Tablas de Control - Ingeniería Quimica

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I:
'
THE CONTROL OF A CHEMICAL PROCESS: ITS CHARACTERISTICS AND THE

ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 1.
INCENTIVES
FOR
CHEMICAL
PROCESS
CONTROL
..........
1.1 Suppress the Influence of External Disturbances

1.2 Ensure the Stability of a Process
......
.............
I
1.3 Optimize the Performance of a Chemical Process . . ,. . . . .

Chapter 2.
DESIGN ASPECTS OF A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . .
2.1 Classification of the Variables in a Chemical Process . . .

2.2 Elements of the Design of a Control System . . . . . . . . .
2.3 The Control Aspects of a Complete Chemical Plant . . . . . .
.(
Chapter 3:
HARDWARE FOR A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Hardware Elements of a Control System . . . . . . . . . . .
'
3.2 The Use of Digital Computers in Process Control . . . . . .

I
t/
,
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ON PART I . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
,-
REFERENCES..........,....................
PROBLEMS................................
PART II:
MODELING THE DYNAMIC AND STATIC BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES .
Chapter 4.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MATHEMATICAL MODEL . . . . . . . . . .
4.1 Why Do We Need Mathematical Modelign for Process Control? .
i *
4.2 State Variables and State Equations for a Chemical Process .
I
I
4.3 Additional Elements of the Mathematical Models . . . . . . .
4.4 Dead-Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Additional Examples of Mathematical Modeling . . . . . . .

4.6 Modeling Difficulties
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUDING
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REMARKS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 5.
MODELING
CONSIDERATIONS
FOR
CONTROL
PURPOSES . . . . . . .
5.1 The Input-Output Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.2 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3 Degrees of Freedom and Process Controllers . . . . . . . .
5.4 Formulating the Scope of Modeling for Process Control . .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFERENCES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P R O B LEMS...............................
PART III:
ANALYSIS OF THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES . . .
Chapter 6.
COMPUTER SIMULATION AND THE LINEARIZATION OF NONLINEAR

SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1 Computer Simulation of Process Dynamics . . . . . . . . .

6.2 Linearization of Systems With One Variable . . . . . . . .
6.3 Deviation Variables . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Linearization of Systems With Many Variables . . . . . . .
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 7.
LAPLACE
: . . . . . . . . . .
TRANSFORMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1 Definition of the Laplace

7.2 The Laplace
Transform
. . . . . . . . . . . .
Transforms of Some Basic Functions . . . . . .
:.: .::
L
1.: :
&
_1 .,.I::;..
..:;
k:
7.3 Laplace
Transforms of Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Laplace
Transforms of Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5 The Final-Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.6 The Initial-Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 8.
SOLUTION OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS USING LAPLACE

TRANSFORMS........................
8.1 A Characteristic Example and the Solution Procedure . . .

8.2 Inversion of Laplace
Transforms. Heaviside Expansion . . .
8.3 Examples on the Soiution of Linear Differentiation

Equations Using Laplace Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . .
1:
1.:1
$:,c
I;IRI
I
Appendix
8.A.
The General Solution of an n-th Order

Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix
8.B.
The Solution of a General System of Linear

Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 9.
TRANSFER
FUNCTIONS
AND THE INPUT-OUTPUT MODELS . . . . . '.
9.1 The Transfer Function of a Process with a Single Output .

9.2 The Transfer Function Matrix of a Process with Multiple
outputs ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 The Poles and the Zeros of a Transfer Function . . . . . .
9.4 Qualitative Analysis of the Response of a System . . . . .
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
................

Chapter 10.
THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS
10.1 What is a First-Order System?

10.2
Processes
Modeled
as
.......
..............
First-Order
Systems . . . . . . . . .
10.3 The Dynamic Response of a Pure Capacitive Process . . . .

10.4 The Dynamic Response of a First-Order Lag System . . . .
10.5 First-Order Systems with Variable Time Constant and
Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 11.
THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS
11.1 What is a Second-Order System?
......
.............
11.2 The Dynamic Response of a Second-Order System . . . . . .

11.3
Multicapacity
11.4
Inherently
Processes as Second-Order Systems . . . . .

Second-Order Processes . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5 Second-Order Systems Caused by the Presence of

Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . .., . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . .
Appendix
Chapter 12.
ll.A.
Examples of Physical Systems with Inherent

Second-Order Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF HIGHER-ORDER SYSTEMS
12.1 N Capacities in Series
.................
12.2 Dynamic Systems with Dead Time

12.3
Dynamic
SUMMARY
AND
Systems
CONCLUDING
with
Inverse
REMARKS
......
.............
Response . . . . . . . . . .
.......... ; .....
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

REFERENCES..............................
PROBLEMS...............
i...............
17 :
PART IV:
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . .
Chapter 13.
INTRODUCTION
TO
FEEDBACK
CONTROL
............
13.1 The Concept of Feedback Control . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.
.i
.:
ti .
2.
e,
13.2 Types of Feedback Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.3
Measuring
Devices
13.4
Transmission
13.5
Final
(Sensors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lines
Control
...................
Elements
.................

Chapter 14.
THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLED PROCESSES . .
14.1 Block Diagram and the Closed-Loop Response . . . . . . .

14.2 The Effect of Proportional Control on the Response of a
Controlled Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 The Effect of Integral Control Action . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 The Effect of Derivative Control Action . . . . . . . . .
14.5 The Effect of Composite Control Actions . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
................

Chapter 15.
II.
STABILITY
ANALYSIS
OF
FEEDBACK
SYSTEMS
.........
15.1 The Notion of Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.2
The
15.3
The
Routh-Hurwitz
15.4
The
Root-Locus
SUMMARY
Characteristic
AND
CONCLUDING
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Criterion
for
Stability . . . . . . . .
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REMARKS
................

Appendix
15.A.
Rules for the Construction of Root-Locus

Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 16.
DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.1 Outline of the Design Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16.2 Simple Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3 Select the Type of Feedback Controllers . . . . . . . . .
16.4 Controller Tuning Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 17.
THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS OF LINEAR PROCESSES . . .
17.1 The Response of a First-Order System to a.Sinusoidal

Input..........................
7
:$
i1
17.2 The Frequency Response Characteristics of a General

Linear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.3 Bode Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.4
Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nyquist
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUDING
.................
REMARKS

Chapter lg.
,
!t;c
DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS USING FREQUENCY

RESPONSE TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.1 The Bode Stability Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

lg.2 Gain and Phase Margins
lg.3
The
Ziegler-Nichols
18.4
The
Nyquist
.................
Tuning
Stability
Technique
..........
Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . , . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix
18.A.
Complex Mapping and the Nyquist Criterion for

Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFERENCES..............................
PROBLEMS...............................
PART V:
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . . .
Chapter 19.
FEEDBACK CONTROL OF SYSTEMS WITH LARGE DEAD-TIME OR

INVERSE RESPONSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.1 Processes with Large Dead-Time . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19.2
Dead-Time
Compensation
i ..... t ...........
19.3 Control of Systems with Inverse Response

SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
........
................

Chapter 20.
CONTROL SYSTEMS WITH MULTIPLE LOOPS . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1 Cascade Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20.2 Selective Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Split-Range
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
................

Chapter 21.
FEEDFORWARD
AND
RATIO
CONTROL . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.1 The Logic of Feedforward Control
............
21.2 The Problem of Designing Feedforward Controllers . . . .

21.3 Practical Aspects on the Design of Feedforward
Controllers . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.4 Feedforward-Feedback Control . . . . . . . . . . , . . .
21.5 Ratio Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
................

Chapter 22.
ADAPTIVE
AND
INFERENTIAL
CONTROL
SYSTEMS
........
22.1 The Concept of Adaptive Control . . . . . . ., . . . . . .

22.2 Self-Tuning Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .
22.3 The Concept of Inferential Control . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY
AND
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
................

Chapter 23.
EXPERIMENTAL
MODELING
OF
CHEMICAL
PROCESSES . . . . . . .
23.1 Why Do We Need Experimental Identification of Process

Dynamics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.2
Least-Squares Regression for Linear and

Systems .................
23.3
Pulse
SUMMARY
r-l
;. i,L
Nonlinear
. .......
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AND
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
!.(.: ,
3
................

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
;.
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART VI:
MULTIVARIABLE
Chapter 24.
CONTROL
SYSTEMS FOR
COMPLEX
PROCESSES
THE CONTROL OF PROCESSES WITH MULTIPLE INPUTS, MULTIPLE

OUTPUTS (MIMO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1 Formulation of the Control Problems . . . . . . . . . . .

24.2
Degrees
of
24.3
Generation
Freedom
of
...................
Alternative
Control
Systems . . . . . . . .
24.4 Practical Guides for Screening the Alternatives . . . . .

SUMMARY
AND
: ...............
CONCLUDINGREMARKS

Chapter 25.
INTERACTION
25.1
The
25.2
Selecting
AND DECOUPLING
...............
Interaction of Control Loops

the
Loops.
............
The Relative-Gain Array Method . .
25.3 Design of Non-Interacting Control Loops . . . . . . . . .

SUMMARY.AND
CONCLUDINGREMARKS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I!::
1
p
i5
iI
Chapter 26.
CONTROL OF CHEMICAL PLANTS
..........
26.1 The Characteristics of the Problem

26.2
Selecting
26.3
The
26.4
Decomposition
26.5
An
Example
SUMMARY
Control
Objectives
Cause-and-Effect
AND
and
......
Manipulations
......... . . . . .
Diagram
Strategy
...........
..................
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
...........
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REFERENCES . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . .
PROBLEMS.......: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PART VII:
PROCESS
Chapter 27.
I.
1.
z
1
@
c
a.
I
CONTROL
USING
DIGITAL
COMPUTERS . . . . . . . . . . .
THE DIGITAL COMPUTER CONTROL LOOP . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.1
The
Hardware
27.2
The
Design
27.3
SUMMARY
Characteristics
Physical
AND
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example
CONCLUDING
...............
..................
REMARKS
................

Chapter 28.
SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTING CONTINUOUS SIGNALS . . . . .
28.1 Sampling Continuous Signals. The Impulse Sampler . . . .

28.2 The Reconstruction of Continuous Signals . . . . , . . .
28.3 Types of Hold-Elements and Their Characteristics . . . .
Chapter 29.
29.1
DISCRETE-TIME
Converting
Difference
SYSTEMS
AND
THE
Z-TRANSFORMS
.......
Continuous to Discrete-Time Systems. The

Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29.2 The z-Transform and Its Properties
...........
29.3 The z-Transform of Some Basic Functions . . . . . .
; ..
29.4 The Inversion of z-Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29.5 The Relationship Between Laplace
and z-Transforms . . . .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . , . . . . .
THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF SAMPLED-DATA SYSTEMS . . . . . .
Chapter 30.
30.1 The Pulse Transfer Function of a Continuous Dynamic

System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.2 The Transfer Function of Discrete-Time Dynamic Systems .
30.3
The Equivalence Relationship between Continuous and

Discrete Time Dynamic Systems . . . . . . , . . . . . . .
SLWARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 31.
FEEDBACK CONTROL USING DIGITAL CO>fPUTERS . . . . . . . .
31.1 The Block Diagram and the Transfer Function of a

Closed-Loop System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31.2 The Response of a Closed-Loop System and Its
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . .
SUWARY AND CONCLUDIXG
REXARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 32.
THE
DESIGN OF SAMPLED-DATA,
FEEDBACK
CONTROL SYSTEMS . .
32.1 Conditions for Stability of Sampled-Data Systems . . . .

32.2 The Effect of Sampling on the Closed-Loop Response of
of Sampled-Data Systems . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32.3 The Design of Sampled-Data, Feedback Loops Using
Frequency Response Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
EXJNNARY
AND CONCLUDING REMARKS , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter 33.
THE DESIGN OF ADDITIONAL SAMPLED-DATA, CONTROL

CONFIGURATIONS
.....................
33.1
Feedforward
Control
33.2
Cascade
33.3
Adaptive
33.4
Supervisory
and
Ratio
Control . . . . . . . . . .
Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Control
....................
Control . . ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
: ................................
PROBLEMS
I.
PART I
THE CONTROL OF A CHEMICAL PROCESS:
ASSOCIATED
PROBLEMS
ITS CHARACTERISTICS AND THE
The purpose of the following three introductory chapters is:

- to define what we mean by chemical process control,
- to describe the needs and the incentives for controlling a
chemical
process,
- to analyse the characteristics of a control system and to formulate the problems that must be solved during the design of a
control system, and finally
- to provide the rationale for studying the material that follows
in the subsequent chapters.
In order to achieve the above objectives we will use a series
of examples taken from the chemical industry. ,These
usually simplified
tlualit.i3tive
examples are
and serve only to demonstrate the various
points made.
/3
CHAPTER
INCENTIVES
FOR
CHEMICAL
PROCESS
CONTROL
A chemical plant is an arrangement of processing units (reactors, heat

exchangers,
pumps, distillation
columns,
absorbers,
evaporators,
integrated with each other in a systematic and rational manner.
tanks,
The
etc.),
plant's
overall objective is to convert certain raw materials (input feedstock) into

desired products using available sources of energy, in the most economic,way.
During
its
operation, a chemical plant must satisfy several requirements
imposed by its designers and the general technical, economic and social conditions
in
the
presence
of
ever-changing
external
influences
(disturbances).
Among such requirements are the following:

- Safety:
The safe operation of a chemical process is a primary requirement,
for the well being of the people in the plant and its continued contribution to the economic development.
temperatures,
allowable
Thus,
the
operating
pressures,
concentration of chemicals, etc. should always be within

limits.
For example, if a reactor has been designed to operate
at a pressure up to 100 psig, we should have a control

maintain the pressure below this value.
system
that will
As another example, we should try
to avoid the development of explosive mixtures during the operation of a

plant.
-
Production
specifications:
The plant should produce the desired amounts
and quality of the final products.
For example, we may require the pro-
duction of two million pounds of ethylene per day, of 99.5% purity, from
an ethylene plant.
Therefore, a control system is needed to ensure that
the production level (2 million pounds per day) and the purity specifications (99.5% ethylene) are satisfied.
Environmental
regulations:
Various federal and state laws may specify
that the temperatures, concentrations of chemicals and flowrates of the

effluents from a plant be within certain limits.
Such
regulations
for
example exist on the amounts of SO2 that a plant can eject to the atmosphere, and the quality of water returned to a river or a lake.
-
Operational
constraints:
The various types of equipments used in a chemical
plant have constraints inherent to their operation.
Such
constraints
should
be satisfied throughout the operation of a plant. For example, pumps must

maintain a certain net positive suction head; tanks should not overflow or
go dry; distillation columns should not be flooded: the temperature in a
catalytic reactor should not exceed an upper limit since the catalyst will
be
destroyed.
Control systems are needed to satisfy all these operational
constraints.
- Economics:
The operation of a plant must conform with the market con-
ditions, i.e. the availability of raw materials and the demand of the
final
products.
Furthermore, it should be as economic as possible in its
utilization of raw materials, energy, capital and human labor.
Thus, it
is required that the operating conditions are controlled at given optimum

levels
of
minimum operating cost, or maximum profit; etc.
All the above requirements dictate the need for a continuous monitoring
of the operation of a chemical plant and an external intervention (control) to
guarantee the satisfaction of the operational objectives.
This is accomplished
through a rational arrangement of various equipment (measuring devices, valves,

controllers,
operators),
computers) and human intervention (plant designers, plant
which
constitutes
the
control
system.
There are three general classes of needs that a control system is called
to satisfy:
- Suppress the influence of external disturbances,

!
- ensure the 'stability of a chemical process, and

- optimize the performance of a chemical process.
Let us examine these needs using various examples.
1.1 SUPPRESS THE INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL DISTURBANCES.
Suppressing the influence of the external disturbances on a process is
the most common objective of a controller in a chemical plant.
Such dis-
turbances denote the effect that the surroundings (external world) have on a
1_
reactor,
separator, heat exchanger, compressor, etc., and usually they are out
I-
of the reach of the human operator.
Consequently, we need to introduce a
control mechanism that will make the proper changes on the process to cancel
the negative impact that such disturbances may have on the desired operation
of a chemical plant.
Example
1.1 - Controlling the Operation of a Stirred Tank Heater
Consider the tank heater system shown in Figure 1.1. A liquid enters the
tank with a flowrate
Fi (ft3/min),
and a temperature
heated with steam (having a flowrate

flowrate
Ti (OF), where it is
Fs, lb/min). Let F and T be the
and temperature of the stream leaving the tank. The tank is con-
sidered to be well stirred, which implies that the temperature of the effluent
is equal to the temperature of the liquid in the tank.
The operational objectives of this heater are:
- Keep the effluent temperature T at a desired value Ts.
- Keep the volume of the liquid in the tank at a desired value Vs.
The operation of the heater is disturbed by external factors like changes in
the feed flowrate
and temperature Fi
and
Ti'
If nothing changed, then
after attaining T = Ts
and V=Vs, we could leave the system alone without
any supervision and control.

since T i
and
Fi
It is clear though that this cannot be true

Consequently,
are subject to frequent changes.
some
form
of control action is needed to alleviate the impact of the changing disturbances

and keep T and V at the desired values.
In Figure 1.2 we see such a control action to keep T = Ts when Ti or
Fi
changes.
tank.
e=T
A thermocouple measures the temperature T of the liquid in the
Then T is compared with the desired value Ts

S
-T.
The value of the deviation E
yielding a deviation
is sent to a control mechanism
which decides what must be done in order for the temperature

back to the desired value Ts.
T to return
If E > 0 which implies T < Ts, the con-
troller opens the steam valve so that more heat can be supplied.
contrary,
the controller closes the steam valve when
e-c0
O n
t h e
or T>Ts.
It
is clear that when T = Ts, i.e. E. = 0 the controller does nothing. This
control system that measures the variable'of direct importance (T
in this
case) after a disturbance had its effect on it, is called Feedback control
system.
The desired value Ts
is called the Set Point and is supplied
externally by the person in charge of production.

A similar configuration can be used if we want to keep the volume V, or
'.
equivalently the liquid level h, at its set point hs
Fi changes. In
this case we measure the level of the liquid in the tank and we.open or close
the valve that affects theaeffluent
flowrate
when
F or Fi (see Figure. 1.3). It is
clear that the control systems shown in Figure 1.3 are also feedback control
systems.
All feedback systems shown in Figures 1.2 and 1.3 act post facto
(after the fact), i.e. after the effect of the disturbances has been felt by
the process.
Returning back to the tank heater example, we realize that we can use a
different control arrangement to maintain T = Ts
when Ti
changes.
Measure'
I7
the temperature of the.inlet stream

provide more or less steam.
Such
and open or close the steam valve to
control
control and is shown in Figure 1.4.
We
configuration
notice
that
is
called
the'feedforward
Feedforward
control
does not wait until the effect of the disturbances has been felt by the system, but acts appropriately before the external disturbance affects the system,
anticipating what its effect will be.
The characteristics of the feedback and
feedforward control systems will be studied in detail in subsequent chapters.

The suppression of the impact that disturbances have on the operating
behavior of processing units is one of the main reasons for the usage of control in the chemical industry.
1.2 ENSURE THE STABILITY OF A PROCESS.

