Scientific Research Methods:

Processes, Techniques, Models and Practices

Part I - Introduction
Prof. Dr. Vu Duong
Director & Chair of Systems Science

John von Neumann Institute, Vietnam National University HCM

The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation

Course Objectives
Through theoretical lectures, classroom exercises
and personal mini-research project, the course aims
at introducing:
The different characteristics of the typical procedures and
models related to the selection and the execution of a
scientific research topic.
The models and techniques to help research students
solving the practical problems often encountered in scientific
research, typically:
Where am I? and
Where am I going? or
How can I do / reach that?

Practically, how to write a sound research proposal.

2

Pedagogy (1)

Scientific Research, a Doctoral degree? Yes, but what for? And

How?
Clarify some myths across the typical research process,
allowing research-students and young researchers to handle a
research topic with methods and confidence.
Develop Scientific Spirit through lectures about history and
philosophy of sciences, and ethical aspect of scientific research
as part of the Scientific Method.

Pedagogy (2)

Method or Methodology?
Discuss certain technical aspects of the methods often used
in technological and scientific research. Independently from
the particularities of scientific and/or technologic disciplines.
Understand the practices of scientific research e.g. how long
would it normally takes to define and design an experiment,
or how to work in a team, and how to avoid the chaos at
certain moment.

Course Syllabus
Emphasizes on the details so-called
important for a beginner in scientific research:

Defining research subject,

Writing research proposal,
Formulating or modeling the research problem,
Experimenting or demonstrating research analysis
(experimentation and data analysis).
Writing reports and papers to scientific
conferences,
5

Scientific Research: Myth or Reality ?

Scientific Research:
Often considered as an intellectual activity topping all human
interventions, but could be at the same time the origin of all
ecological and humanitarian disasters.
Theres no doubt that scientific research is an integral part of
human societal progress, Its results are sometimes highly
beneficial, e.g. X-ray, Computer sciences, medicine, etc. but for
the same passions, research could be the origin, or can create
the conditions favoring human disasters,, e.g. hydrogen bombs!
However, it is undeniable that research, particularly in sciences
and technologies, is an important factor responsible for the
progress of mankind society.
Ethical Issues in Scientific Research
6

Scientific Research: Myth or Reality ?

It is therefore legitimate to interrogate What is Research?
Several answers possible.
yours ?
(Classroom Discussion)

A pragmatic view: scientific research can be approached as

problem solving:
Problem Definition,
Hypothesis,
Approach for Solving Problem,
Experimentation and Feedback,
Conclusion
but scientific problem is different from engineering problem.
(discussion)

Categories of Research

Methodology: Empirical vs. Theoretical Research

Applicability: Fundamental vs. Applied Research
Locality:
Academic vs. Industrial Research

Empirical vs. Theoretical

Empirical Research:
Implies experimental studies and observations via laboratory
instruments and equipments.
Measured and observed quantities are used in the
evaluation of existing theories/laws, and/or can provide the
facts for developing theories/laws (theoretical studies).
Theoretical Research:
Implies the development of theoretical models (on paper).
Major goal is to formulate a theory/law that synthesizes /
generalizes the data describing the phenomena of the nature
(physical or organizational) to be studied. This theory/law
shall be used to predict other results.
New results will be verified by empirical measures.

Basic vs. Applied Research

A very general classification to describe the goal of a research
project.
Basic research, or fundamental research, covers the studies in
which researchers pursue their investigations to uncover the
functioning of the nature.
Applied research extend the findings from basic research to
useful technologies that can be used to develop the products
that respond to societys needs.
Research for the reality of the nature is tolerated to a large
degree, principally because experiences have demonstrated
that scientific discoveries will deliver, sooner or later, certain
useful foundations for progresses ()

10

Academic vs. Industrial Research

Tendency:
Basic Research = major thematic at universities,
Applied Research = goal of most industries.
Historic:
Universities dominated basic research in the past,
Beginning of XXth century: Research started to play a major
role in the development of industrial products. In particular in
electronics, chemical engineering, and pharmaceutical
industries. Birth of industrial laboratories or specialized private
labs.
During the 2nd World War, governments had created national
labs to respond to society needs and to bridge universities and
non-university labs.

11

Mt s vn v phng php
hc tp v nghin cu khoa hc
GS.TSKH. H T Bo
JAIST & John von Neumann Institute, VNUHCM

The European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation

Phn 1
V vic hc cao hc v nghin cu khoa hc
(from talks at HCMUT 2007, ICT-Hanoi 2007, and some writings)

13

Bn cht ca o to sau i hc
Bn

cht ca o to thc s
l hc
Hc l vic chuyn tri thc con
ngi bit thnh tri thc ca
cc c nhn hoc t chc.
i hc: hc cc tri thc chung
ca ngh; Thc s: hc cc tri
thc chuyn su ca ngh.
Thc s l ngi tinh thng
ngh nghip (master, tude
approfondie).

Bn

cht ca o to
tin s l nghin cu

Nghin cu l vic tm
v to ra cc tri thc
mi v c ngha bi
cc c nhn hoc t
chc.
Tin s l ngi bit
lm nghin cu, v
ch yu lm vic
nghin cu.

