
according to reason.
51
5)
Three phrases of Rousseaus process of education: Rousseau has

discussed three different phrases of education the natural or
negative, the social or moral, the civic or political, in his
book Emile. In this book, he like the Greeks, recognized the
importance of physical exercises in the education of the child. He
recommended the inclusion of these activities in the curriculum of
the child, as moral values and the social training can be derived
from participation in these.
In this treatise, Rousseau has introduced a new method of

education and a new type of curriculum. He has also outlined the education
of women, while prescribing it for Sophy whom Emile intends to marry. In
this book, he has also presented different stages in the development of
human life. While writing Emile, Rousseau was aware of his services in
bringing a revolution in education. Lord Morley recognized Emile as, the
character of youthful deliverance Frederika Macdonald wrote:
Throughout Europe Rousseaus voice went proclaiming with even more
resistless eloquence than it had proclaimed the Rights of man, the Rights of
childhood. Before Pestalozzi and Froebel, the author of Emile laid the
foundation of our new theory and practice of education.
Emile was a revolutionary publication in the field of education,
thoughts of Rousseau upon education were strikingly different from the
previous educators. Kant started reading Emile as soon as he got it, and
read it to the end with out a break. The popular reception of his book was
just the reverse. It was condemned by the Archbishop of Paris immediately
after its publication as an irreligious book and ordered it to be burnt in
Paris by the public executioners.
In the Emile, Rousseau distinguishes various stages of
development in the life of the pupil, like infancy, childhood, boyhood and
adolescence. He has also given the plans of education for these different
phases of life. A detailed description of these is being laid in the following
pages. Rousseau recommended that the possibilities of each stage of life
52
should be fully exploited before proceeding to the next stage this principle
was followed later by Frooebel and Montessori.
Infancy was characterized by habit and the training of emotions.
This stage remains till the age of six. The aim of education at this stage is
to devlop a well regulated sense of liberty and happiness. Education at
this stage should be according to the nature of the child. Common subjects
of ordinary curriculum should not be taught here, because they do not
fulfill the needs of childhood. Children are not capable of learning things
which the adults can learn. Their ways of seeing thinking and feeling are
different from those of adults. Education at this stage should be the
responsibility of parents. They should pay little attention to positive
instruction in the common subject but should see that the child develops
physically strong and healthy, his senses are properly exercised and he gets
a chance of cultivating natural habits. At this stage he allows co-education
with girl cousins.
Childhood consists of six years from the age of six to twelve. The
aim of education at this stage is to perfect the organs and the senses that are
the instruments of knowledge and the development of his natural powers
before knowledge is actually received. Emile, during childhood, should be
trained in gymnastic and other exercises. This will help him in the
development of his senses. If the senses are not developed properly,
reasoning and judgment are impossible. In Rousseaus opinion, the power
of reasoning can be developed through sense experiences. Our first
teachers are our feet, hands and eyes. To substitute books for them do not
teach us to reason; it teaches us to use the reason of others rather than our
own, it teaches us to believe much and know little. According to
Rousseau, the training of senses does not consist of practicing formal
exercises only, but they are developed by using them in concrete and real
life situations. For example, the measurement of length could be taught in
real life situations, such as whether a ladder is big enough to reach a
mongo tree, whether a plank is long enough to bridge a stream or how
much rope is required to make a swing? etc.
53
In correspondence to Rousseaus negative education, there will
be no verbal lessons for him. He will not be taught any lesson in History or
Geography. He has to learn by his own experiences and no book should be
used for him because reading is the curse of childhood. Moral and positive
instruction in different subjects should not be given at this stage, because
this learning demands reasoning and this is not present in a child in an
active form. He says , Childhood is the sleep of reason.
The art of teaching, Rousseau says, At this stage, is to lose
time and save it. Give nature time to work, he advises, Before you take
over her business. You assert that you know the value of time and that you
are afraid to waste it. You fail to perceive that it is a greater waste of time
to use it ill than to do nothing, and that a child ill-taught is further from
virtue than a child who has learnt nothing at all. Do not be afraid,
therefore, of this so-called idleness. What would you think of a man who
refused to sleep lest he should waste part of his life. To avoid sleep, he is
hastening his death. Remember that these two cases are a like and that
childhood is the sleep of reason.
Boyhood is characterized by utility and the training of the
intellect. This is a period of transition between childhood and adolescence.
Boyhood remains from twelve to fifteen years of age. During this stage, he
is ready to receive knowledge. The lost ground during childhood must be
recovered now, and education accordingly should be speeded up.
The aim of education at this stage is to gain useful knowledge,
which would satisfy his wants and desires and stand the test of practical
needs. At this stage Rousseau restricts Emiles training to what is useful.
What is the use of that? This is the sacred formula. The occupation
rejected at the previous stage must now be reviewed in the light of the
principle of utility. They comprise practical science, Geography and
manual work. Rousseau, accordingly, provides Emile with concrete
problems and puts him in challenging situations.
Rousseau advocates the method of discovery for learning which
practically resembles the Heuristic method it is formulated in this way.
54
Let him know nothing because you have told him, but because he has
learnt it for himself. You have not to teach truths so much as to show him
how to set about discovering them for himself. Geography should be
learnt by observation of natural phenomenon. He should begin geography
with the town he lives in and his fathers country house then the places
between them and the rivers near them etc.
Rousseau requires Emile to learn a trade to make him independent
economically, and to teach him to recognize the dignity of labour. The
basic principle governing Emiles education during transitional period is
that of learning by doing. No book was prescribed for the education of
Emile, except one book Robinson Crusoe. Emiles knowledge is still
restricted to nature and things. History was not being taught to him.
Rousseau says. Our child is ready, now to cease to be a child. We have
made him a worker and a thinker, we have now to make him loving and
tender-hearted to perfect reason through feelings.
Adolescence is the stage of morality, and of moral, aesthetic and
social education. Rousseau was the first educator who paid special
attention to adolescence, He refers to it as the crown and coping-stone of
education. He says works on education are framed with wordy and
unnecessary accounts of the imaginary duties of children, but there is not a
word about the most important and most difficult part of their education,
the crises which forms the bridge between the child and the man. The
period when education is usually finished is just the time to begin; it is our
second birth for we are born, so to speak, twice over, born into existence,
and born a man.
The aim of education changes as Emile enters the fourth period
of life. During this period should shape his heart. It should make Emile
loving and tender-hearted. He must learn to live for others and to live
together in social relationships. Education at this stage should prepare him
for the moral and social order in which he must live and play his part.
Previously he was studying himself in relation to his fellow men. This is
the fit age for the study of the ways of the world. We have reached the
55
moral order at last; we have just taken the second step towards manhood.
What then is required for the proper study of men? A great wish to know
men, great impartiality of judgement, a heart sufficiently sensitive to
understand every human passion.
The moral training was given indirectly through history and
fables. The realistic subjects of transitional period were now replaced by
the humanistic subjects. Till now, Emile has scarcely heard the name of
God, but now he is ready to learn about Him. For this purpose Rousseau
presented the creed of a Savoyard Priest In addition to instruction in
ethics and religion, he will now study aesthetics- the philosophy of the
principles of taste. During this period Emiles physical training was not
neglected. He was supposed to be engaged in an occupation which keeps
him busy and hard at work. Besides this, physical culture should be given
indirectly by the explanation of plant and animal life mysteries.
While giving a detailed account of the education of Emile,
Rousseau has described what should be taught at the different
developmental stages. However, the summary of the views of Rousseau
upon curriculum is presented below:
The main concern of earlier educators was to assist pupils to
acquire the contents of a prescribed course of study. The outstanding nature
of Rousseaus thoughts is the complete abandonment of a predetermined
curriculum. Ernile was to be educated entirely through activities and first
hand experiences.
In the infantile period which extends to six years of age, books or
common subject matter should not be taught, because they do not fulfill the
needs of infants. During this period parents should look after their health,
and help them in proper physical development.
At the second stage still, no lesson will be taught in language,
history and geography etc. even moral instruction will not be given at this
stage. He will be given great freedom to learn things by himself and to
develop his senses in contact with different objects of life. The School
56
must be considered primarily not as a place where certain knowledge is
obtained but as a place where the young are disciplined in certain forms of
activity which will be useful and significant in his later life situations.
In the third stage, i.e boyhood, Emile is ready to receive
education. His organs are developed and his senses are trained. He can be
taught physical sciences, language, maps, manual work, trade, skills for
establishing social relations, music and drawing etc. he can be taught
carpentry and making of scientific instruments. Rousseau has emphasized
the utility of learned subject matter. He has also emphasized the need of
learning a trade at this stage to enable the boy to live independently. Man
in a society is bound to work; rich or poor, weak or strong, every idler is a
thief. I demand no talent, but only a trade, a mere mechanical art, in which
the hands work harder than the head, a trade which does not lead to
fortune, but makes you independent of her.
During the adolescence-the forth stage-Emile can be taught in
moral and religious education. This should be given through activities and
occupations and not through lectures on religion and morality. Besides
moral education, history, physical culture and instruction of gender
problems are to constitute the curriculum at this stage. Education about
gender problems can be given indirectly by the explanation of plant and
animal life.
Rousseau attached great importance to learning by doing, by
direct experiences. He did not like verbal instructions because young
people pay little attention to it. They do not understand by this method,
therefore, they cannot retain much. We lay too much stress upon words,
we teach babble, and our scholars follow our examples, and he sums up,
Never substitute the symbol for the thing signified unless it is impossible
to show the thing it self. Teach by doing when ever you can and only
fall back on words when doing is out of question.
He pointed out the heuristic method of discovery. Let him know
nothing because you have told him, but because he has learnt it for himself.
57
You have not got to teach him truths so much as to show him how to set
about discovering them for himself .
Here lies the reflection of his naturalistic philosophy of education.
He takes care of the natural desires of the child, for example those of
activity, inquiry and curiosity. He has rejected the use of books in the
childhood and boyhood. He advocates that the position of the learner
should be like a discoverer.
Emile should learn science in a practical fashion with the help of
apparatus. The same principle should be followed in the teaching of
mathematics, history, geography, social studies and morality. Practice of
virtue is to count for more than lectures on ethics.
Rousseau recommends freedom, and absence of restriction upon
the child. According to him children should never be given punishment. It
should always come as a natural consequence of their faults. About the
nourishment of Sophy he is very much worried. Sophy is a girl whom
Emile is going to marry. While Rousseau has used unconventional and
natural education for Emile, on the other hand he suggested conventional
and orthodox education for Sophy. Contrary to Plato, Rousseau has
separate system of education for women.
Earlier Rousseau was influenced by the dictum the hand that
rocks the cradle rule the world. But latter on in the Discourse on the
Origin of inequality addressing women he says, it will always be the lot
of your sex to govern ours. Unfortunately being disillusioned due to the
experiences having occurred with the female sex, he came to modify his
views about women. Hence he said that the aim of womans education is
the training of her heart rather than of the head. His views can be summed
up in the following lines:
He says, Be good, sweet maid and let who will be clever. God
made woman for marriage but marriage for man. Husband and wife were
designed to live together but not to live in the same manner. In the
Emile he repeats the man should be strong and active, the woman
58
should be weak and passive. A man seeks to serve, a woman seeks to
please; the one needs knowledge the other tastes. What is most wanted in a
woman is gentleness; formed to obey a creature so imperfect as man, she
should early learn to submit to injustice and to suffer the wrongs inflicted
on her by her husband without complaint; she must be gentle for her own
sake, not his. He further says, Womens education is to be planned in
reference to the above instructions. Her education must be different than
that of a man. Its aim is to be pleasing in the sight, to win his respect and
love, to train him in childhood, to tend him in manhood, to counsel and
console, to make his life pleasant and happy. These are the duties of
woman for all time, and that is what she should be taught while she is
young. Sophys physical training should be different from that of Emile. It
should aim at grace, while in the case of Emile it should aim at strength.
Regarding religious education Rousseau is of the view that it
should be given to Sophy from the beginning unlike Emile. He should be
taught some reasonable, simple and few doctrines and fewer
observances.... Sophy is to learn a little reading, writing, cutting and
embroidery. The art of house decorating and house-keeping, and
elementary kow1edge of drawing and arithmetic would be an additional
qua1ification for her.
So far his views regarding teaching profession are concerned he
says, the art of teaching consists in making the pupil wish to learn and
not in mere imparting of knowledge. He encourages him (teacher) to
provide concrete experiences (instead of verbal teaching). On the
qualification of the teacher he says, I preferred to call the man who has
this knowledge master rather than a teacher, since it is a question of
guidance rather than instruction. He further says, The ordinary teacher
teaches him every thing except self knowledge and self control, the art of
life and happiness.
Rousseau is no doubt as important to the modern educators as
Plato was for the ancient ones. He was the first to demand respect for the
common man and recognized the dignity of labour. Furthermore, before
59
Pestalozi and Froebel, Rousseau laid the foundation of our new theory of
education which takes into consideration the different stages of the
development of the child. He says, treat the child as a child. He further
says, love the childhood, indulge, in its sports, its pleasure and its
delightful instincts. In addition to that in the method of education and in
the conception of the role of the teacher, again he has given psychological
lead. His play way method has been now introduced by John Dewey and
Froebel. This method was emphasized by Rousseau long long ago. He
says, work and play are all one to him (Emile), his games are his work
He also recommended methods of discovery in education. These methods
advocated by him appear to be very much modern. In short, he was, no
doubt the torch bearer of the educationists of the modern era.
2.2 FROEBEL (1782 TO 1852)

As per assertion of Dr. S.A. Ghaffar, Friedrich August Froebel
was born on April 21, 1782, in the village of Oberweisback in South
Germany. He was neglected in his youth and the memories of his early
sufferings made him in later life more eager in promoting the, happiness of
children. He lost his mother when he was only of nine months. His father
got remarried. His father was not very affectionate to him. The unfair
treatment of his step-mother made his childhood all the more miserable.
Deprived of parental affection, the poor chap was left at the mercy of God.
Froebel grew moody and subjective. He naturally turned towards the
natural phenomena eg hills, trees, flowers and clouds etc., for
companionship. His father, who was a clergyman, influenced him
indirectly. Since Froebels own childhood was neglected he developed an
intensive sympathy for children and spent his life promoting their life.
Education:
Froebel did not receive much education at school he was
considered as a dull. At the age of 15 he was appointed as an apprentice to
a forester. Froebel spent there two years. Thus the neglected child came
60
into intimate contact with nature. He spent a good deal of his time all alone
in the forest and perhaps it was here that he received his real education and
his love for nature grew. Two factors influenced him very much. The
religious influence of his father and the contact with nature cultivated in
him a spirit of mysticism and idealism. He discovered the uniformity and
unity of natures laws. The new idea developed in him a love for the study
of natural sciences. So he joined the University of Jena where he was
profoundly influenced by the idealistic philosophy of Fitche and Schelling.
Unfortunately he could study for about two years only. The varsity doors
were closed for him on account of his bad financial position. Again for four
years he remained on career wandering. He, more or less, wandered from
place to place, picking up professions of different nature and failing
miserably in them, one after the other.
Turning Point in Froebels Life:

This is narrated by approximately all historians that a stage came
in his life which proved a turning point for him. They say, At Frankfurt,
Froebel began to study architecture. There he developed some intimacy
with Dr. Gruner who was the Director of a model school. The Director
discovered the Froebel could become an excellent teacher and he
persuaded him to join his school. This marked a turning point in his life.
Froebel was greatly satisfied and he found his long missed life element
and was inexpressibly happy. He declared, from the first I found
something I had always longed for, but always missed, as if my life had at
last discovered its native element, I felt as happy as a fish in the water or a
bird in the air.
Froebel in Yverdum. After spending three years at Frankfurt,
Froebel paid a visit to Pestalozzis institute at Yverdum. There Froebel
learnt in detail the principles and method of PestaIozi. Froebel disagreed
with some of the Ideas of Pestalozzi and he found the following defects in
the school founded by him..
1.
The school lacked organization.
61
2.
There was no unity in the whole work.
3.
The subject of studies lacked integration
4.
In the early education of children co-operation of mothers was not

forthcoming.
However, it must be admitted that this contact with Pestalozzi

prepared him for his own educational reforms.
His desire for knowledge, of Natural Sciences carried him in 1811
to university where he studied and spent some time at Gottimgen and then
at Berlin. Two years later he left his studies and joined military against the
aggression of Napoleon. Froebel spent about three years in military and
this service gave him an understanding in the true spirit of discipline and
united action. After returning from military he was appointed as a curator
in a Berlin Museum. But he had no liking for this profession as he was
interested in education
Publication of the Education of Man:

It is said that in 1816, Froebel established a small school at Grie
Sheim. Later on this was transferred to Keihan. Froebel incorporated his
principle of elementary education. After, passing through many
vicissitudes, this became a successful institution in 10years. Instead of
impression, expression through play and art work was his chief
consideration at this place. In 1826, Froebel published his famous book
THE EDUCATION OF MAN. In this he says the true method of
education consists of considering the mind of the child as living while in
which all the parts work together to produce harmonious unity. After this
he started many schools in Germany. The government suspected the
revolutionary ideas of Froebel and an enquiry was conducted. The
inspector gave a favourable report. I found here a closely united family of
some sixty members held together in mutual confidence and every member
seeking the good of the whole. The aim of institution is by no means
knowledge and science merely, but free self-active development of the
mind from within.
62
But due to some financial difficulties, Froebel shifted his work to
Switzerland in 1830. The Swiss Government appreciated his work and sent
their teachers for training. He then moved to Burg Dorf. There he became
superintendent of an orphanage. He continued his work of training
teachers. There he realized that due to non-availability of education in the
pre-school age, the school suffered and did not get good raw material for
education.
Froebel returned to Germany in 1836 and founded his first
kinder-garten in 1849. He spent his whole time in the founding and
devising his apparatus for kindergarters.
The end of his life was very sad. As per narration of Dr.
S.A.Ghaffar, His views were not accepted by the German Government
and forbade him from establishing any school. This was a great shock for
the good teacher and he could not long survive it. Froebel died in 1852, in
poverty, misery and agony. His grave is marked with a cube, a cylinder and
a sphere on it.
Main Principles of his Philosophy

Mrs. Tanveer Khalid has discussed the principles of Froebels Philosophy
and says that, his philosophy is the outcome of the great influence of
German philosophers like Fitche, Kant and Schelling on him. The
following are the main principles of his philosophy.
1.
The law of Unity: According to Froebel there is one eternal law
the law of unity that governs all things men and nature. He said, In
everything there works and stirs one life because of all, one God has
given life. God is the one ground of all things. God is the all
Comprehending, the all Sustaining. God is the essential nature, the
meaning of the world. All things, animate or inanimate, originate from
God. Man and nature are one- They are simply the different forms of the
unit which is God. There is unity in diversity and diversity in unity. Each
of these is an individuality and also a unity. All things, have come from
the Divine Unity (God) and have their origin in the Divine Unity. All
63
things live and have their beings in and through the Divine Unity . The
unity is three-fold:
(i)
Unity of Substance: There is only one substance the one from

which all things come.
(ii)
Unity of Origin: There is one source, that is God, from which all
things come.
(iii)
Unity of Purpose: All things strive towards perfection i.e. God.
2.
The Principle of Development
i. The principle of Development is based on the first principle of

his philosophy ie unity of substance. We are marching towards the same
unity. The movement is continuous and upward. Everything is, therefore,
changing, growing and marching towards the same unity. Froebel
maintained that mind evolves from within. All, that child is ever to be and
to become, can be attained only through development from within. By
Development, he meant an increase in bulk or quantity increase in
complexity or structure, an improvement in powers skill and variety in the
performance of natural functions.
3.
The principle of self-activity.
It is only through self-activity that the real growth and

development is possible. Forced activity is artificial and unnatural. An
acute observer can know what the child is or what he is to become. All this
lies in the child and can be attained through development from within.
4.
Development through social institution:
According to Froebel, the school is a miniature society. He

remarked, No community can progress while the individual remains
behind. He believed that the individual is not apart from the life of the
society.
64
Meaning of Education presented by Froebel

Education consists of leading man, as a thinking, intellectual
being growing into self-consciousness, to a pure and unsullied, conscious
and free representation of the inner law of Divine unity, and in teaching
him means thereto.
Froebels Philosophy of Education

Creativeness of childhood: Froebel derives a new conception of
childhood. Childhood is not merely preparation for adult hood, it is a value
in itself and possesses its own creativeness. It participates in the divine
whole with the same rights of its own as adulthood, and therefore it can
claim the same respect on the part of the educator. The adult has no right to
feel himself superior and to interfere with the natural condition of
childhood; rather, he must combine guidance with the capacity of waiting
and understanding. Here Froebel falls into line with Rousseau and Herbart.
Inner relatedness of all education: Froebels second postulate is
also derived from his idea of unity. This is said to be the inner relatedness
of all education. This means that the educator ought to lead the child
through such situations as will help him to relate his experience organically
one with another only thus can he realise his own personal unity and the
unity inherent in the diversity of life.
Totality of educational endeavour: In order to realise the divine
character of the universe and his part in it, man needs his senses and
emotions as well as reasons for that. They all are windows of the soul.
Hence, Froebel emphasises the totality of educational endeavour. This can
be most clearly illustrated by a paragraph of , The education of Man, a
paragraph devoted to religious education. The right development of
religious feelings not here Froebels nearness to Pestalozzi-depends on
the loving soul-unity between parents and child, that clear oneness of
mind, which sees life as an unbroken whole in all of its operations and
phenomena. Only through this first Instinctive feeling of a loving
communion of men can the child ascend to a later realization of a
65
metaphysical Unity of the universe. With out such an experience he will
always live in two different worlds opposed to each other. One material
the other spiritual. Nor can he ever understand what the concept of the
fatherhood of God means in the history of mankind.
Concept of play. The finest expression of Froebels idea of
harmony in diversity is probably to be found in his concept of play. For
Froebel also, play is not merely a means of distraction; it is the most
important phase in the spontaneous development of the child, because it
allows him to exercise harmoniously all his physical, emotional, and
intellectual qualities. Play combines attention with relaxation, purpose with
independence, and rule with freedom. Play is for the child as ethical as
devotion to his work is for the adult.
Education of the pre-school child: One might be right by asking
why Froebel, with his comprehensive training in so many fields of
knowledge and his philosophical interests, finally concentrated his efforts
particularly on the education of the pre-school child. There are two reasons
for it. One is psychological. Froebel reveals an astounding insight into the
importance of the early experiences of childhood for the future
development of the personality. This anticipation of modern analytical
psychology, which he shares with Pestalozzi and Herbart, led him naturally
to emphasise the importance of pre-school education. The other reason is
of sociological nature. Froebel lived in the period of the Napoleonic wars,
with all their destructive influences, upon which followed the early period
of capitalism and a series of social revolutions. He saw that in all these
crises nobody was so imperiled as the children, therefore he went beyond
Pestalozzi, who considered the reform of the elementary school as basic for
the reconstruction of mankind, and fought for the establishment of
kindergarten.
Froebels Educational Principles

1.
The aim of education, according to Froebel is to enable the child

to realize the unity in diversity: Froebel maintains that the aim of
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education is not to make the mind of the child a jumble of words.
He writes, The essential business of school is not so much to
communicate a variety and multiplicity of facts as to give
prominence to the ever living unity that is in all things. Again he
writes, Human education requires the knowledge and
appreciation of religion, nature and language in their intimate
living reciprocity and mutual interaction without the knowledge
and appreciation of the intimate unity of the three, the school and
we our selves are lost in the fallacies of bottom less selfprovoking diversity. So the aim of education is to enable the
child to realize the unity in diversity.
2.
The chief means of education is the childs own activity: Play is

an essential factor in the growth of the child. The free and
unfettered natural development of the child takes place through
play.
3.
Education should be in conformity with Childs nature and needs.
4.
The child should be educated in free atmosphere: Freedom means

obedience to self-imposed law.
5.
The teacher is like a gardener who carefully nurses and protects

children in order to secure their full and free development along
the most desirable lines. The educator by his efforts assists the
education who is developing according to the law of his nature to
attain levels that would be denied to him.
6.
Froebel stressed the social aspect of education also: He believed

that all social institutions like the home, the school, the church
and the Stat, are the agencies of development of the individual
wherein he is to realise the unity in diversity.
7.
He devised songs, gestures and construction the chief means of

stimulating the imagination of the child.
The function of education, according to Froebel, may be summed

up as Education should lead and guide man to clearness, concerning
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himself and in himself to peace, nature and to unity with God. It should lift
him to knowledge of himself, to mankind to a knowledge of God and of
nature and to the pure and holy life.
Meaning of Kindergarten
In the form of Kindergarten, Froebel has made important
contribution to the theory and practice of education. He realised the
paramount importance of childhood and opened the first Kindergarten, an
institution of children of age 4 to 6, at Blankenberg in 1837. Kindergarten
is a German word which implies a childrens garden. Froebel conceived
the school as a garden, teacher as the gardener and the students as tender
plants. The teacher like the gardener is to look after the little human plants
and water them to grow to beauty and perfection. Froebel discovered much
similarity between a child and plant. He believed that the process of
growth and development of the plant and the child is the same. The plant
grows from within according to the seed that is within, in the same way the
child grows from within. He unfolds his tendencies and impulses from
within.
Objectives of Kindergarten
In the words of Froebel the object of a Kindergarten is to give
the children employment in agreement with their whole nature, to
strengthen their bodies, to exercise their senses, to engage their awakening
mind and through their senses to make them acquainted with nature and
their fellow creatures. It is specially to guide rightly the heart and the
affections, and to lead them to the original ground of all life, to unity with
themselves.
1.
Self Activity: Froebel believed that the child was not to indulge in
an activity that was suggested by parents or teachers. The growth
of child is directed by inner force in the child and not by any
external force. Education, said Froebel, should provide for
Free self activity and self determination -on the part of man the
68
being created for freedom in the image of God. He regarded selfactivity as a process by which the individual realises his own
nature and builds up his own world and then unites and
harmonises two. An inspector reported about this self-activity.
Self- activity of the mind is the first law of this institution, the
kind of instruction given here does not make the young mind a
strong box into which, as early as possible kinds of coins of the
most different values and coinage, such as are now current in the
world that are stuffed, but slowly, continuously, and always
inwardly that is according to a connection found in nature of the
human mind, the instruction steadily goes on without any ticks,
from the simple to the complex, from the concrete to the abstract,
so well adapted to the child and his needs that he goes as easily to
his learning as to his play.
The following points should be noted regarding childs activity:
(i)
It should not be vague, but it should be clear.
(ii)
It should be a sublimated or controlled activity.
(iii)
Social atmosphere is essential in order to secure meaningful

activities.
(iv)
Self-activity may take the form either of work or of play.
2.
Play. According to Froebel, Play is the purest, most spiritual

activity of man at this stage. It gives, therefore, joy, freedom,
contentment, rest and peace with the world.However, it should
be purposeful and enjoyable. It holds the source of all that is
good. Froebel recognized that play needs to be organised and
controlled on definite materials so that it may not degenerate into
aimless play.
3.
Songs, gestures and construction: Froebel saw an organic

relationship between songs, gestures and construction. He
regarded these as three co-ordinate forms of expression in the
child. What is to be learnt by the pupil is first expressed in a song,
69
then it is dramatised or expressed in gestures or movements and
lastly illustrated through some constructive work such as paper or
clay. Thus, a balanced development of the mind, the speech
organs and the hands is aimed at. These three activities provide
exercise to the senses, limbs and muscles of the child.
Selection of songs: He has given songs in his book. Mother and
Nursery Songs. These are fifty play songs. The idea of the introduction of
song is to enable the child to use his senses, limbs and muscles and also to
familiarise him with the surroundings. The child begins to use language
through these songs. Each song is accompanied by a game such as Hide
and Seek. The selection of the song is determined by the teacher in
accordance with the development of the child. There are three parts in a
song.
i)
A motto for the guidance of mother or teacher.
ii)
A verse accompanied by music.
iii)
A picture illustrating the song.
The song for drill is:

Let us have a drill to-day,
And whoever steps the best
March along grand array,

Shall be captain over the rest
And lead us on our way.

4.
Gifts and occupations: We have already stressed the place of

activity and play. To provide activities, Froebel devised suitable
materials known as gifts. The gifts suggest some form of activity
and occupations are the acts/activities suggested by gifts. These
have been carefully graded. They possess all the novelty of play
things. The order of the gifts is devised in such a way as it leads
the child from the activities and thought of one stage to another.
First gift. The first gift consists of six coloured balls contained in
a box. The balls are of different colours. Child is to roll them about in play.
70
The occupation consists in rolling them. The balls are intended to give the
students an idea of colour, materials, motion and direction.
Second gift. It consists of a sphere, a cube, a cylinder made of
hard wood. These are contained in a box. The child, plays with them and
notices the difference between the stability of the cube and the mobility of
the sphere. He learns that the cylinder is both movable stable and it
harmonises the qualities of both.
Third gift. It is a big wooden cube, subdivided into eight wooden
cubes. The child can have an elementary ideas of addition and subtraction
through these.
These gifts are to be effective basis of education.
5.
The place of teacher: The teacher is not to remain passive. The

teacher has to suggest the idea of occupation when gifts are
offered to children. He is required to demonstrate certain activities
to them. He also sings a song with a view to help the child to
form appropriate ideas.
6.
Discipline: A teacher has important responsibilities to perform. He

has to inculcate in the children values related to sympathetical
feelings
like love, sympathy, humanity, co-operation and
obedience to elders. He has to avoid external restraint and bodily
punishment. The child should be made to realise that discipline
depends upon his love for order, good will and mutual
understanding. Froebel stressed that women should be trained for
training children at this stage.
7.
Curriculum: The divisions of the curriculum are:

(i) Manual work.
(ii) Religion and Religious Instructions
(iii) Natural science and mathematics.
(iv) Language.
(v) Arts and objects of arts.
Merits of Froebels kindergarten:

1.
Froebel laid emphasis on pre-school or nursery education.
71
2.
He stressede the importance of play in the early education.
3.
He broadened the concept and scope of the school as an essential

social institution. He regarded school as a miniature society where
children get training in important things of life. They learn the
virtues of co-operation, sympathy, and responsibility etc.
4.
Froebe1 stressed the necessity of the study of Childs nature, his

instincts and impulses.
5.
The gift and occupations of the kindergarten give a new method

of teaching.
6.
The inclusion of productive work in the school m children

productive workers.
7.
There is sufficient scope for activity in a kindergarten.
8.
Various gifts provide sensory training.
9.
The inclusion of nature study in the curriculum helps to develop

love for nature and world in the mind of the students.
Limitations:
Though this system has got great popularity through the world, yet still
some more have criticised it as it follows:
1.
Froebel expects too much of the child: It is not possible for the
child to be able to understand abstract ideas of organic unity while
playing with gifts.
2.
In the kindergarten, too much stress has been laid on development

from within: The importance of environment has not been fully
recognised.
3.
Songs as given by him are out of date: These cannot be used in

every school.
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4.
The gifts of Froebel are formal in nature: The order of

presentation of gifts is arbitrary. They do not serve much purpose
of sense training.
5.
The kindergarten of Froebel does not provide for the study of the
individual child.
6.
There is little of correlation in the teaching of various subjects.
7.
It is not possible to accept his excessive emphasis on play in

education as it is likely to detract the child from serious learning.
Froebels Influence on Modern Education

Froebel invited us to live for our children and love them. The
Schools for young children are no more jails and children are no more
passive learners. There is no doubt that all the tendencies in the modern
educational thought and practice find their roots in Froebels conceptions.
He helped to make the society conscious of education for very young
children. The chief field in which he influenced the modern education are
as under:
1.
Emphasis on pre-primary or pre-basic education: The present

educator fully recognizes the importance of the education in the
early years. Today find a large number of schools catering to the
needs of such children. Froebel had also realized that until the
education of nursery years was reformed, nothing solid and
worthy could be achieved.
2.
New conception of schoo1: Highes says His kindergarten school

was a little world where responsibility was shared by all.
Individual rights respected by all, brotherly sympathy developed
and voluntary co-operation practiced by all. His school was a
society in miniature. A similar idea was earlier presented by John
Dewey as well.
73
3.
Respect for the childs Individuality: Froebel lived for children,

worked for children and died for children. He had profound love
and sympathy for children.
4.
Stress on the study of the child: Froebel stressed the need for the
study of the nature of the child, instincts and impulses. Modern
educator is very careful to see that adequate scope is provided for
the free play of the impulses and instincts of children.
5.
Education through play: Froebel believed that play is the highest

phase of self-development. He introduced play way in the
activities of the school. Today we find that the principle of play
way has been accepted by educator. We teach children through
songs, movements, gestures, dramatisation, hand-work etc.
6.
Sense training: Froebel introduced gifts for the training of the

senses of children; with the help of these gifts wanted to give the
idea of shape, form, colour, size and number. In every modern
school those activities introduced that help in the training of
senses. Audio-visual aids form an integral part of the present
system education.
7.
Activity in education: Froebel was the first educator to make selfactivity as the basis of education. Learning by doing is the
slogan of the day. The present school has become a place of
activity and joy for children. We provide activities to students so
that they may satisfy their instincts of construction, manipulation,
curiosity and acquisition.
8.
Nature study in education:For Froebel nature study was a means

of bringing the child nearer to God. He advocated syllabus of
nature study to enable the child understand the world in which he
lived and to develop habits of careful observation. This idea has
taken such a strong hold today that we do not regard any school
worthy of name if it does not provide for nature study.
74
9.
Women teachers at the nursery stage: It will not be out of place to

say that it is due to the influence of Froebel that we find a trend to
entrust the education at the pre-primary or pre-basic stage to
women teachers who are considered to be more suited for this task
of instruction at this stage.
Summary of the views of Froebel:

Dr. S.A Ghaffar, has presented summary of Froebels thoughts as it
follows:
1.
Philosophy of unity. All things live and have their being in and
through the Divine Unity.
2.
Education as unity with God: to lead and guide men to clearness,

concerning himself and in himself, to peace with nature and to
unity with God.
3.
Free self-activity: Education should provide for free self-activity

and on the part of man, he being created for freedom in the image
of God.
4.
Education through doing: plastic-material-representation in life

and thought doings, united with thought and speech is by far more
developing and cultivating than the mere verbal representation of
ideas!
5.
Education through pla:. Play is the purest spiritual activity of

man--it gives therefore, freedom, contentment, inner and outer
rest, peace with the world. It holds he source of all that is good!
6.
Study of nature: Froebel wants to study nature as life--the plant

as development--the animal as acting--the organ as functioning.
7.
Drawing out as the objective of teaching: The object in

teaching is to bring more and more out rather than to put more and
more in.
75
8.
Teaching-learning a double sided process: All true education be

simultaneously double-sided--giving and taking, uniting and
dividing, prescribing and following, between educator and pupil.
9.
Religious education: Religious instruction quickens, confirms,

explains the feeling that mans own spiritual self, his soul, his
mind and spirit, have their being and origin in God and proceed
from God.
10.
Discipline through love: Control over the child was to be

exercised through a knowledge of his interest and by the
expression of love and sympathy.
2.3 HERBART
Life Sketch:
The critics have narrated his life history in different ways, but I
have taken these extracts from Wikipedia website (Wikipedia.org) with
some changes. The writer says:
The philosopher cum psychologist and great Germen educator
was born at Oldenburg, Germany, in 1780 ad. Growing up as a fragile
child because of an unfortunate accident, Herbart was taught by his mother
at home until the age of 12. He continued his schooling at the Gymnasium
for six years, and showed interest in philosophy, logic, and Kant's work
involving the nature of knowledge obtained from experience with reality.
His education then continued at Jena, whereupon he studied philosophy
and came to disagree with his teacher Fichte precisely because Fichte had
taught him to think in a logical manner. He composed a few essays, which
he had given to Fichte during his years at Jena, criticizing the works of
Schelling and advocating his contention for the German idealism promoted
by others like Kant at the time. Leaving Jena after three years, he tutored
the children of Herr von Steiger, who was the Governor of Interlaken.
During these three years, his tutoring job sparked his interest in educational
reform. While tutoring in Switzerland, Herbart met and came to know
76
Pestalozzi, the German educator involved with issues of reform in the
schools. Resigning from his tutoring position, Herbart went on to study
Greek and mathematics at Bremen for three years, and then eventually
moved on to attend Gttingen from 1801 to 1809. While there, he received
a privat-docent for his endeavors in educational studies after receiving his
doctoral degree. He gave his first philosophical lectures at Gttingen
around 1805, whence he removed in 1809 to occupy the chair formerly
held by Kant at Knigsberg. Here he also established and conducted a
seminary of pedagogy till 1833, when he returned once more to Gttingen,
and remained there as professor of philosophy till his death. Herbart gave
his last lecture in perfectly good health and then unexpectedly died two
days later from apoplexy, in 1841 ad. He is buried in Albanifriedhof
Cemetery in Gttingen.
Herbart was very much focused on his studies, and he barely saw
the world outside his study and the classrooms making his world the
world of books and only books. Regardless of his relentless studying, he
met an eighteen-year-old English girl named Mary Drake one night when
playing a game of charades. He became acquainted with her and asked her
for her hand in marriage. They lived a happy life with Mary supporting all
of her husbands pursuits and contributions to the fields of pedagogy and
psychology.
His Philosophy
Herbart was a dynamic personality, possessing extra ordinary
excellence not only in Philosophy but also in Psychology, Mathematics,
Logic, Education and Educational Pediogogy . Philosophy, according to
Herbart, begins with reflection upon our empirical conceptions, and
consists in the reformation and elaboration of these, its three primary
divisions being determined by as many distinct forms of elaboration.
Logic, which stands first, has to render our conceptions and the judgments
and reasonings arising from them clear and distinct. But some conceptions
are such that the more distinct they are made the more contradictory their
elements become; so to change and supplement these as to make them at
77
length thinkable is the problem of the second part of philosophy, or
metaphysics. There is still a class of conceptions requiring more than a
logical treatment, but differing from the last in not involving latent
contradictions, and in being independent of the reality of their objects, the
conceptions that embody our judgments of approval and disapproval; the
philosophic treatment of these conceptions falls to Aesthetic.
His views about Logic & Metaphysics

In Herbart's writings logic receives comparatively meagre notice; he
insisted strongly on its purely formal character, and expressed himself in
the main at one with Kantians such as Fries and Krug.
As a metaphysician he starts from what he terms the higher scepticism of
the Hume-Kantian sphere of thought, The beginnings of which he discerns
in Locke's perplexity77about the idea of substance. The Validity of
even77the forms of experience77is called in question on account of the
contradictions they are found to involve. And yet that these forms are given
to us, as truly as sensations are follows beyond doubt when we consider
that we are as little able to control the one as the other. To attempt at this
stage a psychological inquiry into the origin of these conceptions would be
doubly a mistake; for we should have to use these unlegitimated
conceptions in the course of it, and the task of clearing up their
contradictions would still remaIn, whether we succeeded in our enquiry or
not.
But how are we to set about this task? We have given to us a conception A
uniting among its constituent marks two that prove to be contradictory, say
M and N; and we can neither deny77the unity nor reject one of
the77contradictory members. For to do either is forbidden by experience;
and yet to do nothing is forbidden by logic. We are thus driven to the
assumption that the conception is contradictory because incomplete; but
how77are we To supplement it? What we have must to point the way to
what we want, or our procedure will be arbitrary experience asserts that M
is the same (i.e. a mark of77the same concept) as N, while logic denies it;
78
and so it being impossible for one and the same M to sustain these
contradictory positions there is but one way open to us; we must posit
several Ms. But even Now we cannot say one of these Ms is78the same as
N, another is not; For every M must be both thinkable78and valid. We may,
however, take the Ms not singly but together; and again, no other course
being open to us, this is what we must do; we must assume that N results
from a combination of Ms. This78is Herbart's method of relations, the
counterpart in his system of the Hegelian dialectic.
In the78Ontology this method is employed to determine what in
reality corresponds to the empirical conceptions of substance and
cause,78or rather of inherence78and change. But first we must analyse this
notion of reality itself, to which our scepticism had already led us. for,
Though we could doubt whether The78given is what it appears,78we
cannot doubt that it is something; the conception of the real thus consists of
the two conceptions of being and quality. That which we are compelled to
posit, which cannot be sublated, is that which is, and in the recognition of
this lies the simple conception of being. But when is a thing thus posited?
When it is posited as we usually posit the things we see and taste and
handle. If we were without sensations, i.e. were never bound against our
will to endure the persistence of a presentation, we should never know
what being is.
Keeping fast hold of this idea of absolute position, Herbart leads
us next to the quality of the real:
1.
This must exclude everything negative; for non-A sublates instead

of positing, and is not absolute, but relative to A.
2.
The real must be absolutely simple; for if it contain two

determinations, A and B, then either these are reducible to one,
which is the true quality, or they are not, when each is conditioned
by the other and their position is no longer absolute.
3.
All quantitative conceptions are excluded, for quantity implies

parts, and these are incompatible with simplicity.
79
4.
But there may be a plurality of reals, albeit the mere conception of

being can tell us nothing as to this.
The doctrine here developed is the first cardinal point of Herbart's

system, and has obtained for it the name of pluralistic realism.
The contradictions he finds in the common-sense conception of
inherence, or of a thing with several attributes, will now become obvious.
Take some thing, say A, having n attributes, a, b, c ...: we are forced to
posit each of these because each is presented in intuition. But in conceiving
A we make, not n positions, still less n+1 positions, but one position
simply; for common sense removes the absolute position from its original
source, sensation. So when we ask, What is the one posited? we are told
the possessor of a, b, c or in other words, their seat or substance. But if so,
then A, as a real, being simple, must be equal to a; similarly it must be b;
and so on.
Now this would be possible if a, b, c ... were only contingent
aspects of A, as for example 23, 64, 4+3+1 are contingent aspects of 8.
Such, of course, is not the case, and so we have as many contradictions as
there are attributes; for we must say A is a, is not a, is b, is not b, etc. There
must then, according to the method of relations, be several As. For a let us
assume A1+A1+A1 ... ; for b, A2+A2+A2 ...; and so on for the rest.But
now what relation can there be among these several As, which will restore
to us the unity of our original A or substance? There is just one; we must
assume that the first A of every series is identical, just as the centre is the
same point in every radius.
By way of concrete illustration Herbart instances the common
observation that the properties of things exist only under external
conditions. Bodies, we say, are coloured, but color is nothing without light,
and nothing without eyes. They sound, but only in a vibrating medium, and
for healthy ears. Colour and tone present the appearance of inherence, but
on looking closer we find they are not really immanent in things but rather
presuppose a communion among several. The result then is briefly thus:
In place of the one absolute position, which in some unthinkable way the
80
common understanding substitutes for the absolute positions of the n
attributes, we have really a series of two or more positions for each
attribute, every series, however, beginning with the same (as it were,
central) real (hence the unity of substance in a group of attributes), but
each being continued by different reals (hence the plurality and difference
of attributes in unity of substance). Where there is the appearance of
inherence, therefore, there is always a plurality of reals; no such correlative
to substance as attribute or accident can be admitted at all. Substantiality is
impossible without causality, and to this as its true correlative we now turn.
The common-sense conception of change involves at bottom the
same contradiction of opposing qualities in one real. The same A that was
a, b, c ... becomes a, b, d ...; and this, which experience thrusts upon us,
proves on reflection unthinkable. The metaphysical supplementing is also
fundamentally as before. Since c depended on a series of reals A3+A3+A3 ...
in connection with A, and d may be said similarly to depend on a series
A4+A4+A4 ..., then the change from c to d means, not that the central real A
or any real has changed, but that A is now in connection with A4, etc., and
no longer in connection with A3, etc.
But to think a number of reals in connection (Zusammensein) will
not suffice as an explanation of phenomena; something or other must
happen when they are in connection; what is it? The answer to this
question is the second hinge-point of Herbart's theoretical philosophy.
What actually happens as distinct from all that seems to happen,
when two reals A and B are together is that, assuming them to differ in
quality, they tend to disturb each other to the extent of that difference, At
the same time that each preserves itself intact by resisting as it were, the
others disturbance. And so by coining into connection with different reals
the self-preservations of A will vary accordingly, A remaining the same
through all; just as, by way of iLlustration, hydrogen remains the same in
water and in ammonia, or as the same line may be now a normal and now a
tangent. But to indicate this opposition in the qualities of the reals A+B, we
must substitute for these symbols others, which, though only contingent
81
aspects of A and B, i.e. representing their relations, not themselves, yet like
similar devices in mathematics enable thought to advance. Thus we may
put A = +-, B = m+n+; then represents the character of the selfpreservations in this case, and ++m+n represents all that could be
observed by a spectator who did not know the simple qualities, but was
himself involved in the relations of A to B; and such is exactly our
position.
Having thus determined what really is and what actually happens,
our philosopher proceeds next to explain synthetically the objective
semblance (der objective Schein) that results from these. But if this
construction is to be truly objective, i.e. valid for all intelligences, ontology
must furnish us with a clue. This we have in the forms of Space, Time and
Motion which are involved whenever we think the reals as being in, or
coming into, connection and the opposite. These forms then cannot be
merely the products of our psychological mechanism, though they may
turn out to coincide with these. Meanwhile let us call them intelligible, as
being valid for all who comprehend the real and actual by thought,
although no such forms are predicable of the real and actual themselves.
The elementary spatial relation Herbart conceives to be the
contiguity (Aneinander) of two points, so that every pure and
independent line is discrete. But an investigation of dependent lines which
are often incommensurable forces us to adopt the contradictory fiction of
partially overlapping, i.e. divisible points, or in other words, the conception
of Continuity. But the contradiction here is one we cannot eliminate by the
method of relations, because it does not involve anything real; and in fact
as a necessary outcome of an intelligible form, the fiction of continuity is
valid for the objective semblance. By its help we are enabled to
comprehend what actually happens among reals to produce the appearance
of water. When three or more reals are together, each disturbance and selfpreservation will (in general) be imperfect, i.e. of less intensity than when
only two reals are together. But objective semblance corresponds with
reality; the spatial or external relations of the reals in this case must,
82
therefore, tally with their inner or actual states. Had the self-preservations
been perfect, the coincidence in space would have been complete, and the
group of reals would have been inextended; or had the several reals been
simply contiguous, i.e. without connection, then, as nothing would actually
have happened, nothing would appear. As it is we shall find a continuous
molecule manifesting attractive and repulsive forces; attraction
corresponding to the tendency of the self-preservations to become perfect,
repulsion to the frustration of this. Motion, even more evidently than space,
implicates the contradictory conception of continuity, and cannot,
therefore, be a real predicate, though valid as an intelligible form and
necessary to the comprehension of the objective semblance. For we have to
think of the reals as absolutely independent and yet as entering into
connexions. This we can only do by conceiving them as originally moving
through intelligible space in rectilinear paths and with uniform velocities.
For such motion no cause need be supposed; motion, in fact, is no more a
state of the moving real than rest is, both alike being but relations, with
which, therefore, the real has no concern. The changes in this motion,
however, for which we should require a cause, would be the objective
semblance of the self-preservations that actually occur when reals meet.
Further, by means of such motion these actual occurrences, which are in
themselves timeless, fall for an observer in a definite time a time which
becomes continuous through the partial coincidence of events.
But in all this it has been assumed that we are spectators of the
objective semblance; it remains to make good this assumption, or, in other
words, to show the possibility of knowledge; this is the problem of what
Herbart terms Eidolology, and forms the transition from metaphysic to
psychology. Here, again, a contradictory conception blocks the way, that,
viz. of the Ego as the identity of knowing and being, and as such the
stronghold of idealism. The contradiction becomes more evident when the
ego is denned to be a subject (and so a real) that is its own object. As real
and not merely formal, this conception of the ego is amenable to the
method of relations. The solution this method furnishes is summarily that
there are several objects which mutually modify each other, and so
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constitute that ego we take for the presented real. But to explain this
modification is the business of psychology; it is enough now to see that the
subject like all reals is necessarily unknown, and that, therefore, the
idealist's theory of knowledge is unsound. But though the simple quality of
the subject or soul is beyond knowledge, we know what actually happens
when it is in connexion with other's reals, for its self-preservations then are
what we call sensations. And these sensations are the sole material of our
knowledge; but they are not given to us as a chaos but in definite groups
and series, whence we come to know the relations of those reals, which,
though themselves unknown, our sensations compel us to posit absolutely.
His Principles of Education

Herbarts pedagogy emphasized the connection
individual development and the resulting societal contribution.
between
1.
Individual and Societal development: In Platonic tradition,

Herbart explained that only by becoming productive citizens
could people fulfill their true purpose: He believed that every
child is born with a unique potential, his Individuality, but that
this potential remained unfulfilled until it was analysed and
transformed by education in accordance with what he regarded as
the accumulated values of civilization Only formalized, rigorous
education could, he believed, provide the framework for moral
and intellectual development. The five key ideas which composed
his concept of individual maturation were Inner Freedom,
Perfection, Benevolence, Justice, and Equity or Recompense.
2.
Human Ability: According to Herbart, abilities were not innate but

could be instilled, so a thorough education could provide the
framework for moral and intellectual development. In order to
develop an educational paradigm that would provide an
intellectual base that would lead to a consciousness of social
responsibility, Herbart advocated that teachers utilize a
methodology with five formal steps: Using this structure a
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teacher prepared a topic of interest to the children, presented that
topic, and questioned them inductively, so that they reached new
knowledge based on what they had already known, looked back,
and deductively summed up the lessons achievements, then
related them to moral precepts for daily living.
3.
Making lesson Interesting: In order to appeal to learners

interests, Herbart advocated using literature and historical stories
instead of the drier basal readers that were popular at the time.
Whereas the moralistic tales in many of the primers and readers
of the period were predictable and allegorical, Herbart felt that
children would appreciate the psychological and literary nuances
of the masterpieces of the canon.
4.
Significance of his Pediology:

his pedagogy enjoyed a
renaissance of sorts in the mid- nineteenth century; while
Germany was its intellectual center, it found a ready echo in
those countries such as the United Kingdom, France, and the
United States in which the development of Individuality into
Character appeared particularly well attuned to the prevailing
economic, political and social circumstances. The combination
of individual potentiality and civic responsibility seemed to
reflect democratic ideals.
Though the emphasis on character building through literary

appreciation diminished somewhat after the movement toward
utilitarianism following World War I, Herbarts pedagogy continues to
influence the field by raising important questions about the role of critical
thinking, and literary appreciation in education.
Aesthetics and ethics

Aesthetics elaborates the ideas involved in the expression called
forth by those relations of object which acquire for them attribution of
beauty or the reverse. The beautiful is to be carefully distinguished from
the allied conceptions of the useful or the pleasant, which vary with time,
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place and person; whereas beauty is predicated absolutely and
involuntarily by all who have attained the right standpoint. Ethics, which is
but one branch of aesthetics, although the chief, deals with such relations
among volitions (Willensverhltnisse) as thus unconditionally please or
displease. These relations Herbart finds to be reducible to five, which do
admit of further simplification; and corresponding to them are as many
moral ideas (Musterbegriffe), as follows:
1.
Internal Freedom, the underlying relation being that of the

individual's will to his judgment of it
2.
Perfection, the relation being that of his several volitions each

other in respect of intensity, variety and concentration
3.
Benevolence, the relation being that between his own will and the
thought of another's
4.
Right, in Case of actual conflict with other
5.
Retribution or Equity for intended good or evil
The Ideas of a final society, a system of rewards and punishments,

a system of administration, a system of culture and an animated society,
corresponding to the ideas of law, equity, benevolence, perfection and
internal freedom respectively, result when we take account of a number of
individuals. Virtue is the perfect conformity of the will with the moral
ideas; of this the single virtues are but special expressions. The conception
of duty arises from the existence of hindrances to the attainment of virtue.
A general scheme of principles of conduct is possible, but the sublimation
of special cases under these must remain matter of fact. The application of
ethics to things as they are with a view to the realization of the moral ideas
is moral technology (Tugendlehre), which the chief divisions are
Paedagogy and Politics.
Theology
In theology Herbart held the argument from design to be as valid
of divine activity as for human, and to justify the belief in a supersensible
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real, concerning which, however, exact knowledge is neither tenable nor on
practical grounds desirable.
HIS PSYCHOLOGICAL STEPS IN MANAGING A

CLASS:
Before elaborating his steps, specified for managing a class, let us
know his views about realisim, empiricism and the use of Psychology in
teaching methodology to move further
A total Realistis Philosopher: Building upon the teaching methods
of Pestalozzi, Herbart contributed to pedagogy a psychological basis to
help facilitate better learning as well as to ensure childrens character
development. He was the first individual to point out how important a role
psychology plays on education. In developing his ideas about psychology,
Herbart came to disagree with Kant about how true knowledge is obtained.
Kant believed that we become knowledgeable through studying the innate
categories of thought, while Herbart believed that one learns only from
studying external and real objects in the world as well as the ideas that
come about from observing them. Examining the difference between the
actual existence of an object and its appearance, Herbart concluded that
the world is a world of things-in-themselves, [and] the things-inthemselves are perceivable. Everythings appearance indicates that it
exists. He considered all external objects existing in the world as reals,
which can be compared to Leibniz's concept of monads.
Empiricisim: Subscribing to Locke's empiricist viewpoint involving the
tabula rasa, Herbart believed that the soul had no innate ideas or no already
pre-established Kantian categories of thought. The soul, considered to be a
real, was thought to be completely passive initially as well as very resistant
to changes outside factors exert and force upon it. Even though reals are
disrupted by other forces appearing to cause a change in the reals
themselves, they are thought to be unchangeable. Reals tend to collide and
struggle with one another so much so that each real fights for its own selfpreservation (Selbsterhaltung). The way in which the soul helps to preserve
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itself from its outwardly perceived destruction is through Herbarts concept
of Vorstellungen, or ideas or mental representations. These ideas were
regarded as dynamic forces that Herbart attempted to explain by means of
mathematical formulas.
Influence of Newton on Herbart: Newtons influence can be seen in
Herbarts beliefs about how forces mechanically interact with one another
in the world to affect perceptions of reality. The mechanics of ideas
involved their ability to move in different ways, whether they be moving
up into the conscious or delving down into the unconscious. Different ideas
come into contact with each other and result in more complex ideas
through the processes of blending, fusing, fading, and combining in a
multitude of approaches. It is evident Herbart thought that ideas were not
precise imitations of the existing items in the world but that they were the
direct consequence of the interactions of individuals experiences with the
external environment. An individual can only gain all the facts and their
associated truth by understanding how their mental representations
combine and potentially inhibit or contribute to one another.
His view about Apperception:

Herbart believed ideas cross the barriers of consciousness, or a
boundary between the conscious and the unconscious, as they become
clearer and strong enough to preserve themselves against their struggle
with other forces. The ideas powerful enough to break through to the
conscious formed the apperceiving mass, or a congregation of similar and
related ideas dominating the conscious at any given moment. Expounding
upon Leibnizs concept of petites apperceptions and the idea of
apperception, Herbart believed the apperceiving mass to be crucial in
selecting similar ideas from down in the unconscious to join its forces in
the conscious. Although the individual is focusing all of his/her attention
on those complex ideas a part of the apperceiving mass in the conscious, it
is possible for ideas in the unconscious to combine with other ideas related
to them and struggle to break through the barrier into the conscious,
disrupting the present ideas a part of the apperceiving mass. Apperception
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played a key role in Herbarts educational theory. He saw apperception as
more pivotal in the classroom than sense-perception because focusing on a
childs apperceiving mass in relation to the material being taught can
inform teachers of how to implement the material in such a way as to direct
the childs ideas and thoughts to attend to certain information.Managing
Instruction:
Critical Review of Herbartians formal steps:

It was for the first time that Psychology was deliberately applied
to the practical work of teaching by the renowned educationist Herbart. He
was the pioneer of the modern developments and teaching practices. He
gave a definite form to classrooms lessons. In his view the perfect
acquisition of a new unit of knowledge involves mental movement through
certain definite stages. He first analyzed the activity of learning and
presented logical steps conforming to the different stages; and insisted that
every new unit of learning should be presented to the children in these four
steps:
1.
Clearness (or Clarity): The presentation of facts or things to be

learnt.
2.
Associating: Associating these new facts with similar facts

previously learnt (some people call it to recall his old
apperceptive masses)
3.
System: The interrelated and logically composed format of the

associated facts. In the other words the coherent and logical
arrangement of the associated facts to make the final
assimilation of the newly acquired facts.
4.
Method: Practical application of the newly assimilated facts by

the pupils to the new data or situation.
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With the passage of time the former steps were changed and
renamed again and again. Herbarts two followers, Ziller and Rein, have
been
working for a long time on these steps and gave them the
following
names.
1.
Clearness was named Preparation.
2.
Association was named Presentation.
3.
System was named Abstraction (Comparison and generalization).
4.
Method was named Application.
The steps of Herbart have got wide popularity and are generally
followed in the whole educational world. However they have been further
split and one more step has been added to them. Now, the following
modified form of the same steps is mostly followed.
1.
Preparation
2.
Presentation
3.
Comparison or Association
4.
Generalisation
5.
Application
1.
Preparation:
This first step serves as an introduction to the lesson.

Psychologically for- enabling our children to acquire knowledge, the first
thing we are required to do is to prepare them to receive it. This is
necessary both for the children and teachers. By this the children realise
and find out what they know and what they do not, resulting a desire to
know more. This is called preparation.
During this first step the teacher is enabled to link up his lesson
with life while the children are also enabled to understand the thing, which
is lacking in their lives. In this way, for the teacher after having known the
background of the children, it becomes necessary (and easy as well) to
know his aim. Besides that it is equally necessary to know the aim of
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lesson. It is unanimously advocated that the people should also have a clear
idea of what they are going to do. It makes the work of teacher meaningful
and easy.
2.
Presentation or Development
It simply means that the teacher gives or presents some new

knowledge to the pupils. This step follows the first one and it is a stage
when matter or new work is brought in. Simultaneously, the activity is
assimilated by the pupil. What is done in this stage, and the method used,
will be determined by the aim of the lesson. In connection with this stage
of enabling the pupil to gain new knowledge, it is important to remember
the principles of selection and division:
a.
Principles of selection: The teacher must select wisely what he is

to tell, and how much the pupils are expected to find out for
themselves.
b.
Principles of Division: According to this principle a teacher has to

arrange his material in an orderly and clear manner, dividing it
into its natural logical parts. Even, if it is only telling story to the
students of class one, these two principles must be remembered in
its presentation.
In logical perspective, the teacher presents his materials in the

following order:
a.
From known to unknown.
b.
From simple to complex.
c.
From easy to difficult etc.
In addition to that for making his presentation more effective and

attractive the teacher should use various A.V. Aids in his teaching.
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3.
Comparison or Association:
At this stage the mind assimilates knowledge, compares and

contrasts it with what it has already with it. For example, when a child,
having previously been acquainted with a dog, sees a horse for the first
time, he calls the horse a big dog. In the same way we compare new
things with the old one that we have already in our mind.
4.
Generalisation:
At this fourth step, the child finds out some general principles on
the basis of comparison and association of the facts, already learnt and
those which are being offered in the new lesson. For example, a child sees
that a ball, a stone, a brick etc. all come down if thrown into the air. Form
these experiences he makes a general rule. It is pertinent to note that the
process of generalisation is imperative to be done by the pupils under the
guidance of the teacher, in the teaching process. The skilful teacher is the
one who can help the child to come to his own conclusions, based on his
own experiences.
5.
Application:
This is the last step which is the most important one. The real
knowledge is that one when it is used, if it is to become permanent. For
this purpose the children must be given the chance to express themselves
on what they have learnt. The teacher may make them work actively and
gain further progress. Some times children learn the problems where this
rule is used. Similar is the case with other such subjects like geography,
idioms of a language etc. In this step the knowledge of the pupils is
stabilised and made firm besides preparing them to make further progress.
Advantages and Merits of Herbartians steps

Herbartions steps have given a new turn to the teaching practice.
Following are some of its advantages/merits.
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1.
Based on Thorndike law of motivation, in the preparation step, the

teacher motivates and prepares his pupils for new lesson which
makes the teaching learning process interesting as well as
effective.
2.
Due to these steps the work of teaching has become scientific as

well as psychological.
3.
Much time and energy is saved by following these steps properly

and wisely.
4.
These steps have given a definite form to the work of teaching

and have served as guiding light to new inexperienced teachers.
5.
As the second step i.e. presentation step, the teacher presents his
material in logical order which is from known to unknown and
form concrete to abstract, making the teaching easy and simple for
students.
6.
Application of newly learnt material gives durability and stability

to learning.
Approximately no lesson of what so ever kind it may be, can ever

be successfully taught without the first, second and fifth steps.
Disadvantages/Demerits of Herbartians steps:

Some educators have very harshly criticised these steps. The
renowned educator W.M. Ryburn says these stages or steps must be our
servants and not our masters. In spite of all the appreciation and
favourable remarks about these steps, one should not follow them
slavishly. The teacher should note the following drawbacks:
1.
These steps cannot be made applicable to all kinds of lessons.

These are useful for knowledge lesson but not for skill lessons or
even for appreciation lessons.
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2.
By their nature these steps are exclusively intellectual in

character and do not exploit interest of the children. They fail in
motivating the pupils properly for the new facts to be learnt.
3.
In all lessons and in all situations, generalisation is not possible as

well as useful for all the pupils. The teacher insisting on this step
often faces disappointment.
4.
To apply these steps very rigidly, it would mechanise the practice

of teaching. The pupils, too, do not take much interest in the new
lessons owing to the rigidity of plan, to which they are already
accustomed.
5.
These steps are suitable for higher classes but seldom useful for
lower classes.
Modification of Harbartians formal steps to suit

different types of lessons.
Types of lessons: There are three main kinds of lessons:
1. Informative, Lesson. 2: Skill Lesson. 3: Appreciation Lesson.
1.
Informative Lesson
The first, we may call, the lesson given for the acquirement of
knowledge or information. For example; we have a history lesson in the
primary school, the lesson where a new rule in arithmetic is being taught,
certain geography lesson where information is given etc.
2.
Skill Lesson
Acquirement of skill is the main focus in this kind of lesson. As

examples of the second, we have lessons where the mechanics of reading
or writing are taught, a geography lesson on map drawing, lessons on
drawing and hand work, lessons in which a foreign language is being
taught etc.
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3.
Appreciation Lesson:
The lesson for the development of aesthetic sense is called

appreciation lesson. As examples of this third kind of lesson, we have
lessons where poetry is presented to children with out particular attention
being paid to meanings. The same type of lesson can be given in prose.
These lessons come chiefly in literature, drawing and music. Each of the
above mentioned different types of lessons have their own techniques.
Now we will discuss these modifications for these lessons.
1.
Informative Lesson: With some modifications we can apply the

Herbartion Steps in the teaching of informative lesson.
The steps are

(a) Preparation. (b) Statement of the Aim.
(c) Presentation and association. (d) Generalisation.
(e) Application and Recapitulation.
All these steps have been discussed in detail in the previous
section of this unit.
2.
Skill Lesson: This is the lesson where the pupil is learning a skill,
where the object of the lesson is to help him to do something, not
simply to learn about some thing. For example, learning to read or
to write, are lessons, where a skill is acquired.
All kinds of handwork are lessons of skill. In such lessons we

need to follow a different procedure.
a.
Preparation: The first step will be the same as in the case of an

informative lesson, that is preparation, including motivation. It is
just as necessary, in the case of teaching a skill, as in seeking to
impart knowledge, to get the child interested and to link up with
life. We must have some thing to build on. For this purpose we
can show a model for imitation. Consider the child beginning for
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the first time to write in copy book. He learns by imitation. So we
show him the model of correct writing to imitate.
b.
Statement of Aims: The second step in a lesson for the

acquirement of skill will be, as before, the statement of Aim. The
child must know what he is going to do, and the skilful handling
of this stage of the teaching will ensure the interest and the
cooperation of the pupil.
c.
Presentation or development: In the case of acquiring skill, this

stage consists largely of observation, listening and seeing on the
part of the pupil, doing things with explanation of the best method
of doing them, by the teacher.
Thus, if the class is learning to write, they will watch the teacher
writing a word, and the teacher will, besides writing, show them how the
pen is to be held, how the strokes are to be made and so on. Some rules
may also be stated there.
d.
Practice: In this procedure the four steps could be one of practice

by the pupils where they imitate what the teacher has shown them,
and what he has done.
e.
Correction: Practice is to be followed by a step, that can be called

correction. It is really a representation. The teacher may once
again demonstrate to them how things are done. At this stage he
will call their attention to wrong methods, show them right ways
of doing things, show them how to avoid mistakes and clumsy
performance. Furthermore, there may be restatement of rules.
f.
Practice: (For the 2nd time) After correction the stage of practice
will come again. At this stage the pupils shall again imitate and
seek to improve techniques. In this way these two steps may often
be repeated one after the other. We will be referring again to this
type of work when we consider the process of learning.
3.
Appreciation Lesson: As a matter of fact aesthetic appreciation is

not acquiring some knowledge or learning some skills, it is
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concerned with feelings alone, i.e. feeling pleasure. To state in the
words of Smith and A.S. Harrison as given in their famous book
Principles of class Teaching, the appreciation lesson is an
invitation to look at or to listen to some thing beautiful with
leisure, to enjoy it in a favourable atmosphere and with a teachers
use of suggestion to heighten its appeal.
There are three stages which are to be differentiated as follows:
Preparation, Presentation and Practice.
(1)
Preparation: There are three things to be kept in mind while

considering an appreciation lesson:
a.
The teacher must himself appreciate what he is trying to lead his

pupils to appreciate.
b.
He must use the power of his suggestion as much as possible to

create an atmosphere for his lesson. With all pupils, and
particularly with younger ones, suggestion, with its resultant
imitation, will be a powerful factor in an appreciation lesson. For
example, the teacher should try to use the physical environment to
help him in creating a suitable atmosphere. It would be better to
take up a lesson of a poem, on rain, on a bright sun shiny day or
vice versa.
c.
The teacher must have some insight into the possibilities of his
pupils so that he may know what they are likely to appreciate. We
should try to link this lesson like the others with life.
(2)
stage:
Presentation: The following procedure may be adopted at this
a.
The teacher must do his best to put himself into the authors place
where the lesson is on prose or poetry. He must try to bring out
the authors thoughts and feelings.
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b.
Care should be taken to present the whole lesson just like a single
unit. There should be no breaks or interruptions in the
presentation.
c.
After the actual presentation of the passage, poem, picture or

piece of music or other object of appreciation the next step is
guidance. It may be catered as a separate step, but it is really a
part of presentation. During this portion of the lesson pupils will
get chance for telling which particular parts of the material
appealed most to them. Teacher can discuss with pupil their own
reactions to that part of lesson. Opportunities should be given to
pupils to express their preferences and likes and dislikes with
older students after having finished the emotional and aesthetic
guidance. At this stage the teacher may also take up intellectual
side of the work with them.
(3)
Practice: The teacher should encourage the pupils to create pieces

of beauty themselves, at the moment when he finds them
appreciating the beauty of the lesson. They should be guided to
exercise their creative abilities and doing some works especially
to write, draw, paint, sing and play for themselves. May be that
the child possess crude and raw creative qualities but these have a
great educational value and will help naturally in developing good
appreciation.
The success of an appreciation lesson depends on the following
factors:
i
A teacher should himself appreciate the lesson
ii.
He should be able to create appreciatic atmosphere.
iii.
External conditions should be quite according to the nature of the

lesson.
iv.
The lesson should be quite according to the age, interest,

capacities and likes of the pupils.
98
v.
There should be no language difficulties.
vi.
Critical appreciation must follow presentation.
vii.
The teacher should have strong suggestive power together with

the art of presenting the lesson in the same way as the author felt
or thought.
2.4 MARIA MONTESSORI:

(No doubt, Maria Montessori is such an educator, whose lifes
events have been described by several historians in detial, but this article
has been prepared, mostly, by benefitting from the book titled Montessori
Hand book & The Montessori Method written by her and published in
1993, besides some websites. )
Early Education
Her full name is Maria Tecla Arlemesia Montessori who was
born in Chiarawalle, Italy, on August 31st, 1870. When she was three years
of age, her family first shfited to Florence in 1873 and then back to Rome,
in 1875, due to the service urgencies of her father. She was brought up by
her parents in a very conducive environment, in the early part of her life.
Her father, Alessandro Montessori was a civil servant and former soldier.
Also her mother, Renilde Sloppani, was well educated and she supported
Montessori to continue her studies as she liked.The mother and daughter
always remained very close to each other. But due to certain controversal
conditions regarding female discrimination in education, her father was a
little bit against her taking admission in Medicines.
She completed her secondary education and graduated from Technical
School Regia Scoula Tecnica Michelangelo Bounarroti, in 1886. she
studied, there Italian, arithmatic, algebra, geometry, accounting, history,
Geography and Drawing Physics etc.
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2. Secondary school
At the age of 16, in 1886, she got admission in Regio Technical
Institute for studying technical and medicine subjects. She did well in all of
the same subjects. Consequently, she applied for admission in the
University of Rome, for Medical Sciences, but she was refused admission
only because on her being female. However, she took admission in a
Degree course of natural sciences of the same university, in 1890. This was
a very critical part of her life. She would always remember the incident
which met him.
During her stay here, she married a person to whom she gave birth
to son. On 31 March 1898, her only child a son named Mario Montessori
(March 31, 1898 1982) was born. When the father of her child fell in
love with another woman and subsequently married, Montessori was left
feeling betrayed and decided to leave the university hospital and place her
son into foster care with a family living in the country side opting to miss
the first few years of his life. She would later be reunited with her son in
his teenage years, where he proved to be a great assistant in her reseaches.
3.
University of RomeMedical school
Finally she secured a degree namely diploma di licenza in

1892, which enabled her to pass her examination. This degree along with
additional studies, qualified her for entrance into the medical program at
the University in 1993, but, here again she met with hostility and
harassment from some medical students and professor because of her
gender. Inspite of extreme non-conducive conditions, she graduted with
distinction and won an academic prize. On the basis of that she secured a
position of hospital assistant, in 1895. while due to her impressive
performance in pediatric medicine, she was granted the degree as Doctor of
Medicine. Her thesis was published in 1897 and she was given job as
Surgical Assistant at the university hospital.
100
Early Career
In this connection this is pertinent to note that she was fortunate
enough that she was appointed as Surgical Assistant at Santo Spirito, the
same hospital where she had worked previously as Medical Assistant. In
the beginning of her profession, she happened to interact with mentally
handicapped children. From here she became interested in Psychology and
human behaviour, and by 1904 had accepted a professorship in
Anthropology at the University of Rome. She gave up the same profession
in 1906 and opted to find new fields for her work which became her lifes
work ie re-engineering the field of childrens education. She had no
liabilities except the lonely son and she could manage time for such like
charity based work.
Work with mentally disabled children

The service, she rendered for the disabled and mentally retarded
people was np doubt, highly valuable. Perfectly accustomed to this
practice, she used to spare time for touring and lecturing in the other
countries for this purpose. Besides, she used to look after her only son.
During these days (19 06-1911), she used to publicize her method in Rome,
France and UK. She practically started some schools as well, hence with
opening her First Casa dei Bambini (childres house) in Italy, Montessori
education became popular there. In 1909, Monessori held the first teacher
training course in her new method in Cittia Di Castello, Italy. Also one of
her books titled, The Method pf Scientific Pedagogy applied to the
education of Children, in the Children Houses was published. This made it
spread internally.
Public Advocacy
During the era of 1909-1915, Montessori system of education
gained reputation and got international recognition. The reason was that it
had begun attracting the attention of international observers and visitors.
Schools were established in Switzerland and United Kingdom in 1911.
Similarly Montessori Societies were founded in the United States and the
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United Kingdom. Translations of her works started in different languages,
in 1914. one year before this ie, in 1913, she had paid a visit to America,
where it was resolved to open the same schools, in 1915. Even this wave of
school opening was so fast that by the same year, ie 1915, it reached to
Spain, Netherlands, The United Kingdom,Vienna and upto 1939 to India
and China. Also, this was heartening that Psychalogists like Sigmand Freud
were atracted by this method.
This would not be out of place to say that Montessori Efucational
Societies were established in majority of the countries of the world by the
year 1952. All of her schools, though having faced different turmoils and
ups and downs were, finally, established perfectly and got tremendous
reputation through out the world. As early as in 1939, Montessori came to
India and gave lectures on her method at different places. Now, there are so
many schools of Montessori system of education not only in India but in
Pakistan as well. After such tremedous and lengthy services to the
humanity, Maria Montessori died of Cerebal Hemorrhage on May 6, 1952
at the age of 81 in Noordwijk aan, the Netherlands.
Orthophrenic School
Montessori is remembered as the founder of the famous
Montessori Method of Education which emphasized hands-on,
individualized learning within mixed age groups in a child-friendly setting.
Her teaching strategies and her discoveries about the process of learning
revolutionized the field of education in the United States and profoundly
influenced children's education all around the world. Despite the
familiarity of her name, few realize that much of the developmental,
"hands-on" approach now employed in pre schools and kindergartens can
be traced to the innovations of Maria Montessori. Although best known as
an educator, Montessori's formal training was as a scientist and medical
doctor. She is also notable for having been Italy's first female M.D. For her
committed efforts on behalf of children, especially in the face of the
fascism of World War II, Montessori was nominated three times for the
Nobel Peace Prize. (1949, 1950, 1951).
102
This is a fact that Montessoris methods were not derived from
any extant pedagogical wisdom. She had chosed a separate and quite new
method for woman teachers. With the passage of time her curriculum,
method and system of education became very much popular. Her method
attracted the attentions of Alxender Graham Bell, Thomas Edison and even
disabilities activist Hellen Keller. In 1915, Maria Montessori spoke at
Carnegei Hall, after she had already founded the Montessori Educational
Association the Headquarter of which was at Washington DC, USA. This
method has now become very famous and popular since that day attracting
all an sundary.
It is said that she developed an educational theory, which
combined ideas of scholar Froebel, anthropologist Giuseooe Sergi, French
Physicians, Jean Itard and Edouard Seguin, with methods that she had
found in medicine, education, and Anthropology. During the remaining
years of her life, from about 1907 to the mid-1930s, Dr. Montessori
devoted all of her time and energy to developing schools throughout
Europe and North America. She then traveled to India and Sri Lanka, untill
1947, where she trained thousands of teachers in the Montessori
curriculum and methodology.
Last days of her life: In the last part of her life, she remained in
NetherLands for some period with her lonely son. Her lone son assumed
the mantle of leadership for the Association Montessori Internationale,
after her demise. The services of Maria Montessori are nevertheless,
extremely memorable. Her methodolgy is, no doubt revolutionary which
brought significant change. As eralier stated she died on May 6, 1952.
103
Montessori
Achievements
in
establishing
schools and helping the helpless:
1. The first Casa (Childrens house).1906-1911
spresd of her ideas:
In 1906 Montessori was invited to oversee the care and education
of a group of children of working parents in a new apartment building for
low-income families in the San Lorenzo district in Rome. Montessori was
interested in applying her work and methods to mentally normal children,
and she accepted. The name Casa dei Bambini, or Children's House, was
suggested to Montessori, and the first Casa opened on January 6, 1907,
enrolling 50 or 60 children between the ages of two or three and six or
seven.
At first, the classroom was equipped with a teacher's table and
blackboard, a stove, small chairs, armchairs, and group tables for the
children, and a locked cabinet for the materials that Montessori had
developed at the Orthophrenic School. Activities for the children included
personal care such as dressing and undressing, care of the environment
such as dusting and sweeping, and caring for the garden. The children were
also shown the use of the materials Montessori had developed. Montessori
herself, occupied with teaching, research, and other professional activities,
oversaw and observed the classroom work, but did not teach the children
directly. Day-to-day teaching and care were provided, under Montessori's
guidance, by the building porter's daughter.
2.
Deffects
of
removed:
method
identified
and
In this first classroom, Montessori observed behaviors in these

young children which formed the foundation of her educational method.
She noted episodes of deep attention and concentration, multiple
repetitions of activity, and a sensitivity to order in the environment. Given
free choice of activity, the children showed more interest in practical
activities and Montessori's materials than in toys provided for them, and
104
were surprisingly unmotivated by sweets and other rewards. Over time, she
saw a spontaneous self-discipline emerge.
3.
Reforms in classroom management:
Based on her observations, Montessori implemented a number of

practices that became hallmarks of her educational philosophy and method.
She replaced the heavy furniture with child-sized tables and chairs light
enough for the children to move, and placed child-sized materials on low,
accessible shelves. She expanded the range of practical activities such as
sweeping and personal care to include a wide variety of exercises for care
of the environment and the self, including flower arranging, hand washing,
gymnastics, care of pets, and cooking. She also included large open air
sections in the classroom encouraging children to come and go as they
please in the room's different areas and lessons.
4.
Managing the Time properly:
In her book, Montessori outlines a typical winter's day of lessons,

starting at 09:00 AM and finishing at 04:00 PM:
910. Entrance. Greeting. Inspection as to personal cleanliness.

Exercises of practical life; helping one another to take off and put
on the aprons. Going over the room to see that everything is
dusted and in order. Language: Conversation period: Children
give an account of the events of the day before. Religious
exercises.
1011. Intellectual exercises. Objective lessons interrupted by

short rest periods. Nomenclature, Sense exercises.
1111:30. Simple gymnastics: Ordinary movements done

gracefully, normal position of the body, walking, marching in line,
salutations, movements for attention, placing of objects
gracefully.
11:3012. Luncheon: Short prayer.
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121. Free games.
12. Directed games, if possible, in the open air. During this

period the older children in turn go through with the exercises of
practical life, cleaning the room, dusting, putting the material in
order. General inspection for cleanliness: Conversation.
23. Manual work. Clay modelling, design, etc.
34. Collective gymnastics and songs, if possible in the open air.

Exercises to develop forethought: Visiting, and caring for, the
plants and animals.
She felt by working independently, children could reach new

levels of autonomy and become self motivated to reach new levels of
understanding. Montessori also realized that acknowledging that all
children were individuals and treating them as such would yield to better
learning and fulfilled potential in each particular child. She continued to
adapt and refine the materials she had developed earlier, altering or
removing exercises which were chosen less frequently by the children.
Also based on her observations, Montessori experimented with allowing
children free choice of the materials, uninterrupted work, and freedom of
movement and activity within the limits set by the environment. She began
to see independence as the aim of education, and the role of the teacher as
an observer and director of children's innate psychological development.
5.
International recognition and growth of

Montessori education
As early as 1909, Montessori's work began to attract the attention

of international observers and visitors. Her work was widely published
internationally, and spread rapidly. By the end of 1911, Montessori
education had been officially adopted in public schools in Italy and
Switzerland, and was planned for the United Kingdom. By 1912,
Montessori schools had opened in Paris and many other Western European
cities, and were planned for Argentina, Australia, China, India, Japan,
106
Korea, Mexico, Switzerland, Syria, the United States, and New Zealand.
Public programs in London, Johannesburg, Rome, and Stockholm had
adopted the method in their school systems.Montessori societies were
founded in the United States (the Montessori American Committee) and
the United Kingdom (the Montessori Society for the United Kingdom). In
1913 the first International Training Course was held in Rome, with a
second in 1914.
Montessori's work was widely translated and published during
this period. Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica was published in the
United States as The Montessori Method: Scientific Pedagogy as Applied
to Child Education in the Children's Houses, where it became a best seller.
British and Swiss editions followed. A revised Italian edition was
published in 1913. Russian and Polish editions came out in 1913 as well,
and German, Japanese, and Romanian editions appeared in 1914, followed
by Spanish (1915), Dutch (1916), and Danish (1917) editions. Pedagogical
Anthropology was published in English in 1913.In 1914, Montessori
published, in English, Doctor Montessori's Own Handbook, a practical
guide to the didactic materials she had developed.
6.
Her efforts for maitenence of Peace
In 1932, Montessori spoke on Peace and Education at the Second

International Montessori Congress in Nice, France; this lecture was
published by the Bureau International d'Education, Geneva, Switzerland.
In 1932, Montessori spoke at the International Peace Club in Geneva,
Switzerland, on the theme of Peace and Education. Montessori held peace
conferences from 1932 to 1939 in Geneva, Brussels, Copenhagen, and
Utrecht, which were later published in Italian as Educazione e Pace, and in
English as Education and Peace. In 1949, and again in 1950 and in 1951,
Montessori was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize, receiving a total of
six nominations.
107
Remaining
Important
Topics
Montessori system:
related
to
* The spread of Montessori system in Italy:

The first Casa dei Bambini (Childrens house)was a success, and a
second was opened on April 7, 1907. The children in her programs
continued to exhibit concentration, attention, and spontaneous selfdiscipline, and the classrooms began to attract the attention of prominent
educators, journalists, and public figures In the fall of 1907, Montessori
began to experiment with teaching materials for writing and reading
letters cut from sandpaper and mounted on boards, moveable cutout letters,
and picture cards with labels. Four and five year old children engaged
spontaneously with the materials and quickly gained a proficiency in
writing and reading far beyond what was expected for their age. This
attracted further public attention to Montessori's work . Three more Case
dei Bambini opened in 1908, and in 1909 Italian Switzerland began to
replace Froebellian methods with Montessori in orphanages and
kindergartens.
In 1909, Montessori held the first teacher training course in her
new method in Citt di Castello, Italy. In the same year, she described her
observations and methods in a book titled Il Metodo della Pedagogia
Scientifica Applicato All'Educazione Infantile Nelle Case Dei Bambini
(The Method of Scientific Pedagogy Applied to the Education of Children
in the Children's Houses). Two more training courses were held in Rome in
1910, and a third in Milan in 1911. Montessori's reputation and work began
to spread internationally as well, and around that time she gave up her
medical practice to devote more time to her educational work, developing
her methods and training teachers. In 1919 she resigned from her position
at the University of Rome, as her educational work was increasingly
absorbing all her time and interest.l
108
* Montessori in the United States

In 1911 and 1912, Montessori's work was popular and widely
publicized in the United States, especially in a series of articles in
McClure's Magazine, and the first North American Montessori school was
opened in October 1911, in Tarrytown, New York. The inventor Alexander
Graham Bell and his wife became proponents of the method and a second
school was opened in their Canadian home. The Montessori Method sold
quickly through six editions. The first International Training Course in
Rome in 1913 was sponsored by the American Montessori Committee, and
67 of the 83 students were from the United States By 1913 there were more
than 100 Montessori schools in the country. Montessori traveled to the
United States in December 1913 on a three-week lecture tour which
included films of her European classrooms, meeting with large,
enthusiastic crowds wherever she traveled.
Montessori returned to the United States in 1915, sponsored by
the National Education Association, to demonstrate her work at the
Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco, California, and
to give a third international training course. A glass-walled classroom was
put up at the Exposition, and thousands of observers came to see a class of
21 students. Montessori's father died in November 1915, and she returned
to Italy.
Although Montessori and her educational approach were highly
popular in the United States, she was not without opposition and
controversy. Influential progressive educator William Heard Kilpatrick, a
follower of American philosopher and educational reformer John Dewey,
wrote a dismissive and critical book titled The Montessori Method
Examined, which had a broad impact. The National Kindergarten
Association was critical as well. Critics charged that Montessori's method
was outdated, overly rigid, overly reliant on sense-training, and left too
little scope for imagination, social interaction, and play. In addition,
Montessori's insistence on tight control over the elaboration of her method,
the training of teachers, the production and use of materials, and the
109
establishment of schools became a source of conflict and controversy. After
she left in 1915, the Montessori movement in the United States
fragmented, and Montessori education was a negligible factor in education
in the United States until 1952.
* Further development of Montessori education

In 1915, Montessori returned to Europe and took up residence in
Barcelona , Spain. Over the next 20 years Montessori traveled and lectured
widely in Europe and gave numerous teacher training courses. Montessori
education experienced significant growth in Spain, the Netherlands, the
United Kingdom, and Italy.
* Spain (19151936)
On her return from the United States, Montessori continued her
work in Barcelona, where a small program sponsored by the Catalonian
government begun in 1915 had developed into the Escola Montessori,
serving children from three to ten years old, and the Laboratori i Seminari
de Pedagogia, a research, training, and teaching institute. A fourth
international course was given there in 1916, including materials and
methods, developed over the previous five years, for teaching grammar,
arithmetic, and geometry to elementary school children from six to twelve
years of age. In 1917 Montessori published her elementary work in
L'autoeducazionne nelle Scuole Elementari (Self-Education in Elementary
School), which appeared in English as The Advanced Montessori Method
Around 1920, the Catalonian independence movement began to demand
that Montessori take a political stand and make a public statement favoring
Catalonian independence, and she refused. Official support was withdrawn
from her programs. In 1924, a new military dictatorship closed
Montessori's model school in Barcelona, and Montessori education
declined in Spain, although Barcelona remained Montessori's home for the
next twelve years. In 1933, under the Second Spanish Republic, a new
training course was sponsored by the government, and government support
was re-established. In 1934, she published two books in Spain,
110
Psicogeometrica and Psicoarithemetica. However, with the onset of the
Spanish Civil War in 1936, political and social conditions drove
Montessori to leave Spain permanently.
1* The Netherlands (19171936)

In 1917, Montessori lectured in Amsterdam , and the Netherlands
Montessori Society was founded. She returned in 1920 to give a series of
lectures at the University of Amsterdam. Montessori programs flourished
in the Netherlands, and by the mid-1930s there were more than 200
Montessori schools in the country. In 1935 the headquarters of the
Association Montessori Internationale, or AMI, moved permanently to
Amsterdam.
* The United Kingdom (19191936)

Montessori education was met with enthusiasm and controversy
in England between 1912 and 1914. In 1919, Montessori came to England
for the first time and gave an international training course which was
received with high interest. Montessori education continued to spread in
the United Kingdom, although the movement experienced some of the
struggles over authenticity and fragmentation that took place in the United
States. Montessori continued to give training courses in England every
other year until the beginning of World War II.
* Italy (19221934)
In 1922, Montessori was invited to Italy on behalf of the
government to give a course of lectures and later to inspect Italian
Montessori schools. Later that year Benito Mussolini's Fascist government
came to power in Italy. In December, Montessori came back to Italy to plan
a series of annual training courses under government sponsorship, and in
1923, the minister of education Giovanni Gentile expressed his official
support for Montessori .
111
A CRITICAL NOTE ON MONTESSORIS EDUCATIONAL
PHILOSOPHY AND PEDAGOGY
Merits of Montessori Method;

1. Its the result of the influences of the early
great scholars::
Montessori's theory and philosophy of education were initially
heavily influenced by the work of Jean Marc Gaspard Itard, douard
Sguin, Friedrich Frbel, and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, all of whom
emphasized sensory exploration and manipulatives. Montessori's first work
with mentally disabled children, at the Orthophrenic School in 19001901,
used the methods of Itard and Seguin, training children in physical
activities such as walking and the use of a spoon, training their senses by
exposure to sights, smells, and tactile experiences, and introducing letters
in tactile form. These activities developed into the Montessori "Sensorial"
materials.
2. Scientific pedagogy
Montessori considered her work in the Orthophrenic School and
her subsequent psychological studies and research work in elementary
schools as "scientific pedagogy," a concept current in the study of
education at that time. She called for not just observation and measurement
of students, but for the development of new methods which would
transform them. "Scientific education, therefore, was that which, while
based on science, modified and improved the individual." Further,
education itself should be transformed by science: "The new methods if
they were run on scientific lines, ought to change completely both the
school and its methods, ought to give rise to a new form of education."
112
3.
Establishment of Children
sympatheic step for
house
First
Children):
Working with non-disabled children in the Casa dei Bambini in
1907, Montessori began to develop her own pedagogy. The essential
elements of her educational theory emerged from this work, described in
The Montessori Method in 1912 and in The Discovery of the Child in 1948.
Her method was founded on the observation of children at liberty to act
freely in an environment prepared to meet their needs. Montessori came to
the conclusion that the children's spontaneous activity in this environment
revealed an internal program of development, and that the appropriate role
of the educator was to remove obstacles to this natural development and
provide opportunities for it to proceed and flourish.
Accordingly, the schoolroom was equipped with child-sized
furnishings, "practical life" activities such as sweeping and washing tables,
and teaching material that Montessori had developed herself. Children
were given freedom to choose and carry out their own activities, at their
own paces and following their own inclinations. In these conditions,
Montessori made a number of observations which became the foundation
of her work. First, she observed great concentration in the children and
spontaneous repetition of chosen activities. She also observed a strong
tendency in the children to order their own environment, straightening
tables and shelves and ordering materials. As children chose some
activities over others, Montessori refined the materials she offered to them.
Over time, the children began to exhibit what she called "spontaneous
discipline".
113
4.
Wide recognition
Montessori in the
and
Development
of
World, due to being a natural/beneficial

Method:
Montessori continued to develop her pedagogy and her model of
human development as she expanded her work and extended it to older
children. She saw human behavior as guided by universal, innate
characteristics in human psychology which her son and collaborator Mario
Montessori identified as "human tendencies" in 1957. In addition, she
observed four distinct periods, or "planes", in human development,
extending from birth to six years, from six to twelve, from twelve to
eighteen, and from eighteen to twenty-four. She saw different
characteristics, learning modes, and developmental imperatives active in
each of these planes, and called for educational approaches specific to each
period. Over the course of her lifetime, Montessori developed pedagogical
methods and materials for the first two planes, from birth to age twelve,
and wrote and lectured about the third and fourth planes.
5.
Beneficial method for little children:
We can say that, definitely, his method is very much beneficial for
children of 2/1/2 to 6 . All such students are usually very difficult to be
educated. That is why her method became popular in a very short span of
time through out the world
* Her Works & Contributions:

Montessori published a number of books, articles, and pamphlets
during her lifetime, often in Italian, but sometimes first in English.
According to Kramer, "the major works published before 1920 (The
Montessori Method, Pedagogical Anthropology, The Advanced Montessori
MethodSpontaneous Activity in Education and The Montessori
114
Elementary Material), were written in Italian by her and translated under
her supervision." However, many of her later works were transcribed from
her lectures, often in translation, and only later published in book form.
Montessori's major works are given here in order of their first
publication, with significant revisions and translations.
La scoperta del bambino (English version:The Montessori

Method:)
Her second Book The Discovery of the Child
Pedagocial Anthropology
*
*
Dr. Montessori's Own Handbook

The Advanced Montessori Method, Vol. I: Spontaneous Activity in
Education; Vol. II: The Montessori Elementary Material.
The Child in the Family
* Psychogeometry
The Secret of Childhood
From Childhood to Adolescence
Peace and Education
The Formation of Man (1949)
Education for a New World
To Educate the Human Potential
Demerits of Montessori Method:

1. Beneficial method but seldom afforded by all:
No doubt this is very important method but it is not afforded by
all schools and students to study. Neither they afford it efinancially nor the
schools premises are so deasigned to accommodate it.
115
2. This method is only for pre-school students: Most of the people like
those methods which are designed for their wards who are either in
secondary schools or Higher Secondary schools or in degree classes. Very
less number of people take botheration for such students.
THE MONTESSORI "METHOD of bringing up and educating
children:
After years of expression mainly in pre-schools, Montessori
philosophy is finally being used as originally intended, as a method of
seeing children as they really are and of creating environments which
foster the fulfillment of their highest potential - spiritual, emotional,
physical, and intellectual - as members of a family, the world community
and the Cosmos.
Dr. Montessori gave the world a scientific method, practical and
tested, for bringing forth the very best in young human beings. She taught
adults how to respect individual differences, and to emphasize social
interaction and the education of the whole personality rather than the
teaching of a specific body of knowledge.
Montessori practice is always up-to-date and dynamic because
observation and the meeting of needs is continual and specific for each
child. When physical, mental, spiritual, and emotional needs are met
children glow with excitement and a drive to play and work with
enthusiasm, to learn, and to create. They exhibit a desire to teach, help, and
care for others and for their environment.
The high level of academic achievement so common in
Montessori schools is a natural outcome of experience in such a supportive
environment. The Montessori method of education is a model which serves
the needs of children of all levels of mental and physical ability as they live
and learn in a natural, mixed-age group which is very much like the society
they will live in as adults.
Today Montessori teacher training centers and schools exist on all
continents. There are Montessori parenting classes, "Nidos" ("nests" for
116
infants), infant communities, "children's houses" (for age 3-6), and classes
for children up to age eighteen in public and private schools. Montessori
works in gifted and talented programs, and for children with
developmental disabilities of all kinds. Many parents are using Dr.
Montessori's discoveries to raise/educate their children at home.
The discoveries of Maria Montessori are valuable for anyone
living and working with children in any situation.
Founder of Montessori Education Method-More

details:
An Italian educator of the early 20th century, Maria Montessori is
remembered as the founder of the famous Montessori Method of education
which emphasized hands-on, individualized learning within mixed age
groups in a child-friendly setting. Her teaching strategies and her
discoveries about the process of learning revolutionized the field of
education in the United States and profoundly influenced children's
education all around the world. Despite the familiarity of her name, few
realize that much of the developmental, "hands-on" approach now
employed in preschools and kindergartens can be traced to the innovations
of Maria Montessori. Although best known as an educator, Montessori's
formal training was as a scientist and medical doctor. She is also notable
for having been Italy's first female M.D. For her committed efforts on
behalf of children, especially in the face of the fascism of World War II,
Montessori was nominated three times for the Nobel Peace Prize (1949,
1950, and 1951).
Maria Montessori was born 31 August 1870 in Chiaravalle, Italy.
Her father was a civil servant and former soldier. Her mother was
unusually well educated and an avid reader, and Maria herself proved
remarkably precocious. She was confident and strong-minded, excelling in
school and often taking on the role of leader in games and conversations.
At the age of thirteen she entered a technical school, a thing considered
off-limits to females. She subsequently received such high marks that when
117
she graduated, in 1886, she was able to enter the Regio Istituto Tecnico
Leonardo da Vinci. Here she studied math, natural sciences, and languages,
again excelling beyond all expectations. It was here too that she became
enthralled with the biological sciences, and began to dream of pursuing a
career in medicine.
But in 1890, when Montessori applied to the University of Rome,
she was denied entrance to the medical program because of her gender.
Montessori was not one to be easily discouraged. She enrolled at the
University to study physics, mathematics, and the natural sciences. She
applied herself with steadfast resolve despite the distraction of an ongoing
rift with her beloved father, who strongly disapproved of the decision. Two
years later she had earned her Diploma di licenza. Eventually, despite her
gender, she was allowed to study medicine. When she presented her thesis
in 1896, her sheer brilliance so impressed the all-male board of review that
they awarded her a full medical degree, making her Italy's first woman
doctor.
Soon after this accomplishment she was promoted to surgical
assistant at Santo Spirito, where she had worked previously as medical
assistant. She continued research at the University of Rome, joining the
university staff in 1897. Along the way she entered into a love affair with
another doctor and became pregnant. Rather than marry, the determined
and unconventional Montessori gave her infant son as fosterling to a
family in the countryside. Although she kept track of him, the two saw
little of each other in the early years of his life. (He would return to her
side at age fifteen, and eventually become her most valued assistant.)
Maria's work meanwhile expanded to include regular work in
insane asylums, with mentally handicapped children. She became
interested in psychology and human behavior, and by 1904 had accepted a
professorship in anthropology at the University of Rome. She surrendered
the position in 1906 however to follow what would become her life's work,
re-engineering the field of children's education. Her initial focus was to
rehabilitate society's discarded children: the mentally retarded, children
118
with behavior problems, orphans, and the desperately poor. Montessori's
early efforts were so astonishingly successful that she soon amassed a large
following, not only of parents desperate for her help, but of teachers
desperate to learn her methods.
Ironically, Montessori's methods were not derived from any extant
pedagogical wisdom. She had in fact sidestepped the more traditional
education path for women -- teacher's training -- in favor of science. But as
an astute scientist and quick-minded observer, she had soon discovered
some important and, for the period, revolutionary principles about children
and the process of learning. Among these was the notion that children have
an innate drive to learn, and that all on their own they are capable of
amassing an incredible amount of information and wisdom about the world
around them. This was startling news at the turn of the century as hitherto
it had been assumed that children could only learn through instruction -- or
more specifically, from being lectured by an adult.
Montessori further discovered that children's innate power for
learning worked best when they were turned loose in a safe, hands-onlearning environment. Given furniture, equipment, and supplies that they
could access and work all by themselves, they were self-motivated to
explore, experiment, and reach new understandings. She found selfcorrecting, or "auto-didactic", puzzles and other equipment to be an
essential component of independent learning and the child-friendly
environment. What's more, she found that if children were put into groups
with other children with a small range in ages (such as 3-6, 6-9, 9-11, etc.),
they would not only work together but also help teach each other. Older
children would learn teaching and nurturing skills, and younger children
would glimpse strategies for learning and playing that they had not
considered yet.
Montessori also found that children of all ages thrived when they
were given the opportunity to experience mastery of real life skills and
knowledge that was appropriate to their age and stage of life. Thus
preschoolers thrilled at being allowed to assist in the kitchen and felt pride
119
and increased self-esteem at being able to help set the table and use
appropriate manners and verbal expressions. Meanwhile the selfconfidence and joy of young teenagers was bolstered by mastering basic
home economics, and by learning information about running a business, or
building furniture or a home. These young teens also did best when the
primary emphasis in their learning process was practical and action
oriented, rather than purely intellectual. Montessori believed this was
because this age group was under so much psychological and physiological
(i.e. hormones) pressure that the surging swings of emotion made it harder
to focus on purely abstract studies. (An interesting premise somewhat
contradicting Jean Piaget's theories about this same stage of development.)
Above all, Montessori felt her most significant discovery was the
awareness that it is the teacher who must pay rapt attention to the students,
not the other way around -- a notion utterly contrary to the expectations of
her day. But she found that by observing how the individual children
responded to various lessons and materials, she could easily figure out
what lessons/experiences to present next. And by acknowledging that each
child is an individual, with individual needs and abilities, she could apply
this method to guiding particular children to fulfillment of their potential.
She even enabled the mentally handicapped children not only to master the
basic skills of self-care, but to pass academic tests designed for mainstream
children.
SOME MORE DETAILS REGARDING METHOD ITS MERITS
AND DEMERITS
Dr. Maria Montessori founded a theory of education that has had a
profound influence on the lives of thousands of children throughout the
world since the beginning of the 20th Century. She wrote that education
should " help the individual from birth and protect his environment".
From this crucial idea the whole of Montessori's theory, her
recommendation for educational practice including the organisation of the
environment, the curriculum and the important role of the educator, have
developed.
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The Montessori Method is an approach to education used predominantly in
the pre-school field. It is also used at the Junior, Middle and Senior levels.
From being rather obscure and elitist, the method has now been widely
adopted and there are now well over five thousand Montessori schools in
North America, one thousand schools in the United Kingdom and several
more thousand throughout the world.
The Montessori approach to education requires that children are placed in a
well-planned and structured environment which will meet their individual
educational and cultural needs. The children are free to follow their own
interests within this planned environment, rather than being forced to learn
something that is inappropriate to their developmental stage. The result is
that children develop in a natural way and are highly motivated. They
develop good discipline and master basic skills, and in many cases earlier
than in a more traditional system of education. To bring about these results
the teacher is trained in specific skills, the curriculum is carefully planned
to reflect the childrens own culture and educational needs, the support
materials for the curriculum are specifically Montessori and the outcomes
for the children are unique.
There are three basic elements of the Montessori approach to education:
The Structured Environment
The Montessori Curriculum
The Montessori Teacher
The Structured Environment

This is referred to as the Prepared Environment and by this is
meant the physical appearance and the arrangement of the learning
materials adhering to certain principles which focus on meeting the needs
of the whole child. It is the teachers role to prepare and maintain this
environment. These principles encompass: freedom of movement and
freedom of choice for the children structure and order in the arrangement
and sequence of the materials an atmosphere that is attractive, warm and
inviting materials that provide active learning experiences vertical
grouping (in the age ranges 2 to 6 years) a closeness to nature and the
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natural world and activities and materials that reflect the reality of life, not
fantasy
The classrooms are open-plan with the learning materials
arranged in areas and the children are given freedom to move around and
to choose the activities that interest them. For the most part the materials
themselves are self-correcting and this gives the children a sense of
empowerment and helps them to become independent learners. This type
of classroom is different from the traditional adult-centred classrooms
where children often participate passively as teachers endeavour to impart
knowledge and skills to be learned. The indoor environment is arranged in
Montessori areas for a Pre-school classroom (Nursery, Kindergarten 1 and
Kindergarten 2) as described below in the Montessori Curriculum:
The indoor environment is arranged in Montessori areas for a Preschool classroom (Nursery, Kindergarten 1 and Kindergarten 2) as
described below in the Montessori Curriculum:
In each Montessori area there are low level shelves which
children can reach and where the learning materials are displayed in a
sequential order. The children make choices about what they want to do
and after the activity they are encouraged to put the materials back in the
correct place in readiness for the next child. This external structure and
order helps the child build his internal order.
The outdoor environment is important. First and foremost the
school should, by preference, be located in a natural environment, with
trees, bushes, plants and animals to ensure that the children remain in touch
with and close to nature. In addition there will be attractive and safe
equipment to encourage the development of different physical skills, as
well as to provide opportunities for children to socialise with each other.
The Montessori classrooms are always attractive, warm and
inviting and there are plenty of materials which reflect the childrens own
culture. However, the classrooms should not be over-stimulating but rather
have a calming effect.
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The Montessori learning materials are the tools which provide the
children with hands on active learning experiences. Through this direct
experience and the process of discovery and investigation the children
gradually progress from the concrete to the abstract. Maria Montessori
designed materials for children in the Pre-school and in the Junior school.
In the Middle and Senior schools practical investigation and the application
of research methods are encouraged.
A Montessori school will have vertical groups. Ideally these age
groups will range from 2 to 6 years, 6 to 9 years, 9 to 12 years, 12 to 15
years and 15 to 18 years but the arrangement of the age groups will depend
on the national requirements of each country and the examination system
for which the children are being prepared.
The principle of reality, not fantasy, in the classroom is one of the
distinguishing features of a Montessori Pre-school classroom. Montessoris
idea was to teach the children all about how to live in the real world and
the Exercises of Practical Life are the first activities that provide these
experiences. Children learn how to look after themselves and the
environment as well as how to behave socially. In a traditional Pre-school
classroom there is usually a home corner where the children play-out
different aspects of living, but in the Montessori classroom they will
actually engage in helping prepare the vegetables for lunch, they will really
wash up after the meal and they will really dust and clean their classroom.
The principle of closeness to nature is another distinguishing
feature of a Montessori setting. In the classroom the children will have pets
for whom they are responsible and plants and flowers to water and tend. In
the outdoor area there is a garden plot especially for the children to
cultivate where they grow vegetables and flowers.
The Montessori Curriculum in brief