Consider the behavior of the variable x shown in Figure 1.5. Notice
that at time
t = to
the constant value of x is disturbed by some external
factors, but that as the time progresses the value of x returns to its
initial value to stay.
pressure,
concentration,
If x is a process variable like temperature,

flowrate,
etc., we say that the process is stable o r
self-regulating and needs no external intervention for its stabilization.
It
is clear that no control mechanism is needed to force x to return to its

initial
value.
In contrast to the above behavior, the variable y shown in Figure 1.6

does not return to,its
incluences.
initial value after it is disturbed by external
Processes whose variables follow the pattern indicated by y
in Figure 1.6 (curves a,b,c) are called unstable processes and require
external control for the stabilization of their behavior.
The explosion of a
hydrocarbon duel with air is such an unstable system. Riding a bicycle is an
attempt to stabilize an unstable system and we attain that by pedaling,

steering and leaning our body right or left.
i
-
Example 1.2 - Controlling the Operation of an Unstable Reactor
Consider a continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) where an irreversible

exothermic
reaction
A+B
takes place.
The reaction mixture is cooled by a
coolant medium that flows through a jacket around the reactor (Figure 1.7).
As it is known from the analysis of a CSTR system, the curve that describes
the amount of heat released by the exothermic reaction is a sigmoidal function
of the temperature T in the reactor (curve A in Figure 1.8). On the other
hand, the heat removed by the coolant is a linear function of the temperature
T (curve B in Figure 1.8).
Consequently, when the CSTR is at steady state,
i.e. nothing is changing, the heat produced by the reaction should be equal to
.
the heat removed by the coolant, thus yielding the steady states Pl, P2, Pg
at the'intersection of the curves
I
5
A and B (Figure 1.8). The steady states
p1 and Pg are called stable while the P2 is unstable.

concept of stability let us consider the steady state P2.
To understand the
Assume that we are able to start the reactor at the temperature T2, and
the
concentration
cA
that corresponds to this temperature. Consider that

2
the temperature of the feed Ti increases.
This will cause an increase in
the temperature of the reacting mixture, say T;.
by the reaction (Q;)
At, T;
the heat released
is mqre than the heat removed by the coolant, ,Q; (see
Figure 1.8) thus leading to higher temperatures in the reactor and consequently
to increased rates of reaction.
Increased rates of reaction produce larger
amounts of heat released by the exothermic reaction which in turn lead to

higher temperatures and so on.
Therefore, we see that an increase in Ti
1
I
..:?ij
E
.:
I
--
perature will eventually reach the value of the steady state P3

Similarly, if Ti
.
1:
ti:
(Figure
takes the reactor temperature away from the steady state P2
off from
P2
and that the tem1.9a).
were to decrease, the temperature of the reactor would take
and end up at Pl (Figure 1.9b). By contrast, if we were
operating at the steady state
P3
or Pl. and we perturbed the operation of
the reactor, it would return naturally back to the point P3

it started from (see Figures 1.5c,d).
Note:
or Pl where
The reader should verify this
assertion.
Sometimes we would like to operate the CSTR at the middle unstable steady
state for the following reasons:
(i) the low temperature steady state P1
causes very low yields because the temperature Tl

high
temperature
steady
state P3
is very low.
(ii) the
may be very high causing unsafe conditions,
destroying the catalyst for a catalytic reactor, or degrading the product B,

etc.
In such cases we need a controller which will ensure the stability of the
operation at the middle steady state.
Question:
The reader should suggest a
control mechanism to stabilize the operation of the reactor at the unstable

steady
state
P2.
This example demonstrates very vividly the need for
stabilizing the operation of a system using some type of control in the

presence of external disturbances that tend to take the system away from the
desired
point.
,\ :*:
Bi. ,.:;:4
-
1.3 OPTIMIZE THE PERFORMANCE OF A CHEMICAL PROCESS.
/::t
112/::!.
two operational objectives for a chemical plant.
Safety and the satisfaction of the production specifications are the main
Once these are achieved, the
next goal is how to make the operation of the plant more profitable.
: .,!:
I ',..:'i
1
$':.
,,
1, \
Given the
fact that the conditions that
affect the operation of the plant do not remain
the same, it is clear that we would like to be able to change the operation of
the plant (flowrates, pressures, concentrations, temperatures) in such a way
that an economic objective (profit) is always maximized.
This task is under-
taken by the automatic controllers of the plant and its human operators.
Let us now see an example from the chemical processing industry where the
controller is used to optimize the economic performance of a single unit.
Example 1.3 - Optimizing the Performance of a Batch Reactor

Consider a batch reactor where the following two consecutive reactions
take place:
A
+B
1
-t C
2
Both reactions are assumed to be endothermic with first order kinetics.
The
heat required for the reactions is supplied by steam which flows through the
jacket around the reactor (Figure 1.10). The desired product is B while C
is an undesired waste.
The economic objective for the operation of the batch
reactor is to maximize the profit
@ over a period of time tR,
i.e.
tR
,Maximize
@=
I
0
where
{[Revenue from the sales of product B]- [cost of purchasing

A + cost of steam]] dt
.'
revenue from product B = p cB(t)

cost of raw material A = crcA(0)
cost of steam
P
C
= Ch Q(t)
= price per lb-mole of product B

r = price per lb-mole of raw material A
(1.1)
'h = cost per lb of steam

8
c A (0) = concentration of A at the beginning of the batch reaction

and
tR = the period of reaction.

The only variable that we can change freely to maximize the profit is the
steam flowrate
8
Q(t) which can vary with time. The steam flowrate
will
affect the temperature in the batch reactor and the temperature in turn will
affect the rates of the desired and undesired reactions,
The question is how
should we vary Q(t) with time so that the profit @ is maximized. Let us
examine some special policies with respect to Q(t).
a.
If Q(t) is given the largest value that we can for the whole reaction
period
8..
tR, then the temperature of the reacting mixture will take the
largest value that is possible.
Initially, when
CA
is large, we will
have high yields of B but we will also pay more for the steam. As
time goes on and the concentration of

also
the
increases.
temperature
Consequently,
must
B increases the yield of C
towards the end of the reaction period
decrease, necessitating
decrease
in
the
steam
flowrate.
8
b.
If the steam flowrate is kept at its lowest value, i.e. Q(t) = 0,

for the entire reaction period tR, we will not have any steam cost,
but also we will not have any production of B.

8
We see clearly from the above two extreme cases that Q(t) will vary between
its lowest and highest values during the reaction period tRa How should it
vary in order to maximize the profit is not trivial and requires the
solution
of
the
above
optimization
problem.
In Figure 1.11 we see a general trend that the steam flowrate

8
must
follow in order to optimize the profit a. Therefore, a control system is
needed which will:
(a) compute the best steam flowrate
for every time during
the reaction period and (b) will adjust the valve (inserted in the steam line)
so that the steam flowrate
takes its best value (computed above in (a)). Such
problems as the above are known as optimal control problems.
This
example indicates that the control of the steam flowrate
is
not used to ensure the stability of the reactor or to eliminate the effect of
external disturbances on the reactor but to optimize its economic performance.
CHAPTER 2
DESIGN ASPECTS OF A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF THE VARIABLES IN A CHEMICAL PROCESS.

The
variables
(flowrates,
temperatures,
pressures,
concentrations,
etc.)
associated with a chemical process are classified into:

a.
Input variables, which denote the effect of the surroundings on a

chemical
b.
process,
and
output variables, which denote the effect of the process on the

surroundings.
Example
2.1
For the CSTR reactor discussed in Example 1.2 (Figure 1.7) we have:
input
variables:
cA , Ti, Ti, Tc , Fe(F)

i
i
output variables: cA, T, F, Tc , V

0
Notice that the effluent flowrate

output.
F can be considered either as input or
If there is a control valve on the effluent stream so that its flow-
rate can be manipulated by a controller, the variable F is an input, since

the opening of the valve is adjusted externally, otherwise F is an output
variable.
Example
-.
2.2
For the tank heater discussed in Example 1.1 (Figure 1.1) we have:
input variables: Fi, Ti, Fs(F)
output
variables:
F, V, T
The input variables can be further classified into the following

categories:
. Manipulated (or adjustable) variables, if their values
1.
:can be adjusted freely by the human operator or a con&rol
ii.
mechanism and
disturbances,
if their values are not the result of
adjustment by an operator or a control system.

The output variables are also classified into the following categories:
i.
Measured output variables, if their values are known

by directly measuring them, and
ii.
unmeasured
be
measured
output
variables, if they are not or cannot
directly.
Example 2.3
Suppose that the inlet stream in the CSTK system (Figure 1.7) comes from
an upstream unit over which we have no control.
1
Then, CA , Fi, Ti are

i
If the coolant flow-rate is controlled by a control valve,
disturbances.
then
F
is a manipulated variable, while
is a disturbance.
ci
Also, if the flowrate
of the effluent stream is controlled by a valve, then
F is a manipulated variable, otherwise it is an output variable.

With respect to the output variables we have the following:
T, F, Tc ,
0
V are measured outputs since their values can be known easily using thermocouples (T, Tc ), a venturi meter (F), and a differential pressure cell (V).
0
The concentration
chromatograph,
stream.
CA
infrared
can be's
measured variable if an analyzer (gas
spectrometer, etc.) is attached to the effluent
In many industrial plants such analyzers are not available because
they are expensive and/or have low reliability (give poor measurements or
break
down
easily).
Consequently,
in
such
cases
cA is an unmeasured output
variable.
Example
2.4
For the tank heater system (Figure l.l>, the inputs Fi and T.1
turbances, while FS
The
and F are manipulated inputs.
output
are dis-
variables
V and T can be measured easily and they are considered measured outputs.
According to their direct measurability or not the disturbances are

classified
2Example
.
into
two
categories:
the -measured
- - - and
unmeasured
disturbances.
The disturbances Fi and Ti

are
the
easily
measured; thus
they
are
of the stirred tank heater (Figure 1.1)

considered
measured
disturbances.
On the other hand, the feed composition for a distillation column,

extraction
quently
is
unit, reactors and the like, is not normally measured and conseconsidered
an
unmeasured
disturbance.
As we will see later on, unmeasured

trol
problems.
disturbances
generate
difficult
con-
Figure 2.1 sununarizes all the classes of variables that we have around a
5 chemical process.
2.2 ELEMENTS OF THE DESIGN OF A CONTROL SYSTEM
Let us see now what are the basic questions that we must ask while
attempting to design a control system that will satisfy the control needs for
a
chemical
process.
A.
Define
Control
Objectives
The central element in any control configuration is the process that we

want to control.
The first question that is raised by the control designer
is:
Question 1:
"What are the operational objectives that a control

system is called to achieve?"
The answer to this question determines the so-called control objectives.
They
may have to do with:

- Ensuring the stability of the process, or
-
suppressing
the
influence
of
external
disturbances,
or
- optimizing the economic performance of a plant, or

'
- combination of the above.

At the beginning the control objectives are 'defined qualitatively and subsequently they are quantifi'ed, usually in terms of the output variables.
Example
2.6
For the CSTR system discussed in Example 1.2 (Figure 1.7), the control
objective (qualitatively defined) is to ensure the stability of the middle,
unstable
steady
state.
But such a qualitative description of the control
objectives is not useful for the design of a control system and must be
quantified.
quantitative
translation
of
the
qualitative
control
objective
requires that the temperature (an output variable) does not deviate more than
5% from its nominal value at the unstable steady state.
Example
2.7
For the stirred tank heater of Example 1.1 the control objectives are to
maintain the temperature of the outlet (T) and the volume of the fluid in the
tank at desired values.
objectives
where
is
T
Ts
vs
and
vs
Example
direct
For this example the quantification of the control
and
are
straightforward,
given,
desired
i.e.
values.
2.8
For the batch reactor of Example 1.3 the qualitative control objective
is the maxfmization of the profit.
objective
is
rather
complex.
The
quantitative
description
of
this
It requires the solution of a maximization
problem, which will yield the value of the steam flowrate, Q(t), at each instant during the reaction period.
B.
Select
Measurements
Whatever
performance
of
are
the
our
control
chemical
objectives, we need some means to monitor the
process.
This is done by measuring the values of
certain processing variables (temperatures, pressures, concentrations, flowrates,
etc.).
The second question that arises is:
Question 2:
"What variables should we measure in order to monitor

the
operational
performance
of
plant?"
It is self-evident that we would like to monitor directly the variables that

represent
Such
our
control
measurements
Example
objectives, and this is what is done whenever possible.
are
called
primary
measurements.
2.9
For the tank heater system (Example 1.1) our control objectives are to
keep the volume and the temperature of the liquid in the tank at desired
levels, i.e.
keep T = TS
Consequently,
monitor
a
and
our first attempt is to install measuring devices that will

and
thermocouple
directly.
(for
For the present system this is simple by using
T) and a differential pressure cell (for V).
Sometimes it happens
quantities,
V = vs.
that our control objectives are not measurable
i.e. they belong to the class of unmeasured outputs.
In such
cases we must measure other variables which can be measured easily and
rcl..Lably.
Then
and
the
Such
we
supporting
develop
secondary
measurements
mathematical
measurements,
unmeasured
output
are
called secondary - measurements.

--
relationships
between
the
unmeasured
outputs
i.e.
= f (secondary measurements)
which allow us to determine the values of the unmeasured outputs (once the
values of the secondary measurements are,available).
In a subsequent chapter
we will see that the above mathematical relationship between measured and
unmeasured
outputs
considerations.
results
from
empirical, experimental
or
theoretical
Example
2.10
Consider a simple distillation column separating a binary mixture of

pentane and hexane into two produce streams of pentane (distillate) and
hexane
(bottoms).
Our control objective'is to maintain the production of a
distillate stream with 95% by mole in pentane in the presence of changes in

the
feed
composition
It is clear that our first reaction is to use a composition analyzer to

measure the concentration of pentane in the distillate
and tllcn using fcrtl-
back control to manipulate the reflux ratio, so that we can keep the
distillate
95%
in
pentane.
This control scheme is shown in Figure 2.2a. An
alternative control system is to use a composition analyzer to monitor the

concentration of pentane in the feed.
Then in a feedforward arrangement we
can change the reflux ratio to achieve our objective.

shown in Figure 2.2b.
sition
analyzers.
This control scheme is
Both of the a'bove control systems depend on the compo-
It is possible that such measuring devices are either very
costly or of very low reliability for an industrial environment (failing

quite
often
or
not
providing
accurate
measurements).
In such cases we can
measure the temperature at various plates along the length of the column quite
reliably,
using
simple
thermocouples.
Then using the material and energy
balances around the plates of the column and the thermodynamic equilibrium
relationship
between
liquid
and
vapor
streams, we can develop a.mathematical
relationship that gives us the composition of the distillate if the temperatures of some selected trays are known.
scheme
that
uses
temperature
measurements
Figure 2.2~ shows such a control
(secondary
measurements)
to
estimate
or infer the composition of pentane in the distillate, i.e. the value of the
control
objective.
The third class of measurements that we can make to monitor the behavior
of a chemical process includes the direct measurement of the external disturbances.
G
Measuring the disturbances before they enter the process can be
highly advantageous because it allows us to know a priori what the behavior

of the,
chemical process will be and thus take remedial control action to
alleviate
any
undesired
measurements
of
c.
Manipulated
Select
the
consequences.
disturbances
(see
Feedforward
Figure
control
uses
direct
1.4).
Variables
Once the control objectives have been specified and the various measurements
identified, the next question is how do we effect a change on the
process, i.e.
C&estion 3:
"What are the manipulated variables to be used in order

to control a chemical process?"
Usually in a process we have a number of available input variables which

can be adjusted freely.
Which ones we select' to use as manipulated variables
is a crucial question as the choice will affect the quality of the control
actions we take.
Example
2.11
In order to control the level of liquid in a tank we can either adjust

._I
the flowrate of the inlet stream (Figure 1.3b) or the flowrate of the outlet
stream (Figure 1.3a).
will
analyse
later.
Which one is better is an important question that we
31
D.
Select
After
manipulated
that
of
the
the
Control
control
variables
defining
Configuration
objectives,
have
the
been
control
the
possible
measurements,
and
the
available
identified, the final problem to be solved is
configuration.
Before we define what a control configuration is, let us look at some

control
systems
with
different
control
configurations.
The two feedback control systems in Figures 1.3a and 1.3b constitute two
different
liquid
control
level)
flows
configurations.
to
and Fi (Figure 1.3b).
different
Thus, the
manipulated
Similarly,
the
same
information
variables,
feedback
i.e.
control
(measurement
of
F (Figure 1.3a)
system
(Figure
1.2)
and the feedforward control system (Figure 1.4) for the tank heater constitute
two
distinctly
different
control
configurations.
FOP
tems we use the same manipulated variable, i.e. Fs
these two control sysbut
different
measurements.
Thus, for the feedback system of Figure~l.2 we use the temperature of the
liquid in the tank, while for the feedforward system of Figure 1.4 we measure
the temperature of the inlet.
In the above examples we notice that two control configurations differ
either in:
- The information (measurement) flowing to the same manipulated variable or
- the manipulated variable where the information flows to.
Thus, for the two feedback control systems in Figures 1.3a and 1.3b we
use the same information (measurement of the liquid level) but different
manipulated variables (F or Fi).
On the contrary, for the control systems
in Figures 1.2 and 1.4, we have different measurements (T or
Ti) which are
used to adjust the value of the same manipulated variable (Fs).

Later on we will also study other types 0E control configurations, but
for the time being we can define a---.control configuration (or ~.
control
..__structure_)
as
follows:
Definition
--II_Control configuration we will call the information structure which is
used to connect the available measurements to the available manipulated
variables.
It is clear from the previous examples that normally we will have many
different
the
control
following
configurations
for
given'chemical
process,
which
raises
question:
Question 4:
"What is the best control configuration for a given

chemical
process
control
situation?"
The answer to this question is very critical for the quality of the control system we are asked to design.
Depending
in,a
on how many controlled outputs and manipulated inputs we have
chemical process we can distinguish the control configurations into:

single-input,
single-output
multiple-input,
(SISO)
multiple-output
or
(MIMO)
control
systems.
For example, for the tank heater system:

- If the control objective (controlled output) is to keep the liquid level
at a desired value by manipulating the effluent flowrate, then we have a
SISO system.
- On the contrary, if our control objectives are (more than one) to keep the
level and the temperature of the liquid at desired values, by manipulating
(more than one) the steam flowrate
and the effluent flowrate, then we have
a MIMO system.
In the chemical industry most of the processing systems are mulitpleinput, multiple-output
systems.
Since the design of SISO systems is simpler
we will start first with them and progressively we will cover the design of
MIMO
systems.
Let us close this paragraph by defining three general types of control

configurations.
a.
-Feedback
- -
control
configuration:
Uses direct measurements of the con-
trolled variables to adjust the values of the manipulated variables (Figure

2.3).
The objective is to keep the controlled variables at desired levels
(set points).
We can see examples of feedback control in Figures 1.2 and 1.3.
b.
Inferential control configzration:
the
controlled
pulated
variables
variables
controlled
are
(Figure
variables
at
not
2.4).
desired
Uses
secondary
measurements,
because
measured, to adjust the values of the maniThe objective here is to keep the (unmeasured)
levels.
The estimator uses the values of the available measured outputs, along
with the material and energy balances that govern the process, to compute
mathematically
(estimate)
the
values
of
the
unmeasured
controlled
variables.
These estimates in turn are used by the controller to adjust the values of the
manipulated
variables.
An
example
of
inferential
control
configuration
can
be
seen in Figure 2.2~.

C.
Feedforward
control
configuration.
Uses direct measurements of the dis-
turbances to adjust the values of the manipulated variables (Figure 2.5).

The objective here is to keep the values of the controlled output variables
at desired levels.
An example of feedforward control configuration we can see
in Figure 1.4.
E.
Design
In
receives
the
every
the
Controller
control
information
configuration, the controller is the active element that

from
the
measurements
and
takes
actions to adjust the values of the manipulated variables.
appropriate
control
For the design of
the controller we must answer the following question:

-Question
5:
"How is the information taken from the measurements

used to adjllst the val.ues
of
the
manipulated
variables?"
The answer to this question constitutes the control law, which is imple_
mented
automatically
Example
by
the
controller.
2.12
Let us consider the problem of controlling the liquid level (h) in a

tank (Figure 2.6), in the presence of changes in the inlet flowrate Fi.
Our
measurement will be the liquid level and the manipulated variable the outlet
flowrate.
The feedback control configuration used is shown in Figure 2.6.
The question is:

constant
wlien
17
"How should F change with time to keep the liquid level

changes?"
In other words, we want to develop the control
law.
Let us assume that the heater has been operating for some time and that
1 its liquid level has been kept constant at hs
has remained constant at a value
T s'
while
the
liquid
temperature
We I say that the heater has been
operating, at a steady state (where nothing changes).
Under
these
conditions
the material balance around the tank yields,

0
where F
Let
hs
that the
i,s
= F
i,s
and sF
Fs
(2.1)
are the inlet and outlet flowrates at steady-state.
be the liquid level corresponding to steady state operation.

Fi
increases suddenly as it is shown in Figure 2.7.
done on F, the liquid level
h will start rising with time.
Suppose
If nothing is
How h
changes
with time will be given from the transient material balance around the tank,
i.e.
dV
dt
Fi
or
Adh=F
dt
i
-F
where A is the cross sectional area of the tank.

Subtract eqn. (2.1) from (2.2) and take
(2.2)
*
dt
- (F -u Fs)
(F
i
Fi,s)
d(h - hs>
A
(2.3)
= (Fi - Fi,s) - (F - Fs)
dt
since h S = const.
The variable h = h - hs
denotes the error or deviation of the liquid
level from the desired value hs.

manipulating the flowrate
We want to drive this error to zero by
F.
The simplest control law is to require that the flowrate
F increases
or decreases proportionally to the error h - h S i.e.

F
a(h -
hs)
(2.4)
This law is called Proportional Control law, and the parameter a is known as
Proportional
From
Gain.
equation (2.4) we notice that when h - hs = 0 then F = Fs
consequently b = Fs.
F
= Fs
and
Thus the proportional control takes the form,
+ a(h
(2.5)
- hs)
If we substitute F given from equation (2.5) into equation (2.3) we

take,
d(h - $1
A
dt
+ a(h - hs)
(2.6)
- Vi - Fi,J
This last differential equation is solved for (h - hs), and for various
values of the proportional gain a
yields the solutions shown in Figure 2.8.
We notice that none of the solutions is satisfactory since h - hs # 0.

we
conclude
that
the
proportional
control
law-is
not
Thus,
acceptable.
Considerable improvement in the quality of the resulting control can be

obtained if we use a different control law known as Integral Control.
According to this law the value of the manipulated variable F is proportional

to the time integral of the error (h - hs), i.e.
a'
(h - hs)dt
+ b'
(h - hs)dt
When we are at steady statd

b' = Fs.
Thus, the
F=F + a '
= 0 and F = Fs.
Consequently,
integral control law takes the form
(2.7)
(h - hs)dt
0
Substituting F from eqn. (2.7) into eqn. (2.3) we take,
(2.8)
is shown
The solution of eqn. (2.8) f or various values of the parameter a'

in Figure 2.9.
1
We notice that integral control is an acceptable control law

to zero.
since it drives the error h - h S

the value of a'
the error h - hs
We also notice that depending on
returns to zero faster or slower;
oscillates for a longer or shorter time, etc.
In other words, the quality of
control depends on the value of a'
in a very profound manner.
subsequent
to
chapters
we
will
see
how
solve
Note:
In
integrodifferential
equations
with
control
like eqn. (2.8).

Combining
the
proportional
control
action
the
integral
action we have a new control law, known as Proportional-Integral Control.