14

Bn cht ca o to thc s l hc
Chng trnh thc s ph
bin trn th gii
Hc hai nm vi tn ch
Nm u ch yu hc cc
mn cn thit (khong 10
mn, phn ln t chn)
Nm th hai ch yu cho vic
rn luyn
seminar, reading, hot ng
ca lab
lm ti nghin cu, vit v
bo v lun vn.

Chng trnh thc s ph

bin ca ta
Phn ln thi gian cho cc
mn hc trn lp (khong
20 mn)
Cha dng h tn ch
t thi gian cho rn luyn
v lm lun vn
t rn kh nng t hc
Tiu ch v cch nh gi
cha thch hp (lun
yu cu ci mi)?

15

Bn cht ca o to tin s l nghin cu

i hi c bn

Bit xc nh c vn
nghin cu c ngha
Bit gii quyt vn
Bit vit bi v trnh by.

Rt nhiu lun n lm
ng dng thay v nghin
cu c bn hay ng
dng
Kt qu ch yu cng
b cc tp ch hay hi
ngh trong nc.

Xa iu kin ca B GD-T:
01 bi bo tp ch quc t,
mt vi bai hi ngh quc t
01 bi bo tp ch trong nc

Thch thc ln!1995-2004:

5259 GS & PGS
3236 (800) bi tp ch quc t

(http://vietnamnet.vn/khoahoc/vande/2006/01/532815)

16

Some Ph.D. thesis

(Tp ch Tia Sng, 18.10.2007)

Nhn thc ca cng chc hnh chnh v vic sp xp

li b my ca c quan chuyn mn trc thuc y ban
nhn dn cp tnh, thnh ph
Nhn thc ca thanh nin nng thn v cht lng
cuc sng gia nh hin nay
Nghin cu nhu cu in nh ca sinh vin
Pht huy vai tr ca tri thc ngnh y t Vit Nam trong
cng cuc i mi.
Lch s pht trin gio dco to An giang
(1975 2000)

http://www.hed.edu.vn/TrangChu/LuanAnTienSi/TomTatNhungDiemMoi/

17

Ton b nhng
th lin quan n
tnh ton, t cu
trc my tnh n
cc h thng
thng minh,
ngi my, n
thut ton v l
thuyt tnh ton.

Chng trnh v sch gio

khoa ICT
Khoa hc
my tnh

(computer
science)

K ngh
my tnh

(computer
engineering)
Thit k v
xy dng cc
h my tnh,
cc h thng
da trn my
tnh
(hardware)

K ngh
phn mm

(software
engineering)

Cng ngh
h thng
thng tin

(information
systems
technology)

Pht trin v bo tr
cc h thng phn
mm, cho chng tin
cy v hiu qu

Cng ngh
thng tin

(information
technology)

Gn gii php ca CNTT vo cc qu trnh kinh

doanh, tc nghip qua vic xy dng cc h thng
thng tin ca t chc (ch trng phn thng tin)

(a) Tt c mi
th
(b) Cng ngh
my tnh
vn hnh v
pht trin cc
h thng
thng tin ca
t chc (ch
trng phn
cng ngh)

Computing Curriculum 2005 (IEEE & ACM)

CC 2005: http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_ieeecs/ieeecs/education/cc2001/CC2005-March06Final.pdf
Before 1990s, in North America: computer science, electrical engineering, and information systems

18

Chng trnh v sch gio khoa

ICT
Sinh vin khng ch cn hc nhng th hin nay c bit,
m cn c cch lm sao gi cho kin thc ca mnh c cp
nht. Cc cng c da trn cng ngh thu thp tri thc cn
phi tr thnh nhng yu t trung tm ca gio dc cho h, v
chng trnh cn c xy dng sinh vin hc cch hc *
Information
technology
(Cng ngh
thng tin)

computer
engineering
(K ngh
my tnh)

information
systems
technology
(Cng ngh h
thng thng tin)

computer
science
(Khoa hc
my tnh)

Kh nng t hc l ct yu
Ph thuc chng trnh, thy
v tr.

software
engineering
(K ngh
phn mm)

Peril and Promise: Higher Education in Developing Countries, World Bank & UNESCO
19

Khoa hc v Cng ngh

Khoa hc l vic kho st cc hin tng t nhin v x hi
tm tri thc mi.
Cng ngh l cch dng cc tri thc khoa hc v vt liu
t mc tiu lm sn phm ( technology is not about tools, it
deals with how humans work , Peter Drucker).
Thay i khp ni Vit Nam trong cc nm 1990s: khoa
hc khoa hc & cng ngh (Vin KHVN Vin
KH&CNVN, B Khoa hc v Cng ngh, etc.)
Khoa hc v cng ngh rt lin quan n nhau nhng l hai
th khc nhau. KH-CN ang c dng ln vo nhau nh
mt n v ca nhn thc (khng lun lun tt).
Vit Nam cn t l khoa hc IC v cng ngh IC bao nhiu?