There is a framework which specifies learning outcomes and the
knowledge and skills to be learned. It is divided into the Montessori areas
of learning:
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Practical Life
Sensorial
Mathematics
Language and Literacy
Cultural Subjects (which include Geography, History, Natural

Sciences, Experimental Sciences)
Creative Subjects (Art and Craft, Music and Movement, Drama)
The National or International curricula which are required to be

followed in a particular country are taken into consideration when
designing a curriculum for a particular school.
The Montessori Teacher

Initially the Montessori teacher carefully observes the children in
her class to ascertain the developmental needs of each individual child.
Then comes the task of preparing the environment and the materials in it to
meet the various needs of the individual children within the group. As the
children begin to make free choices and interact and discover the materials,
the teacher facilitates and guides their learning. There are some small
group lessons when the teacher introduces new concepts and encourages
the children to ask questions, investigate and discover new ideas.
As a result, children who experience a Montessori education are
highly motivated and learn to be independent, self-confident and selfdisciplined. It makes education a source of pleasure for them - something
to be sought and enjoyed. Each and all are given the opportunity to develop
their own innate abilities to the full potential in an atmosphere where
competition is irrelevant and non-existent. As a result they develop drive
and a high level of achievement.
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SOME MORE DETAILS ABOUT THE CURRICULUM

The Course Contents of Montessori system of
Education
The Montessori curriculum is designed to cater for children from
2 to 6 years. The children enter a prepared and ordered environment.
There is no front or back to the classroom, nor do the children have
particular desks. The materials are kept on low open shelves where there is
intentionally only one of each piece of equipment. This encourages selfdiscipline, as each child must wait its turn. They are given the opportunity
and responsibility of choosing their own work and over a period, the
children develop into a kinship, working with high concentration and with
few interruptions. The children learn to co-operate and interact
successfully with other classmates and teachers.
In Montessori the teaching goes from simple to complex, first
introducing the topic gradually, as a whole, and then going into specific
detail, always refining the information increasing the childs knowledge.
For example, the children first learn about the world and what it is made
of, they then explore each continent, and then refine their learning to their
own country.
The Montessori curriculum allows children preparing for primary
to develop their full potential, building their leadership skills and
confidence, establishing them as valued and respected members of their
community.
Subjects
The Montessori materials within the classroom environment are a
starting block. The materials give each child the vocabulary needed to start
out life with. They are the tools to get him started with the environment as
the building block. The Montessori work is taught to the children on a one
to one basis at their own pace.
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Practical Life
The Practical Life activities are the first activities introduced and
allow your child to try to do what adults around him are seen to do every
day. The Practical Life area of a classroom is an extension your childs
own home environment. Its aims are to develop his independence,
intelligence, concentration, co-ordination, control, motor skills, social
skills and self-discipline. The Practical Life exercises are broken down into
four key areas:
1.
Elementary Movements - develops the childs manipulative skills

and body co-ordination e.g. pouring, cutting, folding, threading
2.
Care of the Person - teaches the child how to look after himself
and his property e.g. putting on his coat, tying his shoelaces,
folding his clothes
3.
Care of the Environment - teaches the child tasks he will need and
use within his environment e.g. dusting, tidying up, setting a table,
cooking skills
4.
Social Skills, Grace and Courtesy - teaches the child to understand

his role in society and what kind of conduct is acceptable e.g. how
to speak in a group, polite greetings, disposing of litter r
Sensorial
Sensorial exercises are for the development and refreshment of
the childs five senses, thereby sharpening his intellect and control,
preparing him for more advanced exercises in maths, language and
geometry. The exercises give each child the vocabulary they need to start
out with, words such as height, width, etc. The child then takes these words
and uses them in his environment. The child completes one step at a time,
progressively moving from simple to complex. Where possible, each sense
is isolated to provide an intense experience. Exercises include, the Colour
Boxes, the Touch Tablets and the Sound Boxes.
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Language
Language is involved in every aspect of the Montessori
environment from Practical Life to Sensorial but it is also introduced
through a step-by-step programme starting with the Sandpaper Letters.
Each child will be introduced to sounds and words developing their
reading and writing skills. Exercises include, the Large Moveable
Alphabet, Object and Word Boxes, Sentence Strips.
Culture
Culture is made up of History, Geography, Science, Nature and
Fine Arts. The subjects develop each childs individual skills, increase their
vocabulary and reading skills, increase their knowledge, develop their
physical skills, satisfy their senses, teach them changes and life cycles in
life and nature, and teach them ecology and aspects of different cultures.
Culture helps the child understand where he is in the world and the
important contribution he has to offer. Exercises include, the Sandpaper
Globe, the Jigsaw Map of the Continents, and Sandpaper Landforms.
Maths
Maths is introduced to the child from the first day. It teaches them
the study of form, quantity, numbers and relations. It allows him to
understand analysis and clear reasoning. It teaches him to sort events into
classes and categories and introduces awareness of relationships between
classes and categories. Above all, it teaches logic. Exercises include, the
Number Rods, Cards and Counters, Naming with Beads.
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UNIT-3
INFLUENTIAL EDUCATORS
3.1 IMAM GHAZALI:
His Life Sketch:
The real name and family background of Imam Ghazali has been
discussed by several historians in different phrases. The shortest and
precise seems to be that of Mrs. Tanveer Khalid. She says, Abu Hamid,
Muhammad Bin Muhammad, surnamed Al-Imam-ul-Jalil and Zainuddin,
was born at Ghazali near Tus in 450 (1050 A.D). It is said that Ghazalis
father was a spinner of wool which is the meaning of the word Gazali
(some others believe that), he is called Ghazali because he was born at
Ghazala, and also because his father was known as Ghazai by his
profession.
So far his early education is concerned, he got it at Tus proper,
then he moved to Jarjan and finally to Nishapur to acquire learning from
the most learned man of the time, Abul-Malli-Muhammad-Al-JuwaniImamul-Haramian. He was first the pupil and gradually became the
assistant of the Imam and remained in this position till the latters death in
1085 A.D. He was called to the court of Nizamul Mulk Tusi, the famous
Seijukis vazir and the founder of Nizamia, who appointed him as his
intellectual advisor. He remained there in this capacity until 1091; when he
was appointed as a professor at the University of Baghdad. He possessed
great ability of clear expression and of addressing the people. It is said that
while at Baghdad, Ghazali lectured before audience of three hundred and
even five hundred great learned men and lawyers of his time to their
satisfaction. Leaving Baghdad in 1095; he went to Syria, then to Egypt and
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on to Makkah and Madina. Thus he spent about a couple of years in
wandering here and there while contemplating and thinking of sufferings
of mankind at the same time. Fakhurl-Mulk, son of Nizamul-Mulk and the
chief minister of Khurasan at that time, called him back to make him
president of his academy in Naishapur in 1105, but after- some time
Ghazali returned back to his native place Tus Here he wrote his world
famous book Ihya-ul-Ulummidin. He died there on 19 th of December,
1111.
His Views:
As per statement of Mrs. Tanveer Khahd, in her book
Education, Imam Ghzali wrote many books, nearly 78, on several
subjects like Tafsir, Jurisprudence, Hadith, Politics and Education. His
famous writings are, Cheemia-l-Saadat Mairajus-Salikeen, AqeedatI-Misbah and IhayU1-Ularnmidin
Mrs. Tanveer Khalid further says that the chief characteristics of his
thinking is that he replaced the
rule of intellectual perception by
personal human e:rperience. He was searching to find a new way out for
himself ignoring the accepted doctrine of his age. He fought against the
Pagonis-tic Muslim renaissance. He is thus regarded as a Mujaddid
orreviver and Imam or Leader by millions of Muslims today.
He appears as a pragmatist and a realist while emphasizing the
materialistic as much as the spiritual development of man. To him worldly
business is necessary for the peace of mind and even for the sustenance of
life. He advocated not the luxuries but the fulfillment of the basic needs of
man which result in the peace of mind leading him ultimately to the service
of both people and God Almighty, He believed that God had made this
world a place for work and labour. His ethics, his ways of life and his
outlook began to be dictated by the sayings and the doings of the prophet
(S.A.W) which are realistic in nature and full of action: Effort and work
has been appreciated in the teaching of the Holy prophet (Peace be upon
him). He refers to the saying of the prophet that a man should not leave off
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this world nor should he entirely curb his worldly desires, but instead of
this, he should find out the real object behind every thing of this world and
should act always in such a way as to have the limited utility of action in
his mind. He considered the personal experiences of the man and the
experiences of the race very important in the process of education.
The same view was, expressed by Dewey in the 20 th century.
Ghazali pointed out that in the prevailing practice of education at that
time, too much time was devoted to the religious learning and too little
attention was paid to the teaching of useful subjects in the practical life. He
stressed the need for the inclusion of useful subjects in the curriculum.
His earlier approach towards education and 1ife was philosophical
and logical in nature. He held the view that logic was essential for
intellectual reasoning and thinking. Anyone who did not know the basis of
logic would not be able to analyze the situations and problems properly.
Very soon he realized the importance of utilitarian subjects in learning and
later on he realized the importance of religious and moral education.
His concepts of the Aims of Education:

To him the aim of education is the character and personality
development of the learner. Education should aim at the inculcation of
desirable traits of behaviour in the child. The child is born good by nature,
people lead him on the path of virtue or vice. Education should enable him
to distinguish between true and the false, the good and the bad, the right
conduct and the evil doings. He realized that religious instructions help in
promoting the goodness of character, hence he advocated the inclusion of
religion in the curriculum. He added further that basic principles of
religion, such as commands and tenets, Quran and Sunnah should be taught
but the controversial topics should be left out so that there should not be
any confusion in the mind of the learner. It is interesting to note that the
Church in the 19th century adopted the same policy in the teaching of
religion.
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Curriculum: Imam Ghazlai has grouped the subjects of studies into two
categories:
1.
Farz-e-Ain
Cornmpulsory
2.
Farz-e-Kafaya
Optional
Farz-e-Ain are those arts and sciences which are compulsory for
every one, such as tenets of Islam, Quran, logic sciences which are not
supposed to be learned by all but only by those who are interested in them.
These subjects include Fiqah, Tafseer, Hadith, Industrial arts such as
weaving, tailoring, hair cutting, engineering, medicine and agriculture etc.
Imam Ghalzali advocated the need of moral education both in
theory and practice. The child from the period of infancy should be
taught good habits and positive attitudes by the parents. The early
education of the child is primarily the responsibility of the parents. Parents
should show a co-ordination in their verbal instruction and practical
behaviour.
His view of Women Education:

He interprets the saying of the prophet (SAW) acquisition of
knowledge is the duty of every man and woman who carry on a profession
to gather knowledge about that profession in order that they might keep
away from all possibilities of doing wrong. As the duty of a woman is
keeping the house and looking after the children her education should be
such as to make her more efficient in the discharge of her duties.
Methods of education:
His view about the methods of education appears as modern as
those of the educationists of today. First of all he says that the lesson
should be conducted in a very interesting way. It should be made
interesting by allowing participation in it, with the help of audiovisual aids
and by conducting them in a very congenial atmosphere of understanding
and affection. The teacher should proceed from the simple to the complex
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according to the development level of the child. The teachers method
should include lecture participation of students, discussions and tutorials.
Students while learning may take down the notes or points of the
discussion.
Discipline:
His views upon discipline are as important as his views upon the
method of education. He says that the class room discipline should never
be based on fear; it should rather be based upon love and understanding.
There should be a close and warm relationship between the teacher and the
taught. The teacher should treat them with kindness and sympathy. The
students belonging to the adolescent stage of development are specially in
need of such treatment. The teachers personality should be a model with
which the student may identify themselves. He says that punishment
should be avoided as it does not bring any good. It curbs the initiative and
shakes the confidence of the students and develops resistance in them
against the teacher. Modern educators like Pestalozi, Froebel, Montessori
and Dewey are of the same opinion.
His Contributions:
No doubt Imam Ghazali is a great Muslim thinker and educator.
His theories about the aims, methods and curriculum of education are quite
revolutionary. Instead of ornamental education, he emphasized the
utilitarian type of education to enable the learner to carry on in any
vocation or profession. He is even encouraging specialization in any of the
subjects learned. Our problem, even today, is that the curriculum is over
loaded with literary type of subjects, besides a lake of vocational, teaching
and agricultural subjects in it. We are making policies for the industrial and
practical subjects with the general ones. He had great insight into problems
of education and he presented their solution too. He emphasized the
personal experience as much as we do today. He also introduced a new
concept of the teacher-pupil relationship. This type of relationship is
advised by the modern educational psychologists. His views obviously
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appear as modern as the thoughts of the educators of today. What he
advocated several hundred years ago is now being implemented and
practiced in the most advanced countries of the world. He was a great
educator, no doubt.
3.2 JOHN DEWEY:

Life History
John Dewey was born in 1859. After graduation from the
University of Vermont in 1879 he started his career as a school teacher and
had the actual experience of teaching in a class room. His philosophy is not
simply speculative but based on the actual experiences in the school. In
April 1882 he wrote his first article entitled, The Metaphysical assumption
of Materialism in a journal of speculative philosophy.
After leaving his job as a school teacher, Dewey joined John
Hopkins University and obtained his degree of Ph.D. in Philosophy in
1884. Thereafter, he worked as a professor at the universities of Minnesota,
Michigan and Chicago. It was at Chicago in 1896 that Dewey founded the
ideal University laboratory school. This school served him as a scientific
laboratory in obtaining knowledge of facts and laws still unknown to the
educationists of the universe. It was here that he tested, modified and
classified his practical experience of school situations.
He was invited by the University of Peking to deliver lecture on
philosophy and education and later on the National Government of Turkey
asked him to draw up a report on the reorganisation of national schools in
Turkey.
5.
Philosophy of John Dewey:
Deweys philosophy and programme has been variously termed as

Experimentalism, Progressivism, Practicalism and above all
Pragmatism. All these indicate his emphasis on every hypothesis or
belief or principle by the way it works or by its consequences. He does not
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believe in the existence of any absolute values or ultimate moral principles
which are at once unassailable and unimprovable. He said that there are no
fixed beliefs. He also insisted that the intellect was subordinate to practical
ends. Utility was the touchstone of every value. Pragmatism teaches
which is useful, what works in a practical situation is true; what does not
work is false. Truth thus becomes not a fixed, or eternal thing, but
something that is subject to change. According to Pragmatism what is true
to day may be false tomorrow.
His Five values

1. Aesthetic taste or capacity.
2. Conscientiousness.
3. Efficiency
4. Scientific spirits.
5. Sociability and social efficiency.
Experience and Experimental Method:

Dewey explains that where there is experience, there is a living
being. In the orthodox view, experience is regarded primarily as a
knowledge-affair, but to eyes not looking through ancient spectacles, it
assuredly appears as an affair of the interaction of living being with its
physical and social environment. To learn from experience is to make a
backward and forward connection between what we do to things and what
we enjoy or suffer from things.
The new philosophy of education is an experimental philosophy.
All experiences cannot be educative. The traditional education gave pupils
experiences but not of the right type. The business of the educator is to set
a kind of experience which while being agreeable promotes having
desirable future experiences. The central problem of an educator based
upon experience is to select the kind of present experiences that live
fruitfully and creatively in subsequent experience. The continuity of
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experience is the philosophy of educative experience. It is a development
with in, by and for Experience. Thus a full integrated personality exists
only when successive experiences are integrated. Experimental method has
the following merits.
1.
Experimental method is the foe of every belief that permits habits

and wants to dominate invention and discovery, and ready-made
system to override verifiable fact. Constant revision is the work of
experimental inquiry.
2.
Experimental method is fatal to dogmatism because it shows that

all ideas, conceptions, theories, however extensive and selfconsistent and aesthetically attractive they may be, are to be
entertained provisionally until they have been tested by acting
upon them.
3.
Experimental method is not just measuring around nor doing a

little of this and a little of that in the hope that things will
improve. Just as in the physical sciences, it implies a coherent
body of ideas, a theory, that gives direction to effort.
His Views on his own method:

l.
Selectivity in experience: Mere activity is not experience: A

stream of meaningful experience should be provided. That kind of
present experience should be selected and emphasised which lives
fruitfully and creatively in the course of future experiences.
2.
Education is Growth: Dewey is a protagonist of the conception of

education as growth and direction. Life is growing and education
is the process of this ever-increasing growth. What is of
significance for Dewey is the present life and its possibilities. He
criticises the conception of education as a preparation for the
realisation of some remote future goals. It is essential that the
immediate situation should be interpreted in such a meaningful
way that it may provide the maximum stimulus for the responsive
co-operation of pupils and the utilisation of their energies.
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3.
Education a moral process: According to Dewey, Discipline,

culture, social efficiency, personal refinement, improvement of
character are but phases of the growth of capacity to share in such
a balanced experience. And education is not a mere means to such
a life. To maintain capacity in it, such education is the essence of
morals. For conscious life is a continual beginning a fresh.
The Important Stetps of his Problem Method

In view of Dewey, the steps to be taken in the problem-solving
method of teaching are outlined as given below:
1.
The students must sense a difficulty. Probably they must feel

backed in some activity in which he is engaged so that the
problem arises of how to restore its continuity.
2.
Having once sensed a problem he must explore and clearly define

it.
3.
Once the situation has been thoroughly surveyed and analysed,

suggestions will arise as to how the continuity of ones initial
activity can be restored or reconstructed into a more adequate
form.
4.
Next the student reasons out the implications of these suggestions.

He dramatises in his mind what the consequences of each
suggestion would be if acted out.
5.
Finally he sets most likely to achieve his ends by acting on it.
This is pertinent to note that the problem method as Dewey

presented it, seems to have a very logical order of development. But when
he gives his views about interest, he is talking of psychology also. In
Deweys thinking the logical and psychological perceptions are not
opposed, to each other, but mutually dependent.
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His
view of Education
Readjustment:
process
of
Dewey thinks that the process of education is a continuous

process of adjustment, having as its aim at every stage an added capacity of
growth. It could be elaborated as to say that there are two sides of the
educative process-psychological and social.
According to Dewey the educative process has two sides-one
psychological and other sociological, and neither can be subordinated by
the other or neglected without evil results following.
Social view of Education: Prof. Dewey states the social function
of education in The School and Society.What the best and wisest parents
want for their own child is that the community wants for all of its children.
Any other ideal for our schools is narrow and unlovely if acted upon, it
destroys our democracy. All that society has accomplished for itself is put,
through the agency of the school, at the disposal of its future members.
Education proceeds by the participation of the individual in the
social consciousness of the race. Dewey believes that all education
proceeds by the participation of the individual in the social consciousness
of the race. This process begins unconsciously almost at birth, and is
continually shaping the individuals powers, saturating his consciousness,
forming his habits, training his ideas, and arousing his feelings and
emotions. Through this unconscious education the individual gradually
comes to share in the intellectual and moral resources which humanity has
succeeded in getting together. He becomes an inheritor of the funded
capital of civilization. The most formal and technical education in the
world cannot safely depart from this general process. It can only organise it
or differentiate it in some particular direction. Dewey believes that the only
true education comes through the stimulation of the childs powers by the
demands of the social situation in which he finds himself.
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School as a Social Institution:

Regarding the role of school, he says, I believed that the school is
primarily a social institution. Education being a social process, the school
is simply that form of community life in which all those agencies are
concentrated that will be most effective in bringing the child to share in the
inherited resources of the race, and to use his own powers for social ends,
I believe that the school must represent present life - life, as real and vital
to the child as that which he carries on in the home, in the neighborhood,
or on the playground.
The
Moral Training
Community:
given
by
the
School
According to Dewey there cannot be two sets of ethical principles,

one for life in the school, and the other for life outside the school. As
conduct is one, the tendency to discuss the morals of the school as if the
school was an institution by itself, is highly unfortunate. The moral
responsibility of the school, and of those who conduct it, is the society. The
school is fundamentally an institution established by society to do a certain
specific work to exercise a certain specific function in maintaining the life
and advancing the welfare of society. The educational system which does
not recognise that this fact entails upon it an ethical responsibility, derelict
and a defaulter.
Functions of the School:

The first office of the school is to provide a simplified
environment. It should select the features which are fairly fundamental and
capable of being responded to by the young. Then it should establish a
progressive insight into what is more complicated.
In the second place, it should be the business of the school
environment to eliminate, so far as possible, the unworthy feature of the
existing environment. It would establish a purified medium of action.
Selection should aim not only at simplifying but at weeding out what is
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undesirable. The school has the duty of omitting trivial things from the
environment which it supplies, and thereby doing what it can to counteract
their influence in the ordinary social environment. By selecting the best for
its exclusive use, it should strive to reinforce the power of the best. As a
society becomes more enlightened, it realises that it is responsible not, to
transmit and conserve the whole of its existing achievements, but only such
as make for a better future society. The school is its chief agency for the
accomplishment of this end.
In the third place, it is the office of the school environment to
balance the various elements in the social environment, and to see to it that
each individual gets an opportunity to escape from the limitations of the
social group in which he was born, and to come into living contact with a
broader environment.
His Idea of Laboratory School:

Deweys philosophy grew out of his experiments to establish an
ideal school called - the University Laboratory School, founded in 1896.
Dewey wanted that the training of scholars in the school should be such as
to enable them for a complete living in the social world of today. Dewey
posed the following problems and attempted to find their solution:
1.
How to bring the school life into closer relation with the home
and surrounding life?
2.
How to introduce subject matter in history, science and art to give

a positive value and real significance in the childs life.
3.
How to correlate instruction in different subjects with everyday

experience and occupation?
4.
How to cater to individual powers and needs?
Manual Occupation in the School:

Dewey found the answer to the above mentioned problems in the
introduction of the following occupations in the school:
139
1.
Shop work with wood and tools,
2.
Cooking work,
3.
Work with textiles (Sewing and weaving).
A central place was given to occupations and other subjects were

treated incidentally as ancillary practical activities. In the laboratory
school, Science is required in the study of the fibers, of geographical
features, the conditions under which raw materials are grown, the great
canters of manufacture and distribution, the physics involved in the
machinery of production. You can concentrate the history of all mankind
in the evolution of flax cotton and wool fibers into clothing. The children
can get a good deal of chemistry in connection with cooking, of number
work and geometrical principles in carpentry and a good deal of geography
in connection with their theoretical work in weaving and spinning. And
history comes in with the origin and growth of various inventions and their
effects on social life.
School Curriculum in Deweys View:

Development of social insight and interest. The task of educating
so many children at so many different educational levels with such a
variety of abilities, needs and goods requires a completely different
approach. With this increase in a diversified school population, Dewey
advocates that broader curricular programmes are needed and emphasis
should be placed on the total development of the person as being equally
important as the intellectual and the academic. Such as curriculum
acknowledges that the social responsibilities of education must present
situations where problems are relevant to the problems of living together,
and where observation and information are calculated to develop social
insight and interest.
According to Dewey, social life cannot be cut into pieces of
knowledge. Departmentalisation of the curriculum and the systematic
succession of studies have to be replaced by an elastic programme of
activities.
140
The subject-matter of geography, arithmetic, grammar should
come out of school situations in answer to social needs.
Teacher- a Guide and Director

The teacher is a guide and Director he steers the boat, but the
energy that propels it must come from those who are learning. The more a
teacher is aware of the past experiences of students, of their hopes, desires,
chief interests, the better will he understand the forces at work that need to
be directed and utilised for the formation of reflective habits.
Teacher is the prophet of the true God:

The teacher is engaged, not simply in the training of individuals,
but in the formation of the proper social life. Even teacher should realise
the dignity of his calling; that he is a social servant set apart for the
maintenance of proper social order and the security of the right social
growth. In this way the teacher is always the prophet of the true God and
the managing force of the true kingdom of God:
Pragmatic Attitude in Methods of Teaching:

The pragmatic attitude consists of looking away from first things,
principles and of looking towards last things, fruits, consequences, facts. It
is, therefore, in submitting conceptions to the control of experience, in the
process of verifying them, that one finds examples of what is called truth.
Truth means verification.
Deweys Concept of Discipline:

Dewey would like to develop discipline by engaging the pupils
performing their part of work faithfuy. This implies the solicitation of the
active co-operation of the pupils in the work of the school in terms of the
participation of the learner in educational activities that are pregnant with
relevant aim capable of immediate realisation and full of deep significance.
141
Dewey on the Educational thought and practice - His contribution
in this regard:
1.
The greatest change has been in the recognition of the worth of

the experiences of the child. The child is no longer regarded as a
passive subject meant for the imposition of external information
but is considered an active living being whose interests have to be
stimulated by participation in socially significant experiences.
This kind of participants, if intelligently and devotedly engaged
in, is a kind of moral experience. Thus instead of the emphasis on
mechanical memorising of subject matter it is essential to stress
the meaningful dimensions of the process of learnin.
2.
Deweys social theory of education coupled with the logic of

experimental method has been very influential in the development
of modern education practices.
3.
He has been a powerful influence in interpreting the school as a

community for the realisation of the significance of the immediate
experiences and present opportunities of the child if he is to be a
contributor to the march of the social process.
4.
Dewey has been one of the significant leaders who have tried to
introduce a more human touch in the processes of education.
5.
The pragmatic method of instrumentalistic experimentalism and

absolutism.
6.
His insistence on activities of diverse kinds in schools is also an other aspect of his social theory of education.
7.
Dewey is quite right, in pleading for the wide use of the

experimental method of science, in education.
8.
The supreme contribution of Dewey to the philosophy of

education is the theory of scientific democratic humanism.
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Critical Study of Deweys Educational Thought

and Practices:
Dewey is one of those significant figures whose ideas have
influenced not only the thought of people but also powerfully moulded
practices. Prof. V.P. Verma thinks, The strength of Dewey lies in his
immense grasp of the realities of life. He does not soar in the
transcendental regions of the motionless spiritual being but his both feet
are firmly planted in the pressing situations of the day.
The same author thinks, the quest for the three goals-scientific
method, humanistic ethics and democratic theory - represents the great
contribution of Dewey to educational theory.
In his book American Ideas and Education, Fredrik Mayor
observes, in Dewey the voice of the pioneer, the stirring energies of the
reformer, the patient method of the scientist and the faith of the teacher are
united in a search for a new education through which man can survive in a
chaotic age.
Whitehead rates Deweys services to American civilisation
analogous to those of Bacon, Descartes, Locke and Comte to the modern
world.
Rusk thinks, In education we cannot but be grateful to Dewey for
his great services in bringing education more into accord with the
actualities of the present day life.
To quote Irwin Edman Dewey brought-- a reviving approach to
education as a function of society, learning as an experience in growth and
experience like the acquiring of ones native speech - a mutual
communication, a co-operation. At the school level this view helped
transforming the rigidities of the old fashioned martinet type of discipline
and the tradition of learning by rote.
F.G. Garforth writes in John Deweys selected Education
Writings, Whatever criticism may be levelled at him, whether as
philosopher or educationist, the stature of the man is something that cannot
143
be denied; nor can the present-day student of education disregard his
immense and civilising influence on the practice of education both in his
own country and throughout the world.
Dewey is one of the most astute. If not the most astute, among
the modern philosophers who try to explain the quality and purpose of
human life from an immanent and sociological point of view. His work
offers one of the most helpful means of understanding the functioning of
the human mind within a society of men who want to communicate with
one another and to preserve themselves.
That is why Ruskin says, In education we cannot but be grateful
to Dewey for his great services in challenging the old static cold storage
ideas of knowledge and in bringing education more into accord with the
actualities of present-day life.
Joe Park observes in Philosophy of Education, As Pragmatist,
Dewey rejected the authoritarian and classical approach to education,
which he thought stressed the ability to talk about things rather than the
ability to do things. He built his philosophy on a biological base, pointing
out that man is an organism living in an environment, an environment
which helps to shape man, but which, in turn, can be modified by man.
Dewey thought things were to be understood through their origin and
function. To him the only reality for man was experience; the- business of
education was to improve the quality of experience that human beings had.
This he hoped to accomplish by carefully defining the nature of experience
and establishing criteria for judging its value.
3.3 PAULO FREIRE:

His Early Life and Education:
Paulo Freire was born in Brazil, South America in 1921. As per
assertions of Dr. Zahoor Ahmad Awan, who has met him somewhere in
1992, Freire was a cult like figure, a leading educationist, sociologist, ever
advocating the cause of the down trodden third world people. He was
144
educated and brought up in his own country. In pursuit of knowledge, he
went to different countries and joined several universities. He was, since
long known for his unique ideas and innovative theories. Mostly, they
know him as an exponent of the causes of the oppressed classes of the
world. While as a matter of fact, he had gained fame for his literacy
teaching work with Brazilian peasants. He was in the real terms of truth a
revolutionary educator. Freire, theorises - a pedagogy that will liberate the
oppressed masses as opposed to the traditional banking theory and
practice. He used to advocate the causes of the oppressed classes of the
world. He was opposed to the banking theory and practice which are
immobilizing and fixating. For the cause intended by him, he had to
undergo several hard ships and difficulties during the span of his life.
His thoughts and philosophy:
Paulo Freire was an advocate of the rights of the oppressed
communities. In the words of Dr. Zahoor Ahmad Awan, he is considered
the voice of the third world masses, rather father of cultural revolution in
the world. He had deep feelings for the oppressed population, who were
eking out a redundant existence in shanty towns of the third world
countries. The world is taking him for being the best friend of the
oppressed and warrior of the cause of dispossessed humanity as well as the
have-nots of the globe. He though a white man never spared the people of
his own clan while criticising their oppressions. He was of the view that by
nature all whites are in the habit of colonial-zing the worlds population.
Following his philosophy, he devoted his life for the help of peasants and
labourers. He led his life among the peasants and other poorer societies to
uphold their cause of making them literate.
His views about teachers are very strange. He does not want his
teacher to be a traditional one. In his problem posing education, the
teacher is no longer simply the one who teaches only, but he is taught by
his/her students as she/he engages them in dialogue of critical
consciousness or dialectic, aims central to Freires theory of Praxis
(practice-doing and mobilising).
145
His Contribution:
His master piece on pedagogy is his book titled Pedagogy of the
oppressed, published for the first time in 1970 and revised its version in
1993 by Continum, New York. While another distinct achievement related
to him is his collection of letters published by Craman Saint John Hunter,
New York in 1978. This is a collection of Freires Ietters to the Guinian
commissioner of education and local Government workers in 1975-76, as
they worked to design a national prograrmme of education based on
Freires work. As Junthan Kozol, says in its foreword, the letter form
seems to be approximately fit for Freieres ideas about dialogues. Bell
Hook says, this book has been important to his work because it is a
crucial example of how a critical thinker approaches, sharing knowledge
and resources with those who are in need. (Teaching to Transgress-53).
The next important contribution of Freire is his book named The
politics of education, culture, power and liberation translated by Donaldo
Macedo, South Hadely, M.A Bergin and Gravery, 1985. This seems to be
the further details and explanations of his work i.e. The pedagogy of the
oppressed. The distinct feature however of this book is that its final
chapter is a dialogue between Freiere and his student, colleague and
translator Donaido Macedo. The ideas of dialogue and dialect run through
this collection of Freieres essays that explore in further details many of the
ideas he introduced in Authentic dialogue in order to help the poor men
and there by understand their word. The act of knowing is dialectical
movement, that goes form action to reflection and from reaction upon
action into a new action.
Keeping in view his multi-dimensional personality he could really
recognize a politico-cum-educative reformer working, throughout his life
with great zeal and fervour. He never exhausts to advocate the cause of the
Oppressed class. For this, he is sometimes seen debating with the press,
some tines arguing with the nobility and rulers of the countries. While
sometimes he is seen addressing large assemblies of people in renown
universities like the university of New York. He was really an untiring
146
personality. He kept on writing till the, last of his breath. His another work
is literary reading the word and the world, written by him in collaboration
with Donaldo Macedo. This book was published by M.A. Bergin and
Carwin at South Headily in 1987. Freire and Macedo worked out the
definition of literacy in this book. In this book, as a matter of fact, they
work to define literacy as a form of cultural politics. They argue that
literacy must be viewed as a set of practices that can serve either to
empower or de- empower people. Literacy must be viewed as the
relationship of learner to their world, instead of being reduced to the
mechanical use of letters and words.
His two more works are Cultural Action for Freedom and
Pedagogy, in Progress which are very widely appreciated by the world.
His assertion in these two books is also the same as that of Pedagogy of
the Oppressed. It is presumed by his readers that Freire wanted, from the
core of his heart a cultural revolution throughout the world to benefit the
oppressed classes.
His Theory of Education:

Friere presented to the world a liberal and straight forward
concept of education for liberation. According to the assertion of Dr.
Zahoor Ahmad Awan, he was of the view that emancipation of third world
masses could be achieved/secured through -education and education alone.
He wanted a different kind of education- not the one that was being
administered to the third world by their colonial masters and their local
imitators. The colonial or occupying powers practiced and perpetrated a
code and mode of education which instead of liberating or enlightening
them became instrumental in their further subjugation. Through education
alien consciousness is created among the masses. This alien
consciousness is western superiority and indigenous inferiority. It creates
demoralising myths which kill the creative verve in them. Through their
educational ideology, the masters (western rulers) occupy central stage and
push the indigenous populace and their values to the periphery.
147
This borrowed consciousness is defined social milieu for them. To
combat this alien consciousness, the third world countries have to develop
a radical pedagogy, which Paulo declares as the Pedagogy of the
Oppressed. This pedagogy should and must challenge every myth created
by the oppressor ideology. Alien consciousness needs adaptive behaviour
in the oppressed, which blunts the verve/zeal for transformation, thus
culmination and dehumanisation. To subvert this situation a liberation
methodology through education has to be created to install an autonomous
consciousness in the masses. In the views of Friere education and power
are inseparable and by dictating education the oppressor rules and reigns
supreme. It is autonomous consciousness just opposed to alien
consciousness that dismantles political, economic, cultural invasion and
subjugation.
In short Paulo Freire assumes that:
1.
All human beings have the potential to transform.
2.
Freedom is possible if stereo type concepts are defeated
/demolished.
3.
Education that treats the oppressed remains intrinsically
oppressive.
4.
Education should be one, free, compulsory and for all.
The human beings are the subjects and not the objects, is a
concept central to genuine education and freedom.
Table
Education as system of
domination
Education as system of liberation
1.
Narrative form of education
1.
Critical/dialogue of education
2.
Monologue-Chalk/Talk
2.
Dialogue-participatory
3.
Banking system of knowledge,

tape recording, rotten plus rote
institution of clicks, dogmatic
3.
Discovery of knowledge, sense

of togetherness,
exploring,
experimenting, collectivization
148
approach,
teacher
issues
communiqus,
students
review/ memories.
of knowledge/ education.
4.
Culture of silence
4.
Culture of conscientization
5.
Status-quo oriented-fearful of
change
5.
Doubt/ skepticism/ questioning

reciprocation/ prone to change +
progress
6.
Anti-people, pro-elite
6.
Democratic, pro-people
7.
High expensive
7.
cheap + accessible
8.
Teachers obsequious and

with attitudes of servitude.
8.
Teachers having attitude of

companion/ commeradeship.
9.
State/ capital/ oriented and

reliant.
9. Masses/
labour/
oriented and reliant
love/self
10. Subjective
10. Objective
11. Sees reality in fragmentation
11. Wholistic Approach
12. globalization/ sophistication

high grow culture
12. Indigenization, more local

colour, example-plough, cow,
birds/ immediate experiences
13. Necrophilia-talking to
dead people + words.
13. Immediency/life based, live,
the
Friere holds that because men are historical beings, incomplete

and conscious of being incomplete, revolution Es as natural and permanent
a human dimension as is education. (Thanks to Dr. Zahoor Ahmad Awan
for helping the writer in preparing this article).
3.5 ALLAMA IQBAL:

According to the assertion of Mrs. Tanveer Khalid, in her book
Education, Dr Sir Muhammad Iqbal was born in Sialkot in 1877. He was
admitted to Muray College, Sialkot and completed his education up to the
intermediate level there. Later on, in 1895, he came to Lahore and obtained
the degree of B.A from Government College, Lahore. After receiving the
149
degree of M.A from the University of Punjab, he started teaching
philosophy at Government College, Lahore in 1905 then he went to
England and got admission in Law. He also continued studies in
philosophy and wrote a thesis and was awarded the degree of the Doctor of
philosophy at Hiedelberg University. After some time he returned from
England and resumed teaching. But once again, after some time he left
teaching and started practicing law, but this profession did not suit his
temperament and he left it too.
His Basic Theory and Philosophy
During his stay in England, he became more and more interested
in Philosophy and Islamic thoughts. He started writing national poems in
the beginning of the 20th, century and very soon became famous all over
India. His famous work in poet, Israr-I-Khudi, was published in 1951.
Professor Nicholson translated it into English and thus introduced Dr. Iqbal
to the Western world. IN recognition of his valuable philosophical poetry,
he was awarded the title of Sir in 1922 by the British Government. Now
he became known as Dr. Sir Muhammad Iqbal.
While in England, he got chance to observe minutely the western
culture and ways of life. Hg appreciated Their habits of hard work and
industry. He felt that the Muslims of India had forgotten the noble
teachings of Islam were found149in the western people. Thereore, he
disapproved149the tendency among the young generation of his nation to
imitate their frivolous aCts and urged them to acquire their habits of
industry and hard work. In his opinion, they shouLd have revived the basic
IsLamic teachingS which emphasise (action) in the life of humaN beings.
He felt sad about the degenerating and disgusting condition of his nation at
that time.
Although his poetry contained the elements of political thoughts,
he did not involve himself in the practical activities until 1972, when he
was elected a Member of the Legislative Assembly of the province of
Punjab. He was elected as the president of All India Muslim League in
150
1930. He participated in the Round Table conference in 1932. He is the
originator of the idea for the creation of Pakistan.
He was not only a lyricist, but a great thinker as well. His poetry
contains philosophical thoughts on many aspects of life. In his poetry, we
can trace his ideas about education too.
Iqbals educational thoughts traced form his poetry are given as
under:
Education was expected to provide ease and comfort but has

brought heresy in its wake. In other words he says that we were under the
impression that Education would bring respite. It was seldom realized that
the heresy would ensue. In another place he says, education is producing
slaves, beggars and imitators:

Our students are completely dominated by Western culture,

civilization and ideas. They appear to be civilized but actually they lack
virtue and qualities.
So far the British Indian Education System is concerned, he says
that it had been introduced to bring out useful subordinate rather than
honourable citizens he raised objections and said:
Oh my Lord! I have to lodge a complaint against the master of

the school. They teach humility to the young ones of the Falcon.
In another place he says, Education is producing slavish
mentality and is providing no activities/experiences to strengthen the
individuality (ego).
151
Iqbal! Individuality (ego) is not to be mentioned here, as such

elements of teaching are not at all harmonious with the spirit of the
existing schools.
According to him Modern Western education is nothing but a
conspiracy against religion, humanity and benevolence.
He says:
Education has crushed the real spirit of the life by creating

economic problems and making no arrangements for providing peaceful
living. In another place Iqbal says:
May God acquaint thee with some kind of storm! For there is no
commotion in the waves of the sea. Thou hast no way to escape from
bookish knowledge; for thou are merely a reader of the book with no
ability to apply it in real life and with no potentiality for creativeness.
To him the education in this age is void of guidance, supervision
and patronage. He says:
Was it a personal influence of the teacher or a miracle of the

school which taught obedience and obligation of a son to Ismail?
In his interesting poem Pir-o-Murid he has discussed the
problems of the day concerning contemporary knowledge, soul and other
things. The dialogue occurs between two persons Murid-e-Hindi is he
himself and Pir-e-Rumi is Maulana Jala-ud-Din Rumi. The dialogue is of
exceptional interest as it reveals the Iqbals mind and opinions about
education. His famous verse is quote worthy.
152
If you strike knowledge on the body, it becomes a snake, if you
strike knowledge on the heart it becomes a friend. According to him the
prevailing Educational system indirectly inculcated materialism and
eradicated spiritualism. His following
verse has endorsed this proposition.
In his view, there was imbalance between intellectual and spiritual

aspects, that is why in the West the absence of spiritual aspect and in the
East the lack of opportunities to develop intellectual abilities created
problems. In another place he says:

One more interesting point is raised by Iqbal. Lack of religious

element in the education in the sub-continent lead masses nowhere. The
religion was not implemented in the practical life no where but only was
restricted to the unnecessarily complicated religious discussion, that is why
education failed to produce a great number of men with high character. As
he says:
Allama Iqbal says, the persons who were capable to lead the
world masses, they (due to lethargy) have become followers of their
times (tides of the wave), where they live with full satisfaction (in
these conditions when their other brethren are in a great mess).
Iqbal has not only criticized this state of the affairs, but also has
suggested the proper ways and right directions for education. Being a poet,
he is not expected to provide us with definite and ready-to-act educational
methods and theories but he has directed our attention to those
fundamental principles of education which can guide us and enable us to
develop sound educational philosophy and system.
To Iqbal knowledge is the name of mental effort, which enables
the individual to think, contemplate and solve problems rightly and which
153
is obtained through education. Hence, education, according to him, aids in
studying the nature, ruling and conquering the universe, enabling to
distinguish between the good and the bad, the right and the wrong. That
education, which is unable to inculcate these qualities, cannot be called
education.
The Main topics of Igbals Poetry

The main and outstanding topics of Iqbals poetry are:
(1) Religion. (2) The concept of self and individuality (3) Character
building (4) Female education. (5) Message to the students and youth (6)
The teachers and methods of teaching. (7) Activity, research and originality
in education.
(8) Moral education.
(1)
Religion:
Though Iqbal was thoroughly a religious person, yet he was

neither a fanatic nor a narrow minded Muslim,. He was a liberal minded
person. He would advise the people to adopt all the decent qualities of not
only the Muslim thinkers but also of the other non-Muslim educators. To
begin with we can say that the Quran was the basis of Iqbals teachings and
thoughts. His message was directed to the younger generations of Muslim
and towards the fact that these ideas are still to be implemented. He always
emphasized upon the Muslims that the only way by which they could
emancipate themselves from the exploitation of imperialism was to
recreate sense of awareness, independence and to educate themselves
according to the teachings of Islam.
He is reported to have said that the basis of all learning and
education should be Quran. He said, Quran is a living miracle because its
teaching provides guidance to man in every age in accordance with his
needs, requirements and altered conditions of life. At another place Iqbal
asks the Muslims, Look into yourself and develop depth of insight, in
Quran you will discover that its verses hide (contain in between the lines)
154
hundreds of new words. In order to solve the present problems only the
application of the single point of Quran is sufficient. To comprehend this
point train yourself and then your fellows to develop understanding heart.
Iqbal asked Muslims to obtain specialization in the study of Quran and he
holds the views that the right kind of knowledge that is to be obtained,
through senses gives birth to physical powers that should remain always
the spiritual power i.e religion, to promote better results.
(2)
The concept of Self and Ego: According to Iqbal the highest aim
of education should be to strengthen the individual qualities of the child by
cultivating his originality and uniqueness. The concept of self or ego as
regarded by Iqbal is dynamic center of desires, pursuits, aspirations,
efforts, resolves, power and action.
He says that the main concern of our life is the development of the
self. In his view, life is like a shell which helps in developing and
protecting the pearl i.e the self, lying inside the shell. As the main extract
of life is the development of the pearl or self and such a life which is
unable to do so is not worth spending.
He says that the role played by the self in the creation and
protection of a nation is very prominent. In his words a nation whose men,
especially the young men, posses strong and powerful self never requires
weapons to protect and defend itself.
He further says:
According to him when a nation, its religious and educational

systems and values, and its literature neglect or overlook the concept of
self and individuality, that is to say that when self is not rightly and
properly developed then that nation is doomed to insult and disgrace.
He says in another place:
155
It means that the individuals or human beings should try to reach

such a high position intellectually and spiritually that even God will have
some respect for his consent, disposition or opinion. This should be
attained through self awareness self assertion and self expression and by
undergoing challenging experiences of life.
(3)
Character Building: Approximately the character building of a
child, through conscious efforts of school and home i.e the teachers and the
parents has been the main theme of the several poems of his poetry. Iqbal
desires that such an education should be imparted to the students, which
will inculcate and promote in them the characteristics of an eagle. An eagle
always flies high, lives at the tops of the mountains, never eats the
remnants, or the left over food or the prey of the other birds. Similarly, the
Muslim student should think high, earn his own livelihood, should never
depend on others, be hardworking, tough and courageous like an eagle.
He further said that the Muslim students should be taught high
moral values and to live independently and Muslims adults should posses
the qualities of a complete and pious man called Momin. He has
categorized the life of a Muslim in to three phases i.e the childhood, the
youth and the adulthood. For all these three phases he has specified certain
principles to be followed in their training.
(4)
Female Education: Iqbal was great exponent of female
education. He interpreted the famous proverb that the hands that move the
cradle, rule the world. This shows that how much important is the
guidance and training of the child by the mother. About his own mother
Iqbal says that due to only her guidance he had achieved the honoured,
respected position and great fame as well as glory. Iqbal, view upon female
education is apparent in his poems. To him the creation of women and their
presence is a great blessing of God as a woman is an inspiration of life. He
had paid high tributes to women by saying that although she had not
produced high intellectual works yet she can, and has given birth to great
156
personalities. lqbal stream lines such an education in women which will
inculcate in them feminine characteristics, and will enable them to assume
the duties and responsibilities, in the future, but he is against such an
education which kills the feminine element in them. Further more,
religious education should form an important part of their education, and it
is not education but the protection provided by men that can really give
security and protectiveness.

In his own words:
(5)
The youth or the student: In the opening poem of Javed Nama,
Iqbl has expressed his primary interest about youth by saying I have lost
(O! God!) hope in the older men and I have the message for tomorrow.
Therefore, help the youth to comprehend my words and dig out the fathom
as well as the depths of my thoughts with ease. About youth he said that I
like only those young men who try to achieve the highest and the best:
Iqbal advises the Muslim youth to work continuously and to put

efforts endlessly so that they may leave permanent prints on the book of
world history. The necessary conditions for such a progress are constant
efforts, struggle to improve, desire to learn more, actions and movements.
He prays for he youth that God may confront them with a difficult and
stormy situation to produce action and movement on their behalf. In other
poem named Fountain, he asks the youth not to be lost and misled in the
appearances and ostentations but always they should pay attention to the
underlying principles.
(6)
The teachers and methods of teaching: Iqbal names the teacher
Sheikh, meaning a grand person. To him teachers play an important role in
the development of the personality of students. He is a builder and
constructor whose production is the human soul. He says:
157
He realized that the formation of an ideal philosophy and system
of education is not enough. To him the real thing is that the teacher should
practice the same philosophy in the schools and colleges. He always
appeals to the teachers to give full attention to the children to arise in them
the constant desires to learn. If a student is unable to memorize certain
lessons, they should not be impatient but should keep directing and guiding
him with affection and interest, as their attention could yield remarkable
result.
So far the teaching methods are concerned, Iqbal strongly
recommends activity on the part of the students because it gives them
chance for the development of their personality. Iqbal rejects the mere
bookish knowledge and cramming, because the knowledge which is not
related to the real life is meaningless.
(7)
Activity, Research and Originality: Iqbal wants his listeners and
readers to be full of action. He laid great emphasis on activity. In his view,
every thing in this world is active in one way or the other. He is of the
opinion that the world, the paradise and even the hell are all related to
action and movement. The man by nature is neither like light or angels nor
like fire or devils, but the actions and deeds with their respective nature
make man so. He says, O! Muslim, remember you can not construct your
life by imitating others. Under the law of nature man can only progress
through his own research and ideas. A living nation is capable of creating
new worlds through its own thoughts and deeds. Iqbal was staunch
opponent of following eternal ideas. That is why he disliked openly the
subjugation by imperialism, socialism, capitalism or any other ism. He
asks the youth to follow only the Quranic teachings.
(8)
Moral Education: The poetry of Iqbal is full of moral sayings
and good advice. In this connection, Iqbal held that goodness is not a
matter of compulsion. It is the selfs free surrender to moral ideal. It is only
through personal experiences that one can thoughtfully work out a code of
effective personal morality. These moral values could be learned in every
158
day social interaction. The practical example set by behaviour of the
teacher is more important and worth while than mere preaching it.
159
UNIT-4
THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN
PAKISTAN
4.1 EDUCATIONAL CONFERENCE 1947:
Re-Organization and Orientation of Education in
Pakistan.
The British left the country in August 1947 leaving behind the
system of education with hopes and sorrows. Pakistan, like other new born
countries had to face problem of devising guide-lines for the reconstruction
and re-orientation of its entire system of education, ideological
considerations and to meet, the pressing demands of the contemporary
world.
Following were the most crucial problems which needed
consideration in the future plans:
a.
To wipe-out (to eradicate) the vestiges of Brown English

attitude of the people through conscious efforts inculcating a
deep and abiding love for their ideology and culture.
b.
To evolve a system of education of normal pyramid correcting its

structure characterized by its heavy top and weak base.
c.
To remove its external influences and inter contractions that

existed in the system,
d.
To evolve a national system of education which could better

reflect the spiritual and cultural values.
160
e.
To stress upon universal primary education diversification of

secondary education and consolidation of higher education; and
f.
To make universities the real centers of learning and to make their

programmes more diversified and innovative.
The glorious tradition of Muslim education in the sub-continent

had been overshadowed by substituting a system of education designed by
alien rule which was primarily based on economic reasons and political
considerations. The strategy of new masters, was to please Indians through
most political coloured, emotionally spirited and objectively controversial
favours. Which could not bring out material change in the sub-continent.
B.
The First Education Conference November,

1947
The government, in spite of its preoccupation in dealing with the

immediate effects of partition showed concern over the importance of
education. The task was not merely to expand education but to give it a
new direction and new interpretation. The task was started with convening
the First Education Conference at Karachi from 27th November to 1st
December 1947. Quaid-I-Azam in his historical message provided basic
guide-lines to the development of education in future. The future system of
education was visualized as having in characteristics of relevance to
modern conditions, stressing the need of science and technology and
limiting the character of the future generations and instilling in them the
highest sense of honour, integrity, responsibility and selfless service to the
nation. The following goals were set by the conference to inspire the future
system of education in Pakistan.
a.
The education system be inspired by Islamic Ideology.
b.
The social, spiritual and vocational elements be integrated in the
system.
c.
Religious education be made compulsory.
d.
Compulsory physical training be introduced at all levels.
161
The Conference recommended several bodies such as the
Advisory Board of Education, inter-University Board and a Council of
Technical Education, to be constituted to assist the Central Government on
nature of education to co-ordinate educational policies in the country.
4.2
REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON

NATIONAL EDUCATION, 1959-60
1.
Broad Goals
The Commission on National Education (M. M. Sharif

Commission) was appointed by a resolution adopted by the Government of
Pakistan on 30 December 1959. The Commission was inaugurated by
President Mohammad Ayub Khan on 5th January 1959. In his address he
stressed the need of reorganization and re-orientation of the existing
educational system so that it could better reflect the spiritual, moral and
cultural values and meet the challenges of the growing needs of the nation
in the field of agriculture science and technology and aimed at character
building.
2.
The Objectives of Education laid down in

the Report
The objectives of education laid down in the report mainly related
to:
a.
Training of manpower, educated citizenry and competent
leadership.
b.
Meet the individual and cultural need and aspirations of the
people.
c.
Provide individuals, full opportunities to develop their capability

for the creation of a progressive and demarcated society.
d.
Preserve the ideals and strengthen the concept of a unified society.
e.
Create a social welfare state.
162
f.
and
Develop the intellectual abilities and character of the individuals
g.
Create among the people a sense of dignity of labour.
3.
Report of
Education
a.
The Commission defined higher education as the form of

education that existed for the advanced training of young people
who have a proven capability for intellectual work and to play
leading role in all walks of life. Therefore, higher education
should be recognised as a distinct stage and be separated from the
intermediate level.
b.
Defects Observed by the Commission in Higher Education.
the
Commission
on
Higher
The Commission had observed the following defects in higher

education.
i.
Higher education had not been recognised as a distinct stage itself.
ii.
Courses and curricula were obsolete, particularly in science and

technology.
iii.
The programmes of advanced studies and research were not upto

the standard and co-ordinated.
iv.
The academic life of students lacked unity and discipline.
v.
Libraries and laboratories were not well equipped.
vi.
The service conditions of the teachers were not satisfactory.
vii.
The administrative structure of universities was not conducive to

facilitate its proper function.
viii.
Rules governing the affiliation of colleges were neither definite

nor enforced strictly.
ix.
The evaluation system was absolutely unsound and unsatisfactory.
163
c.
Recommendations
Forwarded
by
the
Commission for the Re-organization and
Improvement of Higher Education.
In view of such frustrating situation, the commission laid down

the following recommendations for the re-organisation and improvement
of higher education
i.
Higher Education should be recognised as a distinct stage itself

and the present intermediate colleges should be transferred from
its jurisdiction to that of the Board of Secondary Education and
attached to high schools.
ii.
The courses of study for the Bachelor Degree should be extended

from two to three years.
iii.
The courses and curricula should be revised particularly in the

areas of science and technology.
iv.
Each university should establish a committee of Advanced studies

to consider programmes in the field of teaching and research.
v.
Teachers should be given salary according to their qualification.
vi.
The selection of professor should be made by a committee

consisting of Vice Chancellor and four other members.
vii.
Increments and promotion should be given to recognition of

achievement.
viii.
The administrative structure of the universities be clarified to

function.
ix.
A grant Committee should be established for development of

universities and co-ordination of their programmes.
x.
The examination system should be revised as there should be

public examination conducted by university, carrying 75 percent
marks and internal evaluation of students by the teachers through
periodical tests and class work carrying 25 percent marks.
164
xi.
The national language should gradually and progressively replace

English as the medium of instruction at higher level.
xii.
A comprehensive scholarship scheme be introduced at all levels

for the talented students.
xiii.
Research should be carried out and linked with teaching and

incentives should be provided to researchers.
xiv.
Right selection procedure should be devised to ensure right

selection of students for higher education.
4.
Report of the Commission on Secondary

Education
In view of the Commission, secondary education should be

recognised as a complete stage in itself and organized as a separate
academic and administrative unit demarcated clearly in al respects from
university education.
a.
Defects Observed by the Commission in

Secondary Education:
The commission has noted the following defects in secondary

education.
i.
The curricula was overloaded with literary subjects.
ii.
There was absence of opportunities for training in technical and

vocational subjects.
iii.
Matriculation examination was regarded as the qualification for

university admission and not as a terminal examination.
iv.
The present curricula for secondary schools laid too much

emphasis on mental ability and too little on physical well-being,
personality and character, and development of skills.
v.
The prevailing teaching methods were described as mechanical,

communication of theoretical book learning to reluctant children.
165
Too much stress was laid on memorization and far too little on
initiative, independence of thought, imaginative use of knowledge
and self reliance.
vi.
Because of insufficient training, low salaries and little standing in

society, the best talent could not be attracted to teaching
profession.
b.
Objectives of Secondary Education as

Visualized by the Commission
The analysis of the weaknesses helped the commission to

determine the true objectives of secondary education such as:
1.
Development of the Individual
i.
To foster in children the spirit of enquiry and independent thought

and ability to apply their knowledge to real life situation.
ii.
To relate all teaching to the needs and interest of the adolescents.
iii.
To design teaching and the organization of the school activities as

to develop the qualities of leadership.
iv.
To develop the aesthetic sense and an appreciation of cultural

values among children.
v.
Through games, sports, and physical education to cultivate in

children a liking for and skill in physical activity and the
enjoyment of sports.
2.
Development of the Citizen
i.
To rear children in the habit of industry, self discipline and

honesty.
ii.
To cultivate a sense of social responsibility in socially useful

tasks.
iii.
To develop the spirit of co-operation and service.
166
iv.
To relate teaching to the needs of practical life and local

environment.
3.
Development of the Worker
i.
To cultivate a deep appreciation of the dignity of labour.
ii.
To provide full facilities for technical, scientific and other

vocational education as preparation for further professional
education or qualification for a career.
iii.
To provide the services of educational and vocational guidance

and thus direct children towards the most appropriate courses and
subsequent career.
4.
Development of the Patriot
i.
To provide a form of education which has its roots in the national

culture and in Islamic values.
ii.
To nurture a pride in the nation an understanding of its history and

aspirations and willingness to serve it.
iii.
To create an appreciation of the universal brotherhood of man and

a spirit of international understanding.
c.
Recommendations of the Commission on

Secondary Education
The following recommendations have been forwarded by the

Commission to improve and correct the situation in secondary education.
i.
Secondary education should be recognised as a complete stage in

itself and organised as separate academic and administrative unit,
demarcated clearly in all respects from university education.
ii.
Secondary education should properly be consisted of classes IXXlI but until compulsory education is extended to first eight years
classes VI-VII I should be considered a part of secondary
167
education. For the present it should be divided into three stages
classes VI-VIII Middle, classes IX-X secondary and classes XIXII Higher Secondary.
iii.
The curriculum at secondary stage should provide a compulsory

core of subjects and should also include additional subjects and
training to prepare students for a definite vocation and career.
iv.
The teaching of national language, science and mathematics

should receive greater emphasis.
v.
English should be taught as a functional subject rather than as a

literature.
vi.
Religious education should, be made compulsory from classes VIVIX and optional thereafter.
vii.
Practical should be introduced.
viii.
As far as possible secondary schools should be transformed into

multipurpose schools offering a wide choice of diversification.
ix.
The system of examination should be recognized. The public

examination conducted by university/Boards of Secondary
Education should carry 75 percent marks and the periodical tests
conducted by teacher should carry 25 percent marks.
x.
Teachers must be properly trained before entering Service, their

knowledge and professional skills must be periodically refreshed.
xi.
There should be a comprehensive assessment of teachers work.

The work of good teachers be recognized by special awards.
xii.
The academic session must be 40 weeks with a summer vacation

of two months and a winter recess of 10 days and a spring recess
of 14 days. casual leave in a year which should be granted in
emergency case.
xiii.
Teachers should not be permitted more than five days
168
xiv.
Educational and Vocational Guidance Career Officer should be

appointed in Secondary and Vocational School.
xv.
The regulations, control and development of education at

secondary and higher secondary should be entrusted to the Boards
of Secondary Education. resources i.e. Contribution of the
management 20 percent, Government grant 20 percent and fee 60
present.
xvi.
The income of the school should be raised from three resources

i.e. Contribution of the management 20 percent,
Governmentgrant 2 percent and fee 60 present.
xvii.
Talented but poor students should receive scholarship of

substantive amount.
xviii.
The value of schools of the residential type should be recognised

and their development be encouraged. The schools of pre-cadet
type should also be established in each wing.
5.
Report of the Commission on Teacher

Training
a.
General Observations of the Commission on

Teacher Training
The Commission observed that no system of education could rise

above the teachers who use it and its quality depended ultimately on the
quality and efforts of the teachers. To achieve a teaching profession in
which the nation might feel confident, certain things were necessary. The
teacher must be properly prepared before entering the service, their
knowledge and professional skills must be periodically refreshed. They
must receive salary which would enable them to maintain a certain
standard of living.
But the situation as revealed by the commission was far from
ideal. A large number of teachers, were untrained, few opportunities for
refresher courses were available to them, the increase in salary had never
169
kept pace with the increase in cost of living. The system of evaluation and
promotion was not conducive to the maintenance of high standard. No
special incentives were provided for good teachers.
b.
Recommendations
Teacher Education
of
the
Commission
on
The Commission had forwarded the following recommendations

for improving the status and professional competence of teachers. As the
provision of suitable teachers and their training was a matter of national
importance, therefore, the Commission set the minimum qualification for
admission in the training courses for teachers at various stages.
i.
Teachers for classes l-V: Secondary School Certificates

(Matriculation).
i.
Teachers for classes VI-VIII: Higher

Examination Certificate (Intermediate).
ii.
Teachers for classes IX-X : Bachelor Degree.
Secondary School
The duration of the training courses for teachers of different

stages of admission should be:
i.
Teacher for classes I-V: One year
ii.
Teacher for classes VI-VIII: Two years
iii.
Teachers for classes IX-X: Two years
iv.
Teachers for classes XI-XII: M.S. Plus Short course in methods of

teaching.
The teacher training programme as maintained in the report

should ensure:
i.
A sound grasp of subjects, knowledge of psychology, and the

methodology of instruction.
ii.
A training college for the training of teachers should be

established in each Wing.
170
iii.
High priority must be given to the training of teachers of science

and practical arts and crafts
iv.
Refresher courses for teachers at least once in 5 years to be

arranged.
v.
The administrative staff should also receive in service training

through extension centres.
vi.
Provision should be made for post-graduate study in education at

doctorate levels in some universities.
vii.
A Council of Educational Research should be set up at the centre

to co-ordinate and stimulate research work on education.
viii.
Teachers should be given a scale of salary consistent with their

responsibility, function and status in national life.
ix.
Teachers should receive special award for merit
x.
The achievement of the teachers should be featured through mass

media.
4.3 THE EDUCATION POLICY 1972-80

Background:
Prior to the introduction of the policy of 1972-80, a similar policy
was already in vogue, which was called the policy of 1970. Basically, the
policy of 1970 was based on the national education report of 1959. This
report was short in certain recommendations. Hence, the national education
policy of 1970, adopted measures to remove the deficiencies of the 1959
national commission (M.M. Sharif commission) and to make the
educational process more pleasant. Since this policy provided more
resources for the universalization and promotion of education, hence the
public appreciated it very much. Because in this policy efforts were made
to provide comparatively more equal and better facilities besides elevating
the standard of education and making it much more cheaper. In this policy
171
the importance of elementary education was clarified and efforts were
made not only to eradicate illiteracy from the country but to improve the
standard and rate of literacy. It fixed the objectives of education on Islamic,
national and democratic foundations, so that a sense of national uniformity
may be created in the students and they may lead their lives in accordance
with the Islamic and democratic values. Though the commission of 1959
had framed the aims of education in accordance with national necessities
and urgencies, yet it had failed to provide or generate satisfactory resources
for it. The study of Quran was included in the teaching of lslamiyat but in
the new policy lslamiyat was introduced as a compulsory subject in the
curriculum. So that a sense of abiding by the teaching of Islamic Ideology
is created in the students.
Another characteristic of this policy was that in view of
improving the quality of education, increase in the salaries of the teachers
was made. Maximum facilities were provided to teachers, scholarships
were awarded to intelligent students. Moreover, representation in the
college and university councils was granted to the students.
In short the welfare of the students was fully looked after. Beside,
stress was laid on adult education too. A team of education supervisors was
appointed to look after the day to day affairs of the schools. The private
educational institutions also were made to abide by the official rules and
regulations. So that they may not run them on commercial basis. It was
decided that in case the performance of any institution was found to be
unsatisfactory, that would be nationalised.
In this education policy, it was emphasised to declare Urdu to be
the national and official language. It was further recommended to make
Urdu a medium of instruction at all levels. Several recommendations were
made for bringing the educational programmes in conformity with
practical/technical education, emphasising the creation of sense about the
greatness of diligence (hard work). It also recommended to create social
and cultural uniformity among the citizens of Pakistan and develop a
democratic society.
172
The policy -was not yet fully implemented when, after two years (1972 ),
the 2nd education policy was introduced.
Really the policy of 1972-80 was a revolutionary one. In the
history of this country, for the first time, the policy was prepared by a
public representative, democratic and elected Government. Its
implementation was also expedited. Some components of this policy are
very much appreciable. This policy was made for the coming years, but
despite this no satisfactory results could be seen instantly. Of course this
policy, in the capacity of its nature and objectives was based on the norms
of democracy and nationalism.
In addition to this, free education was announced in this policy.
All efforts were recommended to be intensified, in this policy to promote
and extend education and to improve its standard. Education was made free
of cost for children throughout the country. Hundred of centres for adult
education were established. In order to eradicate ignorance from the
country a short term training course was imparted to all the boys having
passed Matric examination. Training arrangements were made for teachers.
One of its, most important features was the establishment of the
plan/scheme of the national cadet corps (N.C.C.).
Similarly, the establishment of elementary school (T.C. for
teachers) repair of repairable building of schools and the supply of free text
books in the elementary classes was one of the admirable steps. The
establishment of Allama lqbal Open University was also a memorable
work but not the least. According to this policy the teaching of the Holy
Quran was made compulsory. In addition to that secondary education too,
was made purposeful. In the general educational institutions,
technical/vocational subjects were introduced. The students availed the
chance of selecting maximum subjects for technical/Vocational education.
In this policy the higher education was also given an immense importance,
rather several new universities were established. For coordination among
all the universities, University Grants Commission was established. The
number of scholarships for the college and universitys students was
173
increased. For promoting the mental potential -of students and conducting
research work, centres of excellence were established. Besides the polytechnical institutions were elevated to the level of colleges.
All the privately managed institutions were nationalised with
effect from October the 1st 1972 because these were being run on
commercial basis and education had been termed to be a business. This
was such a step which was very much liked by the teachers, students and
parents. The prestige of the students was restored and the poor students
were provided chances for gaining education.
In this policy the edifice of education was built (erected) on
democratic values and foundations. The educational institutions were
provided with maximum facilities. Representation of the students at
school, college and university level was made compulsory. Efforts were
intensified to give full autonomy to the students in arranging cultural
events and educational activities. Somewhere, these activities left some
adverse effects as well. In addition to that college councils were
established wherein the teachers were given full representation.
It was also recommended to establish an academy, on the pattern
of civil services academy, to promote their welfare, extend awards for
educational works, contributions and provide facilities. It was also
proposed to establish banks for the grant of interest free loans to intelligent
students. Book banks were established in the colleges and universities. For
the purpose of developing text books and curricula a national curriculum
bureau was established. The examination system was improved. A national
sports trust was announced to -be founded to promote physical education
and games. lslamiyat was made a compulsory subject upto secondary
classes.
Not with standing this all, education was declared to be free
through out the country. This resulted in the flooding of students in such a
way that no room was left in the schools. Because a specific number of
students was already present in the school. This announcement had badly
affected the standard of education. However, nationalisation of the private
174
institutions and free education up to matriculation was a memorable work
of the Government of that time.
Objectives of the Education Policy 1972-80

The objectives laid down in the policy are briefly stated.
a.
Ensuring the preservation, promotion and practice of basic

ideology of Pakistan.
b.
Building up national cohesion by promoting social and cultural

harmony.
c.
Building up and nurturing the total personality of the individual,

dynamic and creative.
d.
Mobilizing the youth for leadership roles through participation the

program of social service and environmental improvement.
e.
Eradicating illiteracy with the short possible time through

universalisation of elementary education and massive adult
education programs.
f.
Equalizing access to education through provision of special

faculties for women under privileged, mentally retarded and
physically handicapped children and adults.
g.
Designing curricula relevant to the nations changing social and

economic needs
h.
Providing a comprehensive program of studies through the

integration of general and cultural education.
i.
Providing academic freedom and due autonomy to educational

institution
j.
Ensuring participation of teachers, students, parents and

community in the affairs of education
k.
Generally promoting the welfare, dignity and sense of

responsibility of teachers ad students
175
2.
Recommendations of the education policy

on various levels of education.
(i)
For a universal primary education, the policy maintained that:
a.
Education would be free and universal up to class X for all

children in phased manner.
b.
Primary education up to class V would become universal for boys

by 1979 and for girls by 1984 and up to class VIII for boys by
1982 and for girls by 1987.
c.
In the first phase, from 1st October 1972 education up to class

VIII would be made free. In the second phase, starting from 1st
October 1974 free education would be extended to classes IX-X
in all schools.
d.
To accommodate the increased enrolment, three thousand eight

hundred
additional class rooms for primary classes would be
constructed and about 2300 additional class rooms, would be
constructed for pupils in classes VI-VIII.
e.
In providing school facilities, priority would be given to rural and

backward areas and to the education of girls
f.
Standard design and specification for low cost buildings of school

would be prepared.
g.
The universalization of elementary education would require 2.25

lakh additional teachers. The demand would be made from the
existing training institutions through introduction of teacher
education as optional subjecte, in colleges and the establishment
of National Literacy Corps.
h.
Text Books and writing material would be produced free for

primary school children.
i.
Adequate literacy books and audiovisual aids would be provided

to all schools
176
j.
Curricula, syllabus and text books would be revised
k.
Dignity of Labour would be emphasized
l.
A country wide motivational campaign to persuade parents to

send their education to schools would be launched.
(ii) Secondary Education:

a.
On Secondary Education, the policy envisaged that the expansion

ashould be related to the economic development of the country.
For this purpose vocational and occupational subjects be added to
general education to secondary stage.s
b.
The policy further maitained that the expansion of science and

technical education would result in progressive integartion of
general and secondary schools and colleges.
c.
For teaching of Science, 2200 additional units would be established

and 17500 additional places would be created at matriculation
stage and 700 units with 56000, additional places would be
created at intermediate stage.
d.
An integrated science course would be introduced at high and

intermediate stages.
e.
for meeting the meeting the immediate demands of the above

progrmmes, the policy further recommended the lunching of short
in-service courses in science and technical education durings
during summer vacation.
(iii) Higher Education