According to this law the value of the outlet flowrate
Fs
a(h
hs>
a'
I
0
(h - hs)dt
is given by,
37
In subsequent chapters we will study the characteristics of various forms

of control laws, but it should be remembered that the selection of the
appropriate control law is a very important question to be decided by the
chemical
engineer
control
designer.
2.3 THE CONTROL ASPECTS OF A COMPLETE CHEMICAL

PUNT
The examples that we discussed in the previous sections were concerned
with the control of single units like a CSTR, a tank heater, and a batch
reactor.
lt should be emphasized a,s early as possible that rarely if ever is
a chemical process composed of one unit only.
On the contrary, a chemical
process is composed of a large number of units (reactors, separators, heat

exchangers,
tanks,
pumps,
compressors,, etc.)
which
are
each other through the flow of materials and energy.
interconnected
with
For such a process the
problem of designing a control system is not simple but it requires experience

and
good
chemical
engineering
background.
Without dwelling too much on the control problems of integrated chemical

processes, let us see some of their characteristic features which do not show
up in the control of single units,,
Example
2.13
Consider a simple chemical plant composed of two units:

distillation
column
(Figure
2.10).
a CSTR and a
The raw materials entering the reactor are
A and B with flowrates FA, FB and temperatures TA,
TB respectively.
They react to yield C, i.e.

A + B
- C
The reaction is endothermic and the heat is supplied by steam around the
jacket of the reactor.
The mixture of C, plus unreacted A and R enters
the
distillation
column
where
A + B is separated from the top as the over-
head product and C is taken as the bottoms product.

The operational objectives for this simple plant are:
1.
Product
specifications:
- keep the flowrate of the desired product stream

F
at the specified level, and

P
- keep the required purity of C in the product
stream.
ii.
Operational
constraints:
- do not overflow the CSTR, and

- do not flood the distillation column, or let it go dry.
iii.
Economic
considerations:
- Maximize the profit from the operation of this plant.

Since the flowrate
stream
are
and the composition of the product
specified, maximizing the profit is
equivalent to minimizing the operating costs. It

should be noted that the operating cost involves the
cost for purchasing the raw materials, the cost of
steam used in the CSTR and the reboiler of the distillation
column, as well as the cost of the cooling
water used in the condenser.

The disturbances that will affect the above operational objectives are:
-
The
raw
flowrates,
compositions, and temperatures of the streams of the two
materials.
- The pressure in the distillation column.

- The temperature of the coolant used in the condenser of the distillation
column.
(For example, if the coolant is water it will have a different
temperature during the day time than during the night.)

At first glance the problem of designing a control system even for this
simple plant looks very complex.
Indeed it is.
The basically new feature for the control design of such a system is the
interaction
between
the
units
(reactor,
column).
The output of the reactor
affects in a profound way the operation of the column and the overhead product
of the column influences the conversion in the CSTR.
This
tight
interaction
between the two units complicates seriously the design of the control system
for the overall process.
Suppose that we want to control the composition of the bottoms product by
manipulating the steam in the reboiler.
This control action will aEfect
the
composition of the overhead product (A+B) which in turn will affect the
reaction conversion in the CSTR.
On the other hand in order to keep the conversion in the CSTR constant
at the desired level, we try to keep the ratio
*A'53 = constant and the tem-
perature T in the CSTR constant. Any changes in FA/FB or T will affect

the conversion in the reactor and thus the composition of the feed in the
distillation
column.
A change in the feed composition of the column will
affect the purity of the two product streams.

The control of integrated processes is the basic objective for a chemical
engineer.
Due to its complexity though, we will start by analyzing the cgn-
trol problems for single units and eventually we will treat the integrated
processes.
CHAPTER 3
HARDWARE FOR A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
In the previous chapter we examined the various considerations that must be

taken into account during the design of a control system and the associated
problems that must be resolved.
In this chapter we will discuss the physical
elements (hardware) constituting a control system as it is implemented in

practice for the control of real physical processes.
3.1 IIARDWARI:,- ELRMMENTS

In
every
OF A CONTROL
- - -SYSTEM.
control
configuration
we
can
distinguish
the
following
hardware
elements:
a.
The
chemical
process:
It
represents
the
material
equipment
together
with
the physical or chemical operations that occur there,

b.
The
to
measuring
measure
the
instruments
or
sensors:
Such
instruments
are used
disturbances, the controlled output variables or to measure
secondary variables, and are the main sources of information about what going
is
on in the process.
Characteristic
resistance
thermocouples
or
examples
are:
thermometers, for
,
measuring
the
temperature,
- venturi meters, for measuring the flowrate,

- gas chromatographs,
for measuring the composition of a stream, etc.
A mercury thermometer is not a good measuring device to be used for control since its measurement cannot be readily transmitted.
On the other hand the
thermocouple is acceptable because it develops an electric voltage which can

be
the
readily
transmitted.
measuring
Thus, transmission is a very crucial factor in selecting
devices.
Since good measurements are very crucial for good control, the measuring
devices should be rugged and reliable for an industrial environment.
C.
Transducers
or
transmitters:
Many measurements cannot be used for con-
trol until they are converted to physical quantities (like electric voltage
or current, or a pneumatic signal, i.e. compressed air or liquid) which can be
transmitted
For
easily.
The transducers or transmitters are used for that purpose.
example, the Strain Gauges are metallic conductors which change their
resistance
when
subjected
to
mechanical
strain.
Thus, they can be used to
convert a pressure signal to an electric one.

d.
Transmission
lines:
They are used to carry the measurement signal from
the measuring device to the controller.
In the past the transmission lines
were pneumatic (compressed air or compressed liquids) but with the advent of
the electronic analog controllers and especially the expanding usage of
digital
computers
for
control, the
transmission
lines
carry
electric
signals.
Many times the measurement signal coming out from a measuring device is very
weak, and it cannot be transmitted over a long distance.
In such cases the
transmission lines are equipped with amplifiers which raise the level of the
signal.
For
mil 3.iv0I.t s .
example, the output of a thermocouple is of the order of a few

Before it is transmitted to the controller, it is amplified to
the level of a few volts.

e.
The
controller:
This is the hardware element that has "intelligence".
It receives the information from the measuring devices and decides what
action should be taken.
The older controllers were of limited ,"intelligence",
could perform very simple operations and implement simple control laws.
Today with the increasing usage of digital computers as controllers the
available
machine
intelligence
has
expanded
tremendously,
and
very
compli-
cated control laws can be implemented.

f.
The
final
control
element:
This is the hardware element that implements
in real life the decision taken by the controller.
For example, if the
controller
decides that the flowrate of the outlet stream should
be increased
(or decreased) in order to keep the liquid level in the tank at,the desired
value (see Example 1.1, Figure 1.3a), it is the valve (on the effluent stream)
:
that will implement this decision, opening (or closing) by the commanded
,
amount .
The
controi
not the only one.
valve is the most frequently encountered final control element but

Other typical final control elements for a chemical proces,s
-
are :
,
- Relay switches, providing on-off control,

1
,.
*:~II
- variable speed pumps,I, 1
- variable speed
speed compressors,
etc.
.
i
,. . .
.*
,?
Si
*
&.? , .s ~!
Recording
elements
:
These
are
used
to
provide.
a
visual
demonstration
of
83.
:
i;
)
si
:
1
3:
how the chemical firoce&behaves.
Usua%~y the variables recorded are the
2.
I ~._<.
: -1 a,.$
variables which are directly Ameasured as a part of the control &stw.
,?
Various types-of
Si
2:; ! ._ g:.
*, . _, .) 3
I
ra~orders,(te&erature, pre_ssure,.flewrate;
1.,.*
.,
composition, etc.)
.
can be seen in the control room of: a chtsmica), p&ant, monitor&q continuously
*z 51
,.,: :
/ ,.~J :, >;
,.....
3.r ,r.
the behavior of the p&e&$ .
The -recent introduction of the digital computers
in the process d&trol
.,
.(^
T,.=
,,I
opportunities, through
has also expanded the rekording
the video display units (VQU).

.,.
, .G
f.
Figure 3.1 des&ib& the hhrdiare el.esien~ts
L
.fi
used for the cqntrdl of the
:
stirred tank heater.

.3.2, THE USE
; OP. IDTCITAL -COMPUTES TN : PROCRSS.
,CONTRO&.
.:
Th
h ee r a pp i dd technologica+ @+opment
@velopment of,d$gital.,.eomputers
of,d$gital.,.eomputers during
during tt h
h ee l a s t **
ten years, coupled with. s$gpifieant .reduction of their cost, had a very pro.,
found effect on how the ohemical-plants are controlled.*,The
il ::
; . . .
expected future
.
,,
improvements aqng
niquesmake
with the growing sophistic ation
of the control design tech& "

::
:. .
'i
the digital computer the centerpiece.for
the development of a ;'-~'-+:f7;r. 9 .,
control syitem for chemical processes.. , .

,i
'i
._ . .'
:I:,i -,
.:'
plants like petroleum
refineries, ethylene pla&,.
i Already large-. chemi'cal
ti '
/
I I i, .8.
~ , 1 Ji, O. .r
:a i.
::I
ammonia,plants
and many others , are wnder digital computer control. The
* -<
effects have*
been-very substantial, leading 'to better-control andreduced

, I' .*v4
i,
!._:
operating costs. 1
r '.,.,
. ). '
'_ '.,
-'~. _
7 '. :
In the past the control laws that ceuld
be
imoloment&
a-rontroller
~
-..=
---_-__--- hv
-, --.
,
:.
,
,
were very simple like the proportional

control wa
) or
i ,progotifional-integral
'5 ,"
w
'.
I
~.
,:i ' 'i
discussed in'section'2.2. .The fu
en& revolution introduced s.,
by,fhe".
,,
digital computer in the.prahtice'of
process'Mntro~1
is the virtually unlimited,
._,;
'.
"'
!,.
intelligence that can be exhibited;by such 'un,irs. .,'I&& phencmenon imilies
.
>.';,'.
:
_,
:
that the control laws that can.be u,sed are'&.u$ m&e comple?i ar&sophisficsted.
.C
i
*..
,:
.,7". ,~ ,::, ( )
.;.z,:
.T.
Furthermore, the'digital computer with i!--,eas,ily
yropr
d inherent
!I *
. . J
:
;
,~
'II
3
:, 1',
intelligence " can learn" as it receivks aieasur&en$s from-the
proces,s,
and it
1
i
,',
.,,*,. ,%' ;l;<:~, >: : 79;
1
can' change the control law that is imple&en&&
in:tfie
actual' :.operation
of
,.-4, '-'. *1 ,(
;1_ .
7:s:
the plant.
< .:. ; ' b
,c>.:
,:
The digita computers have found very~~diversi$&@,". 2'.control applicat$+s
,,
j I . 3 '~ * i
I,
in the process industry. In subsequent cha'&zrs we,pill.study both the.
.'
;. j
- !?'. ,::,c*
,, 'p : ,*, -*, : .&',I'
'.
theoretical and practical aspects associated with the us,e of,,digital computers
'** "j$ 7,(J &A
for process control. In thefollow%ng
psragrophs~,$a i'the time being, we'5::
."
./ #~,*":.; j : :. :.'r.",, ,J,( l,r *_. ,,'.*,
will diecues some applications characreristic'of'.the
diverse usaBe gf the
';
1~ '.
;)
digital computers.
*f.
',.l,.,
a. , Direct Dig&al Control (DDC$i .'~R,.BUldhl86~~'i~~~~o~~~
the c&put& riceives
I
?
<,+. :
,
>_
directly the measurements from'theSproces8' and b&&6'&~theicontrol
law, which
/
I
is @ready programmed and,resides %a ite:?eolrjrjr,~~alh~ata;Lb~the'valuos of the
,,
:,
manipulated variables, i These,dec&ons,
are,nois- implemented direc$ly on the
process by the computer through the proper adjustment of the final control,
r
3
elements
(valves,
pumps,
compressors,
switches,
mentation of the control decisions gave rise
This dfrect
etc.).
to .the
imple-
name direct digital con-
trol, or sim& DDC.' Figure 3.2 illustrates a typical DDC configuration.

The process can be a&of
separators,
ware element6
etc.
The two interfaceslbefore
already considered such as; heaters, reac

and after' the &&pitter
are hard-
and they are used to create the interface 1 between the computer
and the' process.:

interfaces.
the units'we,have
In a let&
Finally.,
cbapter"we.wiil
diecuss
the nature of these'
the human operator c&"%nteradt~ititb
'the Computir
and
affect the operation of the DDC'si

Today the chemical industry is moving more and more towards the DDC of
the plants.
A typical system oYf DDC's for an ethylene plant can include

,.
i '
*.
P
between 300 and 400 control loops. aAl1 the compan&es which furnish the con, r
/:
, .,"
'
'., i -,
trol systems for the chemical industry: rely 'more and more on.,DDC.
1
' ,_ ad,,, '; L ,-.
!
I
"
v.
Supervisory computer control: -Aswe discussed earlier one of ;the
b.
incentives for process control is the .opt&zat%on,of
the pla&'s economic
A..
.:r " .; i :
.
i _ . I, i I ,a I
performance.
Many times the human operatordoes
not or cannot find the best ,
' ; .j *$.
*;,*,'&! .'.
:".r. ' :A.
.z
This
operating policy for a plant which 'y..will _.(minidil&th~ '/, operating
; is. cost.
: ! p
t
?'S 1 ,. I
'
deficiency is due to the -enormous esmplexity of.a'typlcal chemical plant.'
t
,..
;
," .*$~1 , j ; I,' :
(
,,
>ti L +..i \ I,:.
j
In such cases we can use the,s#eed
&d the progreamn;hd
of a.,i'
.%%. intelligence
,. j :
: ..J.%/" .* _.b.I..:,*I
:' 4;
5"1 .: /,:j:
digital
computer to analyze the sit&j&on and'tosuggest
the best policy..
..
I. ,
j
,
2;s ," ,. j .: 1 _ I':
In doing so the computer coordinates the act$vit&es of the basjc DDC loops
, :
(see Figure 3.3).
Finally, the computer can be.used to
-.I
schedule the operation kof a plant. For example, the conditions in the market
C*
Sch,eduling
computer control.
(demand, supply, prices) change with time, requiring the'management of the ):

chem&l plant to change its op.erational schedule like cutting:production
avoid
overstocking, increasing prodticti'on
to
to meet the demand, changing-over
to a new production line, etc.

These decision
These
decision can
canbebe$made
$made rationally
rationally
with
with
then
&.a digital
digital cpmputer
computer
~ thenaidaid of.a
~
. .. r -3
.
.
. .'
.
.
ii
,_.i, I
,_.'i,
,,,, !..!..
7
7
-3
which in, turn will communicate these ds$.sions
to the supenrisptiy computer
./ .;
controllers.
.
. .I Pinally,
these supervisory eontrollers

will
.,..' implement the,se
.i",
; / . ..'I ,<
2
decisions on the chemical plant through$the ;DDC'8+
!. .L , * I
.i
-II
shapters
DDC
aI
.s we ~i$l. +++Z
.: and
i
;" In subsequent
/
, !, ; .px!,edominantly~with
-^
.' &he ,',
little with superyisory computer : %ent&.~,wh~ile
not'conkern
ourselves
i we..$ll not'conkern
'.i
,'.t/I :.I .
2.
,.
with 'the scheguling computer c*t$;ol $$ch $~,the subject u&pr qf ii dif- :
I. :
';
ferent field.
_, .I
i._' / "
'_ ,.
r d,..<' _,
..;'
,
/'.
',
CONCLJDlNG R&g ON PART I
i.
L
:(.
:
.j
',
It is hoped that the reader now his a sk&chy outl$ne oft
I
,.*:. -;:..
,_
,Tf .6 _' , ~5: :,:' . i ,;, ;I _ ,l.
St
\,
I.- 'I%0 iced8 &id 'the incen~tives for' 'procees ~:onerol,:~I'~ .<
,;,.$;t "' :
,* /_ :;; ,~ 1 > -i $ ', ', .',.
1. .:
;* :
- the basic questions involved'during
the design 6f'a control syst.enfor a
/ ** *
: 14
.,,r+ : .' 3,.:- ' ~
/'l.l
:
b ( * .,'
chemical process,
,s , I (' ,, ),
I.,. . I , :a:$,' '
.
- thehardware elements involved in a; &on& 8ys't&~;&,4
I
: 'j-k'* .;' 'fJ :" * ,?j;i -,z.f , .:," ,' -F ..;i
- the importance of the digital,comput&s~f&
the pres.en.t"a~ future
* , ,z d$:'yje ; I
,:
, '; .
~I
implementation of advanced control'teohriiques.~ _ '~~~'~~~~
I. j I *:,r ,,&:$;.!
"
-1,. ,$;? : '. I (.: b
In the remaining chapters we~will~~s&~t'~
we~will.~~s&~t'~ ay~tkmatic analysis &,the
various questions raised in thi.s
chept$F:,
-wfW'the
design a rational control system f,or a':$i.v&n proce

.,.
,I
,) ,( i :; (.: :' _ " .', . ;:.i$. i. ,.
chapters will be leas chatty and more &&xH$~~~-~
final,
.,-'
I,
REFERENCES
(1
.. .
ChaRter 1:
Numerous examples of the needs and %ncent%ves'for
can bc'foun&'&
(1)
prowess
'*
control
the following booti:
Techn-Jl&@
Son&, Inc. ,
of Process .Cqmts@, by Fi Si 'Buckley, John Wiley &

',
N&#
T*yii
(~9~4),V
_
',
:
c
(2) Process Control Systems,2nd/ edition, by F. G. Shifnsky,

.*
;4
McGraiw-Hi&I,
dew York -(19@]:;'
' ',
, I
More on the stability &haracter,istics of, &TR's

,
;
.,
i:b,. - /,
can be found in:
'
c
.
(31 Ele
tith'exokhermfq
reactions
I.
I& p. 2 (1976)
> r.
>
(
The reader is encouraged to return to these articles
later after he has become
': ". ,I
familiar w&h the terminology' nIncluded in the above refere&ea,
.
Chapter 3: Details on the chslracteristice
and th6 design of the measuring
+
devices,
recorders,
Oransducersi
transmitters, controllers, final
can be found in: :
d4
control elements and

$
1
I
3%
(7) The Chemidal
Engineer\8
Handbook; J. H. Perry (editor), 5th
edi$n, MqGrqyHill,
New Vprk (1974). ,.
I
.*
(8). Pro&a Instruments and,bontrdls X&dbqqk,, D. M. Considine
,:
(editor.), ,2qd .* eaitiqn, l&&aw$iill;.
New York
_,
.: (19Jk)..,
I
An excellent reference for the cor&ter; contgo;;l ,& th&_ch+cel
pro-
cessea
is the boa&:
(~
SC.'
(9) Digital Computer Pn,,c&s
,i.'c_-I s.
. ;: ._
Con&&, by,,C,:L,
Smi&, Intext Educ,,
.Publ. ,. New York' (l!T$TZ$,

Applications of computer contro4
(10) "Digida Cmtro~
I.
C. A.,McCain'and
.
(197t3j.
/
-.' (11)
.I
"Ener@
I,
LaWuS,,,
. ',
..I'
,'
oi a Dis.~~~Jatisn,Sye'~,l~.by,
*
.:'
,
F. W."fFblas,
(1
I
Conser&ionl~ia
;,I
,>
qan be found in the following articles:-
,: .
:.
)L,
~.~~.~~+~~ellano,
me+. J&. Erogr., :74(4),

-.
:
:I
56
(3 (. _
Process Computer
<i
Cont.p3i,*!..by
',
P. R.zsi.
n
'_ ,,'
Chem.,
Fpg,;
Pr0&~.,,;12(4) , 76*;.(19i@b
~' " _/ :';
,,
..
!>
7' (52) 'Qhnppr Co&l of Aqm+&&anfq~,ll,,: !yL. C. Daig$e;III
and
.i.' ~,
.;;1.
G. I(, Nieman, C&m. .&g, progri;',.~70(2)j..Hf.11974),,~
": ' .',
" ,
,_
" .,
;.:.i. _, '_
;(13) "Applying Cpn*ol, (Sompuzt&/ t&a'& X~t$y$ .'
.* I.(
,
Nisenfeld, Ch". Eng. Progr.;.,-
.
--
--
..-----------------,
,, :
.-b---b
c..
,,'
Coolant Water
COLUMN
Controller
Contrdller
I-----y----,
-4
--a
5-J
I
.:
Reflux
Distillate '
.
Feed /I
The three control schemes of the Example 2.8:

' 1 feedback (a)'; fet%-lforward (b); inferentia) (c) a
I
-1
:
1
.
kimat& o f t h e
Values zrf the
Unmeasured CX&rolled
k-ti -4 VariabIes
f
.
----w-a
Estimates
of the
Unmrzrsured
Controlhd
Variables
./
i
3,.
.,
,:
I.
T h e g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e dnFetenfia1 c o n t r o l configurntim.
Measured,,
Oukputs.
,
U n m e a s u r e d
outputs
The gcnernl. s t r u c t u r e OC t h e CeodCorward
4:
.,
control
COIIC
J:;+II-;:t
i,,lI.
,
. . . . C-...-w-.
* -...a -. .-...L-w-.. . . ..--
-.__-
,,
.,
..-.
a..
.-
..d.
..
ir,-
--g*
----I--l
-, . _ - . --- _ _. -. .-._ . . *. . . . .. .I . . - . . . . .
5q ,. :.
Disturbances
-..+-+Measured
c
.
.
Unmeasured
L : Intertace
..-- L
L,-
4 .-e-J - - - .A... _- ,-I 4. I-..
c CHEMICAL
PLtiT
.+ -1-1 ,w-..
,y- ..- -3
-
.- J..- .-A -- ,w-' .Y
>
-J
.
THINGS TO THINK ABOUT

1.
What is the control objective while you are riding a unicycle or a

9
bicycle? What are the measurements that you instinctively make while
rid&g, and what are the manipulated variables at yourdiaposal?
2.
2.
While you are taking a morning shower, what $8 your control ob.jective,
your measurement and the manipulated variab,les at your disposal? q
+
i.
Compare a ,sifple feedback to., a ,sfmple f,yedf,orward control configuration
. 1 ) i
(Figure Q.I-1). Which one would you trust to8 .perform better in
_- ~a c h i e v i n g y o u;.,r . c o n t r,( o l *:obj,ect$ve?
,$2
, W h y ? :I,.j,.. :
3.
3.
4.
4.
I
55 ..
What factors >should you co&ider : &n l,l diter$?nir$gwhat

to
.a..- , J variable?
. ,1
measure for. 1the control.
$f
.a
t$p$$$~~'~~~oces~~.~,
$+wer qualitatively.
,:,
_*
., .ydl.l.i;
.I
I
j
7.
When is: an -inferentia;l., ,contkol configg$re&n

.: ,neede@
.&
. ., ,:.$&at do you think
I )
.
i s i t s primary* weaknes$
Compare*
*t
to
p,,s>mple
feedback
control cbnf: ;
&->,
I ,_
*.,
figuration.
Which one is prefhrabla?
7q*i i
,i :, 9;
:. .
.Describe
Describe the
the steps
steps that'jmu
that*u would
would go
go through
through inorder
inorder to
to dCsign*a con,,,/Lo
trol system for maintaining* .the pH
of the liquidi in
.i
, i.a stirred tank
.,
,: I,< .<.,?. .I
(see Figure Q.I-2) at a deetred
deetred value. What questions mu+ you ryolve?
,
f. _.
.,
ip
4
Develop a feedback and afeedfoiward control configuration for this
!i,
I
..* ,.L,
system.
,
.,,
II
,I {
What is a SISO and what is a MIMi system? Give examples gram the
8.
chemical engineering field for both.

