Introduction:

New economic perspective and demographic expansion set stage for changes
Uneven spread across country
Not a definite separation between dark ages and renaissance
Democracy and commerce
Craftsman became genius. Artist and scientist were the same
Historical document in Vasaris life of the artists (1550)
Cities became works of art. Civitas Dei
o Respresent culture. Social, political, relicious realities from citizens
o Dante, Boccaccio, Ambrogio give the beginning of the idea of city culture
o Florence was first step toward living in the city of god for Dante-imagine a heavenly city ruled
by God and early city with virtuous citizens
o City of Dis infernal city with punishment. Perverted city values
Beginning of Communes (Phase 1&2)
Origins of the city
o Idea formed in Mesopotamia in II BC-Greek elaborated as a balanced internal and external
existence. Established in Sicily during VIII
o Roman Empire built on confederation of cities that were dependent on Rome
o Development of the wall in III centure AD-to protect and define. 247AD Aurelian Walls
o Constantinople in 326AD as new capital of Roman Empire
Better defensive position
Access to the ocean through aqueducts
Barbarian Invasion
o Southern part because of access to sea
o Church organized Dioces in correspondence with administrative structure of the Empire
o Roman cities survived because religious organizations survived the Barbarians
o Pax Dei induced many people to find refuge under the protection of an Episcopal see?
o Certain Roman cities preserved their administrative/judiciary authority
o Commerce was continued-kept Roman monetary system
o Muslim invasions with Muhammed (571-632) had radical change
Franks and Roman empire in the North
o Franks founded one of the German monarchies that replaced the Western Roman Empire
o Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope in 800-unified Church and State reviving Holy Roman
Empire
Interest of church collided with that of the German Emperors-did not last
Economy based on consuming-reduced commerce with absence of sea ports
Minted silver coins instead-shows a poorer economy
Cities were lacking municipal organization and middle class
Many other conquerors
o Normans in Sicily and the South
o Hohenstaufen claimed to unify which upset the Pope so he called on the Angevins to come down
and destroy reign of Frederick II
o Aragonese-Spanish ousted the Angevins-French and conquered Naples
o Germans, French, Spanish all had ambition to conquer Italy
Pope enlists foreign powers to resist native attempts at a superiority in Italy
Cities/Boroughs
o Always fenced, self-sufficient

o When the church had established dioceses they had infrastructures that allow a bishop to preside
over political/judicial administration
o Bishop=authority like mayor
Controlled money minting, entrance fees, market organization
o Ecclesiastical tribunal acquired more lay power
o Fall of Charlemagne caused local princes to take control of many cities
o Beginning of Bourg/Borough
defensive, no commerce, small ~a few hundred
self-sufficient-food, church, assembly, trial
New perspectives-the start of changes
o Clergy were among nobility, good relations-controlled all city life
o Artisans and tradesman were lower class
o Novelties that sparked change
Higher birth rate
Increased agricultural productivity-new techniques; but this means more land needed
Commercial trade
Opposition to feudalism
o Land began to change hands away from church and feudal owners through usurpation and leases
Now owned by immigrants, vassals, knights, merchants, sub-vassals
Sparked building of towers
Towers
o Progressive Feudal nobility moved to city and built
o Sold land to wealthy merchants
o Clergy took advantage of profits and increase in population
o Families had towers with flyovers near piazza and church-ex: San Gemignano
o Formed neighborhoods-love for ones faction
o Consortieria began-grouping consisting of male descendants from a common ancestor
Became aggressive developing civil wars
Collision of two worlds
o Wealthy/clergy collide with new merchant bourgeoisie because of their new activity
Political insurgences particularly where there was a strong clergy
o New class wanted:
Personal freedom, legislation that permitted commerce, local autonomy
Changes=More Freedom
o Freedom of individual and freedom of land
o Signore=landowner
Freedom to sell bread, wine, meat produced on land without competition
Request free lodging when traveling
No more tax burden preventing commerce
o Law/order change
In defense of the needs of the Signore and the people who live in the city-strengthens idea
of belonging to a city
Civic pride
o Sense of belonging and familiarity with fellow citizens
o Campanilismo
o Local patron saint as symbol
o Loyalty to either German emperor or Papacy defined Ghibellines -emperorvs. Guelphs(wanted
pope)- in Tuscany

Where cities developed

o North-stronger urban energies
Po valley
Power-phantom central administration
From the Middle Ages-fortified urban clusters with local church
o South-Norman kings imposed stronger control over each city
Four Phases of Commune Development
o 1. Increased presence of merchants and bankers in cities with consul and council under
control of clergy and feudal landowners
o 2. Merchant class imposed podesta
o 3. Popolo organized guilds and had a presence in running the city
o 4. Noble man established as signore-hereditary power
Phase one
o Commune-sworn association of free man collectively holding public authority
o Nobleman and prominent citizen formed sworn association and turned to a citizen body with
public jurisdiction
o Prerogatives of individual subjugated to those of the community
o City wealth made involvement attractive
o Each city developed its own commercial, financial, cultural initiative-compete with each other
Phase Two
o Nobility composition changed due to:
Fragmentation of feudal estates
Explosive birth rate
Noble man attracted to city
Intermarriage of vassalry and rich
New men at command
More economic opportunity
Larger range of public offices
o Conflict
Between new class and big feudal lords
Neighboring cities
German emperors
Frederick I Barbarossa as emperor to try to rebuild imperial power
Lombard League formed to fight him
Peace of Constance-cities could elect and govern but had to plea to emperor
o Consul
Members swore to obey and follow
Defended association in its rights and interests
Responsible for war and peace, levied taxes, signed legislation, served as a final appellate
court
o Power
New nobility dominated consulate, manipulated general assembly
Smaller, more defined unity signaled towers
o Middle class: Guilds formed protecting commercial interest, gained arms
o Podesta (mayor)
Middle class forced out wealthy in order to gain more power
Characteristics:
Nobleman from another city

Elected for 1-2 years

Administrative and executive power
Educated (in law) and practical (army)
Electoral commission selected
o Summary of the new city
Equilibrium between power: religious, civil, guild, social
Market square outside the cathedral-dual power
No spatial unity in squares
Size of houses vs cathedral marked human vs divine power
Streets/squares have new meaning for commerce
Divided into districts with individual organization
Forum remains the center of commercial activity in Roman cities
Phase 3
o Reason for the changes
Poplo were excluded from power because all was bloodline, status
Popolo grasso (the new middle class) called for change
No control over money
Demanded direct representation in political council and less fiscal burden
Wanted to break privilege connecting church and nobility
Justice-courts were biased, guild used own sphere of judicial competence
Citizenship is privilege
Requires qualifications: residency and social connections
o Change
In XII century
Positive economic effect
Maximum expansion of civil and religious buildings
o Limitations
Excluded popolo minuto
Restricted citizenship: 5-30 years residency, membership to a guild
Organized in armed neighborhood companies-too many in each city to develop similar
agenda
No collective leadership or egalitarian ideology-defendant of its own constituency
o Education and Literature
Lay people had new access to schools. Highest literacy rate in 1300
Poets and artists had city in mind as audience- Importance of city emphasized
Dolce Stil Novo (Dante, Petrarch, Cavalcanti, Brunetto, Latini) cultivated where popular
movements were stronger such as Bologna and Tuscany
Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio: fathers of the Italian language
Contradictions:
Searched for an antidote of the money-driven society
o Lament arrival of new rich and waste of money
o Traditional nobility possessed good qualities in the poets minds
Religion as subject
o Strong identification with local parish
o Popular religious confraternities
o City Life
No barrier between public/private