20

Nghin cu c bn, nghin cu ng

dng v ng dng?
Nghin cu c bn: Tm tri
thc mi cho cc nghin
cu c bn khc hay
nghin cu ng dng
Gene finding
M hnh ngn ng ting Vit
Kernel methods

Nghin cu ng dng: Tm
tri thc khoa hc gii
quyt cc vn thc t

ng dng: Dng tri thc

bit gii quyt cc vn
thc t.
Trong ICT

Nghin cu c bn c th
nhanh chng chuyn vo
nghin cu ng dng
Nghin cu ng dng c th
nhanh chng chuyn thnh
sn phm
ng dng c khp ni

Dch my Anh-Vit
(http://vietnamnet.vn/khoahoc/vande/2006/01/532815)

21

Nghin cu c bn, nghin cu ng dng

v ng dng?
Trong khi khng phi mi t nc u cn tin hnh nghin cu
c bn nhiu lnh vc khc nhau, mi t nc cn phi xem xt
cc loi nghin cu khoa hc v cng ngh c th trc tip ng
gp vo s pht trin ca mnh.
... C l cu hi cn hi nht l: u l mc ti thiu cc hot ng
khoa hc v cng ngh cn phi c t c cc mc tiu ca
quc gia?
Nghin cu c bn bao nhiu phn trm? Vo vn gi? Lnh vc
no? nn tp trung cho cc nghin cu lm nn tng cho nghin cu
ng dng.
Cn khuyn khch v t chc nghin cu cng ngh
cao v u tin cho s ng lm nghin cu ng dng.
Peril and Promise: Higher Education in Developing Countries, World Bank and UNESCO

22

Hng n cc cng b quc t

Nghin cu cn hng n cng b trn cc tp
ch v hi ngh quc t *
Cn khuyn khch v cao cc nghin cu
cht lng cao, v phn bit gi tr khc nhau
ca kt qu nghin cu (rt cnh tranh)
Cn dy v hc phng php
nghin cu khoa hc
Tng bc t mc tiu trn
* Vn ha ngnh trong tiu ch nh gi, http://www.tiasang.com.vn/news?id=1771

23

S bi bo tp ch quc t 10 nm

( made in Vietnam during 1995-2004)

Areas
# papers
Res. Institutions Universities
Citation avg
Mathematics
300
144
121
1.4
Theoretical Physics
131
100
31
2.4
Experimental Physics
40
16
24
1.6
Technology
42
25
9
0.8
ICT
38
19
11
1.3
Materials Science
36
9
27
1.8
Medicine
36
28
8
2.3
Chemistry
32
28
4
1.2
Agriculture
23
15
8
1.7
Polymer
19
14
5
1.1
Mechanics
17
15
1
2.6
Social science
14
12
2
0.2
Environmental science
13
13
0
4.1
Biology
10
9
1
1.3
Earth science
9
8
1
0.5
Pharmacy and drug
1
0
1
4
Management science
1
1
0
0
Others
36
Total
798
Source: Phm Duy Hin, http://vietnamnet.vn/khoahoc/vande/2006/01/532815/ (1995-2004: 3236)
Nguyn Vn Tun: http://www.tiasang.com.vn/news?id=2166 (1996-2005: 3456)

24

So snh Thailand & Vietnam

In 2001-2002
Thailand

Vietnam

Rate (TL/VN)

# Articles in inter. journals

3103

737

4/1

Made with foreigners (A)

1739

546

3/1

# Citations (A) until 12.2006

13912

4681

3/1

Made in the country (B)

1364

173

8/1

# Citations (B) until 12.2006

5324

323

16/1

Made by universities

1208

69

17/1

68

104

0.7/1

# Articles in Math & Physics

In 2001-2002
Chulalongkorn

VNU-HN

VNU-HCM

Rate (Chula/
VNUHN+VNUHCM)

# Articles

302

25

9.15/1

# Citations

948

63

13

12.47/1

Articles in Math & Physics

15

21

0.53/1

Source: Phm Duy Hin, http://vietnamnet.vn/nhandinh/2007/01/649976/

25

em hi ngh quc t n Vietnam

Rt t ngi t cc nc ang pht trin tham d c
cc hi ngh khoa hc quc t hng u v ICT (NIPS,
ICML, KDD, IJCAI, )
L do v khng c bi lt vo cc ni ny v khng c
tin i (th d ca IJCAI 2007 ti n )
Hai vn ni cm: no show, plagiarism.
Lm sao em c nhiu hi ngh quc t tt n Vit
Nam (PAKDD05, RIVF07, RIVF08, PRICAI08, etc.)?
Cn s tham gia vi nhiu c gng,
chun b v ng gp t Vit Nam.
26

Method or Methodology?

The scientific methods used in research are fundamentally

different from The scientific research methodology.

27

Method or Methodology?

Research Methodology concerns the study of scientific

methods, whose objective is to improve the procedures and
the criteria used in the conduct of scientific research. [4]
Method deals with the evaluation and the selection of
alternative techniques. [4]
A technique is a sequence of particular actions;
A tool is an instrument, physical or conceptual, e.g.
mathematical tools used in problem modeling.
We focus on the techniques and tools that may assist young
researchers in their scientific approaches.
[4] Russell L. Ackoff, Scientific Method, John Wiley & Sons, 1962, p. 6.
28

Discussion
Example of a methodology

Example of a method

Example of a model

29

What is Scientific Method?