~
Define the term control configuration and develop three different
6
6.
control configurations for the pH control problem presented above in

item 6.
9.
In the tank system shown below (Figure Q.I-3),the
flowrate F of the effluent s
is proportional to the square root of theliquid level h in the,tank.

Show that such a system is self-regulating, i.e. if the inlet flowrate
,!
.
t
increase or decrease by a unit, the tank will not overflow or empty

.,
f,
completely.
31
.*
. ..
8
10.
.: :
I.
:; i
What is a differential.pr&sure
level in& tank? )- .
11.
12.
.$
14.
F ! . ,:.
cell and how doee it measure the liquid
I
1
i
Is a Venturi meter a good me&zing device for monitoring and trans+

J ,.
. .
i
d
,.
mitting the U&rate vaJ%eof a i&earn?
8
I
,
,:,;!
Determine the hardivareelem~~tequired for the feedback co&&con-.
^.
. ,( f. i
figuration of- the pli in the &&red tank de&ibid inqu&tion 5 above.
i ./
;,,
{ 9.
If you were to use a digital computer ita your controller in. the control
: .
., r
,.,
*:;,
I_ i,
configuration above (queer tion 8) &at &w hard&& element@ would $0~
.
I.
,_
$-j
:f
.I;
i,..~
,
.: a. . 1 : J , -. ::..g I _
need?
._
i
(i ~
,.,
t,.
What ire the,b&ic and moB<i.import!ant advantages offered by the digital
, i $
- ; :- . _
. I
cornput ere in process control? Discuss thesj size, Cbp&ilities and ,the
/,(I
:
5,
t :rP
%. =f
:.<
:
:. .
prices of the most recenthigital m~croprochaeore~ evailable in the ,
,a
I
1
t.:
market.
Do you realize the inexpensive potential, tha?. they offer for
*,
s
* ., t <<.,. ;: .
I 2
process Atroi?
:,.
.
,
2,
:?
~:
,1
i.9.
.:
I.
.I.
I.
pRoBLEMs
1.
. *
:
1
Consider;the
(a)
~$7
:;
e.,
heat exchangei: shown in Figure'P.I-1,
The'control
objectives
(b) All'the. extetial
fok
this
.;
system,
dis&bances'thdt
(c) All the available $Xnipulated
Identify:I
will .affect the tieration-of
variables for the contm-1
':],
~
of the
i(
exchanger; in the presenc%"df

2,
3.
For the same heat exchang&
L'
L
&kiwn in F%.gu3e
P;I-'Q',
considtir
~,,
that'thie:
temperature T2 k 190'F is our bakfc contrd$,objootive

(i.e. maintain
,.
*. :
QMstruct two',difthird temper$turk in the pr+ese%ce,:of
~d;tstiikbsnc&)~
,
,I.'
;, .,
i ferent f&dbsck and txqo: diffeknt feed@&?& &Mrol~conf$$qations
. .
.' '.
.; : ,'
.
:,
that will satisfy the:co~:~~~~objec~~~~~i~-theipr~nqe
of4disturbances.
li
,;
'7
I
.
j.4
1 ,i:
.,: ..r..f.*.
i A seke &rl>k&q$r~*~m
a :'k
&&+&(pQp @+
!Wb&2 lo;ad cs$ Clml~~:r
,.
.
',
with'time; *$1$$%1 v&&ions -$n:'the-&aft speed i6fL~4h~~tu~bfne gre con- .
.
_ a; ,:*
,:,: ,'.I
t$olledLthrough the use .of* a-flybsll sfroad~-.,~ove~~~~'
Ofroad.-.,gove&qk.<'
Fok'thit system,.
"
I' ai .",(
(a) : Identify '41.' th.e$&,ternal d&turb&tci&'
an@+
@),-L&&l
@),-/h&l
4.
disturbances. ,"
-the
avaiiab~~.~&&$at&i
avaiiab~~.~&&$at~
.
:ttr~'~a8i~~~oon;trsl"object,i~~
va&&&:". . . Lj:! ..:I I : t~~:"j

~a&&&~"~
t~~F?j
._'.
.
Also $Ctermine
and-ku&st~~a
$&.d&& con,,')
'
i .;i ;
troller that would try to satisfy it. !.'
_I. i
I
,
In Figure P,I-3 the dkWillation
configukation fur these@k?ation~of
these&zation~of
;'.
benzens fromitulqens is Biven.
The
1
feed &"the,distillat,&&
icomes
_'
from the reactor where tolu&e hks been :deh$dxodeakk&ted &produce .,:'
/'
.i":.
,.:
<benzene, Ai;.
e.
5 1:: 'I' *.
_
,
j
.'
r
'_
Toluene + H2 --+ Benzene + CH;
after the excess 'H2
'flash unit.
For
the
CH; have
.' .system, '
and 'ihe'produced
distillation
deenrem&ed
in
",,,
/"
* I'
\'
:,_
'.,,
.i
,
I
' I
%I (a) Identify all the control objectives (make sure that you have ,,I,!
I
.
included all the operational object,ives) ,
, t. 3 : .;.I
,,
I
(b) identify all external ,disturbapces, and,, ,
(c), all ,.t$e available ,measurementa, end ~mar$pulated
,i
variables. .
*For the distillation system of Figure P.I-3,

t:
1
(a) Wggest a feedfoxward ,&ntrolJ.er that ~$11 oontrol the operation
I
of the column in tha presence of changes in the feed flowrate,
+,
(b) . suggest a if eedback. co@& co&&ration, to account.. for changes , *
5.
in the feed Llowrate~:.
I ,Xi
,,._.,,
(e) if the control objective. is to; keep the purity of fhe..~@#h@, ,: :,.
r ~,: J:., _:
,prodpce (benzene) constant and.: the .use of, concencratiqn rn&$&?#g
.*
d e v i c e s .
( g a s lchromatographs,z infrared;l,anaiyzerS,;le~~?)a~B:ao~
*, .:,
:
,recommended d% fo. their low relwility;,i sugge#;
,
+ control configuration. What secondary mea&em
_
*
31; ,,
..une?. How would you use them in principle.. to.Se$t,ima~+4,;&
.; ~,,
-x
,:i,i+ ,-
(jonsider
the air-heating system used to regu&&..the l~~~,~=~~~.~~.

.A . _,_:
a house (Figure P.I-4). The .heat is.,, e&&i& tOrom: ,&he., ,combust@n of G, i 1
,
i * . .;, .;
/I,,:, < -? :. ) _ j i,! wr
fuel oil. !Y,
(a) Identify the control ohjec&ive&&#e %&i&b&s! m&suremente;
i
,c
man&pulated variable& What are the &xtQbme%
Gar :
6.
?.
fgg thfa a-,g&qjs
(b) Develop a feedback co.ntrol

>,
objectives.
:
sy&&, I I, ;, $5
::..:+%,y
;T *
configuration to achieve your -control,

1
.-,
.
,*(
(c) Is a f card&ward control conf igurat,iLan
/:poaaible;*for
7
2 achieving:
>,
*
.,
~
+
your control objectives?
3.
,
.i
I:.
,,
I
1.
. ,_
;A
7.
Ftgure ,P.I-5 shows a system of tw0 tanks which are used fur the temporary
(Tank 1) and longer term (Tank.2), sborage of a liquid chemical product.

.:
I he d,hand d. s satisfied from the temporary Tatorage -tank, while Tank 2
lis used. :to a&uimA%te the l&@id. product in excess of the demand.
(a) 1, Idi?nt!Lfy:
E%ternal diatur~arices,
J -\ and- manPpuk&ted
:! i, MIMO
(b)
systemT
variables available to you.

,
Develop alhernAtive
control objectives, mbasurements

:
Is this a. SISO or a 1
>
~
<
feedback sand/or f e&f or-ward Control conf igu-
rat ions to achieve your control ob j etitives .

(c)
i , (i q
Is ther e any si$,uation, that may arise durgng which you&&not

I
.:
avoid overflotiing the storage tanks3
!A
_.
.f
8 . Consider ii s&em of two ~contitiuou~~~ stirred Gnkreactors in%&.&
x
(Ffgure P. I-&) wh e r e t h e, - ? foll&#ing &ndqth&mic Tre@tion takds pltitie:
V
(.
.
l
/
. A + Cataiybt,t 4 B 1 t , ,::. ,~
.:.I-. ,,,t
;,,Z-:T
i, .j. i
.:t (a) fdentffy t+ c,,&ro~-.odj$&&!!& xrbr the ~pe+a&+ &;thg &o
1
:
:
/ +*
, * G>,.
CSTRS.~
),
(1;)
Cl-&y
the ~va&.abl& of &c *syst& ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

4,
.,. P ,. 1. (
,.C * I
subsequent&y
variabJ..
and
classify
,::
'&&
o&ji,ts
:the
irtputs"in,~~"dist~~~~~~~~~~~~~~aaipulated
,
,/
.,
1 T', ',,
: '.;
&to measbked
as ;~,&,~a#&~'
&&,&&~
,,,
,it
*.
d; ) ~J CI .!,i,.i .b i: --r (/ ,
:-_- :
.i*-!
k.
$ \., i f ..,.; :c
(c) Develop .a feedback control &nf i&rat& chat! iatiif&&&ur i.
:j
objectives using a c&iporition ~naljio;cit4~~~exit it&m or
.
L
,$
I
I
,/ .
:
he second CSTR.
.,
(df Developan Inferential controlcdnfigurat~on that uses.tempetatures
?I
Isaj this ,a SISO or aMIM0 system?
.1
5
z.
+ !
_,
'. ., "
and flowrates only, assuming that a composition analyzer is not

!~ (,
available.
!1
1.
_I
ti
(e)
Develop a feedforward control configuration whiti

composition
analyzers
if
(f) In your opinion, which syst@
2
9.
they
are
can also use

;
needed.
is easier to .control,
the two CSTR
system shown in Blgure P,lI+$~'or~an

equltvaXent one CSTR,system
'
that achieves the,,saple
~nve;r;aQu~? Explain, qualitatively why.
Con8ider.a
tubular cataly,ti@ Ssactor
A$B takes place (Figure P.I-?i).
,The
where an endothermic reaction

reacting mixture is heeted'with
,:.
steam flowing in a jac&t around the: tubular reac&orz. ,The
stream of
the raw &&+a1
A 'includes s,lso a chemical C .which,poisons'

t'
catalyatover ,a period of, five days.. As the catalyst decayswe
increase the supply of heat to the,Yeaetor
through;the
s
the
can
steapl,thus
b
:
increasing -the temperature of thereacting mixtuke and:.Fonsequ&iy
,'
t,he.conversion to .B. &at us.,assuw &hat
th+ reacrtor -is isothe
I"_
,
^. * ,Jc i',
along its lengrh.;. Pigure P.-I-'lb,:: shows thotempersture
inthe reao%or during,the reaction pqriod, fl~#~
imize+.the profit fromthe'operation
I,
'
of the tubular reactor.
c,'
,.;. '(
1
(a?.,. Fo,qm.d.,~t~ .the optijmiqsy+, ~~~blem~E~~~;~~~eld~~:the ..temperat&: '.
4
pro$$I$ of F&g&e PUtlb
its sqlu,9i411~
,
~7.
._. .I ..as,
1 .*:
d.
.:
(b)
DweloR a .feedb,ack.^
:co@r~l &y@em
the.i tern':..tC'^.
._.^@ich.~ill,reguIate
.I_
.'
.i
what
perature of the rd[actor to ,t@t,.sh#k
T, /' iqP~gur= P.I-?b..<
,,I.'
"
!,, l'. ., ..i,'E ,.i.: .-F ,
Q? the:- kontfol $@hm
1.: j .<' ' , , .
"y:. 1'bed
<:t
I Cc) Draw a control
uses ,&digital- computer for the
.L.~ I system
* : . that
.&Se -'i,..
I
implementation of the feedback system in (b), Include measuring
I
devices,
10.
transmissionlines,,:final
,. * ',
con,trol
,>
elements and whatever
.,
else is necessary,.. , .,' r:p
;)Y
*
TWO liquid streams with flowrates Fl, F2 ~j and temperatures T1, T2".
.~
'
flow through two separate pipes which converge at a mixing functkon
.*
/.
.:
:.r.,i
(Figure P.I-8).
We want to maintain constant the ,flowrate .Fj and
the
.T3
temperature
of the liquid stream resulting from the mixing

\
/
two.etreama.
of th.9 fir&
z4.
.; :
*(a) Ide@.fy the control objectives, ,disturbances, available
,P/
.measurements and manipulased variables. Is this a SISO or a
MIM&'system?
(b) Develop a control system that uses only feedback,controllers.

(c) Develop a cotitrol
system that uses only feedforward controllers.
(d) Develop two different control

systems that use both feedback and
Y.
C-T - vI- -
S?ART II
MODELING THE DYNAMIC AND STATIC BEHAVI6R OF CR~EMICAL
$8. :
PROCESSES
In order to analyze the behavior of a chemical..process and to ansyer

some of the questions raised in the previous chapters about its control,
we need a mathematical ,%epresentation
of the physical and
chemical phenom&a taking place in it.. Such a- mathematical representation

:
constitutes the model of the system, while the activities leading to the
:
construction, of
of the
the modei'
modei' will
will be
be, r&f&rid
r&f&&d toto .as
.as modeping.
modeping.
r
,
:
Modeling a chemical process is $i very synthetic activity,requiring
the ,
/
use of all the basic principle&of the chemical.pn@eering science, such as
thermodynamics ;* kinetics, ,trane,port
phenomena, etc. For the design of con-* .
trollers for chemical processes, modeling is a very critical step,,.-It should

.a7
,
be approached with care and th&htf.ulGese.
The purpose of the following two Ichapters
is :
- to explain why we need to deve,lop a iathematical description (model) of

a chemical process as a pr,er&iei.te,to the design of its controller,
,
I; L_
- to describe a methodology for the modeling of a chemical process
s
using the balance equations and provide examples of its implementation,
and finally
- to determine the scope and the difficulties of the mathematical modeling
-.,
for process control purposes.
?
It should-be noted that the isubeequent chapters do; not constitute a
fi
complete treatment of ali the aspects on mathematical modeling but it is
*
limited to those of interest for process control.
THE ~EVELOIWNT
DEVELOPMENT OF A MATHEMATICAL MODEL ,.
.fd '_
_!'!.
processing system with.its associated variables as
./
shown in Fig&e 2.1.' To investigate 'how a chemical process (i.ei i t s 'outprr~ts)
,
;.
"3
_..
~_
changes:kth tiny@
time under
under the~'ix&enca
theinfluenca ofof the
the external
external disturbancesand
disturbances and mani.
pulated variables and consequently design an appropriate controller, we can
r:
use two different approaches:
.
',
,
',
-. Kxjjerimental approach: ' ii this case the physical equipment.(s) of the
i,
i
, ;
.L
ch&&kl process. is available to us. Consequently, we change,deliberately
I -:-';~..', i( :
_' ,
:
*,
the values of various inputs
. .I.-(disturbances, manipulated variables) and
1 .f,
, _ : ( L :,, .,G
,I)
;I* :,
through appropriate me&.&&g devices we obser&e,how the outputs itemw
J.
j_.
$
peratures, -pressures, ,flo#rates, condentrations) of the chemkk process
uy;i$i, ,A : ,
,
I .qi, ,,j.:
f
Y
1 ;,
;
I
.
:.*z :
change with time..i, . S u c h pro&dure i s t i m e a n d effort consuming an&it
as&it iis
s i
!<.,
!<'.',
: ,y-: L,, /Y >! f. nn" fj$ )~, +
. tJy
I T (
-' i"i * : I;*
usually quite costly because 8 large number of such experime&ts muqt.~;#e-:,.
,.
:
,: p , .:,-jj
1
,.
. -.
.(
F
: * & /(,) $1 . r
h
,--ki 4, . .
.
f
p e r f o r m e d . ,
. 1. ,I
;._>h; 1. ; ^. { ,-.iT, :
..*= : _ ii::! ;e&& ,~,:~~v
i&C.? t: .:.c $
7
I,,
.
- y&J&icalT ap;;ohc;;
It:,$s quite -of ten the case: that we Bkve .t& .desXgn
k. , i::
,. .:.
:
, .* ; 2:;
< . . G*&,>.
t h e c o n t r o l sy&em 'ko$"a
ch,emical p r o c e s s before,&'bkas,been c&nstruct&&
'I
I'9 ' .
i. ,
.,
"
In such a casa we cannot rely on the experimental
procedure,
and
we need
IL
,. ',.I
,_
Consider a general
'. a d i f f e r e n t
re~~eeenra~~n'of!.;~~~~~~~~l'pr~ess
im ordar,~~o.e~yit.~;~
^(
..
"'
.:
; d y n a m i c b&h&orr ~Thie~r&tired ropressnta$t9n is ~usiq&Q @A& kn twml
i:
" I ' o,f'a s e t o f ma.then%at&al
squations
(diffirkkQIS~
solution yields the dynamic or2.stati.c

under quest ion)
'_
_ .j> _
~,
i ,i_
'&kg&&c)
approach.while
behavior' ofa&& ehe~i&l.'procel~s *

,.,
) . f
,.
In the/present tex,t tie wiIl-~discuss both:aQproaches

of a modelfor a, chemical process;
wh.088:~
..
',&,
j I
for%tW development
IQitialZy, we.
we. will
will examine
examine:the
:the theoretikal
leaving the experiment&l for a,subsequent
&apt&r
(Chapter ).
*;
'
4.1 WHY DO WE NEED MATHENATICAL

MODEIZNC FOR PROCESS CONTROL?
(
Let us repeat Ghat
that ourgoal is to develop,s control system for a chemgcal
process wh$ch
., !
will guarantee that the operational objectives of our process

a*:
L :.
are satisfied in the presence of ever dhangiag

/
..
1; (
1,
disturbances.
,,, ci ;;
<
need to develop a mathematical description (model) for the process @z2.,want,ztAa
.,!C
:4
control?
: : f
..
Then,whydoye
*t, , ; ::I
2.
: 2,,I ;;.
,,~.
;i. .. ~.,f&:, I- I7.

I /
1s i *.,;;ty
,:;, ;; s
In the introductory paragraphs of the .previous page
:&at,
,I :.~ we noticed
* .I x
*_,
often times the physical equipment of the c&mica1 process we want to control
-.,e
/, -.
L..i
hi--
, ; L;
:
: b
:: !
.d
have not been constructed . Consequently we cannot experiment to determine
,J*
,
_.
.
, ,:,k.
how the process reacts to various inputs and therefore design the appropriate - _I
*:. , .:,. :
1
a,,*
,-f r-fq
I, 1
~.
control system, But,. even if the process equipments a&available fop.