Domestic and money making trade had unified

Communal social life through guilds-lots of pressure to show allegiance
Personal identity

Phase 4
o Transition to Signoria (XII-XIV century)
Violence disorder and instability generated by poplo
Signore new leader, military captain, rector of the union of guilds-lifetime position with
special power
Strains on communes
War and economic need
Party conflict
Intercity party alliances
Numerous nobility
o Signorial Government
More resistance to this transition where feudal nobility has been destroyed
Legislative bodies kept
met less frequently and only approved signores enactment
Gave the illusion of mass participation in government
Had to obtain approval of upper council picked by signore
Signore gave the impression of observing legal forms
Signoria got approval from Emperor or Pope
o Revolts
Government flourished where nobility went into trade, shipping, banking with the rich
middle class families
~2% involved in government.
A restricted class of politically enfranchised citizens formed the social basis of
government
Craftsman, skilled workers led revolts to apply reforms especially in taxation
Goals: abolish taxes on grain and salt, recover communal properties
o Campanilismo
Political attachments to a city
Order and protection in grouping together
Many states throughout Italy
Exile was a strong form of punishment
Religion played a role
Political actions assessed by standards of sin and virtue
Enemies were enemies of Christ
Authority had divine origin
All the armed political societies took religious names
Brunetto Latini thought the city was a true form of civilized society
o Mezzadria (sharecropping)
Modern use of the land developed in the north
Tenant farmer would give of produce to landlord
No longer a servant-more profitable
Feudalism remained in the south
More than half of the land still in hands of the church
o Finances in the Commune

Getting control over indirect taxes collected by bishops, knights, nobleman, guilds
Direct impost on bakers, butchers and millers and levies on mercantile goods
Expenses were mercenary troops and walls
Personal property tax by 1250
Public-finance policies strengthened with unity of attitude around politics, social, and
moral values
o Summary
Nobleman created the early commune by using authority from birth right
Then popolo disputed authority turning into new nobility after gaining power and
intermarrying
From new nobility the signore emerged as one dominant figure
Country vs City
o City plan
Medieval city has not geometric plan nor typical Roman grid
All elements are added out of necessity
Streets serve for movement, markets, resting, meeting, celebration
Square for practical needs like a market-not for embellishment
Building were several stories tall and face the complex web of streets and squares
Became more important HOW a building faced the street-a gift to the public sphere
o Squares Medieval period
No new cities built until XII century
Roman grid center was no longer recognizable
New needs: churches, markets
Different shape and size
Pisa-no definite spatial form, buildings random
Siena very organized with palazzo pubblico facing the square like an amphitheater
Architecturally
Paving: sign of change when paving occurred
Fountains: location accidental, no symmetry, small, have little presence
Steps/stairs: access to building, could emphasize the 3D quality of a square
Arcades: connecting elements of buildings
o Districts
Urban public space result of a balance of different centers of power
Powers are: bishop, civil government, religious orders, guilds, social classes
No single center in a city-instead a religious center, administrative center, commercial
center
o Walls
Restricted area with high population density
Walls were most expensive structure
Constant stage of alteration-often represented in paintings
Ex: Simone Martini, Portrait of Guidoriccio da Fogliano
o Walls of Palazzo Pubblico (Ambrogio Lorenzetti)
Worked in Siena-many merchants and bankers
Occupies 3 large walls, more than 200 characters
Theme is peace because Siena won a battle with Florence which brought a period of
peace
Allegory of good government
Effect of good government

Allegory of bad government

Effect of bad government
Patronage of the Arts in Italy
o Leonardo Bruni
Florence very wealthy with merchants working around the world. Bankers dominated
market, high literacy, goods from around the world, huge participation in the government
from citizens
Much civic pride
o Important buildings
Cathedral and Palazzo della Signoria
Bruni remaks after the setbacks of the XIV century: banks defaulting, plague, Ciompi
revolution, victory over Milan
Florence claimed Roman ancestry
Bruni and Salutati were leaders of humanists who studied literature of antiquity
Florence center for Greek studies
Duomo
Brunelleschi used herringbone brickwork without wood support
Supervised and designed
Only of its kind in Italy with a ribbed octagonal dome
Baptistery (1150)-built by guilds
Started by cloth merchants
Orsanmichele (1380)
Has many sculptures of the guilds
Built by silk merchants
Originally a grain storage but now church
Loggia
Decorated by patron saint of 14 guilds-major guilds at main entrance, used
Ghiberti as sculptor. Minor used Donatello
Used for celebration
o Guilds
Born to safeguard interest of mercantile class against ruling aristocracy
Members were employers and employees
Membership conferred the right to participate in the political arena
Carried duties and obligations-devote funds to charity (all had chapel)
Competed for patronage of the arts
City decided to take total control over building new buildings-took away from religious
orders
government gave guilds the responsibility to control urban development
ex: wool merchants in charge of duomo, pizza della signoria, loggia
cloth merchants: baptistery
silk merchants: orsanmichele
unfinished churches were subsidized by the state
o Catasto
Set in 1427 to establish peoples wealth
Church wanted to reconcile Christian idea of poverty with realities of commerce
Rich expected to give away wealth to charity, to improve the appearance of the city
o Chapels and Altars

Built to atone for sins and decorated with frescoes (cheaper)

Ex: Massaccios Trinity
Patron was the creator of the chapel
Blatant exhibition of personal affluence was discouraged
Site of the palaces was determined by loyalty to a certain district so none were
particularly more prestigious
Palaces
Massive, with rusticated ground floors and framed windows
Arches with shops on the ground floor
Cappella Strozzi in Santa Trinita planned by Ghiberti. Painting by Gentile da Fabrianoadoration of the Magi
Giovanni de Medici introduced with Brunelleschi: the hemispherical dome with window
at the base supported by punditries-source in pre-Gothic
Brancacci decorated the family in Santa Maria del Carmine: Masaccios tribute of money
typical case of Christian history seen more realistic
New orders
At the beginning of communes art had order and stability-monasteries centers of cultural
life
In XIII century monasteries were not places of spirituality but ease and luxury-papacy
recognized need for reform
New sects formed-Franciscans and Dominicans
St. Francis preached spiritual enlightenment
New learning centers in Padua and Bologna
Authors like Aristotle, questioning traditional teaching on creation and original
sin
Natural science and philosophy acquired importance
Church and New Class
Church and merchants adapted to each other
Church turned blind eye on usury
1323 papal bull made a heresy to maintain that Christ and the apostles had not
possessions document that the pope made for rules
Some exceptions: Bernardino da Siena attacked usury but approved accumulation
of private wealth so long as it was righteously earned and put to proper use
Patron of arts gave money in hope to purchase salvation
Tomas Aquinas
Dominican theologian who synthesized classical and Christian
Reason and revelation combined
Division into rich and poor was divinely ordained
Church had to handle usury and material good
Man possessed wealth and property-up to him to give alms
Gothic art
Developed in north
lasted about 200 years as a period of change balancing lay culture and changes in
Christian world
Artists freed themselves from influence of Byzantine mosaics and frescos
Naturalistic style, religious images changing
Religious images
Many traditional scenes still present but more naturalistic images