In this regard the policy recommended that:
a. New universities would be established progressively.
b. In order to co-ordinate the programmes of the universities and develop
their facilities, a University Grants commission would be established.
c. The university ordinance would be replaced by enlghtened and
177
progressive stages.
d. Professional council would be established in the universities.
e. Centres of ecxcellence world be established in general universities.
F. Area study centres would be established in general unoversities.
g. For research and post graduate studies of languages, literature and
culture of the people of Pakistan, a national institute of Pakistan studies
would be established at Islamabad.
h. A programme of national Professor ship would be institutes so that
highly qualified scholars and scientists may continue as teachers and
research workers.
i. National research fellowship would also be instituted.
(iv) Technical Education:
The following recommendations were made for the promotion of
technical education:
a. Polytechnics would be converted in to technical colleges.
b. In addition to diploma B.Tech degree courses in the technical colleges
could also provide a variety of programmes encouraging new areas of
technology.
c. Those under going the new programmes, would require certificates,
diploma and degree of their respective fields and levels.
d. Technical colleges/institutes would also be assisted to offer specialized
courses of national importance leading to the degree master
of technology.
(v) Adult Education
Keeping the position of Pakistan to be the highest in the
178
world as related to its rate of illiteracy, the policy forwarded the
following recommendations for adult education:
3.
a.
A massive literacy programme, would be under taken in every

town and village.
b.
A
massive literacy educational programme would first
concentrate on basic literacy training and then would be expanded
and developed into a fullfleded comprehensive adult education.
c.
For literacy training, it was maintained that by 1980 approximate

2.76 lakh literacy centres providing training to more than 11
million literate, would be established.
d.
to staff these centres a hard crop of teachers would be trained in

short , intensive courses.
e.
The process of education to be continued as life long activity,

institutional arrangement would be made for a massive, coordinated nation wide programme of non-formal and life long
education.
f.
Priority would be given to the continuing education of workers in

factories, farms in rural areas, workers engaged in special projects
out of some adolescents and rural womens
g.
A peoples open university would be established to provide part

time educational facilities through correspondence courses,
tutorial, seminar, workshops, radio, T.V broad cast and other mass
media.
Teachers and Teacher Education
The policy envisages that in order to meet the immediate

requirements of teachers at all stages, facilities for teacher education,
would be increased by reorganizing teacher education programs and by
introducing innovative techniques. The suggestions contained in the policy
related to:
179
a.
It was estimated that 235000 elementary and secondary school

teachers and an additional 300000 adult and continuing education
teachers both men and women would be required during the result
eight years.
b.
The study of Education as a subject would be introduced in

secondary schools and in general colleges. Students passing at
these levels, primary, middle and high school teachers.
c.
The number of women teachers would be gradually increased at

primary stage.
d.
The construction of rent free houses for teachers on quite a large

scale, would be undertaken in the future.
e.
The recruitment procedure of non-gazetted teachers, would be

streamlined.
f.
An Academy for teacher and educational planners/administrators

would be set-up.
4.
Other Recommendations
a.
The revision and nationalization of merit scholarship at all levels

of education.
b.
The establishment of Book Banks.
c.
The provision of transport facilities to students.
d.
The enforcement of school uniform
e.
Reviewing and updating the curricula for all stages.
f.
The establishment of National Book Foundation.
g.
The establishment of well equipped libraries in educational

institutions.
h.
The introduction of instructional technology.
i.
The introduction of cumulative record in schools.
180
j.
The creation of National Service Corps.
k.
The introduction of military training progressively for all students

from classes IXto XII.
l.
Making of Islamic subject compulsory for Muslim Students upto

classX.
m.
The establishment of National, Provincial, and District Schools

Councils.
4.4
The Education Policy 1979-80:
The Critical Review and Characteristics of the

Educational Policy 1979:
In this policy the educational objectives were made to be
conforming to a great extent with the Islamic values and the ideology of
Pakistan. Moreover, efforts were made to enroll all male and female
students upto 1981 for admission in the schools, respectively.
1.
Mosques and mohallah schools were intended to be

established hoping to prove helpful land multiplying literacy
rates. Simultaneously, one thousand work shop schools were
planned to opened for the local students of the area besides
constructing residential units for those female teachers who
are working in rural areas.
2.
It was planned to establish a council for adult education to

reduce the illiteracy srate. This council was intended to be
linked with Allama Iqbal University. This was a great
achievement of this policy.
3.
To create scientific awareness among the public ie to make

them aware of the urgency of the teaching of science in the
schools and colleges.
4.
The teaching of Islamiyat would be compulsory and a

Shariya Faculty would be established in the Islamic
181
University. The text books would be produced in conformity
with Islamic principles in the ideology of Pakistan.
5.
The status and level of the centre as for the training of

primary teachers would be upgraded and would be called
colleges of elementary teachers. (this decision was very
much appreciated by the teacher community). All the
teachers would have to under go a course with in each five
years. All teachers of the colleges and universities would also
be trained in the university grants commission higher
education academy.
6.
Education in colleges would be further improved. All

expenses of the university would be borne by the
Government. Arrangements for further higher education
would be made in the selected girls colleges and a national
educational research institute would be established.
7.
The criterion for the selection of teachers would be reviewed

in an unambiguous (transparent) method for the evaluation of
the performance of the teachers and the administration.
8.
Interest free loan for further higher education would be

awarded to intelligent students and the number of
scholarships would be increased two fold (would be
doubled). Reasonable increase would be made in the seats of
male and female students n the university hostels.
9.
to keep the educational atmosphere pleasant in the

univversities, all the healthy activities would be encouraged
and all the unhealthy and agitating activities would be
discouraged. (this was a very important recommendation of
this policy).
10. Persuasive incentives would be provided to university

teachers to perform consulting services in other institutions.
Besides educational councils consisting of the well known
182
educationists and prominent teachers would be framed which
would give educational advice and suggestions to the
Government on current urgencies as well as issues.s thew
rules for scholarship of those teachers would be made lenient
who arem going abroad to attend training courses. (this
encouraged research and higher scholastic approaches).
4.5 EDUCATION POLICY 1998-2010

The salient features of the national education
policy 1998-2010
The main aim of this policy has been narrated to be the facilitation
of access to education of each individual. Because it has, now been proved
beyond doubt that education is not a privilege, but a fundamental right of
every one. To improve the economic well being, political stability and
cultural enlightenment is possible only through educational development.
This aim can only be achieved by conceiving and erecting the foundations
of an organic and flourishing human society by giving top priority to
education.
It is also viewed that the new society of tomorrow simply cannot
develop with out liberating the minds of the new generations. As a matter
of fact, today we are left with no option but to liberate Pakistani mind in
order to transform it into a self respecting, progressive and free being.
These and some more objectives in view, the then Government announced
an educational policy for 12 years. This aimed at the use of new
technologies in education system to promote creativity, productivity and
competence. The several reforms proposed in the policy aimed at bringing
a social change in society as dictated by the teachings of Islam.
Another important feature of this policy is the raise in the budget
allocation for education from 2.2% to 4 % out of the gross development
product (G.D.P) unto 2003. Universalisation of primary education,
improving the quality of education, increasing literacy rate to 70%,
183
unleashing the energies -of the nation for participation in nation building
pursuits, inculcating high moral, ethical and civic values among the
students.
To sum up, the policy aims at 5 broad based objectives. These
include the base and improving efficiency of higher education;
strengthening the existing graduate study programme; improving the
delivery system; expanding capabilities of the universities for creating new
knowledge and enhancing entrepreneurial role of the university.
It is also intended by the policy to bring the literacy rate to 55%
by the year 2003 and to 70% by the year 2010. Besides, the policy
proposes setting up 190,000 schools for primary, by the year 2010,69,000
schools for middle, 30,000 for secondary education, 1,100 for higher
education, 715 institutions for vocational/commercial education and 201
institutions for mono/poly tech education. Besides, setting 700 degree
colleges, 250 professional degree colleges, 50 new universities, 20
engineering and 4 agriculture universities by the year 2001 so that to
provide access to schools for all school aged children. In addition to that
evening shifts will also be started in the existing schools, besides
increasing the enrolment from 31% to 48% at secondary level, by the year
2002. Further more,15,000, middle and 7,000 secondary schools are to be
setup.
For recruiting teachers, an education service commission shall be
established and education card would be issued to deserving students. To
meet the ever increasing demand of vocational and technical gradates, the
education policy envisaged to enhance the enrolment in poly technique
institutions from 42,000 to 62,000 and in vocational commerce institutions
from 32,000 to 43,000, by the year 2002, besides starting evening classes
in them. Curricula of these institutions shall be revised. High tech studies
will be included i.e. computer studies etc. The policy 1998-2010 aims at
increasing access and raising quality of all subject sectors of education.
Hence, it has underlined some innovative programmes.
Following are the innovative programmes proposed in this policy:
184
i.
Non Formal Basic education Community school;
ii.
Use of mosque schools for formal primary education;
iii.
Introduction of evening shift at primary level;
iv
Provision of education card to the needy students;
v.
Develop an incentive tied approach and provide encouragement to

private foreign investment in the field of education;
vi.
Introduction of Nazra Quran from class I to VIII and teaching of

Holy Quran with secondary level;
vii.
Setting up one residential model secondary school in rural areas,

initially one at each district level;
viii.
Relating education to the word of work by helping students to

identify their carrier or vocation and establishing technical
schools throughout the country;
ix.
Introduction of competitive text books at secondary school level;
x.
Introduction of national education testing service from the forth

coming academic session, initially for admission to professional
colleges;
xi.
Introduction of major reforms in examination system through

legislative enactment, providing adequate safeguards to tackle
boldly in order to eliminate the mall practices and use of unfair
means in the examination systems at all levels;
xii.
Introduction of bachelor of education in technology at national

institute of science and technical education;
xiii.
Expansion of women polytechnic colleges at district level:
xiv.
Expansion of facilities for bachelor of education in science

throughout the country;
xv
Package of incentives for teachers to attract better talent;
xvi.
Decentralisation and community mobilisation;
185
xvii.
Introduction of matric (tech) stream at secondary level;
xviii.
Three years B.A/B.SC. (Hons) course parallel to two years degree

course;
xix.
Creation of monitoring and implementation cells under the federal

and provincial education ministers
The future education institutions will have the following orientations:

i.
Lecture methods will be replaced by guidance provided through

the use of new technologies such as computer, television, satellite
and video tapes.
ii.
Productive work and problem solving skills will take the place of
routine type of activities.
iii.
The future training strategies will contain the following

guidelines:
iv.
Training will emphasise on creativity and productivity;
v.
Development of professional competencies through updating

knowledge and skills.
vi.
Teaching will be replaced by learning and the teacher and student

role will change from dispenser/receiver practices to a joint
partnership in the learning processes.
vii.
The multiplier effect of training and the self learning modules will
become necessary ingredients of any programme.
viii.
Professional advancement will be a continuous process through

upgrading the job training.
The measures taken to meet the needs of future students are.

i.
Student will have adequate opportunity to learn his/her speed of

mental physical development;
ii.
Choices of subjects will be much wider and diversified to meet

the needs of the individual student;
186
iii.
Education will effectively be imparted out side the school which

will provide opportunities to work for longer duration on a job;
iv.
Education will be designed in such a way as to provide more

independence in thinking process.
21st century objectives envisaged in the Policy

of 1998-2010
Our education system must be made compatible with the demands
of economic activity, and lead to an egalitarian Muslim society. The
education
philosophy
is
moving
from
specialisation
and
compartmentalisation, to generalisation (with more emphasis on broad
based self-learning) and integration (of knowledge skills and their
utilisation, through self-development, including self learning, self analysis,
and team work). Priority to obtain government jobs must be shifted to
realistic and tangible targets, keeping in mind the short and long-term
social indicators of the societys development. Education must cover the
entire life-span of each individual, to make him the most useful and
productive member of society in his outputs, encouraging selfemployment.
A sense of inquire, a questioning mind with a wide horizon, self
analysis and a critical examination of the socioeconomic system must be
inculcated. An introduction of the Islamic order is vital, by understanding
the message of the Holy Quran, and appreciating it in the context of
continuing scientific and technological advancements. Disparity and
underdevelopment must be eliminated.
The adult education programme should be shifted to NGOs
(nongovernment-organization), supported by incentive grants. Inequalities
(including female education) must be removed by providing more
educational facilities to rural areas. Distance education (both print and
electronic media) must be increased.
187
There are to be two types of school systems in the next 10 years:
the academic and the vocational/technical (including agriculture,
commercial, and biomedical), each with 12 years of schooling.
Campuses are to be depoliticized. The reform of the existing
evaluation system is to be done through the National Testing Service. The
system is to be changed from supply orientation to demand orientation.
Emphasis is to be changed from what to know to how to know,
necessitated by the advancement of knowledge, and the massive literature
being generated. National unity must become a driving force for national
development.
The Lecture Methods are to be replaced by guidance through
computers, TV, satellites, and video tapes. Institutional life is to become
less formal, and more human. Productive work and problem- solving skills
are more human. Productive work and problem-solving skills are to replace
routine activities. Training is to emphasize creativity, and productivity.
Professional competencies are to be developed through updating
knowledge and skills. Teaching is to be replaced by learning, and the role
of the teacher with student is to be changed from dispenser-receiver to
partnership to the learning process. Professional advancement is to be a
continuous Process, through upgrading skills on the job training. Learning
is to be at the Students speed. Choices are to be much, wider, to fulfill the
individual students needs. Opportunities to work for longer duration on a
job are to be provided. More independence in the ranking process is to be
provided.
Secondary Education
Concepts: Secondary Education (IX-XII) provides the middle level worker
for the economy, and is a feeder for higher education. This adolescence age
is the most crucial stage of life, strongly influencing life-time behaviour
and attitudes. It has not received adequate attention of the successive
governments. There are now 30 universities, and more than 150,000
primary schools. The female secondary schools do not have teachers in
188
science and mathematics. Courses offered should make each student
competent for an employment, linked to the manpower needs of the area,
and the country. Agriculture, being the largest employer, required especial
attention.
There are 24,403 public sector middle and high schools 114,595
male (60%) and 9,808 female (40%)]. Middle level enrollment is 3.75
million (including 1.39 females, 37%)- at secondary level (Class IX-X) it
is 1.55 million, including 0.54 million female (36.5% male, 25.8% female),
and at secondary level is 29.7% (male 36.3%, female 22.3%).
Teachers at the secondary level are at grades 14-16, whereas at the
college they are at grades 17-20. The salary at grade 20 is double that of
grade 16. Teachers at intermediate level are subject specialists, but not so
far classes IX, and X, where Science and English is being taught without
specialist knowledge, B.Ed. and M.Ed. are theoretical. Textbooks,
laboratories, library facilities, playgrounds, potable water, electricity, gas,
boundary walls, and teaching aids (maps, models, and audio-visual
materials) are inadequate. Colleges are better equipped, but desk space is
in short supply. Technical and vocational education must be integrated with
secondary education.
Objectives: Imbalances in educational opportunities between
rural urban, male-female, and rich-poor, must be removed. Students must
be made into quick, easily trainable, learners, with good quantitative skills
in manipulating numbers, problem-solving, able to deal with practical
problems, know their community and its problems will be able to work in
teams, and be active in their own learning, the majority should be capable
of taking on a job. Education at the intermediate stage should prepare
students for professional, and technical university education. They must
acquire analytical skills sophisticated use of language, logical arguments,
be able to undertake library research, be familiar with laboratory
procedures, and to be able to work independently preparing term papers
and carrying out investigations.
189
Policies: Initially one model secondary school is to be setup in
each district; vocation or career is to be introduced. Curriculum is to be
revised by 1999, multiple textbooks, choice of subjects is to be made very
wide, terminal examinations are to be improved, project method of
teaching is to be introduced, along with integrating vocational skills, and
academics. An Education Service commission is to be established to recruit
teachers; possessing caliber and qualifications: Education Card is to be
provided to the needy; and an Action Plan is to be prepared for 2002-2010.
TARGETS
Participation at the secondary level
Participation rate at the higher secondary level
Secondary schools
Secondary school teachers
1997-98
32%
11%
1.000
160.000
2001-2
48%
13%
18.000
164.000
Implementation: The future growth of schools is to be properly

planned, in relation to the pupils population, through the proposed District
Education Authority, which will be given power to levy taxes for meeting
the day to day running of schools. Funds will be provided on the basis of
the local community contributions. One model school is to be provided at
initially 25% of the district headquarters. The National Education Testing
Service (NETS) is to prepare aptitude tests to be administered on demand,
through the departments of Psychology in the universities.
The Curriculum at the secondary stage is to be based on two
principles, to provide: a compulsory core of subjects for every pupil, the
knowledge useful for a developed society; and training to prepare the
student for a definite career. Problem-solving and independent thinking is
to be stimulated. Supplementary teaching/reading material is to be
prepared. A new orientation is to be given to the whole process of textbook
designing, and preparation, utilising competition, initially in Science, and
English, keeping the prices and quality under control; (three best textbooks
190
are to become the recommended ones in each discipline, but the
examination is to be based only on one of them, as at present).
Assessment items and question banks are to be developed for
Classes IX-Xll by 1999. The examination system is to be continually
improved. Internal and external assessments are to be integrated.
Appointment in the Board is to be contractual and on merit basis. Unfair
means are to be minimised. Standardised test items are to be gradually
increased, by a scientific method.
B.S.Ed. (Bachelor of Science Education) programme is operating
in two colleges of the country. The Teacher Education Project has designed
a similar B.A.Ed; this is to be implemented throughout the country, in
parallel with BEd. From 2000. The budget book is to reflect the posts for
science and maths teachers separately. There are two streams of teachers
those recruited directly by the Public Service Commission i.e. subject
specialists. This issue is to be resolved. Monitoring and training is to be
provided through central, model, cluster schools, through continual
training. The provincial teacher training institutes are to perform the
function of training Master Trainers posted to these central schools.
TEACHER EDUCATION
Concepts: The teacher must have a deep understanding of both the
content and methodology of education. Theories and practices of teaching
and learning must be well-defined. The teacher education programme must
cater to the fast emerging needs of the country. The curriculum content,
methods, evaluation techniques, teaching aids and all other teacher related
resources must be enriched regularly. The male teachers are less committed
and motivated to teaching than female teachers. The existing teacher
education programmes are too short. There is political interference in the
appointment of teacher. The teacher training institutions are inadequately
equipped. There is imbalance between supply and demand. Teacher
education textbooks are poor and outdated. Teachers guides and
supplementary materials are not available to teacher. In-service training
191
programmes for teachers are almost nonexistent. Sporadic training
opportunities lack quality. The examination system is highly defective. It
does not encourage creativity and leadership. Teacher absenteeism,
defective management, and lack of supervision and accountability must be
addressed.
The present institutions and programmes are:
Programmes and
institutions
PTC/CT(GCETS)
Punjab
Sindh
K.P.K.P
34
24
18
Baluchistan Federal
10
B.Ed/B.S.Ed
8
4
2
1
1
(College of
education)
M.Ed/M.A (Ed),
4
2
2
1
IERs/University
Deptts of
Education
Extension/Staff
1
1
1
1
PITEs
1
1
1
1
PTC= Primary Teaching Certificate, CT= Certificate in Teaching,
PIETA= Provincial Institutes of Teachers Education
Total
90
16
9
4
4
192
Training
programme
Qualification
for Admission
Duration of
training (acad
year)
PTC
Training
programme
CT
BSED(12+3)
BED(14+1)
MED
Matriculation
Qualification
for admission
Intermediate
Intermediate
BA/B.Sc.
BED
1
Training/acad
emic year
1
3
1
1
Med
BA/BSc.
Classes to Teach
I-V
1-IV
VI-X
VI-X
VI-XII + Student
teachers of PTC, CT,
and BED +
Supervision
VII-XII + Student
Teachers of PTC, CT,
and BED +
Supervision
The demand is greater than the training capacity of 30,000. In

addition, the enrolment in Allama lqbal Open University is 10,000 per year,
of which 7,000 complete the courses (PTC, CT, and BED are offered in
alternative years). There is no special cadre of teacher/educators. Preservice teacher training is a requirement for primary, middle and secondary
schools, but not for higher secondary or degree levels. There are 65,000
unemployed qualified teachers due to a continuous ban on new recruitment
for the last six years.
Objectives: To enhance teacher training capacities, develop a
framework for teacher training, and to recruitment for teacher training, and
to institutionalise in-service training programmes.
Policies, and Implementation: The Primary School Teaching
Certificates of other developing countries range from 12 to 16 years. For
teaching at the Primary level, a Diploma is to be started for matriculates,
with 3-year duration, along with study to Higher School level.
The present integrated 3 year BS.Ed programme to cover both
B.Sc and BED has been very successful. A similar combined degree is to
be offered at the masters level. The M.Ed degree is to be offered at the
193
masters level. The M.Ed degree is to be strengthened to produce a corps of
trained educational administrators ad supervisors. A three months intensive
in-service training programme is to be provided to the 200,000 head
teachers and supervisory personnel from the primary up to higher
secondary levels. The abilities and skills of the 4,000 teacher educators in
125 teacher education institutions are to be continually upgraded, and
strengthened by establishing a National Institute of Teacher Education
(NITE), with centres for each specialty, with focus on research, at the rate
of 300 per year. The curriculum of PTC, CT, B. Ed are to be improved, to
include: self learning, creativity, problem solving, and leadership skill.
Spring, winter, and summer vacations are to be curtailed. The programmes
are to be semester based, and the institutions are to award certificates,
diplomas, and degrees. All anomalies, and paradoxes are to be eliminated,
and teacher education is to be recognised as a profession.
A three-month intensive Orientation Programme is to be started
by the AIOU to provide the basic skills of teaching through Non-Formal
Education (NFE) methods. Incentives are to be provided to attract students
to join the teaching profession, and to the professional and their families.
At the primary level, female teachers are far more effective. Therefore all
new primary schools will have exclusively female teachers. Staggered perservice courses will be held for untrained female teachers at PTC and CT
levels. The upper age limit will be removed for female teachers. Day-care
centres are to be opened for teachers siblings; and retired personnel are to
be engaged to teach in far- flung institutions, until regular staff becomes
available
4.6 NEW EDUCATION POLICY 2009:

Filling the Commitment Gap: System Values, Priorities and Resources
Educational Vision and Performance
(Work on this policy was started as early as in January, 2007

which finally was announced in 2009. Some meetings regarding proposals
194
were also attended by this author as Director Higher Education, Khyber
Pukhtoonkhwa in those days.)
The Constitution of Pakistan sets out an egalitarian view of education
based on values responding to the requirements of economic growth.
Article 38 (d) speaks of instilling moral values and of providing education
to all citizens irrespective of gender, caste, creed, or race. Article 37(b)
explicitly states that the State of Pakistan shall endeavour to remove
illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education within
minimum possible period. Article 34 requires that steps shall be taken to
ensure full participation of women in all the spheres of national life. It is
in this perspective that Pakistan has made a commitment to achieve six
Dakar EFA Goals within the specified target dates.
A Reaffirmation of Educational Vision
The planners found gaps between the preceding and the

succeeding policies as it is said that recognizing the commitment gap, a
first priority is a reaffirmation of the fundamental vision of education. The
goals and targets, and the financial and human resources required to
achieve them follow closely from the commitment to a clearly articulated
vision.
Our education system must provide quality education to our children and
youth to enable them to realize their individual potential and contribute to
development of society and nation, creating a sense of Pakistani
nationhood, the concepts of tolerance, social justice, democracy, their
regional and local culture and history based on the basic ideology
enunciated in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
Aims and Objectives
1.
To revitalize the existing education system with a view to cater to

social, political and spiritual needs of individuals and society.
2.
To play a fundamental role in the preservation of the ideals, which

lead to the creation of Pakistan and strengthen the concept of the
195
basic ideology within the Islamic ethics enshrined in the 1973
Constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
3.
To create a sense of unity and nationhood and promote the desire

to create welfare State for the people of Pakistan
4.
To promote national cohesion by respecting each others faith and

religion and cultural and ethnic diversity.
5.
To promote social and cultural harmony through the conscious use

of the educational process.
6.
To provide and ensure equal educational opportunities to all the

citizens of Pakistan and to provide minorities with adequate
facilities for their cultural and religious development, enabling
them to participate effectively in the overall national effort.
7.
To develop a self reliant individual, capable of analytical and

original thinking, a responsible member of society and a global
citizen.
8.
To aim at nurturing the total personality of the individual,

dynamic, creative and capable of facing the truth as it emerges
from the objective study of reality.
9.
To raise individuals committed to democratic and moral values,

aware of fundamental human rights, open to new ideas, having a
sense of personal responsibility and participation in the productive
activities in the society for the common good.
10.
To revive confidence in public sector education system by raising

the quality of education provided in government owned
institutions through setting standards for educational inputs,
processes and outputs and institutionalizing the process of
monitoring and evaluation from the lowest to the highest levels.
11.
To improve service delivery through political commitment and

strengthening education governance and management.
196
12.
To develop a whole of sector view through development of a

policy and planning process that captures the linkages across
various sub sectors of the education system.
13.
To enable Pakistan to fulfill its commitments to achieve Dakar

Framework of Action EFA Goals and Millennium Development
Goals relating to education.
14.
To widen access to education for all and to improve the quality of

education, particularly in its dimension of being relevant to the
needs of the economy.
15.
To equalize access to education through provision of special

facilities for girls and boys alike, under-privileged/marginalized
groups and handicapped children and adults.
16.
To eradicate illiteracy within the shortest possible time through

universalizing of quality elementary education coupled with
institutionalized adult literacy programmes.
17.
To enable an individual to earn honestly his/her livelihood

through skills that contribute to the national economy and enables
them to make informed choices in life.
18.
To lay emphasis on diversification from general to tertiary

education so as to transform the education system from supplyoriented to demand-oriented and preparing the students for the
world of work.
19.
To encourage research in higher education institutions that will

contribute to accelerated economic growth of the country.
20.
To organize a national process for educational development that

will reduce disparities across provinces and areas and support
coordination and sharing of experiences.
197
Secondary
Education
and
Higher
Secondary
The secondary and higher secondary school system prepares

young people for life. It has two important roles in this respect providing
skills to the labour market, as many students leave formal schooling at this
time; and providing input to the tertiary system, for those who go on to this
level of learning. The system does not provide an adequate base for both
these functions. Quite apart from the quality of instruction at this level, a
central question that Pakistan education policy makers confront is the level
of skill development and preparation that can be achieved by twelve years
of school education as a terminal qualification.
The system as it exists has shortcomings in two main respects: it
has a narrow base that leaves a large number of young people outside the
system and the quality of skills it produces is not well matched with the
needs of the labour market. The policy actions needed to address these
concerns, include several more that have been outlined in the previous par
of this policy, related to different levels of elementary and secondary
education. The additional reform initiatives described below are
specifically meant for secondary and upper secondary education.
Access and participation rates at this level of schooling in
Pakistan are low in comparison to reference countries. Pakistans national
average ratio of secondary to primary school is 1:6 but, in certain parts of
the country, it reaches the high figure of 1:13. There is a clear need for
expanding the provision. At the same time, efforts have to be made to cut
the high dropout rates and induce more out of school youths back to the
school system, particularly the girls whose participation is still very low.
Actions Required to be taken:

1.
Provision shall be expanded, particularly in the rural areas and of

schools dedicated for girls. Priority shall be given to those
locations where the ratio of secondary schools is low.
198
2.
Student support shall be increased to prevent students from

dropping out of school for financial reasons.
3.
Schools shall introduce more student-centred pedagogies.
4.
Counselling facilities shall be made available to students from the

elementary level onwards in order to constructively utilize their
energy, to deal with any displays of aggression amongst young
students and to address any other psychological distress that a
student may be in, by suggesting a suitable remedy
5.
Life Skills-Based Education (LSBE) shall be promoted.
6.
Sports activities shall be organized at the Secondary and Higher

Secondary Levels.
7.
Counselling at higher secondary level must also address the career

concerns of young students and encourage them to take up studies
as per their aptitude other than the accepted fields of study, be it
technical, vocational or any other area of study
8.
Schooling shall also be made more attractive by adding

community service programmes.
9.
Grades XI and XII shall not be part of the college level and shall
be merged into the school level forming part of existing secondary
schools, where needed and provision of necessary human and
physical resources shall be ensured. This exercise shall be
undertaken after a detailed study of the failures of previous such
efforts.
10.
A system for ranking of primary and secondary educational

institutions across the country shall be introduced with rankings
based on result outcomes, extracurricular activities and facilities
provided to the students, in order to encourage healthy
competition between schools.
11.
To create an order for excellence in the country, a National Merit

Programme shall be introduced to award bright students
199
A.
Challenges
Enhancing equitable access to higher education remains a

formidable challenge for the higher education sector in Pakistan. Although
significant achievements have been recorded with an enhancement in
access to higher education rising from 2.2% of the 18 to 23 year age cohort
in 2002 to over 4.7% in 2008, participation rates remain low compared to
India (7%) and Malaysia (12%).
Low allocation of per capita expenditure to students in the higher
education sector continues as a challenge facing the sector since especially
taking into consideration the ever increasing demands for resources to
support the rapidly evolving scientific fields. To address the requirements
of the country it is necessary to focus on enhanced provision of scientific
education relevant to the needs of the agricultural and industrial sector.
Provision of adequate resources to provide infrastructure including
libraries, laboratories, scientific equipment, teaching aids, and high speed
internet connection remains a challenge.
Provision of quality education requires a mechanism for internal
and external evaluation of quality parameters. In this regards it is necessary
to ensure that program and university accreditation mechanisms are
instituted that are compatible with international best practices and provide
complete transparency of operation leading to enhanced provision of
quality education.
The scale, quality and institutional arrangements of the higher
education sector must be able to support and encourage innovation in the
economy and domestic and international funding support.. The challenge is
to enhance the R&D capacity to achieve knowledge transmission to the
productive sector through university-industry partnerships.
On the governance side, the academic and administrative
management of Colleges remains an unresolved issue since the degrees are
awarded by the universities while the administrative control of colleges
themselves lies with the provincial governments.
200
B.
Strategic Vision for Solution
While preparing a response to the challenges faced in

transforming the higher education sector in Pakistan to respond to domestic
and global socio-economic challenges it needs to be recognized that:
1.
Faculty are the heart and soul of the university, and without an
active and well qualified faculty it will not be possible to have
meaningful development in this sector.
2.
Faculty development cannot be viewed in isolation and must be

considered together with the development of an environment
conducive to academics, as well as research and development in
the universities. Faculty development programmes must also
address factors pertaining to retention of qualified faculty in the
public sector higher education institutions.
3.
Institutions of higher learning are knowledge repositories whose

faculty and students accrue knowledge and apply it to understand
and address "local" issues.
4.
An integral role of higher education institutions is in assisting

with policy making and serving as "think tanks to the public and
private sector.
5.
In line with the worldwide paradigm shift from "Teaching" to

"Learning", programs of study will focus on ensuring maximal
absorption of subject matter by the students.
6.
Faculty training in pedagogical, communication and ICT skills is

required at all levels to enhance the efficiency of teaching in
higher education.
7.
The higher education system and institutions must accord high

priority to ensuring the quality of services and quality of
outcomes. Internal quality assurance processes of higher
education institutions must be strengthened to conform to
international standards of quality assurance.
201
8.
While building the higher education sector priority should be

given to recognizing excellence and supporting it.
9.
To ensure that reform initiatives are aligned with development

objectives, the engagement of key stakeholders of the higher
education sector in the decision making processes is of utmost
importance, particularly in ensuring the relevance of educational
and research programmes to economic imperatives.
10.
Changing innovation processes and the evolution of the relative

contribution made by the private and public sectors have
emphasized the need for strong industry-university linkages,
allowing both sectors to interact and collaborate on joint projects.
11.
Engineers build nations and engineering education must receive

priority, especially in engineering disciplines of immediate
economic relevance to major industry sectors such as a)
Information and Computerization Technology, b) Energy Sector,
c) Mining, d) Construction, e) Textiles, f) Manufacturing, g)
Nanotechnology and Engineering Design.
12.
In the modern global knowledge-economy, employers

increasingly look to universities and colleges to deliver the welleducated workforce they require in the form of articulate, flexible,
and readily employable graduates to remain competitive.
13.
Graduates of the higher education system must have the ability to

communicate effectively both in reading and in writing.
14.
In the rapidly changing global economy, the labour market

constantly requires new and different skills, requiring mechanisms
to be enhanced to allow professionals to upgrade their skills at
regular intervals and develop new competencies through lifelong
learning. Higher education institutions are required therefore to
offer learning opportunities in response to diverse demands and
work cooperatively with stakeholders to ensure that the
appropriate courses are readily available.
202
15.
Brain Drain is a daunting problem for Pakistan. Whilst it is

essential to maintain mobility, and a source of intellectual
enrichment, measures are to be introduced to encourage Pakistanis
to return to their country of origin and to take part in its economic,
social and cultural development.
16.
The Higher Education sector is a major force for innovation.