I/h,-er 8,
.P+ :
I,
. . : .:.:. I
. j
,a.:,,.
*_*.
, .,< .. .
experimentation, the procedure is usually very costly. ). Therefore,
a
I
; ii x.$ Lq weneed
.- . +.
.) i.:x
. ::,.
i
- m I. I .:
simple description of how the process reacts to various, .&iputs; ;a& this- is
.,
a>
:
I
r; ,~i ;.; ,: ii &s$ .T- & _ .:Q,f;
,: : : .&
what the mathematical models ,can provide to \&a control d&ig&&.
:, .
.,I / :,;, ;- x: -~,) .,., 3%. *. ; , ;. . 1 i$ .,4 i, fI. ;, 1. 1..
;r
,. _
Let us demonstrate nbw in terms of some : -*I&es th&*nee& for the
,i
r
_
,.,,
..
,
development of a mathematical model before we $&sign the control., system ,for *, I

e.
:
.., , I ,. ,_..
:
a
.,
.I-. _/I
i
.,: .1 f. I.~,j:I;,
:-;-I .:,i~
..,I
J
9
e.. .i
I
1,
:,
,
z
a chemical process.
: & 5 * : , i
I,,.
.*)
1..i , ?\, +:i, -I ,
c
(
*.
b
ss
,, ;: , -, i). d i . \
11
;. me
/ r ,: . ; ,. :
,I
Example 4,l t Design && Integral &o~ro&&~t~ Ll,q~id Level.
, I_
. .,-in e Tank I, ,
:
. Consrlder .the. problem. of ..con.trolling
the IeveJ~of the Uquld 3n a tank, ;
.,
+ .
%
f . * .
using integral control., <:@xample- $612) .1 i From F&@re 2.@.&~no%ic$ that the
- I
quality of the.,control depends$on the &&ue:o-f~ the pet&m&er: a. B u t ! th&j:
quas tion is :
best value?
.
of control and-what is it;

I
To answer &his: question we:n&ed, to, know how-- the value-of the
:>
how does a affect the quagity
liquid,, level h 1s af f egted. by. changes!& the value, of.* the itilet$!lowrate
inlet$!lowrate 1 *
:
Pi or the integral ,acltion of the controller;
This.,is given byfequation
(2.g)
(: ,
__
,.
i
^ ,
which constitutes the mathematical
model of the tank with integral control.
.
L
Example 4.2 - Design a Feedforward Controller
for s^Process
,
::
<
In the feedforward control arrangement shown in Figure 4.1 we measure
.
,..
,:
the value ofth,e disturbance and we hnticipate __ what! its effect will,be I on the
.,
.
ofi.
output of the process that we want to control. In order to keap the value
I P
<.&
2.
) :
n .,__ :
:
this output at the desired level,. weneed to change the value of the msni>
.- .,
I: .,
:
i ,.
,/-I
3
pulated ,vrriable by such &~u&uni ae t,o d&Rat& the impact that .iha
I .:
.
disturbance would have on the output. &e ques(ion is: how much should, we
.I
r
s
<.I
; ..change the manipulated variable in order., to,,; c&&cel thb effect of the disI
:- ( _/ $ . ,I&
i; ,
:
q,::j :L;
turbance? To answer this qupat$on tie must kno;I *the following two
/ .(
.)
;
relationships,
;
i
_,*
output - f l (disturba&%?)
:*
.
; ,,
,
3?I,..
f,
f..
.
output - f2 (mani&ated v a r i a b l e ) ,) _I
/
..i.I
::Q is :
.: .t:., ~ .
:
.,
which are provided by a mathematical ,model of the process. ,Indeed, if the. ,A-;,
. . ,. .+. 1
+: ..$ +<I; : 2 s,+s; ., 14:; i-i ( f r
:I.
:
:
manipulated variable &st. take such :W valu&,
output is to remain the fsame,,
, ;, the
.
, ., ,.&7:< .*. ; p& -*,,: j , &A.- , *
..,_
-*.i
:
.B
,. ; / ,
.,
that
.
s :;#.& ( -*$ A , *
fl (dis++&)~~ f;i.:~m&ipulat& &&blG$ : S
,
,,
,f
j:
I .
t
,.
This example demons&&s very vividly how important is the mathematical
,. _~
.i
. -, t.7, iI .j ~
1 , I !
.,. <i
modeling for the ,deaign of a feedforward control system. In fact, iwithout.
:
/.
.good and accurate: mathematical
modeling
we
.can&t
desigti
efficient
feedfarward
. 5,~
.
.,
*:
control sys terns.

:
.
i; :
$.
:
, I i.
Example 4.3 - The I&sign of an Inf.erential Contr:ol System

P
In the inf ereptial control *s&me
.shown in Figure 4.2 we ,measure the
measured output and we try to regtilate the value of the unmeasuredcontrol
objective at al:desired
value.
Since the control objective+3
not .measured
*
d:irectly, it can only be estimated from: the value of the measured output if a
relationship like the following is available,
9.
,.
control objective - f (me&red output). .
*,
Such a relatio&hip in turn Is not poss$ble3f we do .not have a mathematical

.:.
,I , , ;. i ; ) , ,
~I
representat&.of the process (mathematical model) ;. Once the value of the
,,>a
control ob
objective
j e&ecan
canbebee&mated
e&mated ofof tomtom- aa &atXonship
&.atXonship
like
like the
the above,
above, it can
iL, j
>
: ,;j, _~ _ .) -8
,., f
b; compared tothe desired-value (set po;nt) and,,sctivate the iontroller for
i: , .a
;.
,~
/
, .,,6 .I$,I
.J
_*
$,,
an appropriate action like ,:.:
in the/. feedback control*
,../
I!
.,;
.
,I,
*
I
,I,
We notice therefore
that the availability of a good mathematical mod&
1.
: I,
.>,I**
(,
.:..
..
._:
~
-:L
*
3
for the process is indispensable: for the dt;arign of good inferential control
-.
I ,y ,
I
,.
i
\, .ri !,r
.)
A* . ,:,i
i
..,
systems.
:
s1
*
::.
I :
.:. _. I .,*_a%- >, 3 -I :,*
:
,..
i
.,
..,l/
,i rr, i
,
f
*
,
.
i
!
3
,~, 3
.:.**..
.,.
*
. J: .*
/. :
. I.
., .->
The above
very clearly ttit the mathemst$&l
7 three exkmples ind!lcate

_ :
,1 a:.
f.
modeling of a process. is of parsmount Gportance for ihe des%gn 02 good and
~
,*.
:.,
f. :
t
:
, . : 1 .
ef f iciest control systems for a chemical process. ,In the follow& sections
+ rr j
) _
1 f
!.
:
we will develop a mathodology for the con&e modeling of &&&al pr.ocesses.
.
I
4
4.2 STATE VARIABLES AND STATE EQUATIONS..FQRA

I, I e?-- CHEMICAL PgOC&SS~,
In order to characterIzea? proceeelng dly$tem (tar& heater;

b,atch* reactor,
; _I , i : ,
5 ; * ),, ,; i ,*: ;. ..:I
.I
i.
1..
.~
distillation column, heat exchanger,. etc.)., and its, behavAor we. ne+l:
, *.a- , :f i
QF.>
I .*.,
- A set of fundamental dependent quantities whose values .will describe the
.
,_
, 7, c
,(/ .,
,.,
i
1 . ,i SF, , I a :, *I :
I
natural state of agiven system, and .:
a
.
.
- a set of equations in the above variables-which will describe how, the
r.r.
natural state of the given system changes with time.
For most of the processing system of interTat to a izhe&icalI&ginesr
there
:
are only three such fundamental quanti&es,, i.e. mass, energy, and momentum.~.
,. .
.
._ i ,
*..- j ._: J_.*
.,
;a
::
_.
_
r
Quite often though the fundamental dependent variables cannotbe~measured

.
I
dir eetlv and conv&ientlv.
In such cases we select other variables which can
he measured .i conveniently and when grouped appropriately they determine- the
_
L
value of the. fundamental variables. Thus, mass, energy, and momentum can be
*
characteriped by va&riablea ouch ai danbity, roncentxation, t&mpsiature,
These characterizing variables are tailed .state
IL
6
i
variable<s and their values define the state of a proces~~&system.
.F:,;_f\
rf
; +The equattons :w&~ich relite the state mar&ah&& (de@$dent variables) to
&!
the varlouq, indgpendenti,,varLrtblee are >,der$ved from >the app~lication of the 1 .
;.;
conservation principle on the fund,&ea;tal tiqugntikies and ,:z&re called Hate
,.
I.
I
<
,
:
.
equations.
,.
._,
;, :, j. <&! ; 8
The principle 03 cons&vat&on of a quantity. .iS:; etatsr *h&t t: ;:-:. ,, ,;,: :,..*:.
: ,/
pressure,
flowrate,
The quantity. S
etc.
can be any of the following fundamental3 qu$ntities::

i L /., a .. , ) ,
1
- total mass,
.;
- mass of individual components
,\
.,
- total energy, and

- .momentum.
..i
j.
))
02,.
;,
!1 i
.y j
!_
$.,
jl
_2.48
., :, I : . I
a
I.$
Remark. It should be remembered that for the phy&al
chemical processes
Y? .: . .P , and
40 ;,_ , . .*a. 7 . .
5; _ i
$ 1 .
L rJe will be studying, the total mask and total energy can not be
,:
generated from nothing neither they disappear.
: .;
J
-._
l__l
. <
,L,..; _I j
Let us review now the most often used formsfor the balance equations.
,
,,. dl.I
Consider the sys tern shown in Figure 4.3. Then, we have:
. . . ,,.,
I, :
! c
Total Mass Balance
r;
Mass. Balance on a Component A
?
:R ,: 1 F
,.
,
.
:
,
,d(c,V)
d(q)
ii piet cIA~i I,- : j :;;t;;; ci PJ 4
.
aL
UI.
i
j
,P; Z
,? 7
,.j, . L 5
i ,_,
: ./
pi .(
I
is; the .dens.ity of the matergal in thesystem;

.
r
is the de&y of the material in an inlet s.tream;
. is the dens&ty sofa tha,materiial
ky s, (4vTb)
,,I
i:,?,,
1
-.,.
,-,
*
I. Ll
c
,I ,.: I.)
is the total volume of the system; ,
#$ 1
:;. \
:
,
is
the
v%lumetric
flowrate
of
an
.&E&i
stream;
:
.
I
.
I:,
!
_(
.
Fi
,,,
.
is the v.olumetr$c flowrate ofianioutlet ~tr~eam; *r .%
.-,
I.
Fj
.!:: ..,1
,_,
i
,. ,I_
&
nA , is the number -of moles of colapanent A in the system;. _ .,
A,
x
..
:
_:. ;.,:
is the.molar concentration (moleri;/vol.ume)
of A in theiystem;
cA
_ .vy /.,A, ,
*
. . ,I
is the molar concentration of A in an &&et; *
*;
CAi
I . ,: /_ ,.A
CA
is the molar concen tratlon of A in an outlet;
2. ; r : , 5.I
.I )
..,
r
is the reaction rate per unit volume #or c0mponent.A in the system;
.
. :
_.,
., < I
ia the specific enthalpy of the ma,t&ial in an inlet stream; :
I, i
hi
y; y::,,
:
is the specj.fic enthalpy of the material
in an outlet .s&eam;
hj
*
: :.
:
. . L
.,.I, * , .
U,K,P are the internal, kinetic and potential energies of the systea,
L-
. , ~ -5 a* ,
l$,.
,,
:.
:. . *._
/.
respectively;
.,
?
:, ,,
r: 8i.. ), ),,
.
!
is
the
amount
of
heat
exchanged
between
the
system
and
its
s&rQu.ndlngs
Q
.
:
7
.e
per unit time;
., 1
., .y,:
. . , 9:
( : A$+
is the shaft. work exchanged between the system and its surroundings I
wS
per unit time.
in an aut.k.ez: bstreami s
? I
j
;
,.
j/O-
- The total mass in the tank is
/ ,
total mass - pV
where
- pAh
j.
p the density of liquid; V the volume of liquid; A the cross
sectional area, of the tank and
(4.2)
h the height of the liquid level.
- The tohal energy of the liquid in the tank is

E =
U+K+P
but since the tank does not move, dK/dt - dP/dt * 0 and dE/dt =
* ..#
.:
,,
, 1
dU/dt. For liquid systems
*
,,
dU/dt
a .dM/dt
Furthermore,
(4-3)
(T - Tref) - pAhc (T - Tref j,
,
:p
.
,:_
,
I,Y)
9
. t :.a,$ :
where
.
.( La, . ,. L; .:..a;.
::
is the heat capacity of. the, l,iquid

and
__, inri the tank,
cP
,
I
I
+
;i
i
),
;
_
..L.
T -,c is the reference tsmper~fur&:~
where the sPe$if,lc en thalpy of
LtzI.
,: y $k> -i ,. ;
_the liquid is assumed to b& %ero.,
2
Lb, . .
eqne, - ( 4 . 2 ) i&f- (49) qii;i+i$adi t&at the eta&i &i$$+~ f o r . a
Frmi
._
(. . ::
,Y :
7
the. stirred tank.. heate) t&& t~~~~~$&wln$; , a : . . ~:, . ,

I 5 I
*,,.
,,
:,i
., ,_ , ;,.>
s,tate variablesi >:.t:
:. h, I and
-,?P
, _ .
.;
6
I
,
while the
. 4 I, 1,
:
,
4\ * . ) .I
.
pVcp
constant parameters: p, A,.c p;
Tref
2.
are characteristic of the tank systemi4,

It has been assumed that the d&si.ty , p ,. 2e.i independ&nt of: the ..,/I, i
Note:
$
:
,
1
Let us proceed now to develop the state equations for the stirred tank
temperature.
*,
.- :
heater .
,_:.
where H is the total enthalpy of the liquid in the tank.

H -
We will apply the conservation principle on the two fundamental.

,;
quantities, i.e. the total mass and total energy-.
)
*
(a) Total Mass Balance

.
or
,f
.
Accumulation of
total mass
time
.<
:*-
,,
fdW$!
I, +
,!
Input of.
,Output 0.f
3 total mass
t o t a l mass
t&me . j ,time
piEi (
:
j
pF
; c.
:..,q
i
.(&-
/
3 . +:
where Fi and F are the volumetric f iowrates , i .e, volupe beti unit;of time
,, ,i
(
. .
;t: /- c? d : ke
(ft3/min, or m3]min), for the inlet and outlet streams respectively. l Assuming
s
$ / .*
4:.:i
.; t
constant density (independent of temperature)
(4.4)
becomes:
_
eqn .
.;,I
:..
: .
/i. la\ L
.s P P. - u
or
where 0 is the amount of heat suppliedb~.;hC..c

can take the following simpler form Casske T.~ .,
Additkonal
a l g e b r a i c mnipulations o n . eqn. (4.%$ y&e,-.

Id:-.
,*
$
FT.+.--q-.,:
..FiTi
i 2
pc,
IT
&dT
,,
,!
= Fi (Ti' - T) + + .:
p ,
dt
i,
p.4
i L
.i
7.
(4.5b)
.:
L
.
:
J.
Summarliziag
the above modeling steps we havel
i.
t&Eat*
auua~l~ns
,I Li/
Ah dT dt (,
The variables in
j
Section
Fi (Ti - 0 + $(4.4a).
F4qns.
Z.1)
h,T (both measured)
d&sturbances:.
Ti;
and the Parameters constitute