Storytelling in paintings
Source new devotional books with new themes
Appeal to everyday emotions
Black Death of 1348 influenced with a return to supernatural treatment of themes,
character of hermit as isolated during plague. Christ as judge with raised hands
Aspect of the Madonna
Portrayed more human, les formal, social life (childhood, parents, marriage)
Humanization connected to role as a protector for Gods mercy
Representation with child-more intimate with child suckling (charity and mercy)
Not on a throne but sitting or floating above ground
Orvietos cathedral
Faade presents salvation through Biblical images
Salvation through person of Christ, Genesis, old testament prophecies, life of Christ, last
judgment
Thought that Messiahs coming was foretold in old testament and pagan antiquity
Bring ancient world into Christian sphere
Sources: Hebrew prophets, Eritrean Sibyl, poet Virgil, Aristotle
Support concept of an arrival of the Messiah
Aquinas interpreted Fourth Ecologue of Virgil
Giottos Tower
Emphasis is on familiar, everyday life, secular and sacred are mixed
Reliefs started by Andrea Pisano
Accent on new scholastic outlook that developed in university-all knowledge embraced
Salvation is theme, daily labor road to virtue
God gave virtue, wisdom, practical necessity to fight evils of sin, mortality, ignorance
Divine gifts represented by seven virtues, seven liberal arts, seven mechanical arts
Hexagonal reliefs represent seven mechanical arts
Astrology
Planets represented in relief on campanile, astrology in peoples minds
Idea of heavenly bodies influencing events on earth, traces back to Greeks and
Egyptians
Also in Christian universe
7 planets + one that held fixed stars, ninth-primum mobile (mover that supplied
power to universe). Tenth-prima causa (abode of God and angels)
Dante compares planets with 7 medieval sciences, liberal arts: illuminate world of
intellect
Grammar dialectic and rhetoric are Trivium
Arithmatic, geometry, music, astronomy are quadrivium
Liberal arts represented XII and XIII century
Santa Maria Novella-glorification of S. Thomas
Four bays of vaulted ceiling have scene from gospel (Resurrection and Ascension of
Christ, and Pentecost)
Walls painted
Glorification of St. Thomas shows him flanked by biblical authors
Above seven virtues
3 heretics at the foot of the throne
14 women represent the Liberal arts with men at feet representing concepts that females
personify

Women because first representation of liberal arts were done this way
Left: theological sciences
o Nardo di Cione-Strozzi Chapel (1357)
Theme of heaven and hell
Here one wall has heaven with Christ and virgin enthroned below rows of saints
Opposite wall has hell- inspired by Dante, Satan devours the traitors
Renaissance Revival
o Antecedents
Charlemagne-his scholars restored classical form and use of Latin
Frederick II-inherited Norman kingdom and court in Palermo. Learned man with new
poetic style-written in Italian
Sicily had elements of Byzantine, Arab, French, Gothic
o Humanism
Developed as a study in XII
Cicero stressed refinement and culture. Focus on grammar, poetry, history
Padua center with university
Petrarch was a leader-crowned poet laureate. Works inspired painters
Pride in ones native heritage
o New opportunities in art
Demand for secular objects, entangled in past
Traditional scenes of Christian mythology and scenes from Roman/Greek
Classical style revived. Ex: Aphrodite of Knidos-Masaccios replica
o Botticelli
Primavera: difficult to interpret
First work to treat pagan gods, inspired by a poem by poliziano
6 females and two males
o Right has Zephirus (wind) who possesses the nymph Chloris and
transforms her into a deity: becomes goddess of Spring
o Venus presides over the garden
o Garden is an orange grove-Medici symbol
o Graces accompany with Cupid
o Mercury keeps garden safe
Neoplatonic philosophers saw Venus as ruling over earthly and divine loveclassical equivalent of Virgin Mary
Artists use allegory with gods
o New Conditions, New Demands
Renaissance world believed in a man able to possess the world
Humanistic values-change from Christian values
New perspectives in painting:
Exploration of space and light
Nude
Portrait
Landscape became ordinary and recognizable
Bellini became master of color in landscape
Landscape and mood developed by Venetian School-and mastered portrait
o Naturalism
True to nature
Anatomical discoveries- Pollaiuolo explored characteristics of human body

New laws on perspective-Brunesseschi (Masaccios Trinity another ex)

Form of Treatise became popular
Alberti wrote De Pictura giving technical explanations
Suggested the painter to study writers for narrative themes
Assumes freedom of choice for artist-not always true
o Subjects
Commissioned in case of won battle, recovery from illness, being released from captivity
Subjects: virgin, patron saints
Size of donor brought up to same as other figures
Astrology popular- connected with Christianity
Personification of qualities and virtues as females
o Political Transition
Recovery of pagan antiquity=challenge
Erotic desire contrary to Christian ideals
Bellinis feast of the gods-mocks un-Olympian gods, some drunk, seducing others
Finished by Titian who was facing similar situations in his own works
o Love
Elevated to philosophical principle, believed to be oldest of gods, in all realms of
universe
Creative force from god
Heavenly and earthly love, contemplative vs active form
Absence of clothing=virtuosity
o Lorenzo Monaco and Gentile da Fabriano
Gothic style emerges from Black death-more conservative, opulence, color, pageantry,
more elegant, decorated
Lorenzo: traditional-flat figures, 2-D color pattern
o Moving away from Gothic
Masaccio developed away from gothic
Others: Fra Angelico, Filippo Lippi, Pollaiuolo, Botticelli
Mastered the nude, improved landscape representation with light, shade, and perspective
Masaccio
o Renaissance background
Florence-size, wealth, exceptional tradition in crafts and art
1400s
Restoring liberal arts: grammar poetry, rhetoric, painting, sculpture, architecture
Humanism-studies worthy the dignity of men
Heritage of Roman art and dramatic possibilities from Christian subjects
o Importance of art
Respect tradition to ask artists to embellish churches and monasteries
Money and social energy poured into art
Cultivation of individual style
Painting, architecture, sculpture underwent dramatic changes
Expression of complex social forces and artist involved in communes life
Versatility normal in artists
Princes and patrons pursued physical beauty
Mania for collecting art emerges
o Masaccio
Family of carpenters outside Florence