30

Why Scientific Method?

An understanding of the scientific method is essential for success

and productivity in science.
Hugh Gauch (2003)
Professor at Cornell University
Scientific Method in Practice
Cambridge University Press

31

What is Science?
A branch of knowledge conducted on objective principles
involving the systematized observation of and experiment
with phenomena (facts or occurrences that are perceived),
especially concerned with the material and functions of the
physical universe.

Oxford English Dictionary

32

What is Science?
Conant, J.B. (On Understanding Science: An Historical Approach. New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press, 1951) defined science as a connected series of
theories and concepts derived from observation and
experimentation that can lead to further experimentation and
observation.
Science, therefore, can be viewed as the process of searching for
explanations, or for the causes of events, and it is defined by its
method: the scientific method.
James Bryant Conant (1893 - 1978) was a chemist,
educational administrator, and government official. He was
instrumental in the early career of Thomas Kuhn, whose The
Structure of Scientific Revolutions has been extremely
influential for the various fields of science studies.

33

Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996)

Science is a social activity, which is affected by practical
activity, empirical observations and broad theoretical
paradigms
In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (SSR) (1962) Kuhn
argued that science does not progress via a linear accumulation of
new knowledge, but undergoes periodic revolutions, also called
"paradigm shifts" (although he did not coin the phrase), in which
the nature of scientific inquiry within a particular field is abruptly
transformed. In general, science is broken up into three distinct
stages. Prescience, which lacks a central paradigm, comes first.
This is followed by "normal science", when scientists attempt to
enlarge the central paradigm by "puzzle-solving". Thus, the failure
of a result to conform to the paradigm is seen not as refuting the
paradigm, but as the mistake of the researcher, contra Popper's
refutability criterion

34

Goals of Science
Discovery of Regularities
Description of Phenomena.
Discovering Laws. Law - a statement that certain events are
regularly associated with each other in an orderly way.
Search for Causes.
We often overlook the real cause,
Some events are just coincidences,
Sometimes the real cause is another event correlated with the
suspected cause,
Cause cannot happen after their effects.

35

Goals of Science
The ultimate goal of science is the development of a theory to
explain the lawful relationships that exist in a particular field.
E. Bright Wilson, Jr.

Theodore William Richards Professor of Chemistry,

Emeritus, Harvard University

Development of Theories
Theory - A statement or set of statements explaining one or more

laws, usually including one indirect concept needed to explain the

relationship.
Falsifiability - property of a good theory that is capable to disproof.
Theory must be testable.
Role of Theories: organising knowledge and explaining laws;
predicting new laws; guiding research.

36

Philosophies of Science

The process of scientific thinking depends both on making careful

observations of phenomena and on inventing theories for
making sense out of those observations.
(AAAS, 1989)

37

Ant, Spider, and Bee

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

2007, Paul Burgess - Cranfield University

38

Scientific Method

Science started with the observation of the nature [1] and by the belief that
the observed phenomenon can be explained [2] through an abstraction socalled scientific. People had thought that sciences could be nobler if
She could explain all phenomena and problems using only one
generalized, prescribed procedure.
For long time, scientists and philosophers had tried to formulate such a
procedure, popularly known under the label scientific method.
The so-called recipe had been assumed capable to govern all aspects of
scientific research.
Nowadays, everybody recognize that the process to respond to scientific
problems is lots more subtle than a prescribed procedure, recipe, or
technique. Sole problem: The Rose [3] !

1. [Martin Goldstein et Inge Goldstein, How We Know Plenum Press 1979 p.19]
2. [W. Beveridge, The Art of Scientifique Investigation W. Norton, 1957, p. 87]
3. [Shakespeare, Hamlet, p.? ]

39

Scientific Method
The original scientific method, also called Cartesian Method,
was proposed by Rene Descartes in the XVIIth. Its main tenet
was that the entire world could be understood in terms of
machines, and its main approach was divide-and-conquer:
1. Analyse: to divide any concept or thing, preferably into 2
parts, and to keep subdividing until reaching clear and
distinct parts;
2. Synthesis: to reassemble the parts bottom-up to create a
whole; and
3. Validation: to do an overall audit to ensure the process was
used properly.

40

Scientific Method
Formal experimental science came later as an outgrowth of the
broader Cartesian methods of inquiry.
Usually, one has to analyze the data collected and come up with
a new hypothesis and start the process all over again.

The Discourse on the Method is a philosophical and mathematical treatise published

by Ren Descartes in 1637. Its full name is Discourse on the Method of Rightly
Conducting the Reason, and Searching for Truth in the Sciences. It has been one of
the most influential works in the history of modern science.

41

Scientific Method
Science is a process for: !
systematically collecting and recording data about the
physical world, !
then categorizing and studying that data !
to infer the principles of nature that best explain the
observed phenomena."
Definition agreed by 72 Nobel laureates in 1986 according to
www.answersinscience.org/What-Is-Science.htm

42

Hypothesis in Science
Hypothesis A statement that is assumed to be true for the purpose of
testing its validity.
The statement must be one that is either true or false.
A scientific hypothesis must be capable of empirical testing
and, as a result, empirical confirmation or disconfirmation.