I
ied a$ follows (see
.h,T
Fii
. ,_
- manipulated var iabiea :
heater.
(4.5b)
..
,output v&fabl:es :
.and 4.: 5b) can be classif
~~~-stke variabies:%:
_,
.I
(4.4a)
.,
:Q, F ( f o r feedbhck
.,:;f,
-J,,
controls)
the mathem&ttc
We need
only solve*.,Ithem in : orqer
7
, to ..fin38 its
.A
behavior.
Let us now rtudy the dynamic end atatie be&?&x
of thentf-ynd: tqtilc
.a L i
..:..
.,>
. .
. he&er using the 8 tatq
eqns , ..*
w-
(4.4id
c?nd (4&) g ,,.,F
ci, , .-.,
.
initially the tank hea.ter is at steady state, i.d.,]noth:

,i
situation
is
: ,..
described by the state equation?, if thetate o
(ieft-hand s i d e s o f (4.4a) a n d (4,5b) i s . aet,te zero, $:e*

I
i ,
Fi,s
Fs
\,
r *I
II
>,
rj.,
Fi,i (Tg,s - 5) + g
O ,,
P
1
<,
,..I
t
I
The subscript :s
,denotes
the steady state value of the, corresponding variable.
The system will be disturbed~from'

the input variabfes
changes value,
situations:
i.
k
the steady state situation df any of
Let: us examine the following two

I'
j;.&
Consider that the inlet temperature:
6,
c
decreases by 10%. 'from,- its ..: Q j ,,-~- I ,::,,,'
p
.*
steady state value, Then value.:qf,~~he,l~~uid.
leve!, wil,l remain thq . +i f
/
, '
same at t,he steady state value, hs,.since 'Ti does not influt&ee 1) .:~I' .:~& .+
,.' the tot&mass,in
Ti
the tank (see aJ,so equation (4.4a). ,$n t&con-
trary, the temperature of tke,liqlr~d,wilZ,$lso.~tart
decreasing
.:, :
with,
time.
1
t
ii.
How the temperature T, changes with 'time will be detsrmined

i*
from the,golution of eqn. (4.5b) using & inj.t$al condition
.--.- the
,I
steady state value of ,T, +.e, 3. Y
..'
i
8'
;.:
. L
.
T (q$-ll ..= Ts.
,_
I.: '
.i
i
i
Figure 4.4 indicates the static and dynamio'behavior
of the'tank:,for
*
:~
I ..', !1' '. .,..
ai:
1% $1. '. ~~ .,- ii i
this case. We observe that after a.~ert&~time
the tank heater .has
1) ;. _
'5 : ,$ : ,;- , I;'$ : ,8 .,: ;
'?,':
,j
.reachas again steady 'stste 'izondit~ons.
I i : i - i ",
r'
"ST,. ;, : ,
. '&& : Tr&, ), ;: :
'*i ;~ .P,"t&, I;;:;Ke&$;i;@ts
Consider tL;;t inirially ;hg*'g&k ,$-key
,, ':$: .!':> _, I ':I, .'.
,':
.- -.,; r. -1:.-I ., 1 '.' i
>*
Thg&
'it'
tim.&f
q&g,
.ihZ
$$&
fiLrate
hs; Ti,s' Qs* "i,s and %*
.? .,
:
decreases by 10%. It is,:clear
that&$& the id& and the temperature
'.
,,'
change
;1I \_'_," i' fi(4.5b) using as initial conditions,

(tco)
p
hs
' ^,v '_ .'.;T~!p'*) 6,' Ts*:' "
h
and '*'
,,
,,*
,,,
Figure 4.5 summarizes the static &d dynamic behavior of the tank
heater for this case.
.
I_
By coriue&on, aquantity
and negati&$if
is considered positive- if it fl&s in

- the system
j
it flows out.
The statecequa,tiong
mathematicil
st8te variables constitute the
model of a process whiqh gields the dynamic or static behavior
of the process.
eqn .
with the aqkociated
The ap$l&tion of th;e conservation $rincipleas
defined by
(4.1) will yield a set of d$f.ferantial equations wi,th the funda-
mental quantities as the dependent vari@les,, and time ~ths,Jndependent

,
1.
time,, i-e8 :it wfll determine the.

:.. d.ynam&cihehsv$or of ,the prjcess. ,.
Consider the stirred tank. heater of tha &ample, l..l:(F&& 1.1) r The
:
fundamental quantities whose values, provfde every information about
the:
-G
:
,.
.,
I
:
>,
reactor are:
- the total maas
mass of the liquid in the tank, *
,
- the total energy of the material in the tank, and
~ y
,.*.
- its momentum.
The momentum of the heater rematns constdint even when tb,di&turb&nzes Change
value and will not be further c@sider?ed.
Let us now identify the state variables for the tank heater.
Remark:
It. is worth noticing that, after
Fi. has changed,,. the level h .I)
,_
i
:
and the temperature. T reach their~new steady states with 1 z.:

.different
speeds. In particular,,
the level, h, achi&es its new-: . .
.
steady state fast,er than the.,.temperature.
In a subsequent chapter : . ,; :,
. D ,IIwe. will analyze the reasons fo>r ,- such behavior:.,
_,:I , s1 .-+,,,>.*: 1
,~
1
:st
_
.
..I>
:
i
i
.
I
II ,,
: ;$ i,r
:
, .? -I. ,I>/ . i, ,,
..-;I .A.:.!
,
.il,
,
4.3 ADDITIONALRLWRNTS
OF TUZ, MATIiEMAqICAL
MOD&$ ~_
; .,
*.,
A,
,;:
; iy4 ,. ;
In additianto the balance equations , we need other reldtion$hi$ to
j
.
0 I. ).
G
;.:: < . .
express thedodynamic
equilibria, react.ion rates, t$ansp&t ra&e
for h&t,
1I
:d
, ;
5, p, ,f i :
/ :*
mass, momentum, etc. Such additional r$a&onshiRs~needed
to comple& the Y
*,
where
j_
.,/
At
i s t h e o v e r a l l . h e a t transfer; cbefficleat, T 9 : :c.,

,
,+s the total area of heat transfer, and
. ,*.
i(
TS
is the temperature of the steam. .:
.* u
.c
:.
/
:
:,
-.
,,
heeded todescribe the rates of chem+cal reactions taking place in a

syst& l:s: s&h equations are developed : iti 3 course on Chemical Kinetics.
Example 4,6
L1
i ;. ~., .
) ,:
The ..reaction rate of a first-orde? reaction taking #acf: in the C$3lY$ is

i .j
given
by
,ul
s %
; .,
,,h .,
I .-: :. i
(i
where
Needed to describe the equilibriunt t$ttia.tiona reackyd: king a ah&i&l... !.,
j + t *,j 22,;:. ) . :l: ,

reaction, or by mc) or more phases. These ~elacionah& .&e dev@X6&ed. In
x1
.,_ ,,,, .,*-: y.<.t ,d.,
_
:
:,
;5*
course8 on Th&nodynami&~
I ,$yy
Example 4.7
---------
--1---
_____
-T---C-T--
--
-..-
---..=--~----
_T~
.Y
_.,x
_.
8..
p r e s s u r e yf fnd temp,Frature Tf . I f the pres;ti;y pf is .l(lT~ .th&n, t h e

j
nx
;-.
7
.,>
bubble-point pressure of the liquid. at t9periitur.e Tf, no vapor phase $.ll be
, i i
,
present. The liquid stream passes $h&&h a resjzriction (waive) and is

l!. r
i --.i, , j, *
flashed in a drum. i.e. its oressure is reduced from D, to D fF*owp b.6) \ -
....--
.,
i
I
This abrupt expansion takes place under constant enthalpy.
If
^ the pressure
-_
b in the drum
is
smaller
than
tha
bubble-point
pressure:-of
the
liquid
stream
. , ;
; .)
:
:
(
at the ,.t,emperature .T,,f the
will partially vaporize and two phases at
I ,tiqu,id
~
equilibrium with each other wifl.he present in the flash drum.
I
The thermodynamic equilibrium .,betwee& the vapor and liquid phases imposes
.I
Is
certain r.estrictions on the state variables ,:of the system which must be .;,*
.\
included in the mathematical model of t&e. flas,h,drum; if it ,is to. bk c9n~
sistent and Correct.
These equilibrium relationships, as. it is known ~from~
chemical thermodynamics, are:

(1)
,
(ii)l
t&perature of liquid phase - temperature of vapar phase

*
,,:.
pressure of liquid phase,t; &essure
,&ase,
:
:
_ of vapor
p
,._
< , I
(iii) chemical ptent,ial of, con~opent,

i; in the liquid phase =
..
L1
chemical pp tentiai of!: ;~rn~~~nent.,! ,, i &n1 th.i; vapor phase q
%I,
The equilibrium Cela!:~~nsq~ps~.....int~roP~~~
a$Id$tional,l
@@ations
among the .
., ,_,
+
state variables of a system and reduce the
them. Care mu& be
* numb& of,,
f
exercised
so that all the equilib,sium re&tion&ips
h&& been accounted fhr,
,.
:
_. P i 2:I ,:, 1 i6, ,:;II. I .;I i i : I . ; a-*, .,
p<,;.(.,
~.v*
*. _,, ci _ * .,:, , ~
i.:
*
.,
.__,, ,,.:
,.
.i:
p,
:z$
I
,:.I
j
l
.I
,
,.I
k
1
4. : ;<
D.
Equations of State
(\
, ,;, $& ) : i-p, _4 I
, :, ,;:&I(. ,9 -I. ,i
Needed: to . describe ,,the relat&nsh<p ,a&+g the intensivi< variabl.es

des_/
, _i ic&:
:
+* ..(
*
$
cribing the thermodynamic s&te of a sy.st,e&~~, The ideal gas law, the Van d,er
.I.
Ia.:
^
Waals equation, are two typic& e&ations :$fstate foe g&zous.-systems;
,f
r
^
~,. , . :. ;._/,I. I.^!-I,,7:I,
d
).
-. 3. :
,
, ,A_,
:
k >
y )
>_,.
;,, ;: j f I , ;, 2 ? ,. .,.: :. , j %: :
.b .:-i
Example 4 .g li .
.
., .,i , i: (.
L
,.:./
/, x ,I / :
: . .a _
4I * _( ,I *y* _! ? :
:> Let us return to the flash drum ,ey,stem discussed above in Example 4.7.
t ,. .r .,_ ; SF.
f I/
L. I
1
.
For the vapor phase from the idealgas law we have:

i < *<. : j, >.
.
-c
pP R)aRT
(4.6)
. D%a$or i (moles ofQ + / moles,
I
c>,,.
: !,i
,,
,
,
-
. ,G I
.i
!
~.
8,
or
considering'that
Average Molecular
Weight = yAMA' + ys% I".

1
_- .',
*,!~:,
we have
"
i
"<
"
'-
?.
P vapor
where yA9 yB
(4.6a)
are the molar fractions of componen&
are the molecular we&h& oi 'A-. and "k?. ."
'
-_
.?;
A and I.,'B and MA, MB

j ,.
,I,
- IO,&,)
liqyiid
In all the modeling e@n$les
discussed in the e&lCei
b. I
sections'it has
,?J
been assumed thatfshenever
a cha& takes &a&in&e
of, the input variables
(disturbances,
manipulated
variables), 2ts
effect
is
instantaneously
observed
9
.
in the state
variables ana.the
*.
c. , or the feed knroerature.
I
Ai-
outputs.\
Thus, whenever the feed qomposition,
T,.
or the coolant temperature,
T,, change-.
i 1'
Y'c-.
in
the CSTR of Example 4.4, the effect of the change is fek: immediately and the
k
temperature, T, or conc,entration,
:
ii I
themselves.
start changing
CA, o.f the outlet stream
/,
;*,
The above oversimplified picture is contrary to our physical experience,

:,
i / i
>
which dictatesthat: whenever- &$n input variable of a system changes, there
is a time interval (short or long) during which no
I effect is observed on. the
system itself. :, This t&me interval ,j.s caller&dead
o r
p u r e delay* o r dfstanceyelokity
.
., .
j_
_ or transportation .lag,
; :
time,
leg!. ,
*
II
*
4) :
.,:
:>,, I.
g.*
4.9
,:,:A.
.L , , *r
.
f;:,
p
9:
Pi
Consider the f:low of an imcompres$ble, nonreacting

.llqutd,, through.,k#pe
_. f
., (Figure 4.7a). If the pipe 3s completely dr.1;,.thermally insu&ed
and the
. :
i; -heat
: . ,,i,.
y:
:
.I . ,C : *.
+
is negligJble,
i t i s +sy
generated
the friction of the flowing..,;s: fluid
r . by ,:.
I I t: oY(
.
*,i .?
j
, r: ,,
:.
Example
1
,
_.
the ._ outlet
,stream
will
be.
see that at steady state the temperature ToUe.,. of %
,f
a ,.
,
,Q; i.*
equal to that of the inlet, Tin. AssuM now that starting ._at ,I
MO, theVtek+,
I, a..:
I_, ,*
1
perature of the inlet changes as shown by curve A in Figure-%%7b, It
,,.* *isi
clear that the temperature of the outlet,: T out; L will
remain
same until
if. . the>
.
/
temperature
the change reaches the end of &e pipe. Then, we will observe.the
.
*,

i
..,
:
I
&
I
%
>
,,!:
>
,
F
(
J
,+
_
,
iI
of the outlet changing, as shown b$ curve..B in I) Figure .4.7bi . - We notice that
t
the change of the outlet temperati&e~follows
:the same pattern ,as the change I
2,.
/
of the Inlet temperature with a delay of td aeconda . td is the d~acJ,S,Gne
a*
, (.I
and from physical
considerationa
., -*
.r * thsf,,
3 i.,;to see
(i
.I.,>2 :
_ *c
:!,/ 1 _* it I< is;; raay
,
.,.
volume of : the :p&pe ,.Jy. L&t.. p e (&&
,:,
td * voldinetrfc~fldw.rate
I ,.
I
,.I
where
,.
+I ,&f~.
U av is the average-velocity of the f&id over the croks sectional
if.,
areaof the pipe.
,I
Fuuctionafly,
T o;t( t3
,.
.
.i
,,.-
we can relate '-Ti end To as follows:
. _ 2
.i.
- Tin(t - td)
:_
,.
/,
$-
;.
,
., .
.::
rr
.(
, ;', .F,
(4.7)
:-.
,
I~
.,
t,;-
,-$;: .
3 I'
r. ;'
The dead time is an impor,tant el;ement,fn the mathematical modeling of

chctnicnl processes and has aserious
rrol%ers.
'impact on the design of efrtectivc con-
As'~e.~will see in a later s-ectiou,
the presence of deid":time can
easily the dyna@.c-bghau;jor aE,n,ayatem.

;
'i.
',I
.
"'
_1
,
.
.' :
**
ADDITrONhL 's&r,i~s .' .iOF
~~~~~~~~~~~.~~~~~~~~
/
,:.
dest&il~~-~,v~~~
[, ; Ij
- the mass of the chemical A "Yn,-the
react&d
and the mass'of
:.. ((,.
- .,_
+fundamental
'
from sthe,total ma&
Therefore,
it
iinot,.a
quantity.
(2) Themomentum
.
component A.
mixture, and'
-' L
in the 't'&nk. "
- 'the total energy of'the'rea,&ing

m$xture
,; *
'Remarks : (1) The mass of component B can be fouti
,)?,*_
of the'CSTR
-*
.<
:
does no; 'change under any operating
f$.
?.I
*-
<
conditions for the reactor and wiil

sequent 'ppragraphs;
be neglected in sub-
Let us apply the conservation principle on the three fundamental

quantities:,, I : I/ _
QFi
where
pi
and p
- .P,F
f .! 0 ;-:!
.,>
represent the densities
;-
i:
(4.3
:,' "
.":
/ 8,
_
of &he ,.&let: and o&et-&reams,"
<'
i:
and F represent t~e'volumeti-ic',fl~.~rgtes

of thFinlet.@and,
, , .' .i ,'::.,
: IL l,,:' p;'_:
.3I ,A- ',
outlet str@~t$iS8.e.
ft3/6in or m /min, &fid ;; ' ;r -, :
I 3,. * : /
'A I ; . .: (:x (. i, :;*'). I
V is the volume of the reacting"$ixture;
J" ':, :. . .i ,;'
*i
, ,I
,
(b) Mass Balance on Component A ;:' Accumulation

of A
L-.--m 'time
*.' -
Input
df ;A
j fime
.
-
i'_j" _
< --r _ /
$&me,:
._
,d
is
the
number
.of
mqlas
of
A,in.'&he,.;ir
et&n&
'&~yprq.
,,
,
,
'
.,
"A
_-a.4 -'v-q
..'.I :r
'( T,,. , I', .'&., i, I
(c) TotaSEng,rgy , Balance
.c...
$:;;j &c I, i , ) :
-lz ,~? ' '.',
t "
f ,.
Accumulation of
Input o f tqq$: _ output /of tbral
Merge removed
Energy
removed
total energy
total
'energy
energy .withfked$
'energy.with
f Bed>
enilsrgy.
enilsrgy.w:$eoutXetw:$eyutXet. _by
by coota;;
coota;;
time
,I
time . . .b,b.i, 1 i , * / ; .< $, I
.
In the above'b&nce we have'neglected the &ft,work done by the impeller of
. . _, ,I. ..f
',
:.,
<
:
.'
the stirring mechanism. The total energy,df'hhe
reacting mixture is
P ,,f (-I I
,fi9;
j
represents the rate,of reaction-per.un@

,. .i ii i
*(
,,
where U is the internal energy, K the kinetic energy
and P the potential
energy of the reacting mixture. Thefefore, assuming that the reactor does not
.>
:I
,#:>f.-.,
:
move? i,e-. dK/dt - dP/dt - 0 , the left-hand side of the total energy balance
yields ,
,.
dE
TE-
d(U + K + P)
d
t
dU
-xi
Since the system ii a liquid system, we -canmake the following approximation,

1
.,
.:
2 ..
Accumulation of total
energy of the
material in- the CSTE
per unit time
*
^ i
:
,*::
._
. iL
*._.a4,.:
I
I
I
j2)
_:/
^.
I
t
4 ~:.
*,:
. (Input of total energy-&th;feed per unrt,t!ej ~$,p,~Fi lhi(Ti); :
,. -2
,
:i
,
~1
.
.,
:. , ?, ,; . a 1 >
.
i
and,
5.
;
. .?
T$, i ,, _. ,?.
,\
i
).*,.
(Output of total o&ergy with the. ou,t&$$&$#n ,per .un@~$@& A. pF h(T)
:{,* -) .I , .: ,. ._ .$: :., ,, _,_ ::
2 .: :,b,.: ._, i.1 ?: : )
where hi is the specific enth&y (&Ghalpy per un$ maas)&&,:the
fee& at$,eam
>$ ,%
I.
6. ,L I ,,i .: , ..-,:
.z
and h is the specific enthalpy of dhe cid.et % tF&rni (kqkytadti+, the total
I
i
;.
@
).
.
,
energy balance leads to the foll~~i~~~~~~~uafr,~n,
I .I
: h. ..:i...I *-:; ,
i.
.
.,
;,, :
r.
r
- Qrz
Furthermore,
, I . j
where
.7
,._
._
,.
-1
i/
z ;
( I . -
.e,.
1:
_I
;,i*
Q is the amount of. heat &moved by the. coolaqt ,per unit: t&me. .a
:
, , I.
:; ; :i;* $.Y
1;; ;
.,
:
,.,.
.::.:$ .I ,_,.( a ;;, _ ,;,:
Equations (4.8)) (4.9) and (4.10) are %ot t&heir f&a! and most con:1 y,.:..
,< .,
I
,(,. :.,~
~ -! I< i
,i : ? . . S
to such form 1
venieht form for process control design.
studies. To bring them
I
;,~*..?f~,; ,i ( , ^, :., ., i
L
I we need to identify the appropriate state v&tab&; I

qf4,
:
t
$ ::
- Characterize total mass: We need the denCity of the reactingmixture, p,
.+
and its volume, V.

CA
and
on
A B
=B
,,The density will be a functioh of- the co&&ntration
and of the temperature T.
.,
WI
Quite often the dependence of p
and T Is weak and the density can be .roosidered constants as

,
: :a.
8 :; ,.,
the reaction proceeds.
Therefore, the left-hand side of eqn. (q.8) yields
Und,er &he ab&ve

,assumptLon
, V is the
need&j itti
..i. / only. state variable which is
f?.(
,.,
4;: 8.
.:r....
r I
-i-i:,,
.<,i
.,
characterize the..total
masse. Then eqn. (4.8) becomes: j
li
i ._j ;. ,&i: .I *>
:,. .,, 3;
#
I
i
,
dV 2
,~
dt ; Fi ,L : F
: , (4&)
- Characterize the ma& of compo&nt A.[ _ This is .simple.. From eqn.S.;(4.9),iwe
~,
fy
;; ,
1:.
II r
_
.
,_
*is
realize thiit the state variables needed are:
,I
;
.-:
, --,.
_c:
Algebraicm&.$<ti&s on eqn. (4.9) lead to,
d(cAq?
x.&~
:
d,fA
d t - ~y4.zF : .y dt _. :,:, ,1
a
or
,
dcA . 1.
v-z-
_.*,
7
-E/&T
F
- cAF LI- .ko
/ A . _ I
I*
:
i, .B
/
.,
i;
cAv
i
,-.
- CA<Fi
enthalpy of. a Z&quid .&Q&I is a fu

sition of .the liquid symtebn, i.e.
H
.
.>
_,
- H(Ts A, .!$$
3 ,J ,i -+
where nA and -4 iy~~~~e m o d e s

the above expression we take,
dnA
dH
aH,
-aH :dT
- + dt - aT dt
?nA d t
: ,)
of A
:.
,
*.
,,_
::
,,
.
.snd B ..,?n j&e CSTR.
Differentiating
_ .
j- .,%
ali
as d
. : .<
d%
i (4.11)
,. ,
l+l,t, ; a , I . i ;_. .-. ) L: : 1: .(,I. .,

aI4
fiA(.T)
aT. - PVC P *m
an,
(be>;
~.
,
- fig(T)
:,. 2.
: a,
,; I I
where cp: 3s the specific heat capacity of the reactihg miiture and A,
the partial molar enthalpies of A and B.
HB
1.
:
(4.9)
dn..
dt
H
-Le
d(c.V)
n
Substitut.e
from
eqn:
and a similar balance
Furthermore,
on component B,
the above quantities in eqn. (4.11) and take:

< _.
,.
,. i
g.
:>,
,,.
I <. :. : I *
,JM &k&, )
< i ,)
dH
dt
* PV c,$ + $1 cA Fi - cAF - rV1 + ,f& I-cBF + rV 1

.
i ? .(.,I
;
:,
Sub,stituting
the dH!dt by. its equal., in &he
.t total energy balance
.,
i
; 1
,.
__
PF%-Q(4d?&)
- ,tq -,, , iiB [-ch,F.. + r&J + p iF i h, &:L -HA[cA~F~ AF,
,. .^
.I:
._
,
Let us now notice that W
Consequently:
,
eqn.
(4.lOa)
dT
PV cp dt - -iiAcAIpi
i
or
becomes
9 : , i i
i.,
+ fiAcA + n,ri + &cBF, y, fiBrV

:
i .i Pi,
(Ti
A A
- FcB%.
*
et
: Q
that temperature T is the state variable

.,*..;
!ne&yof rthe. system. -:
j ,.
i
.,T
^) SE-;,
: . . :.
y -: 7 - _..,_ ___ .e steps in tha;mathemitical modeling of a CSTR tie
,
i
; ;: b . , .; ,:
have the following :
*~,,
,i g ; I /
:s t a t e v a r i a b l e s ; V , cA, T , :
>
I
.; i t
.
.
.*
.
state :equatAons :
._,
_/ 2. ,;
input variables:
cA q R,,.$ii $.F (when feedback control IS tied)

i
(L :
, . . >A_ .
.,
.
,.:
Among the input variables the most ;~a&& &&rub&&ss are :

.-
,l
:
I
disturbances: cA , ,Pi, Ti ,., . . . . . ! 1 ij :_ _s :,,
zIIz,.. ,.:,i:
I
i,
,.
1,*1-
., )I
*
-\
_,.,;
f
while the usual manipulated variables atie:
I
~.
:
manipulatgd variables: Q; F (oocasionally Fe o r T i )
x
_
:
I
, + .
;i
The remaining (variables are parameters cha~acter&lc of the reactor system,
i.. e.
.
constant parameters :
,*
I
p, cp9 (-PII,) ,A ko, E, (activatYon energy), R.
i
_-
In the presence bi changes in the input
variables, the state variables
Integration of eqns. (4.8a), (4.9a) and (4.10b) yields the CA(t),. '
'r
V(t) and' T;(t) as funrtions of' time.
'.
/
:
:
I;
1,;j. .
Theieteady state behavior of the CSTR is given by eqns. (4,8a), (4.9a) and
change.
(4.10b)
Setheir
left-hand sides are set equal to zero, i.e. from the'solution
of the following set of algebraic equations:
a_
:.
'
.,
Example 4.11 - 'J&e Mathematical Model Q& a Mixing Pro;cess

Two streams 1 and .2 are being m+ced~i&~a.well
product stream 3 (Figure 4.8).
two components. A
respectively.
and ..B, with,
Each 'of theltio

moilar
Let also ,F1 and F2
stlrred:tank,
feed streams&+
let
perature.of
(,
prtiducing a
composed?of
.&&entrat%ons
c.-~.., c
iandjc
%
Bl.'
A2 ' cB2*
bra the volumetric flswrlrtes of the two
streams (ft3/min, m3/m%n> &?W-T 1, T2- their cprre&ondtig

Finally,
.I
:&mperatures.
C~ , cB , F3 ,and ;'T3 be the concentrati&,,

3
3
,the product str~pm. A cqii. is also immerspd.,k
.,
fl&r,ate and ternl
the; li#iid of the
tank and it is used to SUDD~V or remove heat from the svstem
with steam or
'cooling
water, :,>, i
-I
: 'ii .
L ; , ', ,~ 3;:.
,,_,
The fundamental quantities neefled
to deecribe#th$
mixing t,ank,are:
_
.'
'L the total mass in the tank,:;
, >Z'
. . lr
- the amounts of components A and B in the tank,.

:
- the total energy, and
- the momentum of the material in the tank. :
.'Remarks:"'
(l),,The
;.-
i: .:
'..
;v
,'/
momentum doas not change under, any op&rat$ng:condit$dns
,$nd*.it
will.be neglicted.in
(2) We:"only need to constie;
further treatment,
twofof
I the foiiowfng three quan-
tities; ,total mass, mass of A, mass of B.

be computed from the&her two.
.
:.
,. .'
',
The third can .
u
I
.-
Con,s%der nuw the balances on the -fundamental quantities: ,, /

.:
-i
: i ,(a) ,%Total Mass Balance
,_
,, ,
,(~~,~~i:he:a~~tal)
t,im,e
agLl
where
,:Y
blF1
(m;;;;;qf+-Q;;.k)
in ,
2;
p2F2)
!biF3
time
@Jtput.;
of
to.t@
>,
_ mass from the tank
.I ,.
(4;15j.
are the densities of the streams 1, 2, 3, respectively.
% p2,.p3
:
:..
Since the tank is well mixed the density of the product stream., p3 is equal
,
to the density of th,e material in t&e tank, p, i;e. ~3 * p. V is the volume
of the material in the tank which Ia charaeterizM by the cross +ectional area
.: ! (
of the tank, A;* and the height, h, of $he liquid level, ire.
> ._
_
4,
:
.
;,a
i
A*h,.
V I
_~
.
In general, the densities -p, pl
and
trations and tes@eratures, I, e.