Joined painters guild

Friends with Donatello and Brunelleschi
Moved away from ornamentation
Naturalism, sense of perspective, movement, 3-dimensionality
o The Trinity
Example of perspective
Dramatic, realistic, emotion
Humans drawn to scale
Skeleton at base resembles Adam
o Point of View
Distance to view,
Groups of figures with specific look. Christ at center. All important
All forms lit from same point
o Brancaccis Chapel
Brancaccio-member of popolo with silk trading company
Story of peter with set of frescoes
Perspective and realism
Tribute of Money
Tax collecting and catasto in Florence represented
Decision to act, human occurrence
Sense of motion, roman togas mixed with renaissance dress
o Peter Baptizing the Neophytes
Practical imagination, outdoor baptisms
Realism of flowing water
Dynamism-person with chills
o St. Peter Healing with his Shadow
Realistic
Rusticated stone of Florence, characters resembling real people
Walking toward viewer with sense of urgency
Pain in eyes, Franciscan respect for poverty
o Expulsion from the Garden of Eden
Energy and realism-emotion, movement, different reactions
Nudity-reveal human qualities
Light
Donatello
o Life
Worked in Ghibertis shop-then independent
Many cities of north-Venice, Ferrara, Mantua
Innovator in sculpture/reliefs-realism, awareness of spectators position
o St. George slaying the Dragon
Rilievo staccato (flattened relief)- diminishing and undulating to give perspective
Pictorial treatment that gives recession into space
Proportioned to the figures
o The feast of Herod
Siena Baptistry
Dramatic-exact moment where head presented to Herod
Minute graduation of the depth of the relief-front, middle, back. Created by tiled floor,
protruding beams, removed bricks


o Rome

o David

Sense of drama and central perspective

Visited Rome to study remains of classical antiquity
Donatello unimpressed- did not recreate
Understanding the body: nude, equestrian, putto (chubby playful infant)

Commissioned by the Medici family

Unconventional: young, nude in bronze, relaxed pose, vulnerable, ambiguity of sex,
erotic pose
Compare to Bernini and Michelangelo
o Gattamelata (condottiere-knight)
In front of Basilica in Padua
Mercenary commander
Recalls Marcus Aurelius statue in Rome, ugly face from busts
Relaxed and confident as conqueror
Universal image
Humanists characteristics: alludes to history and cultural ideals and adorns city
o St. Mary Magdalen
Wood
Communicates sense of transitoriness-sunken eyes, broken teeth
o Sandstone Reliefs in Padua
Miracle of the ass-huge barrel vault that recedes into plane
miracle of the wrathful son-complicated arrangement of sheds and steps to create
dramatic action
o Late works
Realistic elements that break with tradition
Exhausted sculpture form so much that followers were painters
Florence
o Geography
While many are built on a hill Florence built along the river
Arno provided food and business-but not navigable
Bridges re-biult in IV century
Difficult to travel by road out-enemies, hills etc
o Mezzadria
Many small villages around Florence initially, rural with monasteries
Local feudal landlord had difficult relationship-tapped resources of hinterland farms
Podere-productive piece of land to feed the family of the peasant and land lord
Mezzadria-sharecropping
o Banking and Civic Pride
One of the largest cities-thrived because of banking and commerce
Bardi and Peruzzi acted for popes and monarchs
Recession in 1340s and black death of 1348
Survived revolt of ciompi 1378 and threat of duchy of milan
Perceived as heir of republican rome
Humanists-believed good life to be lived if dedicated to civic virtues, study philosophy
Value of classical learning key
Medici founded platonic academy and patronized philosophers and writers
o Guilds

o
o

Strength from guilds-drew together merchants and craftsman

Meticulously ruled by officers of the state
Each had own church
Medici ruled through renaissance but power often swayed-overthrown by popular
Early city
Medieval-no beauty just defense, few squares most small. Towers demolished to make
room for larger squares
Changes began XIII and XIV
Walls determined space for development-north of river
Functional and aesthetic drove city shape
Each district heterogeneous-no rich and poor sections. Mixture of palaces and modes.
Factory and retail
Disorderly expansion but social tradition
Each prominent family identifies with a neighborhood where support is
Walls/ Buildings
Erected in 1285-1340
Near entrances: water for animals, scales for farmers, taverns and inns to stay at
Three major markets to sell different goods
Fondachi (storage areas) near markets. Merchants lived nearby
Location of shops decided by guilds
Population grew until black death
Important Medici
Made money in banking
Giovanni di Bicci de Medici
First great Medici
Popular among popolo minuto because substitution of universal tax with one
based on capital
Took advantage of political struggle in Florence after the defeat of Milan
Cosimo de Medici
Banished by prominent families of Florence after fathers death but returned with
aide of friends in signory-controlled government
Very shrewd-supported Sforza in their overthrow and opened branch of bank in
Milan
Identified interest with state by appealing to tax enforcements made by father
Attracted visitors, took on public expenses-founded two public libraries
Made peace with Milan and kept Venice and Naples under control
Loyal support of fellow merchants and dependents
Surrounded by many talented artists-prominent patron of the arts-did so for
Christian duties and self-promotion
o Owned a chapel in San Lorenzo and San Marco
o Palazzo Medici started to replace pallazo della signoria
Lorenzo
Lorenzo-nephew took power when died
Traveled to Milan and Venice to visit banks often
Talented poet
Pazzi tried to take control in 1478-had support of the pope (by appointed
archbishop of Pisa as a hostile member and cancelled concession of bank in
Rome)

When Pazzi failed pope called for king of Naples

Made Lorenzo become tyrant because of fear
Prevented intermarriage-arranged marriages himself
Power still vested in Signoria-not dynastic
Had many scholars and artists, platonic academy, cultural superiority promoted by
Florentines
Savonarola
Dominican friar who questioned Lorenzos conduct-blamed him as a tyrant
interested in women and festivities
Preached about end of the world
Attacked patrons who placed coat of arms in churches-wanted simpler
Cause Medici exile for 9 years
Private buildings
Many changes after towers-became palaces like fortreses
More attention to architecture and beauty
Lorenzo exempted citizens who started buildings from paying taxes for 40 years
Styles began to change-particularly inside
Ex: Palazzo Davanzati, Palazzo Busini-Bardi, Palazzo Ruccellai, Palazzo Strozzi
The Duomo
Most beautiful and honorable church in Tuscany
Civic enterprise done by cloth guild
Giotto chief engineer
All streets around were lowered
Irregular porticos facing square were demolished, towers and buildings as well to make
room
Brunelleschi designed the octagonal dome
Civic Building
Palazzo della Signoria aka Palazzo Vecchio-gothic characteristic with renaissance
solutions-courtyard
Housed legislative and executive organs of commune, Medici lived here for some
time-built grand walkway over Uffizi and river to Palazzo Pitti
Protecting the organs of commune hence fortress
Loggia dei Lanzi built next door to house ceremonies
Palazzo del Podesta
Palace for podesta and then chief of police
Now museum
Main Churches
Santa Maria Novella
Dominican church-financed by wealthy families
Designed by Alberti
Houses Masaccios trinity
Santa Croce
Franciscan church
Funded by wealthy families
16 chapels including Pazzi Chapel
Burial grounds for many important artists and scholars
Life in Florence