43

Scientific Method in Physics

Scientific Method is a formal method for understanding
phenomena. It consists, briefly, of:
A description of the phenomena.
At least two hypotheses which explain the phenomena.
Extrapolation of the hypotheses until an experiment is found
which will distinguish between them.
Performance of the experiment, and rejection of one or more
hypothesis according to the result.

44

Scientific Method vs. Programming

Scientific Method:

Debugging:

1. Identify the behaviour you

want to explain.

1. Identify the malfunctioning in

your program (bug) you want
to fix.
2. Make a guess as to what the
program is doing to cause the
bug.
3. Conduct a test to see if the
guess is correct.
4. If the test contradicts the
guess than revise it or replace
it with a new guess and go
back to step 3.

2. Form a Hypothesis that might

explain that behaviour.
3. Conduct an experiment that
tests the hypothesis.
4. If the experiment contradicts
the hypothesis, revise it or
replace it with a new
hypothesis and go back to
step 3.
45

Discussions
Difference between Scientific Method and Debugging:
The scientific method looks at many data points and tries to construct
a general theory to cover them; Debugging looks at a single data
point.
Experiments in scientific method require modelling and simulations to
test the hypothesis. Sometimes the contradictions between the
experiments and the hypothesis come from the errors in modelling
and incompleteness in simulation environments.
Other points?

46

Scientific Method in Dictionaries

Scientific method n. The principles and empirical processes of discovery and
demonstration considered characteristic of or necessary for
scientific investigation, generally involving the observation of
phenomena, the formulation of a hypothesis concerning the
phenomena, experimentation to demonstrate the truth of
falseness of the hypothesis, and a conclusion that validates or
modifies the hypothesis. (The American Heritage Dictionary of the
English Language, 4th Edition, 2004.)

An orderly technique of investigation that is supposed to account

for scientific progress. The method consists of the following steps:
(1) careful observations of nature. (2) Deduction of natural laws.
(3) Formulation of hypotheses - generalization of those laws to
previously unobserved phenomena. (4) Experimentation or
observational testing of the validity of the predictions thus made.
Actually, scientific discoveries rarely occur in this idealized, wholly
rational, and orderly fashion. (The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy,
3rd Edition, E.D. Hirsch, Jr. , J.F. Kett, and J. Trefil, editors 2002.)

47

Scientific Method in Wikipedia

A scientific method or process is considered fundamental to the scientific
investigation and acquisition of new knowledge based upon physical
evidence.
Scientists use observation, hypotheses and deductions to propose
explanations for natural phenomena in the form of theories.
Predictions from these theories are tested by experiment. If a prediction
turns out to be correct, the theory survives. Any theory which is cogent
enough to make predictions can then be tested reproducibly in this way.
The method is commonly taken as the underlying logic of scientific
practice.
A scientific method is essentially an extremely cautious means of building
a supportable, evidence-based understanding of our natural world.
(Wikipedia information about scientific method,
article licensed under the GNU Free Documentation Licence.)

48

History - Empiricism
The Edwin Smith Papyrus (circa 1600 BC) details
the examination, diagnosis, treatment and
prognosis of numerous ailments.
Evidence of traditional empiricism appears also in
the Ebers papyrus (circa 1550 BC) that
prescribed diseased demons and superstition.

The Edwin Smith Papyrus is the world's earliest known medical document,
written in hieratic around the 17th century BCE, but thought to be based on
material from a thousand years earlier. It is an ancient textbook on trauma
surgery, and describes anatomical observations and the examination,
diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous injuries in exquisite
detail. (Wikipedia)

49

History - Plato (428-348 BC)

In Ancient Greece, towards the middle of the Vth
century BC, some of the elements of a scientific
tradition were already well established.
In Protagoras, Plato mentions the teaching of
arithmetic, astrology and geometry in schools. The
philosophical ideas of this time were mostly freed
from the constraints of everyday phenomena and
common sense. This denial of reality as we
experience it reaches an extreme in Parmenides
that who argued that the world is one and that
change and subdivision do not exist.

Plato (Greek: , Pltn, "wide, broad-browed") (428/427 BC 348/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher.
Together with his teacher, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the philosophical foundations of
Western culture.

50

Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) and Empiricism

Aristotle provided yet another ingredient of
scientific tradition: empiricism.
For him, the Platonic, universal ideal is to be
found in particular things, what he calls the
essence of things.
Using the concept of essence, Aristotle
reconciles
abstract
thought
with
observation.
In Aristotelian science, we find the beginnings
of a primitive inductive method, although one
that is based on collections of objects rather
than experimentation.
Aristotle (Greek: Aristotls) (384 BC 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and
teacher of Alexander the Great.