P. = Pp =
~(CA~Y.~~YT~)Y
PI
6, ,, depend on thq corresponding conce~

*;r*
, .I
: )
,, 1
,,
, ly:
_:
,%.$
.
2
,,:
f(CA~,yA~,T1)
iii
~~~~~~~~C~2~,~2~k&)
I\
.>:
i. i
-i
li,.i!:f:
/
i, ._ ,i;
Usually (but not always) the above de&&&n&s &ati&ak
wd
.,
, s: %,,. assume.!Lhat the :
Ths,r&~$k.;; .
densities are independent of the concentrations
id. and tem&atures.
:
,,
.,) ,s: .i&
.j* **.
.
.
we assunK? thbt,
J;
>
:
c.
,;
,(
*,,;*..
. (t ; B .\ r : * i ,
Pl
P2
P3
Q*
..*
.,
,.
This transforms, eqn. (4.12) to the following:

,
dV
dt
..(
(b) Balance
dh
AZ
(Fl
OB damponent
F2)
h
: t?
.i
I.
;,
>
T., ,
) iL
,, )( . . 87 (4,12a)
>%
*
;
/
:
Accumulation of
, T o t a l in&t o f Total.output of
(component A in )
i component A )
( component A )
t h e t a n Lk in; t h e t a n k _ ? f r o m t h e tank
time
time
: i .< time
j :
o r
:: i
- F3
L:;
L
,
[,.
<I
Vdt
..
.,
dcA
+cfi
.,:.i A dt =
(cAIF1
cA2F2)
-i CA3F3
(4.13)
.,.
Substituting dY/dt by fts equal from eqn. (4,lia) we have,

Y
dcA
x +-
and since CA =
CA
cAflFl
*
F+ 1 i31
= (cAIF1
+ cA2F2)
- cA3F3
i
due to the we!@st$rring assumption, ,

,I
.,.
;i.
i.
(Heat. added or r.gmoved )

with, ,the coil 1, .I :?
t&g,
*,;
i
The total energy of the meterig& in the,+
E - U (internal) +, K ,(kinet$) $ P (pot
2:
)
Since the tank is not movi,ng , dK/dt * *dP/dt *s- 0. 3%~ uip, dE/dt - dU/dt and for
. .
liquid sys terns,
dU -. dH
,dt - dt
.I
I _. +a,-
:7 1
<,
where H is, the total enthalpy t3f the- material. in the

.,
*tank.
.
Input of total
with. feed stream
per unit time
and
4 F2h2)
Fuf t h e r m o r e ,
%li.
,,
,.
I.
4.
Output of total energy

with product stream
:. =
per unit time
1
where h 1, h2, ,h3
p,F3h3
)
,,
,:.
<,
,_
are the specific enthalpies (enthalpy per unit mass of
streams 1, 2 and 3.
Due to the perfect stirring

,: assumption: , the specific
A,
enthalpy of the material *in stream 3 ia ithe:, aa& aa ,$be specifi$ enthalpy of
, ,,.
.
a9
:
the material in the tank, Thus,
:f
I
,i
)
H - pV h3 I
_ *
i i
\
.?-y
.t 4.
:
.;..:. ,.
+, Q ,:
Consequently, the total, energy balance yields,, ,,

d(pV
dt
h3)
- p(Flhl + F2h2)
- .: FP3h3
(4.?4)
.t
in terms bf. ether

.
variables, i.e.. temperatures, concentrattons, etc. , Weiknow, thao;di- . _ ,+,A. .
*.
r;
;
h3(T3$ 9 h3(To)-, t, 6 %T .- T 1, ~
..
The question now Is how to characterize .,I hi, :h, and 63
where To
is the reference temperaturer:,. At this tkmpekature I

J .
Ph3(To)
,.
,(.
&(T,)
.j
ph2qbl
,: $ I
=,
where 8, and fi B
cA2tiA
+b$iw
.
+; cA2A$2(To)
.;,
are the molarenthalpka (en$halpy
(4.16a)
;,
(4439)
(4.16~)
~*!.
per mole).of components
A and B at temperature To. gs , A$ , A$3 ,.are t&heat -of solution for

,;1
2
,
:
J
,.
.
streams 1, 2 and 3 per moie of A at temperature To. Substituting eqns.
(4.16a,b,c)
I
and (4.16a,b,c) into the totsi energy balance eqn. (4,14) we have:,
:,
f, + cA A*
i,
)'+
s3
Cp3@3
- To)
dt
=
i J.
nln
i$+~~Afi~)+pF
F,(CAfin+ca
D1
,1
~. 1
.(Tl-To)
PI
.:
4 F,(c.
ii.
+'c
i$
+
cA
Ati
)
+
PF 2 'c p2 (T 2
L-A 2 A, B2
2 s2,
1
- F3c"& + cB:$&.' cn,hti ) QF c iT3 -'To)
3,
;3
3 s3' , ? -P3
j _A' ':.
\
.
AT-
To)
%,Q
.'
^,
4 0 @alance
on A)
.a
= Fp*,'"S, + PFlcP. 01 - Tb> + F2cA2AHs2

J.
J.
-L .'
,'.
_-
PF~c~,($~
and
finally,
F3CA3AHS3
.ld
.a
,/,
4 pF2cp2(T2
'.
- To)
:
"
- To)
.
; ,
72
pc
dT
.t'$
p3
cA F;[Aiig
L AI? ] p':.+
1
1'
.g3
+ PF~~~~~,(T~ - To - cp3(T3-T$1
CA P2[Ad ! - Ai& 1'

32
2,
3
F 1 1 cp (T - To) - :c
2 2
If we'aesume
(T3-To)
t&t c = c - c
- c , we have: ,
'
p
2
q3
p
pl
.!
..
+ P1 cp(T1 - T3) + H2 cp(Ti - T31 * Q
(4':14a).
1
A'
Summarizing the, above -steps we have:. . !

1
state variables: V, c
'T
A3'
.3
t.,
state
.g,
,.
,' j Iy
i^ .,
.;
'
'0'
.
:,.(4.12;)
$.p
II.
:- .
"
(4.13a)
.:
I
.,* ,I .,
.,,:.r'
'.
,
:%
'i
dT3.
' _f?cpvdt- c F fAii -Atis ] "cA F2[A# -Aii ~+PP~c~(T~-T~)+PF;C~(~~-T~)~I~Q
_: Al l
s1
3
2 i s2
Is3
:+ : -,/". ' :,
:
ii
_
(4.14a)
)
'.
input variables: F1s cA1' T1s F22 cAiP T2,,'I! ,3 (for fa&bac~~~i$ntroL) I:<
.I
b'
*V (,or equi;d;entQ
theheight oE ,liqaidl.eve~: h)';'
;*:' .? , , ,
*,I.
.;:
i -.
a
n
d
T3i,
=A3
:
t ,
-.
1%.' .
.,
I
~:,
.'*. _,
parameters (constant): p, c p,s,dfis ,, Aii;
A&
:
s2' . ?
_( t;l.
r*
I/
Remar lcs :
(3) U&ally a mixing tank is equipped writh aeooiing
or heating
:
.'
,'
:dcA.'
,I'
.:
y-2 'I @A - kA )F + PA
dt
1
3l
2 - 'A3)'2
1f 'I
.
'I :, .I .,
:,
,- F3
-.
,'
equations:
'8
<
'
- i,Tl" +,F2)+
:-c
,'
,I~
',':
'/',
,l
f Q
-:..*'.
,
. p3
output variablea:
:?
coil or jacket through,which

released,during
:
t
0,
,
'
3 (*'2, 4, ,
,. :
.
flows a coolant (if heat is ' 1'
the mixing of the two solutions) or a heating '

i
\" .
1/
,
,. c*,'!
:
>
:
i
medium (if heat is~absorbed
during mixing:)
in an attempt to keep
.I )
L(
, -.. .
the mixing, isothermal.
_
*.
~:
(4) If the,heat of solution..sre @rang functions of concentration, i.e.
?:
i f [hii - A6 ] and [Afi
- Afi, ] a r e n o t s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s ,
%
,s3
,!
s2
3,
then from the total energy balance eqn. (4.14a) we notice that
7:
:
*, i.. *
i I :+ 7
T3. depends strongly on the *concentrations of the
jI tqgiderature
.
.,
.)
;
7
. - ;feed,strear& and their temperatures. If on -the o&r ha& ;
Consider. the shell-an&t

flows through the Snner tub~aird ,.it is being h~,~,ted~:by:+team
ttfiieh flows outside
,I : ; ~ ~, ,_
/*
the tube. The temperature of the .liquid. does c&t,only
change.<wS&
time ,but it
,y; .:.
,i ,_, . ,.
also changes along the axial direction t ~&NU thi
:I$. at the $ntrance
:. _ :valua
i
.
I,. ~ ,,
. ;. L
i I
t o t h e v a l u e T2 a t t h e e x i t . We wiil &&I& t&t the t~emp&ature does not
;I
change, al.qng
the radius. qf the pipe,. S&J.:- .we will+~ssitimp p$.& nlh. CO&
. \
,
;.!J.
.me..stgt$
i _
sequently, we have two indep.endents
variable& $..$. ,;ti.! a$ni,;:t,:
1
,
variable. of interest for t&e h e a t +&hanger i; .th&&peratt&.
l(T)
bf the ,
;.,
., f
,
heated liquid. Therefore, we need the energy baltitic.e;-foi;i..athe
$b&&!briiation
of the temperature.
To perform this balance consid.er
the element of
. length
1,
1 /
AZ defined in Figure 4.9 by, the dotted lines. Fori this
syatcin,
andl,over a :ii
;,r
.*.
, 1:_i /r . ,:
a
_.
*.
period of time At we have:
c$
/
,,)I
i
i
..
Energy Balance
. C
,/(.
.,
/
.^:
. . ):A
- ( T ) ] - p cpvA(T):- *At -. p cpvA(T)
Q*t +
p ypA*bz- [(T)
t?f*t 1 ./. e
. I 2
I
( I z+Az
Accumulation
of
enthalpy during
the time period i
At
r.r \ :, _ 8;
Flow- .in of
enthalpy during
the time period
At
/.
Flow out of
enthalpy during
the t i m e period
At
,
r,
73
I,,
I',,
+ Q*Dt*(vrD*Az)
,,
(4.17)
.:,
Enthalpy trans&rred
from the steam $0 the
I. .
.
.
liquid ,1 through the
wall ,. during s&e time
7%
!,
..
,,::
period, At.
.I_
1
1
I,I,
tt
.
.
II
where
.d;.,
f
_
*i
;yri
_
!
*
Q is the amount of heat transferred. from the steam to the liquid per
unit of time. and unlit ,u$,heat tratisfer ,greo, -1.
,:,
.j
:
i
1.
1
A is the $ross section& :ar,ea of .the ,inmr tube,.
7
v is the velocity of. the liquid, an$
1
.:;; L
:,
D is the eFterna1 diameter of the inner tube.
:
,
Dividing both sides of eqn. (4.17) by Az*At and letting A&& and AtA,
i
,<
we take,
.
,
)r
1
aT
P cp AGE +
Q,:**" I.).' \',, .:, :.

,:*
(4vW
5, *.'I
*.I
In eqn*
eqn* (4*18)
(4*18) we
we can subst'it&&.
substit&&. Q.:!:'gf~&&
Q.:!:gf~&& e*ai
e*ai - '
:,
jj'JJ 5::5:: .. ..y. :,
_ i
,,
Q - h(Ts
h(Ts I T) ~; : - ; t y :::.a:::.a',,
",,
1 1 ~.,I~.,I
i.'i.
,, ..u..u ' ,',
.;
.;
00
t :
**j :
.*:.*:
jj
11 ,{,{ i;;
i;; "jj
: '$i$i
:
.'.
and take
/
:
ST
1 pcpAat,,
cp
P c V
P J
v+$
,F$,*
iT 1 , : I i ,j ) i i, ;*, :.
A - --h*D;(Ts-T)
a?.>!,:,.::~ i
i
,*:A
.$, Z$
:i
I,
:I
,,
;.
(4.19)
:.
This is. the equation of st.&te that models t.ha- behavior of the, liquid51 tern.,
perature (state variable) along .thp~.~eng~~..of!-thre
.exehanger. S&me
e&.~~(.4.&
L,
: ;A,
is a partial differential .eq&ion: we say$+&at the -changer *has baen*modeled

,&S.
v
I
I ,i> ( 5., j . , :;
0~
41.e ...e....mW.I
~li8rrab~t,t~~ornnoter
~li8rrab~t,t~~ornnoter
syatct,,
syatct,,
t*t:*:
.;
.i
s : I-,:
,.
Example 4.13.
4.13.
i .
The Mathematical Model of~&~$&, Binary.,DSsti$J.ation

CQ~U~
,
i:,.
.,*,
I
,;r .1:
Consider a binary mixture of components A atid B to be separated into
;.
1.
:
,
J .
two product streams usingconventional dlstillatian, The rn+5ke
is
is fed in
1 m+5ke
.
;<.a
.I,
:,
the column as a saturated liquid, i.e. at its bubble .point, onto the feed tray
._
-(.
Nf (Figure 4..10): with a molar flowrate (,moles/mi&te).Ff ani a molar fraction

:
:
*,
;g,
?l
,-
of c'omponent A, c
..'The overhead vapo r stream is cooled and completely conf'

I
dPnsed,band then it flows into the reflux drum. The cooling of the overhead
r
vador is acoomdlished with cooling, water. The liquid from the'reflux drum is
'L
partly pumped back in the column (top tray, N) with a molar flowrate Fk
(reflux stream) and partly is removed as the distillate product Qith a molar
*.flowrate
FI,. 'Let us call MRD the'1iqu.i.d
holdup in the reflux drum and xD
the molar fraction of component A in theliquid
clear
that xD
of'the.re'flux'drum, It&
./
'the r&l& ,and dis'til.l~te
&reams,
is-the composition"Yd"r ,both
'
At .the base of the distil,lation column, a'liquid &duct ,&'eirn (the'
,
bottoms product) is removed with 'a 'flo&a'tb'~'~b,
and's com#osition xB (molar
3 '
>.
-A
liibid
stream
w$&
,&
wlar
flowrate
6s'
i#
"&&A &$,, fr<im,
fraction of A).
:
the bottom of the column and after it has been heated pith steam,&t'retucns
,.I
to the base of the column." The~'-Eompoeition of the recirculaddng',back to column
'_.
:
stream is xB* Let s, be the,S&iquid .h+dup at,the baee og:%the column.
The column contains
the top.
Let Mi
N trays~nnmbered
be the liquid.holdupon
from thebottom
o-f..the:,&lumn
to
A
the i-&h, tray, ~The vapor holdupon
each tray will be, assumed to be, neglig-ible. __
,+,
; .: '. ..'9
In Figure 4.11a we see the material flows in and out of the feed,,,hray,.
Figures 4.11b and.4.llc
(1-st)
trays.
show the material flows for the tag (n-rth)
Figure 4.11d
and" bottom '
refers to any other (,. tray.

. ,',.J..,' I.
,
II
To simplify the system we are considering, w,ecwfll, make the following

1
assumptions:
."
I
- Vapor holdup on each tray will be neglected. .;:
"
.,
%
:,The molar heats of vaporization of bo,$h'components
mately equal.,
This( means that one mole,of
i
'
A and i i are approxi-'
condensing vapor releases enough

,A
.:
heat to vaporize one mole of liquid., 4
!
P
1,
- The heat losses from the column to th,e surroundings are assumed to be
,
negligible.
- JThe relative~,volatil*ty
relativei,volatil&ty
~ : ,-.
L
#
88
c(a
of the t@ components remains constant through1
!out ,the column. '.

1 ."I
.,
: ,< -"
- Each tray 4' is assume< to be 100% efficient, i.e.
the vapor leaving
each tray
.'
~7
f
:
5 \
la in~.equil.&brium
pith the liquid,,on ..?.#
the tray.
'. .-,
,, i ..a
,",,
:
.,
&e :/,T6e
ff*~stthr~~'agsumptions
iret thr& ..arraumptioF,e :: .imply,that
.imply ,$hat
::
:/,.
.
,a,-> ..,, t
,a,->
t ' :: ... ." --,,.. :: tt
*,?.$
*,?.$
,w-v -.-.
,w-v
V
V
j
&
2
,* 'Y; ., 7:: VN ,;'
t
,
z
.' .l
.'
'
.
'
*
L-Y
.i
, jl _.,
'
:*
and,there is no,peed for! energy
each,tray..
'.,,,
,,
.L : a" '~ala~cq~around
+
:
,'
I
The last&m,
! ,
. ,-, ,..) vaporrliquid equ,ilibrium
, h~-~ , assump~~qns~.~~~y"thaf'a.,Bampl~
L
.*
./.j j
relationship c&n beai,used
rele;~~~~~,~~~~Olay.,.frs,ction
of A in the;,~yap~~~,
,"":; to rele;~~~~~,~~~~Olay.,frs,ction
. __I
,O,
)
;r,
'
leaving the i-th tray (yi) with the,molar~.f9~aci$on~
of A in the liquid leaving
I
,a;
::
.;
the same tray (xi); i.e.
I. _ , j 4,,_ 2",. *,; ; , i
',
,
/
,"I
I"
;
:. _. a: *
a*
ax
._
2'
':
:,;.
1,;
'1
* ,. :
J"/, : rr:
1
(4.20)
yi 7 ,1 + (a-lhi
*. ., f _<' :I.
.I ;
"
r
.i,
I.
" f !',$ I+
AandB.
i
*!-'
where a is the relative vola~ility'.o~.th~'twc~.~ornponeqts
'
,
.,
e,7 '
The final assumption$ that tie ~~~i~riU?e'@&&hb~
Wil'i :ni&ee$klthd fo&x#ihg:
fo&mihg:
'**
;:Neglect
the dynamics of the cond'enser~%nrd

'the r'kboiler,
it :is clear: that
:
these two units (heat exchangers) consfktute ~roces$ing'syefems
on their
,'
'own right and ds such they have'ti'dynaniic
behavior (see &ax$le 4.12).
Therefore, any good'modeling should include she state'equations
.
tribe their- dynamic behavior. .' '
- Negl.ect
tihich
:
,
II
'
'
des-
.,
the momentum balance.& each tray and assume that t-tie molar flow-
of ".
I.,rate of the liquid leaving each tray is related to the f;iquid,holdup
.!i
the tray through Francis weir foir&tA; -1
$
..****ii
wi - 1,2,***,f,***,N
(4:21.)
f(M$
Li -- f(M$
Li
i
:I
Let us now davelop the state equat$&which will detkiba'the dynanic
behavior of a 'distillation column.
The Fndamental
i.
and mass of component' ,A. But the 'question is:
quantities are total iaass

i
<i
'
"What is the system around which.we
will make the'.balances?" F+om a

+
pract;fcal point of view, the bound,ary of the system of interest' is outlined by
:.*
.I
,I.
'.
dotted lines &-I Pigurt 4.10. Such's boundary clearly identifies the inputs
and outputs of practical significance for the overall system.
evident that, unless we can desctibe-how
,
I
Tt -is also
the concentrations and liquid holdups
on each tray-change with time, we cannot find how the variables of practical
*r
significance, like xD and x ~khqti~e with time. Therefore, we are forced
B
to consider the'balances around each *tray.
Thus, wehsve
.*> . ,: (see also Figure
<
.
., f ':
,I: i
4.11):
Feed+'j"ay
Tntnl
(ipf)
A&am.
it
-,
cr:,i.
*.:
NL.w
::'
ci
'
r:
I tr
.,i^
CJ :
'
.::
1.
-1
-tr
-m
-1
'R T VNwl - aaM - .WN - PR - UN
UL
"
..
-, / &
.'
,:
'.
d"!$& ,
1
sComponent A:
dt. - FR*xD + $R-l*~~~l - L$$.'~~~ *i* Ec r '
.j,
_ Bottom Tray (i=l).,

d(M,)
&LcI.l.
AIUZID.
n-L--,--L
L.
-i
'".
'
dt
-.&I 2
dfM-x-l
--1--1,
.-
UXll~UWNlL~A~
i-th 1tray (112,***,R-1
dt
,'
L2x2
vyO
and if
,
Total
.<i.,.
d(Mi)
Mass: .r
:'
:-
- I.,~
:
\9. apa)
j r,
I
<
-...' vlyI: : ." i :! ; ,'(4;;. 24b)
- 'Llic&
.,::; 1, ., ,\ ; -: ',A;. cI.I
*. ; !
'. i
..Y 1 ,
,:
~
= LieI
,; (4.23b)
<'I; i i.
i
1;
1
" ,
& ",,_
.;
,"
'(4.23a)
b._
'(4,2.59)
Reflux Drum
! i4.
i Compon&t 8: d(fIRDxD)
dt
.G,.
I:
Column Base
d($
Total Mass: dtI . .
:i
d(MB.sj
Component A:
dt
..,2
c i
NAYS
Ll<$.
-.
- uR + FDjXD
,
.$ :.::.
.i
V
Llxl
.I
:
j
EB$
~, *.
.
j # _/... .
(4.26bj
,,
.l)
._
* .:i : i .
I,
(4.27a)
/)
Vu,
-,
(4.27b)
L F&
( ;
,A11
the
above
equations
are
the,
state
eqwtions
and descrl;be the dynamic
1
,/ 2
behavior of the distillation column. T#e stgte variable&, of the model are:
..
T$A
r )~, *
Liquid holdups; M1)M2, v ? ,Mf ,I FI* ,M& G, and MB
v
. . ,.G.
*
Liquid concentrations; x1x2.,;:*ixf5.* l
;,x ; $c - .
i
j. ~ $;* I &. ;q , 2!nd xl$ . ,
To complete the modeEing of the co&n, in addition to. the state equations,
,
,.3 )
.
,t
/ I : i .i; _. ,
we need the following -relationships:
I . 1*. I,:: 1 I,
::_, .;,
, 6,
.
. r
)I (a) Equilibrium relationships:
I
i
,
,:
..
:
. : : :+,
i ,
,>I i,. .&
.)
!
-i.
.,
,I
axi
6
,
f
,a
k&NiB
,
i~,Q,2,
(4 .20)
Yi = 1 f (a-l)xi~
s
*
,jr $ .:i
.
V
.
.
i.
) I
( b ) H y d r a u l i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( F r a n c i s we%+,, foimulg) ) ,,
,
._ _
. *r
*
i * I %.1,2,***if,***,N
(4.21)
Li = f(Mi)
L
1
When all the above modeling equations are solved wg find how the flowrates
(4.26a)
.i D;
j. ,
,I
l l *
and, concentrations of the two product s&e,ams

,
i(distillate, bottom) change with
;
time, in the presence of changes in thevarious input variables.
.;,. . . /,
.&
The modeling steps outlines above indicate that the overall proceduri of
modeling a processing system may be tedius and fulilof simplifications.
times the resulting model is overwhelming
in size ana the solution of the carI

/. 5:
responding equations may be cumbersome: For the binary distillation column we \I
1;,/
..
,
.
.:
' have tcj s&lve~aikystem

IL
and
,of..
' 2N + 4 nonlinear diff&enti@

. I,. i &. ,
':
:'
1 2;;
.,
L.
equations (state equatioT8)

(L
.ZI$ +I; algebraic equations (equilibrium,'hydr&+c
relgtionghips)
I
/(
4.6
: j.
MODELING DIFFICULTIES
I.
.
: '-.
,!
.
8,
The
modeling examples discussed in the previoue s.ections
. >
1
:.,
.I
should have alerted the reader to a

in his efforts to develop a ~ea+ngful,
of a chemical process,
hi
j
or,tgis ghapter
:.
series
nf
diff+rttltJna
<..
+lra* -ma k.-....enr-
and realist$$,mathematic
-'
I'.
,'>
;_;i,
,'
Example 4.X4. .Considering

the Following Difficulties
the Mathematical
Modeling.of.,.he
.,
Arise:
- Determine with the desired accuracy the"values
of'various
CSTR (Example 4,lO)
parameters such
as preexponential kinetic constant, ko, the activation energy, E, and the

.L
overall heat transfer'coefficient;'U:.
"
.
- Although the specific heat capacities; e, and z,c
have been constdered
.>.P
'Pi