Regulated by the sun-gates close at darkness and bells in morning-mass

Old market most crowded
Many religious festivals-required to participate
Internal disorder like Ciompi revolution also brought people together
Plague disrupted
Only one bridge initially crossing river-destroyed in floods.
Shops on bridges-water for mills and working textiles
Parades and celebrations on boats
o The decline
Medici ruled as dictators-changes between governments
Alessandro de Medici took power ruled like dictator
abolished guilds,
build fortress to protect family,
artist employee of the court
Medici moved to palazzo della Signoria and then to Pitti
Concentrate power in a few key buildings
Wanted a city dominated by harmony, order, glory
Cosimo I came to power next
Worried with building fortifications to defend
City stage of pleasures of medici family
o Brunelleschi
Gives modern look
Milan: city of strife
o Geographical position
Mediolanum-middle of the land
Ideal geographical position for development of strong, unified state with many resources
Center of major routes to Northern Europe
Access to the ocean
But: many foreign powers fighting and invasions from other countries
o Visconti
No merchant class uprising
Three dukes created the state
Established as a commune in similar time
Cardinal Ottone Visconti took charge-beat out Guelph family
Every aspect of humans activities developed in the city
Giovanni Visconti took power
Invited Petrarch to Milan acted as ambassador
Organized strategic marriages that saved from defeat
Spared from plague but fought war against papacy-at was with Venice and
Florence
Gian Galeazzo Visconti
Married young to princess of France
Killed uncle to gain power
Reduced taxation, reformed administration, weeded corruption
Presented an image of a liberator of cities and men
Pleased the popolo minuto more than popolo
More ambitious by the fact that Florentines were worried by his tyranny so close

Courted parties in other cities that hated Florence

Conquered many surrounding cities
Prototype of renaissance prince: unscrupulous in diplomacy, concerned with state
welfare, ambitious of dynasty, aware of need of the land
Started department of philosophy and liberal arts and university of Pavia
Planned construction of imposing cathedral in Milan
Commissioned Certosa di Pavia-monastery in mixed style. Became his
mausoleum
Francesco Sforza
Very charismatic-friends with Medici
Conquered Milan by force and entered as a liberator
At war with Venice but had many allies on his side
Centralized government and reformed administration
Also prototype of renaissance prince
Ambitious yet aware of states needs
Friends with French kings, Medici, Gonzaga in mantua
Peace of Lodi with Venice to set stage for prosperity
Signed peace treaty with other major city states
Transformation for cultivation of crops-rice and silk
Metal industry for civil and military purposes
Network of canals-transport goods and irrigate
Freed Jews to do business in Milan
Gave military support to French kinds
Established the first embassy in France
Ludovico (Sforza) il Moro
Conquered with Force
Leonardo helped plan his marriage festivities-marriage to give him authority
Combined alliances and changed sides according to his needs
Typical signore-kept commune structure but put man in charge who he could manipulate
Maximum Splendor
1490-1497-ludovico used prosperity and diplomacy to consolidate power
Became major university center, major printing center, Medici opened bank
Most advanced hydraulic machines thanks to Leonardo; textile production
Promoted canals, encouraged new crops, fostered trade, promoted manufacturing
business
Banking only for major transactions
Land owners were invited to build on their territory
Hospital Ca Granda
Francesco planned. Started by Filarete
Sforza paid to have Filarete in Milan for 8 years
Self-sufficient, modern hospital-facilities of small village; mill, laundry, organized
Sforzas Castle
Construction began in XIV century-much changes to the layout
Center of power for Lodovico il Moro
Leonardos drawings conserved, ceiling painted by him
Saw tournaments, processions, pageants in main square
Castle separated from city

o Santa Maria delle Grazie

Two different styles-faade medieval gothic; back Renaissance
Houses the Last Supper-Leonardo
o The Duomo
Started in 1386 5 centuries to finish
Glorification of divine and temporal power
Not finished until 1799
Firm La Fabbrica del Duomo in charge of construction
Many artists contributed
Pinnacles, spires, flying buttresses
Milan open culturally but political power-dictatorial
o Conclusions
More diverse economy
Not as sophisticated, still had big names and stronger economy
Never slept on its laurels-forward thinking rather than in the past
Survived economic downturn more readily
Less political stability
In comparison with Italy
Connected with German emperor but tyrants not part of noble classes- Get
credibility through marriage
Aristocracy thrived on the division and jealousy of merchants
Milan surrounded by cities who wanted to conquer it
o The fall
pope wanted to create new state; lodovico Sforza appealed to Charles who came and
helped
League of Venice formed

Leonardo Da Vinci
o Beginnings
Lived in Verrocchios house, accused of homosexuality in 1476
Interest in realism-reproducing nature in human body or animals
Detail oriented, new techniques, drying processes
Self-taught
o Uses pyramidal form of composition: creates depth, linear pattern
o Gesture and facial expressions
o Outgrows Florence
Not satisfied, wanted to experience, not forward looking enough
Lorenzo Medici thought he was unscholarly
Leonardo criticized the new rich
Moved to Milan-scientific research and mechanics, power of court, more cosmopolitan,
military, printing
o Virgin of the Rocks
2 versions, first commission in Milan
Pyramidal structure, interrelationship between figures
Interest in botany and geology clear
Treatment of light and shade
o Last Supper
Commissioned by Ludovico Sforza
First painting of high renaissance
Drama captured in the moment, groups of 3, judas is part of the crowd-not separate
Symmetry with Christ at center
Groups of 3s with emotion
Judas in shadow holding pouch
o Mona Lisa
Use of light typical of Flemish painters
Beyond realism
Mystery-life yet transcends reality
Form: oil technique (soft), turn of woman, separation from background, woman close to
us, landscape fantastic
Sense of Time: changing expression, landscape both alive and eternal, human vs nature
Space and light: depth, livelihood, 3D, light source above and left, chiaroscuro technique
o Return to Florence
Milan conqured by French so he returned
Studied anatomy and drqwings on human body-dissected muscles, studied function
Commissioned for The Battle of Anghiari in Palazzo Vecchio-focused on heat of battle
Michelangelos piece was focused on getting ready for battle
o Conclusions
Try to prove intellectual legitimacy to art
Paradox as a painter who could not bring himself to paint
Venice

o Symbol of the Lion

Mark is lion-destiny to have Venice built because he landed there; meant to be his final
resting place; stolen
Independent from papacy
o Annunciation
Founded on feast of the annunciation
Linked birth of savior to watery birth of their city
Virgin and st mark patrons of city
On rialto bridge
o Setting
Locals seek refuge on the islands of the lagoon from the Barbarians
Far from Roman crossroads
Fish and salt only resources-fight hard for anything needed
o The geography
Shallow water-hard to navigate
Facing east-proximity to Slavic world
Important role: connection to Pavia and Constantinople
Mediator between east and west
Power against Arab invasions
o Commerce
Survival: needed to gain resources
Future: source of income
Basic characteristic: attached to money and willing to work hard labor
Civic pride: common interest
o Consolidation
Independence from byzantine control
Vital connection: with Arabs to export goods
New buildings: Palazzo Ducale and St. Marks Church
Administrative structure: Doge assisted by court of ecclesiastic. Doge elected by
patricians
o XI century
Social unrest is very rare
Families invested in maritime commerce
Venice gained recognition through battles won in the Mediterranean
o Maximum splendor
4th crusade conquering byzantine empire
Doge is chief magistrate with little real power
Public festivities show prosperit
o Power
State above all even church
Council of ten would advise doge
State ruled finance, diplomacy, army, welfare
Doge ceremonial symbol
Priest must be venetian born
Ancestor must be part of council to have any role in government-no gain through
commerce
o The doge
Elected by males