51

History - Roger Bacon (1214-1294)

Roger Bacon, also known as Doctor Mirabilis
(Latin: "wonderful teacher"), English philosopher
who placed considerable emphasis on
empiricism, he was one of the earliest European
advocates of the modern scientific method.
In his enunciation of a method (XIIIth - under dir.
Robert Grosseteste and inspired by the writings of the
Arab alchemists who had preserved and built upon
Aristotles portrait of induction), described a

repeating cycle of observation, hypothesis,

experimentation, and the need for independent
verification.

52

History - Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

by successive steps
not interrupted or broken,
we rise from particular to lesser axioms;
and then to middle axioms, one above the other;
and last to all to the most general.

Francis Bacon in Novum Organum (1620) attempted to describe a

rational procedure for establishing causation between phenomena.
He argued that scientific theories (or rather axioms) should remain
as close to the facts as possible.
His method made progress The lesser axiom in this case should be
rooted in experience obtained under stringent experimental
conditions.

53

History - Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

Rules for the Direction of Mind (1619) established the

framework for a scientific methods guiding principles.
Discourse on Method (1637) presented the four-precepts
method:

The first was never to accept anything for true which I did not

clearly know to be such; that is to say, carefully to avoid

precipitancy and prejudice, and to comprise nothing more in my
judgement than what was presented to my mind so clearly and
distinctly as to exclude all ground of methodical doubt.
The second, to divide each of the difficulties under examination into
as many parts as possible, and as might be necessary for its
adequate solution.
The third, to conduct my thoughts in such order that , by
commencing with objects the simplest and easiest to know, I
might ascend little by little, and, as it were, step by step, to the
knowledge of the more complex
And the last, in every case, to make enumerations so complete, and
reviews so general, that I might be assured that nothing was
omitted.

Ren Descartes (French IPA: ['ne de'kat]) (March 31, 1596 February 11, 1650), also known as
Renatus Cartesius (latinized form), was a highly influential French philosopher, mathematician, scientist,
and writer.
54

The Four Precepts (Descartes)

55

Discussion
Both Bacon and Descartes wanted to provide a firm foundation for
scientific thought that avoided the descriptions of the mind and
senses.
Bacon envisaged that foundation as essentially physical and
factual, whereas Descartes trusted to logic and mathematics.
Are these suffice as foundation for scientific thought?

??

56

Galileo Galilee and Isaac Newton

Galileo Galilei (1564 1642) was a Tuscan (Italian) physicist,

mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major

role in the scientific revolution.

(/njutn/)(1643 1727) was an English physicist,

mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, and alchemist. His
treatise Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published
in 1687, described universal gravitation and the three laws of
motion, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics, which
dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next
three centuries and is the basis for modern engineering. He showed
that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are
governed by the same set of natural laws by demonstrating the
consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his
theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about
heliocentrism and advancing the scientific revolution.

Sir Isaac Newton

57

History - Four Rules of Reasoning

Galileo Galilei combined quantitative experimentation and

mathematical analysis to permit the enunciation of general physical
laws.

Isaac Newton systematized these laws in the Principia, which

became a model that other sciences sought to emulate. His four
Rules of Reasoning are:
1. We are to admit to more causes of natural things than such as are both
true and sufficient to explain their appearances.
2. Therefore to the same natural effects we must, as far as possible, assign
the same causes.
3. The qualities of bodies, which admit neither intension nor remission of
degrees, and which are found to belong to all bodies within the reach of
our experiments, are to be esteemed the universal qualities of all bodies
whatsoever.
4. In experimental philosophy we are to look upon propositions collected by
general induction from phenomena as accurately or very nearly true,
notwithstanding any contrary hypotheses that may be imagine, till such
time as other phenomena occur, by which they may either be made more
accurate, or liable to exceptions.

58

Discussion
Why such rules?
Why Newton also left an admonition about a theory of
everything:
To explain all nature is too difficult a task for any one man or
even for any one age. This is much better to do a little with
certainty, and leave the rest for others that come after you,
than to explain all things.

59

History - Principles of Reasoning

Some methods or reasoning were systematized by John Stuart Mills

Systems of Logic, which are five explicit statements of what can be
discarded and whet can be kept while building a hypothesis.
Direct Method of agreement
"If two or more instances of the phenomenon under investigation have only one circumstance in common, the
circumstance in which alone all the instances agree, is the cause (or effect) of the given phenomenon."
Method of difference
If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur,
have every circumstance in common save one, that one occurring only in the former; the circumstance in which
alone the two instances differ, is the effect, or the cause, or an indispensable part of the cause, of the
phenomenon.
Joint method of agreement and difference
Symbolically, the Joint method of agreement and difference can be represented as:
A B C occur together with x y z
A D E occur together with x y w also B C occur with y z
Therefore A is the cause, or the effect, or a part of the cause of x.
Method of residues
If a range of factors are believed to cause a range of phenomena, and we have matched all the factors, except
one, with all the phenomena, except one, then the remaining phenomenon can be attributed to the remaining
factor.
A B C occur together with x y z
B is known to be the cause of y
C is known to be the cause of z
Therefore A is the cause x.
John
Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 8 May 1873), British philosopher,
Method of concomitant variations (with representing an increase):
political
economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an
A B C occur together with x y z
influential
liberal
of the 19th century.
A B C results
in x ythinker
z.
Therefore A and x are causally connected

60

History - Principles of Science

George Boole and William Stanley Jevons also wrote on the principles
of reasoning (cf. W.S. Jevons, 1874, 1877, The Principles of Science, 786pp.,
reprinted by Dover, 1958.)