Universities and colleges through local, regional, national and
international partnerships must share their expertise and facilities
to support socioeconomic regeneration and growth.
17.
Knowledge creation and diffusion are increasingly important

drivers of innovation, sustainable economic growth and social
well-being. Research is to be reconfirmed as a fundamental
activity of institutions and the establishment and long term
sustainability of a dynamic research sector in universities, that
engages stakeholders in its activities, is key to achieve economic
competitiveness.
18.
It is widely recognized that transferring knowledge effectively is

often as important as original scholarship. Incentives are to be
provided to ensure that scientists who innovate and develop novel
applications addressing local needs receive recognition and
support.
19.
It is imperative that award of Ph.D. degrees should signify

original contribution to the world body of knowledge as certified
by International experts.
20.
The delivery of quality education and research is the core

responsibility of each Institution of higher learning.
21.
Universities and institutions of higher learning and research play a

catalytic role in the economic development of the region in which
they are located. Development projects should therefore be
initiated with a vision of sustainable economic development in the
region in which the Institution is located.
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22.
It is essential to provide equitable and enhanced access to higher

education for underrepresented groups. The strategy here will be
two-faceted: firstly to promote cultural change in instilling the
value of higher education amongst citizens; and secondly to tackle
the primary barrier of prohibitive costs of higher education.
Distance education and open learning can play a major role in
widening access.
23.
Extensive access to higher education will first require optimal

usage of existing physical infrastructure. It will be necessary
however to invest in equipment, laboratory facilities and space to
cater to the demand of enhanced enrolment.
24.
Modern information and communications technologies (ICT) are

key to enhancing efficiency, efficacy and impact of programmes
of development in the higher education sector.
25.
Allied with the increased demands on higher education by its

customers and stakeholders, the sector faces growing expectations
from government and society as a whole. With increased
appropriation of public funds towards Higher Education come
growing demands for transparency and that those financial
allocations are well-targeted.
26.
Movements in the global knowledge-society will require

universities to develop into diverse, flexible, self-analytical and
adaptable enterprises. Only a sector that is actively engaged in
meeting the needs of its stakeholders will be adequately prepared
to respond to the accelerated pace of change the global markets
will inevitably undergo in the 21st Century.
The realization of the strategic vision and implementation of

proposed policy actions will require the availability of adequate financial
resources. It is imperative to enhance the funds available to the education
sector to 7% of GDP by 2015 as well as to enhance the proportion of this
budget available to the higher education sector to 20% of the education
204
budget. The Policy endorses the main lines of the Medium Term
Development Framework (2005-10) of the Higher Education Commission,
while suggesting additional action that are consistent with the Framework.
Critical Review of Education Policy, 2009

The Education Policy 2009 is very much comprehensive, well
worded, specific and clearly directed towards the burning issues of the
sector of education. Its objectives are categorical and unambiguous. This
has been very clearly asserted by the policy that access to all types of Arts
& skills including Higher Education or Technology would be made easier
for all without any discrimination. Also, equality in the facilitation of
education for the people from all walks of life would be ensured. No
discrimination is to be allowed on any of the following bases:
1.
Gender Basis: Gone are the days when only male members of a
family would get education and the female would be restricted to
home depriving them of formal schooling. Similarly, it is said that
henceforth, no any male students, children or adults are intended
to be given priority in schooling facilities on the female folk. In
the earlier days it was happening due to certain tribal and societal
influences when the female individuals were being discouraged to
attend schools. But now by blessing of democracy and popularity
of democratic approach, discrimination in this regard has been
eradicated.
2.
Rural & Urban Bases: In most regions of our country whether it is

a physical development or social and Educational, it is always
distinctly visible in the cities and the rural areas are deprived. But
in this policy all of the resources have been directed to both the
regions equally. Having been noticed this previous disparity, the
developers of this policy have taken proper care of the aspect as
discussed above.
3.
The Basis of wealth and Poverty: Almost all entries to different

trades and professions, in colleges and universities have been
205
significantly indicated to be made purely on the basis of merit,
ignoring all other considerations including that of rich or poor.
Because, now we are living in the era of emerging sciences and
technologies which demands nothing else except merit and merit
which shall finally lead us to a developed country.
4.
Religious Bases: Our constitution has purely clarified the fact that
no discrimination in education or other facilities should be made
on the bases of religions. Hence, it is now included in the goals of
this policy to avoid any discrimination on the basis as mentioned
above.
5.
Resource Generation basis: Some times extra facilities are given

to the institutions of those Provinces or regions from where more
resources are generated for the Federal Government. This should
never be made a criterion for the distribution of resources.
6.
Great emphasis is to be laid on Higher Education as it is the need

of the day.
7.
Those Faculty Members who improve their qualification, they are

to be encouraged: All those faculty members who make
improvement in academic qualification shall be awarded
stipends/post Doct: scholarship and assignments besides higher
grades.
This time, the policy has mentioned an Action Plan for each
aim/objective to get the same implemented properly. The policy under
reference is yet in the process of implementation, but it is hoped that care
shall be taken of all the issues as discussed above to benefit the public
properly.
206
UNIT-5
CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL ISSUES
5.1 GLOBALIZATION AND ITS CHALLENGES:
Introduction:
Globalisation is defined by the recent sociologists and scientists as
Global Village. They call the whole Globe and the world to be like one
village. Earlier, in the old days, when no such technological developments,
were made, no such perceptions ever prevailed, but with the blessing of
information technology and speedy communicational relations, the world
really now appears to be just like one village or a mega state. Especially
the fax machines, E. mails and last but not the least Internet have totally
changed the world. In day to day business we see so many people talking
to one another, sitting in Washington or Bangkok. Similarly it is now an
easy job to ensure one person or a gift or any other object reach the other
country of the Globe with in shortest possible span of time. This has
necessitated to call now the world to have led to Globalisation. All the
business and affairs of the world are now no more secrets. If any thing
happens in South Africa, the people living in Madagascar are informed of
the same with in no time and so on and so forth. This is called
Globalisation.
In view of critics like Andleeb Abbas a regular columnist of the
daily The News, Globalisation now seems to damage the interests of
some of nations or groups through Organisation like W.T.O (World Trading
Organisation). That is why, she says hundreds of thousands people
demonstrated against its policy in Seattle, USA on December the 3rd,
1999, during its meeting. Most of these demonstrators were labours,
207
workers and those industrialists who had some vested interests. The W.T.O
management, during this meeting wanted to promulgate certain rules and
laws for free trading. Feeling the same to be against their interests, they
staged the same demonstration. She is also of the opinion that if WTO fails
(in view of its designs which are only to serve the developed countries), it
would be better for the developing countries.
In her view the glaring interests of all the states have put them in
combating situation. Because, now trade superiority is the main tool to
dominate others. Hence the EU is struggling against USA and vice versa.
Such rules and tariff conditions are being floated at the world forum to
benefit either of them, while the losing one is not ready to accept.
Similarly, the other developed countries i.e. Japan etc. are also not ready to
accept rules contesting their benefits, like antidumping rules etc. She is
further stating that as a result of Globalisation, the world bodies and
countries like EUR and USA are forwarding the concept of Mega State,
which means to transfer the world into a mega one state, yet to her, it
would damage the benefits of the other countries. Sensing the adverse
effects of globalisation and that of WTO policies, most of the countries
have demanded to say Fare well to it. Through such forum only one of a
few countries are trying to rule the world through concerned trade etc,..
Furthermore, it is also feared by so many countries that by the
globalisation of the world, the issues of defence and protecting of secrets
are becoming difficult for ideological countries like Pakistan. Then there
are certain traditions and conventions which are needed to be preserved,
but with the explosion of fastest information technology and the use of
other means, the cultural revolutions would happen which would destroy
the whole set up.
Despite its several disadvantages, the globalisation, still has so
many advantages, which are stated below:
1.
Easier and faster communication: With the inception of the

modern means and latest technologies through out the globe, all
sorts of information and communications have become very easy
208
and faster. Gone are the days when we would have to wait for
days, weeks or months to receive a message or a guest of ours.
Interestingly, now you can talk/consult any one any where in any
corner of the globe with in no time on phones, e-mail or wireless,
satellite, vedio conferencing etc and, if not possible, can reach to
him by travelling there provided you have the resources. This is
such a situation which the earlier people might not have even
thought of.
2.
Commercial and Trading Activities are Accelerated: No doubt

with the help of information technology and transportational
facilities trading activities across the globe are accelerating.
Export and import rules are being relaxed so that all could benefit
properly, but finally those nations would dominate who do not
have any trade deficit. This would result in the domination of one
or a few countries. However, if so fair rules are formulated for this
purpose, then it is hoped that trading and commerce activities will
remain balanced.
3.
Jobs Opportunities: As access to all the multi-national

companies and other similar agencies becomes easier in these
circumstances, the skilled and highly qualified persons get better
jobs, leaving room for others to substitute them.
4.
Technological Development and Improvement of Know How:

When the world has become just like a global village all fields of
life would get acceleration. Furthermore, there is the possibility of
uniform development. Because if the world nations want to
maintain peace and harmony through out the globe, they would
have to do so. Besides, among the citizens of developed and
developing countries the know-how would further improve.
5.
Means of Rescue: The whole world now being like a globe, its
miseries are always mostly felt by all equally. Though, there are
still elements who are always promoting negative perceptions, yet
majority of the world nations are always extending generous
209
assistance to others who are facing some calamities. We can thus
say that the nations of the world, now can easily come to the
rescue of victims, who so ever they may be.
Globalisation itself is good but the related challenges would have
to be faced by the less developed and developing countries like ours
courageously, otherwise it would really create problems for us.
5.2 POPULATION GROWTH:

Definition:
Prior to define Population Growth, let us first know as to what is
Population. Population is the number of people living in a specific area at
a specific time, which is reckoned through doing census after each decade
or the people living in a specific Geographical area at a specific time
Population Growth:
When the population of a specific area or country is increasing
continuously and the birth rate, over there is proportionately more than the
death rate, it is called Population Growth.
Background:
The human population in the world in general and in Pakistan in
particular has been increasing with great speed. At the time of
independence of Pakistan, its population was thirty million (three crore).
During the last fifty years it has multiplied four times. It is estimated that
according to the census of 1997, the population of Pakistan has reached up
to 135.2 million. The speedy increase in the population adversely affects
the national resources. With the increase of population, villages, towns and
cities expand further. New towns are erected on the agriculture lands. To
build houses and meet the need of the people, trees are cut in a large
number. Thus decreasing the areas of greenery and forestry. The smoke of
the factories and vehicles is causing environmental pollution. If balance is
210
maintained between the population growth and increase in the new
resources, the speed/pace of the national development becomes faster. But
contrary to that, if the population grows more speedily and the rate of the
creation of new resources is slow, hence poverty, pollution, epidemic,
dearness, ignorance and criminal activities are multiplied while economic
and social development comes to a stand still. The government of Pakistan
has launched an educational program to create awareness among the
people, against the rapid growth in population. This unwieldy population
growth has ever been affecting our social, economic, educational and
health sectors. Rather it is playing havoc on our educational, residential,
employment, environment, agriculture development, over crowding in our
cities and living standard besides pollution and health sectors.
Population of Pakistan, Its structure, prevailing

conditions and the latent (in worlds
perspective)
Like the other South Asian countries, Pakistan is also faced with
the problem of population growth, besides so may others. The other several
problems are commonly believed to be the result of the growing
population. There are several components of this topic that need to be
answered. Thereafter, we would be able to understand the problem of
population growth. Some components and items are as given below:
Definition of population and census i.e. population is the number
of the residents of a specific area at a specific time, which is reckoned
through doing census after each decade. In other words, population is the
number of the people living in a specific geographical area at a specific
time. In Pakistan 83.8 million people were living in 1981. This was the
population of Pakistan in 1981 while census is the counting of each
individual, to know the number or volume of population. Census is
commonly done after each ten years. Sometimes a few people like women
and children are left over from counting. In the less developed countries
this ratio is 5% or more. This factor sometimes leads to misleading results,
it is, therefore, said that there are always two types of population i.e. the
211
real one and the legal one. The real one is that which is based on the
number of people actually living in a country. For example, in the
population of Pakistan all those who are living over here are included,
whether they are Pakistanis or foreigners. (As at the present there are thirty
three lakhs Afghanis in Pakistan) while a legitimate and a legal population
is that which is based on the bonafied citizens of Pakistan irrespective of
their place of living, whether living here or abroad.
Classification of Population: The population of a country is
distributed or classified into different groups or types according to the
information obtained from the questionnaire filled by each individual. For
example, Population as per gender, age etc. This division is essential to
know the structure of the population, its future trends and to assess the
productive potential, manage estimates of development and plan
development for future. The Population is also classified into categories of
urban and rural, in order to facilitate development planning accordingly.
Generally, the places consisting of more than five thousand inhabitants are
called cities and that consisting of inhabitants less than that are called
villages. Similarly the total of all the population of the cities is called urban
and that of the villages is called rural.
Some essential rates of Population: Since the numerical of
Population are in a great number, hence it is impossible to manage them.
To facilitate its memorisation and comparison, it is mentioned in the form
of ratio and proportionate. Generally, ratio is indicated in percentage or
hundred form, but in Population it is usually shown per thousand
individuals. Either per thousand or per hundred rate. Whatever the ratio
may be, it is called per thousand or per hundred rate. Following are some
of the similar rates and ratio:
a.
Birth Rate: If the total number of the children born during a year
in a country is divided by its med year Population and multiplied
by thousand, the resultant figure would be its Birth Rate C.B.R =
Annual Birth of Children * 1,000 / Med Year Population. So if the
total number of the children born during the year of a locality is
212
5,000 and its Med year population is 1,00,000 (one Lac), the
Children Birth Rate is C.B.R. 5,000 * 1,000/ 1,00,000 = 50 per
thousand.
But still a large number of experts do not fully rely on this
formula in assessing the Birth Rate of a Country.
b.
General Birth Rate: In view of experts of demography, the

General Birth Rate is better than the Child Birth Rate to know
trends of increase in the Population. Because some of them (the
Experts) consider Women of the age of 15 to 44 and some more
that of 15 to 49 to be able to produce children. So the formula for
knowing the general rate of increase is: General Birth Rate = The
living total birth of the year * 1 000 /Med year population of
Women between the age of 15 to 49. This example could be
illustrated as if 4,000 children are born in the living conditions
with in a year and the female Population of those between the age
of 15 to 49, in the Med year was 80,000, hence the usual/general
rate of the Population growth would be:
G.B.R 4,000 * 1,000 /80,000 = 50
c.
Capacity of increasing Population on the Basis of Age: Through

the general Population growth rate it is assessed that with what
age group of women more children were born and with which one
the number was less. Further more, through this exercise, it is also
understood as to how were the female classified on the basis of
their age and marital status. Therefore, the more reliable rate is
that in which all the married women capable of producing
children (i.e. of the age between 15 to 49), are divided in to
different groups on the basis of their ages. Then the birth rate of
each group is assessed in the each current year. This is called the
birth rate on the basis of age group. The method of measuring this
rate is to divide all the women between the ages of 15 to 49, into
groups based on 5 years gaps e.g. the group of women of age
213
between 15 to 19, the group of 2 (to 24, that of 25 to 29, that of 30
to 34, 35 to 39, 40 to 44 and 45 to 49.
Thereafter, the rate of the Population growth of each group per
thousand is assessed as per the actual facts and figures.
Formula = Number of children born living with the women of a
specific age * 1,000 / Population of the same age group women in the Med
year.
Let us suppose that 1500 children are born with a group of women
between the age of 25 to 29, whose total Population during the Med year is
1 0,000. So what is their rate of Population growth. = 1,500 * 1,000/1
0,000 150 per thousand.
After having found the rate of Population growth on the basis of
age, we can easily compare and contrast as to which age group of the
women are producing more or the most number of children, and what
would be the proportionate representation of the women of the said age.
From this, the future trends of the Population growth would be assessed in
better from. In addition to that it would also be revealed that how much
total number of children could be produced by a woman in the age of
fertility, provided she remains married the rest of her life.
As per census of 1972 A.D., the Population growth rate is given in
the following table (Table 6.1):
Age groups of women
Birth rate per thousand
15-19
264
20-24
355
25-29
362
30-34
268
35-39
221
40-44
104
45-49
09
The total birth of a woman during her married life is, 08.
214
Average of 15-49 per thousand 1601/7 = 229.
It is evident from this table that all the mentioned women of 1975
A.D. between the age of 15 to 19 in Pakistan are counted and the children
born with them are in the same year are estimated, so they are 264 per
thousand. The greatest number of children is born with the women of the
age group between 25 to 29, while this rate was at the lowest level of all,
with age group of 40 years and above.
If all these rates and estimates are calculated, it would be found
that, if a woman between the age of 15 to 19 remains married through out
the rest of her life and produces children at the same rate, hence eight
children would be born to her. To know the Population growth rate from
this table, we may multiply the rate of each age group with the total
number of the married women of the same age and then divide it by 1,000,
so the total number of the children born with them, shall be found.
Similarly if the number of all-the children given in the seven columns is
identified and they are added the sum. of that would indicate the total
number of children born through out that year. Thereafter, if this sum is
divided by the total number of the women of the seven columns and
multiplied by 1,000, so general Population growth rate would come out.
d.
Death Rate: Similar to the birth rate the Death Rate can also
be known and found out. Children are born only with women
of a specified age, but Death can happen with individuals of
all ages, genders and each marital status. Hence, for knowing
the Death Rate, the total number of the residents is found who
would have died during a specific year. This sum or number
is divided by the Med year total Population and multiplied
with one thousand and the figure obtained, such is called the
Death Rate. E.g. The Death Rate = The number of total
deaths during the year1,000/ The total Population during the
Med year.
So if the Population of the locality is 100,000 and 200 persons
215
have died out of them during a year period, the Death Rate
would be 20 per thousand and if in the similar Population
1200 deaths have occurred, the rate would be 12.
e.
Since it is not essential that death rates of male and female should
correspond with each other or they should be the same, therefore,
their rates are usually reckoned separately. Similarly, the death
rate of all the age group is also not the same. The death rate of
children and aged people is high and in youths it is comparatively
low. Hence as the children death rate is not instrumental in
knowing the exact situation, similarly the general death rate also
cannot depict the full picture. It is also short of indicating the
trends of Population for the future. Hence the knowledge of the
Death Rate according to the specification of age, is far better than
any one else. This rate is called Death Rate based on the
specification of age. The method of finding ASDR/ASBR, i.e. the
number of the specified age (generally 5 to 9 years) groups
individuals in the Population, and the deaths having occurred
among the persons of the same age during the year, are to be
divided by each other and multiplied with 1,000. Death Rate on
the basis of age = The number of total deaths of the same age
dividing the year 1,000 / The total Population of the same age
group in Med year.
For example, if in a country 7,200 deaths have occurred in the

people of age group 5 to 9 years and the total Population of the same
people is 2,40,0000 3 per thousand. Related to deaths, there are several
other rates which are simultaneously used. One of these is the death rate of
Newly born (infants). This is also found by the same method, even we can
find with the help of this method the reason or the disease due to which
most of the children happen to die.
f.
Gross Migration Rate: Some people happen to migrate to other

countries for jobs, education or due to some other reasons and
216
settle there. It also lays impact on the countrys Population. To
know the rate of migration, the number of those migrating from
and migrating to this country during the year are added. The sum
is divided by the total Population of the Med of the year and
multiplied with 1,000 / Med year total Population.
The actual difference in the Population is the difference found in
the number of those migrating from here and the number of the settlers
over here. This is called the net migration. To know the real rate of the
migration, the real (net) migration is divided by the Med year Population,
and multiplied by 1,000. Net migration = Immigrants - emigrants = Net
migration
Net migration Rate = Net Migration * 1,000
For example If the total Population of a country during the year is
50,000,000, from which 600,600 individuals migrated but 100,000 came
here and settled. What will be its rate of migration. For this purpose first
the actual and Net migration is to be found out i.e. to subtract the number
of Emigrants from that of the Immigrants so
600, 000 - 1 00, 000 = 500, 000.
Then as per formula 500,000 * 1,000/50,000,000 = 10 per thousand.
So NMR = per thousand.
g.
Population Growth Rate: The most important thing in the study of

population is to keep ourselves aware of Population and know the
pace of its growing. This increase in Population happens due to
two reasons. The first is the natural one which is taking place on
account of the difference between the birth and death rates. The
second is that which occurs due to the Emigrants i.e. those who
come from abroad and settle here.
h.
Natural Population Growth Rate: To find out this rare, we have to

subtract the death rate from the birth rate e.g. if the birth rate is 50
and the death rate is 20, so the Natural Population Growth Rate
would be 30. This is pertinent to note that the rates of birth, death
217
and migration are indicated in the ratio of per thousand while that
of the Population growth is shown per hundred. Here, we would
not say in the preceding example, that the Natural Population
Growth Rate is 30, but would say that it is 3% (These rates, in
demography are so common that usually mentioning per thousand
and per cent is not considered essential to be natural). If it is
intended to find out the growth rate of Population, the following
formula may be followed.
Growth rate of Population (birth rate - death rate) + Net migration
rate. Or Growth rate = Natural increase rate + Net Migration Rate.
e.g. if birth rate is 42 per thousand and death rate is 6 per thousand and
NMR is 4 per thousand, so the Growth Rate would be = (42- 6) + 4 = 40
per thousand.
But in Pakistan Immigration/Emigration are not as common as in
USA, so it is not so important.
The exact and foremost factor of the increase in the growth rate is
the increase in the birth rate. So if the birth rate is low, the growth rate
would also be low proportionately.
Similarly if death rate is low so the growth rate would be high. All
decreases and increases are basically due to the increase or decrease in
death as well as birth rate.
This is shown in the given table (Table 6.2):
S.No
Year
Birth per
thousand
Death per
thousand
G.R. Per
Hundred
1.
1962-63
50
20
3.0
2.
1979-80
41
12
2.9
i)
Gender Representation in the Population or Ratio Proportionate in

the Population on the Basis of Gender: It is a reality that each
Population is consisting of the men and women. To find out the
ratio proportion of women and men in the Population we may
218
divide the number of female by that of the men and multiply with
100. i.e. Gender Ratio = Total number of men * 1 00 / Total
number of women e.g. If the total Population of men is
21,276,224 and that of the women is 20, 794, 436, hence the Ratio
21 276, 224* 100 / 20, 794, 436 = 102.
It means there are 100 women in comparison with 102 men. (in
1972 women were 3,0518,225 and men 44,074,891).
j.
When is the Population Going to Become Double: If the

Population of a country is 15 million and it is growing with rate of
3% per year, so towards the end of one year it would be increased
by (15000000 * 0.03) 450,000 and the total Population would
become 15,450000 and after 23 years it would get doubled i.e.
30,000,000.
Mathematically, the easy method is that if any number is to

increase 1% per year it would take 70 years to reach that target. Hence the
formula to find the period of the doubling of a number is 70 Annual growth
rate.
k.
Financial Self Dependence Rate: In Demography, the person

between the age of 15 to 64 are called productive capacity holders
and that less than 15 years and more than 64 years are non
productive capacity holder. Hence, the person under 15 years and
those above 64 years of age are considered person dependents,
The rate of such Population can also be known through the

following formula.
Rate of financial Dependence = The Population of the age less
than 15 years + that of more than 64 years of age * 100/ The Population of
those who are between 15 to 49 years of age.
e.g. if in 1981, the total Population of Pakistan was 81,607,075. The
number of those below 15 years of age was 36,849,628 and that of those at
the age of 65 or more was 3,81,594. Find out what was the rate of
Financial Dependence. Which is 3381594 + 36849628 / 81607075 =
219
4023122 the Population of the person between the age of 15 to 65 = Total
Population - (The Population of those at the age of 15 + The Population of
those at the age of 65 or more = 816050'5)
40231222 = 41 375,853.
Rate of Financial Dependence 40231222 * 100 / 41,375,853 = 97
approximately.
The main factors influencing change in Population:

Changes in the Population are occurring due to three reasons:
a) Birth b) Deaths. C) Migration and Remigration.
Birth: It is an established fact that whenever births are in great number
there would be a visible increase in the Population. Similarly, if deaths are
in greater number the Population would decrease and if they are reduced,
the Population will grow further. In the same way, if people migrate and
settle abroad, the Population would decrease. But if some more people
come back to this country from any foreign country, its Population would
increase. For studying the changes in the human Population, the Birth rate
is very deeply analysed. Usually, there are the following reasons of
increase in birth rate.
1.
General Tradition of marriage: Though it is not possible in our

country, yet if supposedly none is going to marry or less people
enter this bondage, there would be least birth rate. But if all go to
marry then birth rate would also multiply further.
2.
Length of married life: If women lead the most/maximum part of

their life in marital status, there is possibility of the birth of
children in greater quantity, as it is proved by researches that in
Pakistan the women up to the age of 49 in married condition
deliver eight children as per average statistics.
3.
The age of marriage: The earlier is the marriage, the more will be
the children and vice versa.
220
4.
The ratio of women according to the pro portion of their age: If

the ratio of such women who are yet able to deliver children is
greater hence the birth rate would be on the high side. For
example, if women between the age of 20 and 30 are greater in
number, the rate of birth would be high, it the aged women are
more, this ratio would decrease.
5.
Health of the wife and spouse: If both the spouses are healthy, so
there is again a chance of co-operative increase in the birth rate,
but if they are not keeping good health, then it would decrease.
6.
Economic Conditions: Usually at the eve of bad economic

conditions comparatively more children are born, because there is
no other attractive activity to engage their attention.
b)
The Effects of Death Rate: Increase in the rate of Deaths

decreases the Population and by decrease in the deaths, the
number of people grows up. In Pakistan the death rate is 12, while
in the developed countries it has come down upto 5. The
important reasons of increase in deaths are given below:
1.
The spread of mortal and fatal diseases: Usually in this part of the
world like so many other developing countries, mortal and fatal
diseases are spreading at a high rate. Hence, the rate of mortality
is very high.
2.
The number of children: It is an undeniable fact that the more the

children the higher the death rate. It proves that the one basic
reason of the high mortality rate is the greater number of children.
3.
Scarcity of clean water: In Pakistan only 20% people are provided

with clean water. If supply of clean water is ensured, the death
rate would surely come down. As per a survey in the under
developed and developing countries two to two and half crore of
children of the age of five die due to dysentery caused by unclean
water.
221
4.
Non existence of preventive vaccine and medical care: If children

are properly vaccinated in time, the death rate would become low.
But if the vaccines of tuberculosis, hoping Cough, smallpox,
cholera, quinsy, measles and cramps (convulsion) are not given,
their death rate would go high. Similarly if they lack medical
facilities again their death rate would go high.
5.
Unsafe methods of delivery: It is also a fact that if the delivery

cases are attended by untrained nurses (L.H.Vs) and their tools are
unclean as well as unhygienic so deaths possibilities during
deliveries are more.
6.
Paucity of sanitation and non existence of drainage system: If

there is dirt every where and no proper drainage system is
existing, it will promote the spread of contagious diseases. Again
if all possible means are utilised the death rate can be minimised.
c)
The Effects of Migration: With the emigration of people in great

number, on permanent basis, the population is reduced. Similarly
with coming of immigrants in great number, population increases.
But usually it does not happen to be so. In particular conditions
this factor happens and effects the population. No difference
occurs with internal migration. However with external emigration
the population is effected. But still with internal migration the
problem of over- crowdedness does happen in the cities.
Population Census in Pakistan:

Similar to other countries of the world, in Pakistan after each ten
years, Census are carried out. In the current Century, the following Census
have been carried out:
(1) 1901. (2) 1911. (3) 1921. (4) 1931. (5) 1941. (6) 1951. (7) 1961.
(8) 1972 (9) 1981 (10) 1997.
After the independence of Pakistan the first Census was carried
out in 1951. But to record the Population of Pakistan before 1947, the
222
Population of those areas by that time which have now been included in
Pakistan has been calculated separately.
As per statistics of 1901, the population of Pakistan was 16.576
million, while according to the first census of Pakistan, this was 33.740
million, which went up to 46.2 million, 65.39 million, 83.782 million and
135.789 million in 1961, 1972, 1981 and 1997 respectively. Probably, the
actual population may be more than that. So if the population during 1901
is compared with that of 1981, it is clear that during the span of 80 years,
the population has multiplied by seven to eight times. While at the time of
creation of Pakistan the population was 32.5 million, which,
proportionately, has grown up to 1997 by four times and up to 1931 one
and half times. There is one thing more i.e. it took fifty to fifty one years to
become the population double for the first time, while for becoming double
second time it took twenty to twenty three and for the third time it took
sixteen years to be more than the double i.e. two and half times more. It
means that in the later stages, the population growth rate grew higher
which reduced the duration of the doubling of the population.
Furthermore, it is evident from the census of 1921 that till that
time population was growing at the rate of 1% or less than that, it grew
rapidly in later years. In 1961 this rate was 2.9% while now it is 3% or
more per year.
Detail Statistics:
Division of population and its ratio proportion on the basis of
different consideration.
1.
Gender Ratio: In 1981 there were one hundred women living

against one hundred and eleven men. But as a matter of fact in the
early years most of the women were usually left from being
counted.
2.
Ratio Per Age: It is quite evident that in the country where birth
rate is very high, the young children would be greater in number.
223
The difference between the population of Pakistan and other
countries is also due to this reason.
3.
Ratio Proportion according to Marital Position: According to the

census of 1972 all women in the ages of 25 years and all men in
the ages of 30 were almost married. Because according to the said
census there were only 38.9% of the population who were not
married.
4.
Ratio Proportion of Population according to the Residential

facilities: The majority is that of rural population while the rest
are living in the cities. But gradually, in search of employment,
the people migrate to the cities. Furthermore, for seeking more
facilities and better recreation, population is shifting to cities.
Population of the country is not distributed among the provinces
equally and proportionately. For example, Punjab owns 25% of
the country land but the people living here are 56% of the total
population. The area of Sindh is 17.50% of the total area of
Pakistan, but the population over here is 23% of the country.
Similarly Khyber Pukhtoonkhwa and Tribal areas are covering
13% land of the country, but the people living here are 16% of the
whole population, while Baluchistan consists of the greatest
portion of the land, but the population is 5% of the total living
people.
Besides, the density of population in the country is 105 persons

per one square k. Meter, while in the province of Punjab this rate is 229
persons per square k. Meter, in Sindh 134 persons, in Khyber
Pukhtoonkhwa and Baluchistan 146 and 12 persons respectively. In
addition to that, ratio proportion of population in the cities and the village
is also not uniformed. In Sindh 43.3% is urban population which is the
highest as compared to the other provinces. In Punjab this rate is 27.7%, in
Khyber Pukhtoonkhwa 20% and in Baluchistan 15.6% of their population.
224
The trends and effects of the Population of

Pakistan:
The existing condition of the Population of Pakistan and its
growth rate (GR) indicates its future trends. From this the unfoeseen results
and effects could better be assessed.
They are as given below:
1.
Due to the raise in the growth rate of the Population, the young
generation is increasing. In 1951, the ratio of individuals in the
age of 15 years was 43% of the total Population, which raised to
45% in 1981. This shows that if this growth is persisting
continuously, the ratio of the Population of the persons of the age
less than 15 years shall increase further.
2.
Raise in the Population of younger generation shall increase the

rate of Dependency. In Pakistan, the rate of Dependency is
already greater as compared to the other developed countries of
Asia. For example, the rate of Dependency in the developing
countries of Asia is 69, while in the developed countries it is 54
and in America 49. But in Pakistan this ratio is 97. This adversely
effects the standard of life.
3.
Increase in the rate of Dependency results in to literacy rate. On

the basis of Population, Pakistan comes at number 9, while its
number on account of its Growth rate (Population GR) is the
highest and on the basis of per head income, it is on 103 number.
In this way, with the low rate of earning and due to increase of the
dependency burden, all developmental works are adversely
effected.
4.
The statistics of the Population show that each year the number of
the women having entered the age group, of those who are able to
produce more children, is comparatively increasing (year by
year). It shows that there is no possibility of better change in the
225
existing conditions of the growth of Population and this increase
shall continue.
5.
The number of Primary schools children (i.e. between 5 to 9

years) is increasing approximately at the rate of 3.2 million per
year. This number is increasing each year as compared to the
preceding years. So in spite of all efforts of the Government, and
in spite of multiplying all the possible facilities in the education
sector, half of the school going children are still left over.
6.
The urban Population (the Population of cities especially) is

growing with a high speed. In 1901, the urban Population was 1.6
million, which became 9.6 million in 1961, i.e. it grew six times.
And in 1987, the Population was 83.782 million. If this trend in
increase is maintained, towards the end of this century i.e. after a
few months, the ratio of the urban Population would be 40%,
while in 1972 this was 20% and in 1981, it was 18.3%. Due to
increase in the urban Population, the problems of health,
education, employment, residence and pollution are, emerging.
1.
Effects of Population high growth rate on

Health sector:
Though there are several other reasons for the low quality of
education and medical facilities in our country Pakistan, yet the main and
the most Important reason is stated to be the enormous population growth
rate. On account of the high rate of its population growth rate, Pakistan is
in the first few countries. These conditions have led us to a very alarming
situation.
As per latest survey carried out by Mr. Owais in his booklet
Health Care Systems the effectiveness of the healthcare in any country
depends on the provision of the necessary components of health and their
reliability. In these necessities and essential elements are included the
details regarding the available medical facilities in proportion to the
population; and their reliability, could be ascertained from the death rates
226
of children, general birth and death rates, from the average age, the rate of
injuries, the number of heart patients, the number of the victims of cancer
and such other fatal diseases.
It is estimated that in Pakistan only 0.73% of the G.D.P. is being
spent on the health of 140 million people, while this amount is 5.50% of
the G.D.P. for 10 million Greeks, 6.5% of the G.D.P is being spent on
35000 to 39000 Irish people, on 581 million Italians 8.5%, on 8.7 million
Swedish citizens this rate is 7.5%, for 581 million Britishers this ratio is
7% and on 810 millions Germans 8.50 of their G.D.P. is being spent.
In Pakistan 90 out of 1000 children die in childhood. This ratio in
Greece is 8.6%, in Ireland 7.4, in Italy 7, in Sweden 5.7, in Britain only 7
out of 1000 and in Germany only 6 out of 1000. Furthermore, if there is a
population of 0.1 million in a locality in Pakistan it is provided only with
68 beds for patients while in Sweden there are 1198 beds for similar
population. Similarly the average age of the people of Pakistan is the
lowest (i.e. 63 years) of all the citizens of the above mentioned countries. If
a standard of human facilities is supposed to be retained in Pakistan we
must make six time increase in the health care facilities.
2.
Effects of high growth rate Population on

Education:
Due to the high growth rate the managers of educational

institutions are facing much hardships in managing their day to day
business. During the admission season, they always bear tremendous
pressure and tension. The number of primary schools children (i.e. between
5 to 9 years) is increasing approximately at the rate of 3.2 million per year.
This number is increasing each year as compared to the preceding year. So
in spite of all efforts of the Government and in spite of multiplying all the
possible facilities in the education sector, half number of the school going
children are left over due to non- availability of the required necessities. In
view of the Prevailing condition, though we may provide an increase in
educational facilities by fifty percent each year, we would hardly retain the
227
current rate and standard of education. It means that provision of education
facilities to all the school going children has really become a dilemma and
a great concern.
3.
Effects of High Population Growth Rate on

Social Life:
The Population growth becomes a problem when resources are

less as compared to the number of living people. If resources are in
abundance, the Population growth could be a pleasant necessity as well.
In Pakistan, the raise in the Population growth is becoming
alarmingly an issue in comparison with existing resources. This could lead
to serious complications in coming years, if its solution is not searched out.
In view of meager resources, the unwanted and improper increase in the
Population can lay adverse effects on the fields of life. The unemployment
caused by the Population growth, can create frustration, dejection until it
can create trends of hatred and exploitation. Class wars are multiplied and
the increase of marriages and dowry are emerging.
Due to low income and large family size, the citizen cannot keep
up their health. Hence, if a teacher falls ill and he does rot come to the
school, resultantly, his class would be made to sit with the other class. If
this class is of 50 students, it would grow to 100 after mixing both of them.
Due to this increase in the Population, there would be so many social
problems. That class which used to sit calm and civilised, now would face
disorder. Hence it would create the problem of discipline. There would
happen shortage of seats, hence some students would have to remain
standing. There would be mutual bid to grab (scramble) and even there
would come the stage of quarrels. It is also possible that during this
scrambling the objects of students may be stolen which may cause
suspicion (mistrust) and bitterness. Due to these factors in spite of
increasing the number of primary schools 9 times, no improvement in the
rate of literacy has occurred.
228
If this situation of the Population growth is, supposedly,
permanent so the last bencher (student) would hardly benefit from teacher.
Probably, they may not pay attention to their students which may result in
the greater rate of failure and this may cause so many psychological
problems e.g. Inferiority complex, disgust, isolation and frustration.
The world Population is growing so rapidly, that the world
resources would prove in sufficient for maintaining a reasonable standard
of life. In 2000 AD the expected Population of the world would become 7
billion. In 1977, the worlds Population was 4 billion, which grew to be 5
billion in 1986 AD.
The following social problems usually emerge in countries where
the Population growth is rapid:
a.
Competition would multiply which would

unemployment. Hence Poverty Would grow further.
result
b.
It would lead to corruption.
c.
There would be increase in crimes.
d.
Litigations and quarrels would multiply.
e.
The individuals would suffer from deprivation, frustration and
in
dejection.
f.
The issues of beggary and child lifting would increase.
g.
The problems of dowry and marriages would emerge.
h.
A great problem of migration and remigration would emerge.
i.
Mental and physical diseases would emerge.
j.
Some individuals may fall prey to one addiction or the other.