Elderly
No wife or sons
Shouldnt be popular
None able to overthrow system
Couldnt leave palace without permission, couldnt receive ambassadors unsupervised
Social Classes
Patricians (nobili)
5% of populace, determined in 1297 in serrate, prominent families permanently in
position,
Rewarded lower class to keep them in check
Made it seem like duties rather than priveleges
Had to maintain warship, reputation
Lose position if woman marry notable
Council of ten scrutinized them
Notables (cittadini)
Small group, some privilege, no political positions
Privilege by birth or residence
Benevolence (scoule grandi) associations that did social work
Commoners (popolani)
Majority; minute and grasso
Minor brotherhood to care for needs of members
Strong cohesion
Lured to mainland
Drawn into politics and wars
League of cambrai fought venice
Cosmopolitan
Indulgence and sensuous living
Anything bought or sold
Turks and german warehouse
Luxuries sold: spices, slaves, gold, silver, jewels
Glass manufacturing in Murano
Value of art as propaganda
Portraits of doges
Beautiful frescos in schools, hospitals and monasteries
Artists: family tradition
Printing presses here, freedom of press
Entire families in art workshops
Paintings alive with color, flesh, landscape, contrast between light and shade
The Arsenal
State controlled ship activities
Largest in the world
All galleys owned by state
Goods controlled by state too-keep market profitable
Public solidarity
Public art to show solidarity
Bellinis procession in the piazza san marco
Aspire to be seamless society without tension

o The scuole
Devotional confraternities centered in building
Gather here to worship
Associated with ethnicities
o The ghetto
Trying to accommodate all foreigners in coexistence
First Jewish ghetto to accommodate refugees
Locked up to be protected every night
Could set up loan banks and trade with east
Excluded from venetian state
o Renaissance
Open to changes because of influence from east
Ex: style of doges palace
o Prominent buildings
St Mark Church
Byzantine style
Was a state church of the doge
Horses stolen from Constantinople
Rialto Bridge
4 main bridges; this is oldest
Has shops on it
Representations of annunciation
Fondaco dei tedeschi and fondaco dei turchi
Storage areas for traders
Palazzo Spinelli, Palazzo Loredan, Cadoro
o Venetian Splendor
Mosaics, glass work
Dresses for wealthy woman
Craved parks and woods-moved inland
Wouldnt go to new world
Symbol of indulgence/sensuous living
o Art as propaganda
Glory of the republic
Family affair
Art showing vigor, wealth, sensous delight
Flesh/clothes and colors in light and shade
o The peak
Attracted to renaissance painting, music, architecture
Luxuries incomparable: gold, silver, jewelry
Giovanni Bellini
o Gothic vs Renaissance
Gothic didnt fade
Eldest bellini showed this
Communal enterprise of father-son workship tradition
o Mantegnas Influence
Large influence on venetian art
Agony in the Garden-lyrical vs harsh, same structure/landscape

Mantegna: influence by Florentines, obsessed with perspective and optical illusion, worm
eye view
Presentation of the temple: same characters but bellini draws us in by eliminating frame
and having more characters (life)
Background
Most talented in his family
Can trace development over his lifetime
Religious and doges still can be seen
Imago Pietatis
Devotional image popular in byzanthine
Dead Christ with head bowed and hands ready
Gloomy sky, emotion and silent exchange, landscape mirrors emotion
Bellini and the Madonnieri
Famous for Madonna and child set of paintings
Inspired by byzantine and graeco-cretan icons circulating Venice
Companions started compying
Embodiment of humanist attitude: accessibility instead of separation
Late Giovanni Bellini paintings
Stayed current in art
Poetical inspiration
Lady with a mirror: first nude without religious connotation; spatial illusions; mirror as a
second space; admiring her beauty; ambiguous
The feast of the gods
Drunk, profane sensibility
One trying to seduce another

Titian
o Early
Born in northern mountains
Worked in Bellini workshop
Interested in landscapes as done by Northern Europeans
o Painting as Pastoral Poetry
Sense of discovery in landscapes
Landscape is place of reverie, redemption, reminiscence of lost simplicity
Venetians missed landscape when moved to island
o The tempest (Giorgione)
Influenced Titian
Unnatural green, roman aqueduct, soldier, naked woman
Sexualization, secularized
God absent
o St. Mark Enthroned
Titian reflecting on Giorgiones teachings
Different saints seem very different
o Sacred and Profane Love
Poetic feelings
Liberating, large ares of colors
Twin venuses
Reference to antique past
o Peak of Career

Turned down invitation to Rome

Wanted to get position of chief officer at fondaco dei tedeschi because meant to be
official painter of venice
Worked for Este Family
Make paintings with Dionysian themes: god of wine, madness, ecstasy
Dominated by formal elegance and coloristic expression
Alfonso DEste
Commissioned these paintings for his apartments
Rare request
Worship of Venus, Bacchus and Ariadne, and the Andrians-pleasures of wine, spatial
complexity, harmonious poses, activities
Wanted to be a space for enjoyment, contemplation
Artistic Supremacy
Knew he needed to paint for churches to establish himself
Madonna and child and Pesaro
Realism and bright colors, dark and light
New Patrons
In Mantua, worked for Charles V
Painted for major courts of Italy
Venus of Urbino
Titian vs. Giorgione
Titian more erotic and independent
Mannerism
Concession to fashion
Beyond it when went to rome and did Danae
Danae: abandons bombastic qualities, returns to sensuous naturalism/color; dreamy
expression; poses
Charles V
Titian painted him and court members
Continued to paint dignitaries
Painted another Danae, Venus and Adonis-erotic intent
Conclusions
Catch most poignant moment and reproduce
Sense of urgency
First to master condition of a new age and market
Less competition as in Florence
Placed works with the right people to distribute talent
World came to him for favors

Rome
o Unique city
One empire built on top of the other
New culture consciously take identity from older culture
Humanism revered imperial Rome
Hadrian connected Rome with the mythological gods
Multi-layers of civilization
o Imperial Rome
Rome first to have a million inhabitants-created problems