These attempts to systematize a scientific method were faced with the

Problem of Induction, which points out that inductive reasoning is not
logically valid. David Hume set the difficulty out in detail. Karl Popper
argued that a hypothesis must be falsifiable.

Boole (1815-1864)
61

Jevons (1835-1882)

Hume (1711-1776)

Sir Karl Popper

(1902-1994)

No Single Scientific Method!

Difficulties with this have led to the rejection of the idea that there exists
a single method that applies to all science, and that serves to
distinguish science from non-science.

In the past century, some statistical methods have been developed, for
reasoning in the face of uncertainty, as an outgrowth of
statistical
hypothesis-testing to eliminate error, an echo of the program of Francis
Bacons Novum Organum.
The Novum Organum is a philosophical work by Francis Bacon
published in 1620. The title translates as "new instrument". This is
a reference to Aristotle's work Organon which was his treatise on
logic and syllogism. In Novum Organum, Bacon details a new
system of logic he believes to be superior to the old ways of
syllogism. For Bacon, finding the essence of a thing was a simple
process of reduction. In finding the cause of a phenomenal nature
such as heat, one must list all of the situations where heat is found.
Then another list should be drawn up, listing situations that are
similar to those of the first list except for the lack of heat. A third
table lists situations where heat can vary. The form nature, or
cause, of heat must be that which is common to all instances in the
first table, is lacking from all instances of the second table and
varies by degree in instances of the third table.

62

Mathematical vs. Scientific Method

George Plya's work on problem solving, the construction of mathematical
proofs, and heuristic show that mathematical method and scientific method
differ in detail, while resembling each other in the use of iterative or recursive
steps.
Mathematical method
1 Understanding
2 Analysis
3 Synthesis
4 Review/Extend

Scientific method
Characterization from experience & observation
Hypothesis: a proposed explanation
Deduction: prediction from the hypothesis
Test and experiment

George Plya (1887 1985)

63

Confusing enough?
If you are not confused by what is:
Science?
Scientific Method?
History of Science and Scientific Method?
Philosophy of Science?
Then wed need to restart again!
Else,
Go to the next slide.

64

So Is There a Scientific Method?

65

Scientific Research Method in Practice

Clearly, theres no singular, distinctive procedure for scientific
discovery. In practice, the Scientific Research Method consists
in a list of identifiable activities that are not necessarily
sequential but each one describes one aspect of a continuum,
and a process with which the activities are performed.

Some activities can be performed simultaneously,

Some activities can be more or less dominant, or
They can be re-iterated several times during the investigation.
The scientific process involves 3 major (reiterate-able) phases:
formulating the problem/hypothesis; conducting the investigation;
publishing results.

The quality of a scientific investigation depends also on the

mental aptitudes of the researchers performing the activities.
These fundamental aptitudes include creativity, objectivity,
logical clarity, curiosity, scrutiny, facility to analyze and
synthesize, etc.
66

(1) Activities in the Scientific Process

67

Study and discuss,

Recognize possible problems,
Collect data; observe and describe,
Analyze a given problem, divide it into sub-problems,
Model a problem,
Set-up an experimental environment,
Formulate hypotheses,
Deduce consequences, make a decision (experiment),
Conduct experimentations, analyze results, test hypotheses,
Develop theoretical descriptions,
Write reports and/or papers,
Communicate thoughts, idea, and obtained results.

Help others!!!

(2). Process
3 major phases:
Collecting information (literature search) and formulating
research topic / hypotheses.
Conducting research (modelling, simulation, testing, collect
and analyze results).
Writing reports, communicating results and problems.

68

Formulating a Research Problem

Original problem"
Decision on
the problem

Discussions:"
modified problem"

Bibliographic
Search

literature "
or public ?"
Finalize problem"
Planning of tasks"

69

Conducting Research
Experimentation
Observation

Finalize Problem
Planning

Evaluation

Expected Model
Match?

Reporting

70

Conducting Research
Simulation
Testing

Experimentation
Observation
Data Analysis

Finalize Problem
Planning

Evaluation
Modeling the
Problem
Expected Model
Match?

Communication
Reporting

71

Conducting Research
Example 1:
If the objective of the research concerns the development of
a new, particular electronic component, the investigators
would have elaborated a model of the component. When the
development has progressed, a continuous evaluation of the
real thing wrt. the model is performed. If both match, we
can conclude that the investigation is successful.
Example 2:
If the objective was the precise measurement of a particular
fundamental constant in the field of quantum physics, the
model could be the portrait of the physical phenomena. The
experiments in this case would imply a series of procedures
for data collection rather than design issues.
72

Research Methods
Relatives to different categories of data:
Method Historic
documentary research,
Descriptive Synthesis
observational derivation,
Analytical Synthesis
quantifiable statistics,
Experimental Method
uncertainty analysis.
Discussion:
What are the methods most used in scientific and technical
research? Why?