These could be treated, but the basic reason, i.e. the rapid
Population growth should be stopped.
229
5.3 EDUCATION AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION

Prior to discussing the topic under reference, let us know the
etymological meanings of the words Education, Conflicts and
Resolution.
Education means to train the body, mind and soul of a person.
In other words Education is the change that occurs in the behaviour of an
individual after undergoing a certain training or course. (Further details
given on page 05-06 of this book)
The word Conflicts is the plural of conflict meaning, battle,
qurrel, disagreement, difference (of opinion) and simultaneous loyalty to
contrary persons or principles. Such like conflicts, as a matter of fact,
finally lead to large scale fights and wars. While the word Resolution
means to solve, bring into an end and do away with. The topic under
reference denotes the fact that a real type of education can play very
effective role in resolving conflicts how so ever grave that may be.
A common proverb goes in English language as if you want
peace, prepare for war. That is why it is commonly believed by all wise
and positive thinking people that, war is essential for peace. From this it
is quite clear that we can devide (based on purpose/objective) wars into:
(1) Positive and
(2) Naegative type of war.
There would have been no need of dividing wars into the above
two categories had there not been such people who use it for nefarious
ends. Hence, wars for curbing brutality and oppression is good, while any
other except this is bad. Similarly education can also be divided into the
same two categories. Education in itself is nothing but source of comfort,
development, happiness and peace. But some people having malafide
designs use this for conquering the other opponent only for vested interest.
The History of Education is replete of such episodes and
examples which show that the definition as well as objectives of education
230
have been constantly changing as or when the aims of the life of a nation
have ever changed. Similarly, the components of the course, attitude of the
teacher and process of teaching learning process have also changed.
The primitive concept was that Man by nature is a warrior.
Therefore, people in the past, used to prepare their children for war. They
would take great care of their physique and would train them to fight,
because they believed that no conflicts can be resolved without war. Since
people like them were led by such like misperceptions, to several conflicts
and wars. The worst amongst them had been the World War 1st and 2 nd
which caused immense destruction and killings.
Now, there has come an enormous change in the attitude of
human beings and they now prefer to resolve their differences of opinion
with the help of education and discussion, say with peaceful means.
Despite the fact that on one side we see that several conflicts are
continuing in one part of the world or the other, but there are some others
where the opponents have agreed to sit across the table and resolve the
same through discussion instead of guns. This all has become possible
because of the spread of education. The man of today is convinced that war
is not the solution to a problem. War makes the situation worst. They have
come to know that talks, not guns, can resolve the conflicts. All this is the
fruit of Education. Positive education always stresses that peace is the
ultimate end and objective of Education. According to basic teachings of
all religions of the world man is by nature peace-loving and notwarrior as misconceived by some other people. Guns aggravate situation
and can not resolve our problems and conflicts. We can do so through
peaceful talks and negotiations.
Education can Prevent and Resolve Conflicts

As education brings enlightenment to mankind which is against
ignorance and darkness, hence it removes all kinds of misperceptions and
negative designs. Furthermore, education unviels several new and
231
interesting venues for mankind and preoccupies him in purposeful
activities, hence he never inclines to aggressive and untoward activities.
Following are the important merits of education

in conflict resolution.
1.
Education is a blessing of Allah: Approximately all religions have

shown great reverence and liking for knowledge and education.
Especially, Islam considers education a great source of
emancipation of man from the slavery of others. It is said in the
Holy Quran: are those who know and those who do not know
equal? (it means that such like people cannot become equal).
Similarly, the deeds of the learned people and the ignorant ones
also cannot be called to be equal. Hence, it means that education
brings significance to each individual and makes him remarkable.
2.
Brain-Washing & Awareness: As already discussed, education is a

very fruitful activity which removes all types of negativities from
the minds of men, rather we can say that it does brain-washing of
the learners youth. It can bring a great change in their outlook and
attitude. Education makes man think constructively and positively.
Through education we can convince our public that war is
harmful for the survival of mankind in the globe.
3.
Guidance from religious teachings becomes easier: By getting

educated, mankind happens to study the contents of those portions
of the courses outlines which are related to religious studies and
hence he learns good wishing and well behaving as articulated
by approximately all religions. While Islamic Studies have very
distinctive position in this regard. Islam says that all faithful
should learn forgiveness instead of aggression and they should
instead of afflicting others they should control their emotions.
4.
Education saves our Resources: By fighting prolonged wars or

maintaining enmities with other nations, we happen to divert all
our resources to wards purchasing weapons. This makes our
232
resources exhaust in comparatively less profitable task. If
conflicts are resolved through talks then there is no need of
weapons of wars. Each country spends a lot of money, perhaps
50% of its budget on weapons. Education, if given properly can
save these extra expenditures.
5.
Education preserves culture and brings social and economic

prosperity: If all conflicts are resolved through peaceful talks,
there would be no untoward activities. The nation would give full
attention to the development of their social, cultural and economic
sectors which would take them forward.
6.
Resolution of conflicts made through talks and educative efforts is

durable: It is a fact that any dominance or victory won through
use of force cannot remove the hatred from the hearts of the
subjugated or affected nation. Hence, we can say that the same
dominance and victory is temporary and a day would come that
there would be war again due to the hidden hatred. But, if the
same is solved through intellectual discussion based on the
expertise of education shall get the conflict resolved for ever.
7.
Education eradicats all discriminating attitudes: No doubt,

education advocates equality, uniformity and social justice hence,
all types of discriminations are to be at first minimised and then
eradictaed from the country as well as world. The nations, due to
globalization are already drawing nearer and closer to each other
and the world would finally become as one global village.
8.
Education brings prosperity and Development: Due to the very

nature of Education, it takes along with it prosperity and
development. When there is prosperity and development, the
people are not inclined to negative and disruptive activities. They
always remain busy in their own business, duties and profession
which makes the atmosphere very much conducive to conflicts
resolution and peace. Education provides conducive environment
for all positive activities including maintaining peace.
233
To maintain peace on the surface of the earth is no doubt, very
difficult task but it is not impossible. The only thing that we need is to
utilize education for positive changes in the society.
5.4 GENDER EQUALITY IN PAKISTAN

Etymological
meanings
Equality:
of
Gender
and
Before we discuss the topic under reference in detail, let us know

the meanings of Gender and Equality
Gender: It means the sex role identity used by humans to emphasise the
distinctions between male and female. The words gender and sex are
often used interchangeably but sex relates specifically to the biological and
physical characteristics which make a person male or female at birth,
where as gender ,refers to the behaviurs associated with members of that
sex.
Equality means to treat a person or persons equally with others. It means
that we should not distinguish between a male or female student while they
are getting education. Or their contents of course and other activities must
be the same. The Psychologists have described the behaviours of a male
and female child in different ways as given below:
By the age of three, children tend to be aware of their gender, hence they
are encouraged to prefer the games, clothings, modes of speech and other
aspects of culture usually assigned to their sex. Even as babies, boys and
girls are treated differently from one another. Boys are seldom dressed in
pink as it is considered to be feminine colour. So even at an age at which
male and female behaviour is indistinguishable, it is seen as important that
the child sex is not mistaken because gender rule vary from culture to
culture and from society to society. It appears that many of the behavioural
differences between male and female are caused by socialisation as well as
innate causes. As number of western women employed in wage labour is
234
increasing divisions between the gender rules are shifting, but very much
still exists.
Some gender related behaviours are really consumable. The gender assured
behaviour such as aggression is the part of male and passivity of the
opposite gender, is derived at least from rules which are taught during
childhood. Males are told boys do not cry and are given guns and cars as
toys; girls are given dolls and play houses so they can maintain the
traditional female home making role. With the passage of time, girls take
on games previously associated with boys but the reverse is still less in
evidence. Similarly, many boys and girls tend to excel only in the areas of
study traditionally attributed to their sex; and this may partly explain under
dominance in many fields such as science and engineering. These factors
have provided significant arguments for the campaign by the womens
movements for sexual equality and re-marrying like men. However, each
and every thing which is within the limits is advisable. But, if one
transgresses the others rights it would create disturbance.
Importance of Gender Equality:

(Justice demands to treat male and female and such other people equally in
all fields of life. This article shall prove the importance of this proposition
in the light of Islamic Sharia and constitution/ law of Pakistan, our
beloved country).
As gender equality is very important issue of the society, the following
ways and means are used to minimise gender discrimination:
Ways and means to minimise Gender Discrimination:
1. Religious point of view: There are always misconceptions about
Religions as well as religious office bearers especially the Muslim society
and Islamic teaching to be fostering discriminatory behavoiur with male or
female folk, but it is not so. Islam gives equal right to both genders in so
many sections of life. Due to this the followers of the Prophet Muhammad
(PBUH) brought tremendous changes in the world as men and women both
had to perform their duties equally.
235
While going through the annals of history, we find that in one way or
the other, the gender factor has been playing important role in the
development of a nation. Similarly, it is also found that in most of the
societies, women folk, have been regarded less important as compared to
the man folk. As much as in the older days in Rome, it was being discussed
for years, whether has a woman a soul? if she has, whether hers is a
human soul or the soul of a devil? And if she possesses a soul what will be
conducive her social status as compared to man? She was made a prey to
such degradation until the dawn of Islam. Islam declared her equal to man
in all conditions be created with out education and sender equals privileges
except a few. Especially, the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) clearly issued
orders regarding her equal right of education by saying that Seeking
knowledge is obligatory for all Muslim men and women this is just
because Islam considers, that conducive conditions cannot be created
without education and gender equality.
2. Our constitution declares that rights of all

are equal:
Pakistan was created in 1947 with the partition of the Indian
subcontinent, following the end of British colonial rule. Successive
military and civilian governments have struggled to bring about political
stability. Pakistan is ranked as a lower-middle income country by the
World Bank, but still the people observing simple life according to the
teaching of Islam are living contented life. On the other hand the
Constitution of Pakistan upholds the principles of equal rights and equal
treatment of all persons. Over the last two years, the government has
passed legislation to promote gender equality including the Prevention of
Anti-Women Practices Act. Although the position of women varies
considerably among different social and ethnic groups. Even though a slow
closing of the gaps between men and women has been observed. Due to
certain tribal and societal pressures women still have limited access to
education, employment and health services, but there is no hindrance from
the government and law side. Lack of government resources, high poverty
236
and low levels of literacy all contribute to the fact that very few women are
aware of their rights, while also complicating the implementation and
enforcement of reforms intended to improve their position. Govt. efforts
are on to remove the remaining discrimination to ensure development.
Pakistan ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of
Discrimination against Women in 1996. It is hoped that after some more
efforts the situation would improve. The parliament is always dedicated to
bringing improvement in the condition of the social norms and rules to
bring uniformity among male & females rights
3. Family Laws & Family Code to compensate

the possible differences:
No doubt, due to some customary and tribal constraints in the past
some discriminations were being observed in this part of the land but by
framing family laws/family code the same rate has fallen down. Under the
Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929, the minimum age of marriage is 16
years for females and 18 years for males. This is also considered by some
critics to be a discrimination. But due to some other reasons, (one of the
reasons is education too) the incidence of early marriage has also fallen in
the last decade. Polygamy is legal for men, but only under strict preconditions, such as approval from the first wife, and the practice is
generally frowned upon. But reportedly, men who decide to take more than
one wife rarely obtain consent and the required letter of permission from
their first wives. In the event of divorce, Islamic Sharia law grants custody
of sons until the age of seven and of daughters until the age of 16 to their
mothers. Once children reach these ages, however, custody normally
reverts to the father or his family and if the wife requests a Khula divorce,
in which case she forfeits her dowry. However, many women are unaware
of this.
Pakistani women have the right to pass citizenship onto their
children. Women have the legal right to acquire land via Islamic and state
law.
237
4. Law of Inheritance: However, their inheritance rights are governed by
Islamic Sharia law. Women may inherit from their fathers, mothers,
husbands or children, and under certain conditions, from other family
members, but their share is generally smaller (half as compared to brother)
than to which men are entitled. The social status attached to property and
land often makes it difficult for widows and daughters to inherit even their
entitled shares, as they may face opposition from the deceased mans
relatives. In 2011 Anti-Women Practices Law makes it a punishable
offence to deprive women of their inheritance rights. Women have the legal
right to acquire land via Islamic and state law.
Those who refuse to do so shall be punished according to the law.
5. Minimizing Violence on the bases of Gender:

In 2006, the Gender Crime Cell was established within the
National Police Bureau to gather, collate and analyse data on gender-based
violence. The government also runs emergency shelters across the country,
but these are not able to meet demand. Two laws addressing harassment of
women were introduced in 2010, with punishments of up to three years
imprisonment or a fine of 500,000 rupees ($5880). It is thought to be a
widespread problem, particularly affecting domestic servants. In addition
to that the government passed an amendment to the Criminal Law to
specifically punish hurt caused by a corrosive substance in 2011. The
law aims to address the problem of acid attacks. Under-reporting and
inconsistent data collection makes it difficult to ascertain the number of
cases each year.
6. Minimizing Son Bias

Through social awareness and education now reasonable changes
have come, but earlier very little attention was given to the health of
female. Data from the 2006-2007 DHS indicates that 49.8% of boys and
44.3% of girls under two had received all their vaccinations. Rates of
under-five mortality were equal for boys and girls. Overall, this could
238
indicate some preference towards boys in early childhood care. Given that
in most contexts, under-five mortality rates are higher for boys than for
girls. Gender-disaggregated data regarding childhood malnutrition was not
available. According to UNICEF, primary and secondary school enrolment
and attendance rates are higher for boys than for girls in Pakistan, by
around 9%.
Some individuals prevent women folk from their rights. Although
there are no legal restrictions to womens ownership rights in Pakistan,
discriminatory practices and norms prevail. Women have access to land
and other forms of property, but data suggest that the share of female land
ownership is very low. A household survey, published in 2005 profiled by
the International Center for Research on Women found that women owned
less than 3% of the land even though people in 67% of sampled villages
agreed that women had a right to inherit land. Efforts are required
traditional to first parole the activities rather and accordingly lend them to
promoting their technological and entrepreneurial capacities.
8. Right of Drawing loan from Banks:

Since long women could do no business, but now some
improvement has been made in the procedure. Pakistani women are
entitled to obtain bank loans and other forms of credit, and a number of
credit institutions now give preference to women. However, their access is
limited by their inability to provide the required documents.
9. Improvement in Restricted Civil Liberties

Due to the customs of this country and teachings of Islamic
Sharia, and social norms that reinforce womens primary responsibility as
a wife and mother are very strong in Pakistan. Her sphere is the household,
and her behavior reflects upon the honor of her whole family. Because of
this, womens access to public space is often circumscribed, particularly in
regard to mobility. Although women have the legal right to freedom of
movement, widespread discriminatory practices limit their ability to
239
exercise this right, particularly in villages and tribal areas. As compared to
the past, now women folk has become very active in so many fields of life.
They have been given access to the rights of freedom of speech, assembly
and association. There are a large number of active and vocal NGOs
working on womens rights issues. Some of them have got special
assignments and have become very prominent in NGO sector. There are no
legal restrictions on womens ability to stand for elected office or otherwise
participate in political activity and contest on Assembly or senate seats.
While some seats are also reserved for women seats. As of February 2010,
there were 76 women serving in the National Assembly, 60 of whom were
appointed through the national quota and 16 elected freely.
10. The Women, Business and the Law

Where are laws equal for men and women?
The history tells that all rights have been specified to be given to
women, in thing constitutions, but some individuals, lake the other
countries do not abide by the same law. This is not only in Pakistan that
gender discrimination is observed, but in, wages through out the world it is
a common practice. The Women Business and the Law239report presents
indicators based on laws and regulations affecting women's prospects as
entrepreneurs and employees. Several of these indicators draw on the
Gender Law Library, a collection of over 2,000 legal provisions impacting
women's economic status. By now there is no any such law related to
female to be banning them from Business. In Pakistan certain
improvements are being brought in the same with the passage of time.
11. Improvement in General Basic Rights:

In addition to the above, following are the other
general Basic Rights of women:
1.
Women, Business and the Law: Creating economic opportunity

for women (as already discussed)
240
2.
Equality in wages
3.
Selection of profession
4.
Right of vote
5.
Access to education
6.
Right of Marriage.
7.
Right of inheritance etc
The FAO (Wikipedia article writer) Gender and Landrights:

The FAO Gender and Landrights Database contains country level
information on social, economic, political and cultural issues related to the
gender inequalities embedded in those rights. Disparity on land access is
one of the major causes for social and gender efficiencies in rural areas,
and it jeopardizes, as a consequence, rural food security as well as the
wellbeing of individuals and families. The topic under reference can
further be well elaborated if information regarding the following categories
are obtained from the concerned sources. (this note is for researchers).
The Database offers information on the 6 following Categories:
National legal frame
International treaties and conventions
Customary law
Land tenure and related Institutions
Civil society organizations Selected Land Related Statistic
Importance
of
HRD
(Human
Resource
Development) man power (men & women
both) in Developmental Projects:
If all or majority of the citizens of a country, including male and
female individuals are educated, it will significantly increase the speed of
development. Because, education has multidimensional structure. It covers,
arts, crafts, technology, sciences, medical and industrial schences. So over
241
all development could be made in the country if all are educated. Only the
efforts which are required to be intensified are (i) to make them (people)
aware (ii) and to educate them all. Because it is said that these both are just
like two wheels of a cart. It cannot move if any one of them is not working.
To make the pace of development of our country faster, the following steps
may be taken:
1.
To create awareness among the public: It is necessary to make the

public realize the importance of the hard work and human
resources. Majority of the population of this part of the world is
still slaves of the outdated conventions and traditions that all
things are pre-destined by their fortune. Furthermore, they
presume that only money, land and other similar things are
bringing some returns to them and they or their woman folk need
not work hard or do a job. Their attitude must be changed.
2.
Equal opportunities to both the Genders: Whether it is education,

health or job, public service whether it is the issue of employment
in the case of working people, all these should be provided
equally to both the genders in countries where though equal
chances are provided to them in education and health, yet so far as
their wages are concerned, the women folk is still striving hard for
that. It is astonishing that in the developed countries of the world,
there is a difference between the wages of men and women, but in
Islam there is no concept of this.
3.
Better working conditions: If it is intended to gain more

development, we must make the working conditions of all our
institutions as well as factories etc especially, that of women folk,
firstly must be provided with safety, privacy and equal wages for
their labour. Similarly, social and moral support should also be
equally provided and no discrimination should be made on the
basis of gender.
4.
Simplicity and saving. Though, our country is an Islamic one and

our society is following certain values which are quite helpful in
242
making all kinds of development, yet still some of our members
of the society need to be aware of it. Islam teaches us simplicity,
which, if followed by men and women equally and they make
stress upon saving the national resources, it is hoped that the
country would prosper with great speed.
In this respect, the role of women is much more important. Being
daughters, sisters, mothers and wives, they can use their
relationship much better and can make other shun bad habits as
well as extravaganza. This attitude would not only be helpful for
economic development of the country, but it will also be helpful
in making the environment conducive for consistent development.
5.
Fit persons for certain jobs. This is an established fact that unless
a fit person for certain job is employed, no useful results could be
obtained. We know that there are always several kinds of duties
and jobs. Some are better done/handled by men while the rest of
them are catered by women. Different studies have revealed that
as women give full attention to each minor and minute issue, they
show comparatively faster progress in industries, hospitals as well
as other institutions.
From the above statement it is proved that development could be obtained

satisfactorily only when we utilize the potentials of both the genders i.e.
the men and women, equally and in the best possible way. Side by side, we
must impart skill and technological know-how to them all equally with out
any discrimination. This is also the real essence of the teaching of Islam
and the instructions of the UNO charter. However, in our country,
observance of all the Islamic values is compulsory while carrying out such
duties, both the genders must follow the same equally. Furthermore, efforts
should be made to make people abide by the rules of human right
commission and no violence should be carried out against any one on
gender basis.
Though the rights of male and female, in real sense are not yet believed, in
Pakistan by all to be equal, yet in education sector enormous changes are
243
coming very rapidly. But in the light of social justice their rights are quite
considered equal in all respects.
5.5 MEDIA AND EDUCATION

Prior to elaborate the details of the topic, let us know the
etymological meanings of Education and Media.
Education: It is a process of living through a continuous reconstruction of
experiences. It is the development of individuals potentialities. (already
discussed and defined in previous pages ie 4 to 6).
Media: Media is the plural of Medium, which means, idiomatically to
provide a link for a person with other persons. In other words, media
means a source, an instrument, an appliance and an agent. So Media
stands for all such means which may provide a link/contact for aperson
with another person. So from telephone to fax, E.mail to Multimedia and
internet and from postal service to printing as well as radio, wireless and
satellite, television and vedio conferencing etc, all these are called media.
While the things shown by these appliances are usually called Advertise
advertising or telecasting. In the older days when a king or ruler would
like to promulgate an order or announce some important things, they would
order a drum beater to do so. Then he would go in the places of public
gathering and inform the people of the situation beating the drum and
announcing loudly. With change in the communicative measures and
information technology, now more sophesticated and advanced
instrumentsare are avaiable, through which the same purpose is quite
easily obtained, provided one has the resources to obtain access to the
same.
(all these instruments and appliances now are used for teaching, instruction
and lecturing. Rather the whole teaching learning proces is being run with
the help of Media)
In the cities and villages now the same drumbeater and messangers have
been substituted by loud speakers
244
telephones, telegrams, telecom, wireless, e.mail aNd walkies talkies.
SimilaRly, when at a large scale public infoRmation is intended, by paying
some dues, the same could be done through the print as well as electronic
media ie. News papers, Television and E.Mail or internet through
comPUter.in addition to that whEn any buSiness is involved in the same
information , then it has to be done through mediA mentioned in the
preceding lines.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Media:
(Note: Advantages of education have already been discussed time and
again which can be seen in the previous pages of this book. Now we
discuss advantages and disadvantages of Media for learners and general
public).
Advantages:
a.
Very Vital and Powerful Column of the Society: As per sayings of

scholars like Kunda Mani Dixit, a former regional Director of
Inter Press Service, now working in Kathmandu, society has four
legs, parliament, judiciary, executive and Media. Three of them
are already crumbling. What we can do is to save at least one leg
the Media. Media can flourish only if we are open to it. We
should assimilate all that is happening in world, open heartedly.
Though, for some period allured by the attractive advertisements
(programme) of the developed countries we would face several
problems-competition in jobs, competition in trade, (possible that
some technology or educative material may not be easy for us to
digest). Competition in productions and so and so forth. But the
time would come that we would learn from that much and we
would maintain balance. We may also improve our T.V, and
media programmes besides our items of business and contents of
courses.
b.
Transfer of Technology: Telecasting (or sending through media)

or advertising through the local T.V channels both are playing
245
very important role in the transfer of technology. At first glance,
the people are made aware of new items, (contents/substance) or
new theories, while finally they get familiarity with that and
understand the mechanism as well. If this trend is maintained and
the media is not misused by our people, it is hoped that the things
would improve. But effort should be made by the states as well as
public of different countries to co-operate with each other
especially, the eastern countries must unite in trade etc, against the
European block. We should stress upon using our own products
instead of foreign goods.
c.
Transforming the world into a global village: Media is

transforming and have transformed the world into a global village.
The whole of the Europe is now just like one unit, trading one
currency. Similar blocks should be made by the less developed
countries as well. Though, we have several social and cultural
differences, yet if the issues like Kashmir are settled, then there
should not be any hatred on biases among the countries of the
sub-continent. Unfortunately, there are certain reasons for the
media to replace the social biases and hatred between India and
Pakistan. If the Media is given true freedom it can play more
constructive role in imparting all liberal skills/technologies and
other necessary information perfectly. However, sthe media of our
land must keep itself aware of the advertisements/programmes of
the West and their challenges. The country media, must evolve its
own programmes more attractive and quality of products more
improved to compete the other members of the global village. The
other problems of ours like Kashmir Issue are clearly understood
now by the world.
d.
The Main Source of Information: To keep one self well informed

has become a dire need of each and every individual in this world
of globalization. It is a well known fact that now, Media has
several thronged dimensions. It, not only deals in information but
246
it has got maximum dominance over the main springs of
knowledge like websites, internet, distance learning, radio, T.V,
vedio conferencing and use of gigital appliances.
Al these can be utilized by the pupils/teachers to gain education or
make acces to certain difficult issues of research and high tech.
Media, therfeore, plays important role in educating the public, the
students and machinery of the Government.
Last but not the least, different and quite innovative ideas as well
as machineries and technologies are introduced to the people.
Also they come to know the use of such new appliances and
techniques.
Disadvantages of transmitting and receiving education through
Media:
Following are the disadvantages of Advertising as well as Imparting
teaching/learning process through Media:
Disadvantages:
1.
Psychological Complex:
It is a fact that in our society different categories of people are living.

When they see an item or read about any issue(or lesson/theory), which is
needed by a person and his resources do not allow him to buy , or
understand that, he gets frustrated. In this way, if our people through other
channels see the advertisement or programme and life style (including the
classroom managements in the other countries) other nations i.e. The field
of their economic development, their social and industrial prosperity, they
get a little bit hopeless. There are a sufficient number of good thinkers,
who consider all sorts of advertising very much dangerous for this society
of ours. They are of the opinion that it causes mental sickness instead of
doing any thing constructive.
2.
Tough Competition in Trade and Educational Technology:
247
As making Advertisement or making teaching/learning interaction through
Media, especially electronic media, the whole world becomes aware of
comparatively better things or technology/theories, so it makes things
difficult for the under-developed and developing countries in trade,
educational technologies and emerging sciences. This leads, sometimes to
loss in trade, technology and proper learning.
3.
Wastage of time and Resources:
Being a very interesting as well as attractive source of information

and enjoyment, almost all learners cannot help but indulge in the misuse of
the same instruments; and it leads them to the wastage of their precious
time and resources. If enough measures are ensured to be taken to
safeguard the happening of the learners to the same misuse, then the
purposeful use of the media is very much beneficial.
4.
Hazzards for Health:
As most of the learners, especially the youth use net or other

means of media for prolonged durations, it keeps them away from other
social and academic interactions. Even they do not find time to do physical
exercise, hence they get, sometimes health problems.
5.
Life in isolation:
In addition to that the learners and students who do not find time for going
out and visiting of their relatives etc, they remain isolated from them.
Even they become used to it and finally they cannot adjust themselves to
appear in certain gatherings. They always like to be left alone busy in using
the information technology for days in and days out. This practice is too
much injurious for their mental and physical health.
6.
Chances of imitating alien immoral and antisocial or cultural habits:
When the students happen to use media and information

technology for educational and academic goals, they are usually immature,
248
mentally. Thus they happen to copy/imitate all those habits/norms which
are, though permissible in the particulr cultures but banned in ours, hence
it creates great social complexes in the society.
Despite these few disadvantages, advertising/or interacting for
learning puposes on media is quite unavoidable/helpful for all. It is not
only a technique or tactic, but it is also a good profession for the people
having expertise in this field. It makes learning easier and faster besides
making it cheaper as compared to go to another country to interact with the
concerned expert. On line learning has become now an easier trend. On the
other hand, the people involved in this profession, earn a lot and contribute
to the Government exchequer, besides widening the dimension of trade and
promotion of science and technology.
249
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
Encyclopedia of Britannica, Oxford Press, London, 1966.
2.
Wikipedia.org, website.
3.
Alhaq Mazharul, Political Science Theory and Practice.
4.
Ali Arshad, Principles of Education, Institute of Education and

Research, University of Peshawar, 1998.
5.
Azia M. The Educational Pyramid Re-Inverter, United

Publisher, Lahore, 1965.
6.
Different articles Published in the Daily The News, on Different

Dates.
7.
Durant will, The Story of Philosophy, Services Book Club

Rawalpindi, 1985.
8.
Federick, The Development of Modern Education Seem

Edition, USA, 1952.
9.
Ghaffar S.A, History of Education Institute of Education and

Research, University of Peshawar, 1999.
10.
Goraya Ahmad Mushtaq, Tanazzuraat-e-Taleem, Allama Iqbal

Open University, 1978 .
11.
Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, Report of the

Commission on Students Problems and Welfare, Karachi, 1996.
12.
Government of Pakistan Education Policy, 2009
13.
Government of Pakistan, Economic Survey of Pakistan, 1983
14.
Government of Pakistan, Educational Conference, 1947.
250
15.
Government of Pakistan, Report of Sharif Commission 1959.
16.
Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, The Education

Policy, 1972-80.
17.

Policy, 1979, Islamabad..
18.

Policy, 1998-2010.
19.
Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education, Report of the

Commission on National Education.
20.
Kanan M.A. Ibn Khaldun (His Life and Work) Services Book
Club, Rawalpindi, 1986
21.
Kay Kane, A History of Education in India and Pakistan,

Oxford University Press, London, 1964.
22.
KG, Sadyidian Iqbals Education Philosophy, Lahore, 1977.
23.
Rauf A. Dr. Dynamic Education and Psychology, the Carvan

Book House, 2, Karachi Road, Lahore.
24.
Russel Betrand, Unpopular Essays UNWIN, Paper Backs,

London, Sydney, Wellington, 1976.
25.
Tanveer Khalid Mrs, Education, and Introduction to Educational

Philosophy And History, National Book, Pakistan, 1973.

PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION & Contemporary Social Issues

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PERSPECTIVES OF EDUCATION

PROF. DR. MUHAMMAD AMIN

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION &

PROF. DR. MUHAMMAD AMIN

INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION &

All rights reserved with the Author

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Amin

Perspectives of Education and

M. Nawaz Khan Abbasi

Ijaz Printers, Peshawar

Available at all leading book shops

Education, Instruction and Curriculum. (old Unit (I) 1.4 in reference to

Influential Educators (Old Unit -3 )

Gender and Development (old Unit-9 No:9.2)

(Old Unit-9 No: 9.4)

Media and Advertising.(Old Unit-9 No: 9..5)

4. Education Poli, 2009

5. Education and Conflict Resolution

6. Gender Equality in Pakistan.

7. Media and Education

Prof Dr. Muhammad Amin (Author)

THE GENERALLY KNOWN EDUCATIONAL THEORIES

NATURE VERSUS NURTURE:

ANDRAGOGY VERSUS PEDAGOGY:

ROUSSEAU (JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU):

THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN 156

EDUCATIONAL CONFERENCE 1947:

THE EDUCATION POLICY 1972-80

NEW EDUCATION POLICY 2009:

CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL ISSUES

Apparently not of immediate importance or priority in the

Without recapitulation of the past theories, events, struggles,

Research, experimentation, procuring feedback and further

In the life of a teacher no improvement, development and

The collective memory of the past is vital enabling the reader to

To reflect on the errors and the advancement made throughout the

This study makes one educative and aware of the aggregation of

This study further supplements the cognitive domain of the

He is acquainted with numerous new and old pedagogical

This study enhances the performance of teachers, emancipates

Education, its old and New Perceptions in

Philosophy and its role in education:

Educational Philosophy and the Relationship

Relation between Philosophy and Education:

Epistemology or Theory of knowledge as described by the

Rationalism: What is rationalism? Rationalism, in Philosophy,

Empiricism: It means believing in experimentation/learning by

Though with changing values and introduction of innovative

Perennialism is the oldest philosophy or say theory. This is a

The human nature never changes, hence there should be

Education is preparation for life and it is not totally copying it.

To impart knowledge of eternal realities is the most important

Reason and argumentation are the distinct features of mankind

Discipline provides freedom of thought (liberal arts) and is

The basic principles of Essentialism:

Consistent hard work and diligence: If knowledge is to be sought

During the educational process instead of student, the teacher

Gaining solid educational material is the spirit of educational

To adapt the traditional methods to sharpen the mind and make it

The Principles of Progressivism:

Education in itself is a life and it is not a preparation for life. This

Problems-learning oriented program maintains supremacy on

The school should emphasise on co-operation and association.