Innovation: separation of water supply from sewage through aqueducts, reservoirs and
public fountains
Bath-places for health and social
No regulation of street planning
Social hierarchy
Ceremonial centers were arranged to create vistas and imposing
Tenants crammed together without order
Masonry and concrete perfected, while important buildings had marble imitating
classical Greek
Forums at the core of the city; like todays civic center
The fall
Erosion of civic spirit, corruption
Despotic role of emperors
Capital moved to Constantinople then visigoths and vandals arrived
Buildings destroyed piece by piece
Medieval Rome
Little left and living on past glory
Popes and all their crew had left
Pope Martin V returned to Rome to find squalid and dangerous
Restoration of power
Pope needed to regain power-used alliances, diplomacy and war
Best condottieri hired to protect
Pope was an administrator and politician
Resurgence of power brought renaissance in Rome
Building new Rome
Revival with literature through Pope Nicholas V and Pope Sixtus IV
Popes tried to hide imperial roman ruins
A whole new Rome
Popes used and profited on material of ancient rome
Sixtus IV built bridges, hospitals and churches, began Sistine chapel-finished under
Julius II
Colosseum and pantheon remain intact
Nicholas V moved Vatican to current location but not started until Julius II
Closing a cycle
Last great pope Leo X-made rome a work of art
1527 sack of Rome by Charles V
Reform brought Protestantism and counter reformation of the council of Trent
Compare with Florence
Palaces built without altering medieval layout, city is civic pride
Rome buildings framed public circulation (act as a channel)-established a width for
streets
Individual buildings take proper place in urban composition-enclose piazzas, fit in
cityscape
The piazza
Specific functions-communal, social, ceremonies, art, market
Straight clear line of sight and a visual element to attract you-Egyptian obelisks or
fountains
Long straight vistas crisscrossing metropolis-making clear pathways

o City as a work of art

Emperor Augustus first had this idea
Rome full of temples
Hadrian amateur who wanted this same idea
Pantheon and Tomb of Augustus
o Pantheon
Transformed into a church-spared in modern time
Widely imitated; thought to have no flaws; perfectly symmetrical
Largest unreinforced dome
Built by Hadrian
o Hadrians Tomb/ Castel SantAngelo
Became a fortress for the popes, a prison and residence
Passetto-path from Vatican to castel for pope in case of emergency
o Significant Popes
Nicholas V-humanist; St. Peter Basilica
Sixtus IV-sistine Chapel, neopotist, Pazzi revolt
Alexander VI-father of cesare Borgia
Julius II-established Swiss army, League of Cambrai, campidoglio
Clement VII-Medici, sack of Rome
Gregory XII
Sixtus V
Clement VII
o Romes Renaissance Begins
Began under Nicholas V
Restore usable monuments
Julius II commissioned to Bramante St. Peter, Michelangelo Sistine Chapel, Raphael
some rooms in Vatican
SantAngelo bridge link sacred and profane parts of city
Neros obelisk in St. Peter identify ancient with new
Halt of renovation with sack of Rome in 1527
o The Gates to Heavenor Rome
Christian iconography in gate
North gate most important: Porta del Popolo
Alexander VI-had Bernini and Borromini work on
2 churches in the square both dedicated to Mary
Direct pilgrims in 3 directions: Vatican, Renaissance center, San Giovanni in Laterano
o St Peter
Site of a church since 4th century and burial sight of Peter
Designed by Bramante, Michelangelo, and Bernini
Popes are buried here
o Piazza el Campidoglio
1500-desolation and destruction is strong
Campidoglio is hill overlooking the Roman ruins and the navel of the world according to
Medival legend
Julius II had Michelangelo redesign it to attract pilgrims
Senatorial Palace faced Roman Ruins, Palazzo dei Conservatori and Palazzo Nuovo
Pavement has lines resembling Achilles shield
Statue of Marcus Aurelius

o City as a theater
Walking up stairs-visual beauty
Public processions reinforced narrative of the city
Chosen route showed structures of pride
o Rome as city of water
Trevi fountain end of large aqueduct
Many other fountains too
o Other piazzas
Piazza Barberini-Berninis fountain
Piazza del Quirinale-Popes summer residence now presidents residence
Piazza di Spagna-Berninis fountain and Spanish steps
Michelangelo
o High Renaissance
This period is the first half of XVI century
Popes rebuilt (Julius II)
Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael were working
Prophets of doom preaching fear-Last Judgement
o The End
50 years of peace since treaty of Lodi-city states started to lose power
French Invasion, Medici expelled by Savonarola
Beginning or response to corrupted church in Rome
Protestant Reformation began
o Julius II
Nephew of Sixtus IV
Making Rome beautiful for pilgrims so called Bramante and Rapael
Demolition of old St. Peter
o Michelangelo Beginnings
Born near Florence and worked with Ghirandaio
Sent to Humanist academy of Lorenzo Medici-came into contact with great scholars,
developed love for sculpture
Left Florence with Savonarlas uprising- faked an antique statue of Cupid to get invited to
Rome
o The pieta
For French ambassador
Topic more popular in France
Gothic/Renaissance characteristics in classical beauty
Pyramidal structure
Madonna young and Jesus doesnt look deathly
o Difficult Personality
Very full of himself; denies influence of others on himself
Paranoid about Bramante plotting against him
Did not like what Vasari wrote about him so wrote his own biography
Greatest rivalry with Leonardo
Grew up in humanism
Anguish of human destiny shown through human body with phases of passions and faith
o Florence
Returned to Florence after Savonarolas death
Commissioned by guilds of wool to make statue of David

o
o

Human body most artistic possibility transform feelings

Material significance of visible things through human body
Proportions of body of David perfect-but larger than human
Placed in Piazza della Signoria but Leonardo argued to have it in the corner
Doni Tondo
Portrait of the holy family
With many influences
Masculinity of mary, positioning of child-part of Mary
Time in Rome
Julius II invited him back to build a tomb for himself-never finished
Some statues never finished-struggle into existence; suspension between idea and
execution
Those that were finished were overdone; overly dramatic
The Sistine Chapel
Wall paintings done by many others
Julius II convinced by Bramante to give to Michelangelo-trying to give him a task he
would fail at
Produced a trompe-loeil structure because he preferred sculture
9 paintings epicting book of Genesis and all before Christ
Unorthodox and original-no pictorial conventions
Mystical concordance between old and new testamants
Presence of individuals from Judaic and pagan history
Naked Bodies
Used to express vast range of feelings, ideas, spritiual
Subtleties of allusions, visual echos, suggestions that go beyond Christian doctrine
God cloaked and muscle bound patriarch; artist who creates form
Uses sotto in su- figure is seen from beneath as though soaring away from viewer;
extreme point of view
Size of project and jealousy around the commission
Tempation and expulsion scene-anatomy and physique changes after expulsion; grimacy
caricatures
Body and Soul
Important to him; elevates reality to myth
More controversy
Pope Hadrian VI declared a bathroom of nudes
Many elements-asthetic/erotic have no theological justification
Ignudi-most controversial part; single naked male with ambiguous meaning; possibly
mediators between world and god
Sack of Rome
Troops of Charles V entered in 1527
Population reduced greatly;things changed
Shown in Conversion of Saul and Crucifixion of St. Peter-express blind fail