73

Publishing Results
Often considered as success criteria for a research.
One publishes principally:
The results of the investigation,
The obtained progress during the investigation.
Relating to:
The proposed theoretical model,
The theory verified/evaluated by the investigation,
The method or approach to resolve the problem,
The analysis of collected data,
The critics on the models or theories or methods proposed in the
literature or public domain.

In brief, we publish discoveries (new elements of knowledge)

contributing to the public corpus of knowledge of the field.
Publication cab be either at scientific conferences (proceedings
of the conferences) or in specialized journals where discoveries
are challenged to panels of reviewers, experts in the field.
74

Important Elements
Teamwork
Murphys Law: Nothing can be done individually. All
discoveries are the fruit of teamwork.
Research based upon a theory:
Very interesting in terms of obtained results.
Consists in the formulation of problem aiming at testing or
validating / invalidating a theory in a particular domain.
In a simplistic manner, a theory concerns the explanation of
the behaviors of a physical event. The more powerful a
theory is, the more capable it is to explain, in details or/and
in diverse cases, the events or behaviors of the
phenomenon to which it applies.
75

Required Capabilities
Different mental aptitudes are required for different stages of
scientific research process:
Creativity is needed in the development and clarification of a
research topic. Basically in the quest for a well formulated
hypothesis.
Creativity = capacity to think in an imaginative and
intuitive manner.
Objectivity, Logic, and Reasoning with clarity is needed in
the design of experiments; in the observation and evaluation
of data obtained from experimentations.

76

FUNDAMENTAL APTITUDES IN
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
77

Observe and Describe Relationships

Observation implies selection:
A forest can be observed as a forest, not by the thousands
trees; A tree can be observed in whole and not by its
structures of the leaves, and branches. The
interdependencies between observed elements must be
wisely selected in the manner to define the most crucial
relations for the investigation and not necessarily in an
exhaustive manner.
Observation provokes description:
Observed elements can be described by their descriptive
parameters, quantitatively showing evidence or quantifiable
through objective metrics.
Observation can also trigger curiosity that leads to originality
of research.
78

Observation
Example: Fibonacci Series
F i+1 = F i-1 + F i
A series of integers, each number is the sum of the two
numbers that precede its order. The first two numbers being 0
and 1.
The first terms are: 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,..

79

Fibonacci, or Lonard de Pise, celebrity mathematician for having studied the

works of the algebraist Abu Kamil and for having introduced, after a
comparative analysis between different systems, the Arabic Calculus and the
Hinduism Calculus methods.

Observation
Golden Section or division of a segment by mean and
extremes

[AB] / [BC] = [BC] / [AC]

" Golden Number

R = 0, 618 034

80

Observation
If we consider in the Fibonacci series the ratio between an iterm to the i+1-term, we find:
1/2 = 0, 500 000
3/5 = 0, 600 000
8/13 = 0, 615 385

21/34 = 0, 617 647

55/89 = 0, 617 978
144/233 = 0, 618 026

One can note that the resulting values approach the golden number
R = 0, 618 534
In such manner, the Fibonacci series is intimately linked to the
golden number in the sense that the ratio of its successive terms
tends to R when these terms grows in the series.
This relationship is the baseline of the infamous Fibonacci
Rectangles, and of the so-called Logarithmic Spiral whose
surprising schemas are uncovered in +90% of structures of natural
vegetables.

81

How could this mystery uncovered or How can we discover this

nature?

Questioning
Questioning all a-priori judgments,
Collective judgments of scientists, when theres a substantial
agreement, constitute the corpus of sciences.
However, there have been cases where universal agreement
was obtained upon erroneous foundations. This case occurs
more often with generalization than with observation of the
structure or phenomenon of the nature.
It would be wise to know how to question the facts, the
theories or structures that support the research by using as
many evidences and neutral interpretation methods as
possible.
Itd be possible that some facts could be demonstrated to be
wrong in the future, but theres no other means.

82

Open Mind
Always ready to learn new things,
The pleasure to learn is part of the nature of a researcher.
Taoism philosophy: Theres always someone who
possesses more knowledge on any topic. Even on a topic
that youre a master.
Always ready to communicate your understanding of the
problem,
Vocation or obligation?
Communication is an integral part of the job.
Debates always provoke more ideas.
Attention: to use with moderation!

83

Synthetic Mind
Synthesis helps analysis, and vice-versa,
Synthesis triggers a better organization of thoughts and viceversa,
A good organization of thoughts is sine qua non for
communication, and that:
Communication plays a very important role in research;
Murphys Law: Suppressing one every two words of a text,
then you would be surprised!

84

Capacity to Analyze
Analysis is necessary in all stages, but the need is more crucial
when you face with difficulty.
Problem solving capacity requires priori the aptitude to
understand the problem from a large number of angles or
viewpoints.
Knowledge acquired from studies is normally used in
problem solving where expression of problem has been
transformed according to performed analysis.
Clarity in analysis, and the taste on essential viewpoints to
the resolution of a problem, is the proof of this capacity.

85