Naples
o Italy of XV century
North-urbanized, fragmented politicallu, rich, social classes, threatened by northern
powers
Center-ruled by popes, conservative, lack of middle class
South-foreign power dominated, social disparity, feudal

o Origins
One of the oldest cities; Greek colony
Port trading wine, olives, lemon, grain
Conqured by Rome; typical Roman street grid
Duke authority chosen by emperor
Under control of Normans
o Origin of Normans
Duke of Naples called on Normans to protect against Byzantium
Positive-open to religions, assimilated cultures
Negative-claimed hereditary rights; brought political struggle to the south
Frederick II learned; Italian poetry developed here
o Normans
Cosmopolitian with many cultures
First medical school, first non-religious university
Nobles that supported Norman prince received piece of land and slaves to work it-close
circle of landowner with own interest
Lower social hierarchy no access to top-many uprisings with landowner supporting
foreign power
o Castel dellOvo
Where original Greek colony established; rebuilt by Normans
Became prison
o Beginning of the struggle
Frederick II died and Naples became a Commune
Charles of Anjou took over with support of pope
o Angevin Monarchy
Harsh taxation of court prevented any rowth of lower class
Commerce in hands of foreign merchants
New royal residence Maschio Angioinio
Guelph city that was prosperous for the upper class
o Renaissance in Naples
Arrival of Spanish dynasty with Naples as capital of Kingdom of 2 Sicilies
Intellectual who patroned the arts
Lacked civic pride and function-just beauty
Pastoral literature became prevalent-idyllic and spontaneous
o Ferrante
Very large city at this time
Ferrante took over from father-disliked by the pope
Always fighting against a conservative aristocracy
Neapolitans had not power-future in god, religious fanaticism, saint relics particularly
centered around coagulation of blood
o Culture
Societies of mutual existence developed in naples-silk and wool guild
Clothing active industry
Printing press and musical score made music active in Naples
Theater tradition
o Dawn of the Spansih
Ferrantes death called French to return
Spain unified and exprelled the French

Ruled for 2 centuries as a colony with viceroy

Mostly just taxed local population-nobles lost any autonomy
Land investment most secure
o Charles V
Inheritd Spanish possession
Banditry spread as nobles moved to city
Ureaucratic metropolis as feudalism evolved into royal power
o Lazzaroni
Ruled by viceroy of Castillan aristocracy
Did not care about citizens only taxes
Too much immigration in compared to number of jobs available
Unemployed=lazzaroni
Artisans, shop owners barely survived
Prostitiution was large-taxed
o Maccheroni
Avoid civil unrest by providing provisions at key moments
Impossible to keep enough supply without perishing so used dried maccheroni
o Local Government
Representative of the people elected by the viceroy
Wealthy families divided into 5 groups that elected one person to government
Lack of industry other than cloth
Decline of Mediterranean commerce
o The Camorra
Soldiers and petty criminals took money from artisans, mercahnts and shopkeepers to
protect-suffocated small business
Volcano erupted and plague created more destruction
Superstition became very popular-turned to San Gennaro and devotion for souls of
purgatory
Usury common
Some established religious foundations to grant secured loans to poor-all private
o Cultural environment
Religiou as link for integration and communication
Counter reformation promoted orthodox art-in convent and monasteries
Music, theater, academies promoted discussion and research
o Caravaggio
Escaped from Rome; Naples suited him well
Commissioned the Seven Acts of Mercy-very complex organization with many characters
reflecting atmosphere of Naples
Influence in Neapolitan naturalistic school of painting
Unification of Italy
o From 1600-1800
Decline progressive through this period
Economic and cultural due to the counter-reformation, inquisition and index
Rome and Venice wealthier-declined later
Florence and Venice suffered decline within international market
Naples and Milan suffered from the Spanish rule
Architecturally remained the same
Venice remained afloat through music and theater

Milan and Naples politically active

o Napoleon
Altered economy and social background
Milan industrial revolution
Rome suffered because Popes were conservative to reform
Annexation of papal territories meant Rome becoming secular capital
Church no political influence until 1929
o Century of struggle
Risorgimento from 1799 to 1861
French and Austrian dominated parts
Piedmont began unification-wanted to make itself an international power
Garibaldi moved from Sicily north to liberate from foreign powers
Division became evident with unification
o Unprepared city
Rome not industrialized because popes built it up for tourism
Government took control forcing change-government took control of former church
buildings
Development happened after WWII
o Transition
Popes to capital of monarchy then dictatorship then republic
Everyone tried to transition Rome
New buildings in leftover locations-created a scattering of different types
Autos and pedestrians coexistence very difficult
Five Cities Today
o Vanishing meeting places-malls/gallerias
o Turning to dangerous meeting places of stadiums
o Third Rome
Imperial to baroque to unification
Buildings torn down to make room for wider streets and imposing buildings
New aesthetic view: old is out
Reconstruction done without support of church-rather competition; strangle Vatican
Catholicism is the only thing shared by all Italians and didnt use it to unify
o Fascist Rome
Monument to represent state role: Vittorio Emanuele II- white marble imposing
Via dei For Imperiali involved deconstruction of ruins-paved for Hitlers visit to Rome
o EUR
New district for the world Fair and used for Olympics
Too large and too isolated
o Via della Concilianzione-from the Vatican to Castel-opened out by Mussolini
o Modern Localism
Many districts that claim accents and dishes
Slowly changing as gentrification and globalism
Downtown caters to tourists
Few contemporary
o Venice
Traditional living needs have left and real estate is expensive
Venice survival struggles because: built on water, city fabric survives from an early date,
seen as how it existed in nature

Strong contrast between city and outside world-like Vegas

Environmental balance that no longer exists-created a balance between rivers and ocean
but broken in WWII and with port of Maghera, cruise ships
City is sinking, acid rain corroding, city not processing city waste, tourism support
economy but threatens the city
People leaving venice, not repairing
o Florence
Second capital-cleaned it up
Tourism-source of income, lack of modernization
o Naples
Strong presence of immigrants, sense of death
Dependent on North
o Conclusion
Destruction of imperial Rome emphasized need for change and integration (same in
Florence
Naples corruption
Milan is modern
Tourism important for cities economy but are they a museum?
Italy Today
o Unification enhances differences, stresses lack of plan
o Northern League: stresses local and fiscal independence
o Immigration: country of immigrants, many illegal, go to North, altered makeup
o Italian Cities today
2 periods of development-change inside by getting rid of parts unsuitable for modern city
Internal migration from south to north in 1960
Ghettos and disconnected parts on outskirts-chaotic and driven by speculation and
kickbacks
o Modernization
Best in Milan-cars could penetrate downtown areas
Subway in Rome difficult with ruins
o Technically no global citieso Tourists enclaves form in cities; focus on Renaissance beauty which prevents new development
o No places for random meetings even for locals-please and segregate locals