constant, .they are in general functions of the temperature, T, and the
concentration,
cA '
How do we decide that

this dependence is weak (so that
:,
wecanueeconstantvalues
as 'in the e~~mple)~or
&tiong (in which case the
I
,:
",
.
modeling becomes very compli&ted)?
The same '$&tions arise,for the
. ( iI *Ii&
de%sities, p and p i, and the hest'of r&ction,'(-AH;).
/
6 ">
- During the operation of,the CSTR, scaling, fouling, etc.', wiil.alter the
:
value of the!overall heat tranafq coefficient. How can we scco~np for
;'_
i : '.a.
,+this effect in the mathemgticaf model?,
- We have considered first-order kinetics to describe the reaction-rat&. IS,
c'
.:$
this correct?('
.I
_. i
*
We can classify the difficulties encountered during the mathematical
_I
modeling of a process in three categories:
(a) 'those arising from poorly understood chemical or physical phenomena,
(b) those caused from inaccurate values of various parameters, and
,; "_
(c) those caused from the size and the complexity of the resulting model.
A .._
I'
Poorly
Understood
Processes
.,
;
To understand completely the physical and chemical phenomena occurring
in a chemical process is,virtually
impossible.
Even <an aaceptable
degree of
knowledge is at, times very difficult. Typical examples include:

- Multicomponent
various
reaction systems with poorly known interactions among the
components
and
imprecisely
known
kinetics.
6
4
/'
1
,~
'I,
- Vapor-liquid,or liquid-liquid thermodynamic equilibria for multicomponent

systeI5.
- Heat and mass transfer interactions in distillation columnswith

multi@om@Xent
nonideal
mixtdres, .azeotropic mixtures, etc.
.:.
IZxample
4.15
Consider. the ffuidimd catalytic reactor shown in Figure 4.12. An oil

_1
,.?
-.,
feed composed of heavy,*hydrocarbon molecules ia mix&d gith catalyst and enters
a fluidized * bed reactor. The long molecut+
react on the surface

. , of the
catalyst and they are cracked in& light&product
t&$ecules
(like ga&&.ne)
regenerator where the,,materiLl deposited on its surface 1s burned~~~ith

.I
~I
,L~ c .
The regenerated catalyst returns then to the reactor ,aft& it.,,i;i&x&
f r e s h
*?,
f e e d .
,,
j,
J-
air;:.! be
;
W&h
j
,
I
I n o r d e r t o modekthe.,two u n i t s , t h e foilowing ii&&mat&n must.be .

I
*
? ,
.a 5<* .
,
available:
,
.:i
<.
.
- The reaction rate of the cracking ijraci?ss;
,
.
;
- The rate with which. carbon and heavy material are deposited %n the catalyst
(this will determine the rate of
catafyst~deactivatioh) ; .. I_ ,., ,.+

- The dependence of the above two rates on the temperature of the reactor and
.
.
the quality of the feed (light or heavy) ;
- The rate of combustion of the carbonaceous material deposited on the

catalyst, in the regenerator , and its dependence on temperature.
All the above information is not only difficult to acquire but at times it
leads to contradicting contentions. For example, in l?igure 4.13 we see two
,,
.
.:.
._
/w
models that describe

the ef f ec,t, of the
heavy
;;Jn?l$.l 9 feed
, . k rite. on the reactor temi
_
,
.;
pera ture. We notice that the qualitative behavior predicted by the two models
, 1
)
i
is quite different. ,_
,2i:r
* L
Finally, the two units (reactor ,reg.enerator):
are fluidized beds and it is
well known how poorly~ understood are the fluid mechanical characteristics of
such units.
E
:I
,11
4 B-.
Imprecisely
Known , Parameters
_/
-.: / I, *
The availability of accurate va$ues,: for the p9rameter.s of a model is

indispensable for any quantitative. analysis of the behatior of a, process.
. *
Unfortunately, this. is not always possible. Typical examples incl+de-. the ,- :
preexponential
constant of a kinetic rate expression, :

,Y
::
It should also be poi+ed out; that the yaJ,ues of the peametire doApt
:!
rema*<n constant over long per&de.. of time., Therefore EorV,:8ffective
jnodeliryl i
t.
weneed not drily accurate values but alap some qu&sitasive description on how!
the parametric values change with time.
are the activity of a cafalyst,
Typical examples of changing,.$arameters
.a@ the iver&Ll; heat tr&sf,er, coefficient of
heat transfer systems

(heat exchangers,n jacketd reactors, etc.).
,
_I
The dead time is also a critical. parameter whose va1,u.e +$a usuelly; imprecisely known.
.+ we will see in; a,,later

sect$on.,,, the poor ,knowledge Sof the
j_,
dead time can lead to .s+riou#~I stlility jroblems for the proce$s,l
When no r&able,
for the
: . values.
,
c, pa&u&a,. are available, we .-rwor t t o
.
experiments tin the real process in an.,effort
$.a estimate:
some goodj~ values
i %
for them. Moreon the experimental. prqcedures
,;
1. will be dispussed in a subsequent chapter.
,c
,.
* ,
1/
.
,~,:
i,,,
C.
The Size and Complexity of a Mod&

*$ ,>.' i:
i
f;nan effort to develop as accurate and precise a mathemat+al,model
as
:
iI
:,
.:.:
.:9.. ii
possible!, th& size ano,the complexity pf the model increases,si.gnificantly.
Consider a-distillation column with 20 trays, a rebsiler and a-condeker.

,. ;
The feed,.is;.~,two-&omp.onent mixture.. Then , as',wc have seen in Extim#le
4.13,
*: :
v:..
the mathematical.~model is ,composed of:
.:/
'
2N + c, = 2(20) + 4 =
2N + 1 -"2,f20)
,.-
f X -
44
differential equations';'and
',
41: algebraic equatfone,
:
The size.of the model ,for such simple syetemsis
:
I'
prohibit&e. Since
',
the common distillation systems include feeds'with mo& tha&.two compt.k&n$r and
~ " (li.
,%.'
possess larger numbers'af trays, it is clear that such .an~:~xten~iv~:'md;d~~ing
',
:: I.
would lead to cumbersome and hard to use mod&.
.1
q 9.:,
,9
0. ,
:,
;.:.
$i "
Care must be exercised too that the size.and the comglexity,,,of
c:~odel do
'; /
,,ap_) ,
I
not exceed certain manageable levels,,geyond
Gh$ch the model,:%$ses its vgfue:
"
:
and becomes less attractive.
,: '. :
I
SUMMAk
AND CONCLUDING REXARKS
'
"
altady
a I
I
i J.
'.
modeling of processing systems $e need to:
,-:j+. 9
:
*
a.
kL
- identify the st&$,variables
whose values charagterizs-the
fundameztal
j
!: 'f !
I. .." ).
I
quantities of th&process,
and
.,!
, 9'
FQr the math&atical
.:
*:farmulate the state equations whose solutibn depicts ,ho$the values of the
#.
,sttitevariables, art? consequently the -uatural state of the process, changes
,j
.-we
;
!
; -_
:.
t
.
c
with t i m e .
The state equatjzons are developed from the application of the cgnservation
:
principle on fundamental quantities like. totaltiass . * mass
., of various ~comp&&hts,
tot41i. energy, momentum.
,_
:~ :: t ?. I. 1
I.
i
To complete the .mathematioaLmodeUng

.;
,,
1
are needed to Bescribe the:
-
reaction
kinetic
rates
: ,:
:_s
of a process, ad&itional
:.
.
.(
-,
- rates of mass,. energy or momeritum tranifer . a

.
- equilibrium conditions of reacting sy&eti
equations
i.,
,i I, t,
;;
;:$
/ ,, .*. :
,._I>: ~~,a
./
- (equilibrium conditions Yamong *various phases
.i:, i
+ i. .
- thermodynamic equations of state-(40 descr,ib.e, the behavior&f varioug
:,.
1;. _.i
,materiale (gcfeas, l i q u i d s , ,mix#Cyyecq, @XL+). . , :. I., ~: ::.
_, ,: 1 j i:- / < . ~ i V+z,.:, ,I
3 .
,,
The modelgng
a process should a&aye consider t&: poss4~ility &! thi-; ..,,y, (
3
r:
,I;
.
tj
presence of etgnificant dead time.( The :dead time Is i v&y %mportant f*ea,ture,
1 : .,J :; .z , ,;~,? I :
(
I
and it plays a ,significant roleinWtfie &sign of effective controllers -for a : I u
,. .
chemfcal process. Only when the de&* t$@a is very amall (sincei& priaciple
(.
_/,_,
it will never b,e zero) it can be neglected from the d&iopmentof a mod+.
:t
Several difficulties arise during .the modeling,
of a &he&c& process.::
j
.
.
These difficulties can be classified int the following,, categories: ;. q
1.
- Difficulties arising from Amprecisely
known
phenomegi,
/,.
:
4:i chemical
~
-.
_ or.chemical
;,:
.,.
affecting the,, eff ectiveness of the selected equilibrium nor rate reJ.at$onships.
P
.
- Difficulties arising from the inaccurate values of the various model
of
._.
i: ,:
* ;
,,.
parameters an& how they change.
- Practical difficulties caused by the large size and complexity of the

resulting model.
/
:.
,
q
A-mode1 is considered acceptable when it can predict the dynamic behavior

j.
.?
:
of a syste& with at? acceptable degree of accuracy. h The assumptions made by the
,
modeler will influence the, quality, of the resulting model. Consequently, the
mathematical modeling is an- art not very well defined, where the previous
I* _,
\
1, ,:
5, :. rt :;,
educati&, ,practical experience and intuition play a very important role.
.:,,
.
Although the modeling procedure outlined in this chapter is in principle
1 :
;I .:_
*ir
*
,:
feasible, additional practical considerationa motivated by the, needs of process
.
control dictate certain char&es that will
be discussed in Chapter 6,.
,
8

1.
2.
3.
.(
What is a mathematical modgl.ofa physical process and what do we mean
...
:
.a
/
when we talk about mathematical modeling?
-. x
8.
;
. _ i, &I
: .,
In Figure 4.13 we see two dJLfferent curves.,which relate the temperature
.
1
,.z., , _,
,,,..
! , ~,I
and the feed rate of the .reactorc in the, fluid catalytic cracking:?nPt
,.:.
:
_
i
discussed in Example 4.15, I@ the term model approp,f,iate for each of
(.
: .J
:.
these curves?
j..?, :
+
t;. i.
.
.,.
i 4I (a%.
Let us recall that the Steam Tables give the temnerature .af whkh wnt&
liquid and water vapor are at equilibrium for a given Gressure. They
:a,
*i.
also give the specific values for enthalpy, ,entropy, and, volume...of both I
liquid and vapor phases. Do ,these tables of values consti@ute a
1 I
A-:.
:
i
mathematical model?
:i *,
:.
:
Consider the graphs shown in the Figure Q.&l. These graphs
were pro,
.i.
,
*I
duced by measuring the concentratie,n of B in, the rea$ibn,~ ,A 4 B,
;
/
over time, and at various temperatures. Do these glraphii
i. :. represent.
, _ a,
1
4,
mathematical model?
5.
10.
Why do you need to develop the mathematical model of a process you want
,.
..:.,*
s
:
*.
to control?
i
:
_* i,t
..
What are the strte variables and what are the state equations? What are
i. 1
they used for?
..
How many state variables do you need to describe a system which is com:
,*
I )
,, + 8 ,, _/
i
,, ? .( .
posed of M phases andN components?
, - ,~
*
+r We know that when two phases are at a thermodynamic equilibrium, the
.
li-. <,
j,
j .)
chemical iotential of every compotient (i) in the phase I(u $,l) 2
b (
<
.
- 1
equal to the chemical potential of the same component in the phase II
2
(lJ i , II), Le.
.
i i lJ;;,.,N
Q,i: - .%,I1
_:
Express the above equilibrium relationship in. terms of the mole concen,,
.- I ..$.
tration of the N components in the two phases. The answer to this
j.
: ,
question will denianstrate to you that wedont need the concentrations
k, :
,/,I
of the N components in both .phaaea in order to describe the system.
,
Write a relationship that will give you the molar or the specific
.i.)
/I
t,
b
entlialtiy of a liquid at tempe&ure, T, pressure, p, with a composition
~
of N components known.
,
RePeat question 8, but with a&# instead of a liquid.
11.
For the fash drum example (Examples 4.7 and 4.8) develop an expression
12,
14.
for the density of the vapor phase , using the Van der~ Waals equation of
.
*. .,
state. State also an expression for the d,ensity,of the liquid phase.
.I
When is a system at steady state?
..i
/
What is the main reason for the presence of dead time iua process?
,
,.
Do you know of any systems which do not possess dead time?
15.
How would you find the dead time of a system?
16.
In the Figure 4.4-2
6.
,
7.
a.
9.
+
13.
we see the behsvioi of the concentration at the

/)
:.. _
outlet of two processes , after the concentration at the inlets and at

time t=O was incrjeased by 10%.
Which
process
possesses
dead
time?
What are the assumptions leading to equimolar vapor flow rates, i.e.
18.
v1 = v2 - ,*** - VN - v
for a binary distillation column?
Why
the
have
we
neglected
energy
galances
for
the
binary
ideal
distillation
column of Example 4.13?

19.
What
are
the
assumptions
leading
to
the
equilibrium
relationship
(4.20)
and how is it derived?

20.
Could you have dead-time between the overhead vapor and ,the distillate
product?
If
yes,
why?
*
*a
.A.
1 (Clnmeurure
T
I
Otd --------we_
Steady Sfafe
,-e-m----
n--w
\
-err----
-------
Neti 5Yeady Sfufk
.Y
---
- - - - - --
-,_-xA& -a..&.--i --.
f-.
^,
c iY.
,;;I;
/,Yrcxesr 45
,.
:<,:,
.,
CHAPTER 5
MODELING
CONSIDERATIONS
FOR
CONTROL
PURPOSES
',The mathematical modeling of the,physical and chemical phenomena

,c
.'
'.
encountered ,in processing systems of interest to chemical engineers is a form
*,.5 _,;;. , '.<-*.
': '
I ./ .3 -of $&f&ic art. As every type of art it does not conform to neither does
1'
1
it obeyvsry clearly' specified rulee and recipes. It is an expression of all
, :...
i ?'i'
the educations1 bk&gr&nd
kud previous practical experience of the modeler.
_1
Therefore, if'"the prkious
sections have generated more questions to the
I
/ ,
reader than answers to their modeling problems, he should not despair. Good
. .,,;.'
i ,1 /
and efficient'modeling
is acquired slowly with ever increasing ability for it.
i
In this chapter we will attempt to focus the mathematic&l'&deling
to the
,I ;
;
i
_.. i(-:;:
control purposes and n&s.
Thus, we will examine the following issues:
*
,',_.
i' ?
how can one develop an input-output
- Starting from the state variables.model,
e
*
_,
-:
.c.model which is very cbnvenient for control purposes.
8.
:.
- Using the mathemitidal model of a process', how can one determine the degrees
of freedom inherent in the process,'and
problem
to
be,
solved.
~ We will close~this
consequently, identify the control

. .. _".I
i-
s'
:_
chapter with soma general guidelines: which will,help
the control designer to formulatethe~scope
of modeling fdir control pur&e~.

I,,,
5.1
THE
INPUT-OUTPUT
every
torally
>.
MODEL
chemical process and its associated variables can be described pic-
as shown in Figure 5.1.
The main block
represents the process while
the arrows indicate the inputs and outputs of the process.

The mathematical model which is convenient and useful to a control system
I
designer should conform with the.above picture, i.e: be such that,. given the
values of the inputs it provides directly the values of the outputs. In
6
particular,
the ,model should have .I th-e- following general form for every output;
,.;.
.,;
output = f (Jwut ~~~f.~,+$p) ;> _, ;; ., /
\!
:i c. . r
Using Figure 5.1 the above relationshtp implies .
.
.
y i - f(ml,m2,*** ,mh; dl,d2,;$* ;dQ). for i 2 1,2,***,m
,;
, . .
,.
_I
Such a model describing directly the, IrelationshiP between the anPut and
2
: 1
,F
:
output variables of a process is called input-output model. It is a very con
-2,:.
.
.
venient form since it represents directly.the cause-and-effect relationship in
, I
*
/,, j * .l, 1~;. b ,
processing systems and it is appealing -.
to process
engineersand control
I j
I
:a,, s
8
:
II
designers.
F;,(
.,
,
.L
5
if ,/.The mathematical models we learned to Qevelop (in the previous,:chapter)
-i;
$ i j
:.
.;
.i
,J
using the state variables, are not of the dfrect input-output tyPe., Neyer the. ,
.:- :-.
less, they constitute the basis for the development of, an input-ou,tPut model,
_.. ,.
I ,
1
This is particularly easy and stralghtfopard when the state Variables roin$ide
; I,
(
j..
;
completely with rtha output variables of a. process. In such a case vei can
.
i
integrate the state model to produce the input-output model of the process.
Pt.
: .
E x a m p l e 5 . 1The
- Input-output Model for the Stirred Tank,Heater
that Fi - F , which yields dV/dt

only equation
= 0, leaving.tha~total enkgy balance as ,the
of the state model,
V g b Fi(Ti :, T) +, $
P
:.- i si,,
,,
The amount of heat, Q, supplied by the steam is given by
= UAt(Ts
,
(47 5b)
\_
.
- T\
where U. is the overall heat transfer coefficient, A, is the area of heat

f :
/x
transferand T, is the temperature of the steam. Use the last equation for
.
Q, eqn. (4.5b) becomes:
/(
UAt
dT
"z
+ (Fi + FIT
P
= FiTi +
UAt
pc TS
P
or
dT
dt
aT
KTs
(5.1)
where
, ' 1 c" ',
a - -;+L
Fi
LT
T ,I
and
' UA,
- vpCp
Equation (5.1) is the'mathematical model of the stirred tank heater with T

the input variables. Let us see how we
r
:
I
develop the corresponding input-output model.
.,*
.,,
i'.'..
/
L
At steady state, eqn. (5.1) yields
'? I. ,
, i' 7 z- .
the state variable and Ti

can
aT(s)
and T,
- fTr
i(s)
KTs(s)
_h
,c;5*2)
,
7,
where T
are the steady,state va&ues of Mie correspbndln$

(8) ' Ti(s)) Ts(s>
variables. Subtract (5.2),from (5.1) and take,
'6 ,,.'
:
d('r - Tts))
+ a(T - T(s)) - $ ('Q - Tits)) +: K(T, -, Ts(s))
dt
1
ir
,"
~
or
I.1
dT'
.k T'
(5.3)
dt + aT' = T,# i +' KT; .;:
:' . *
where
T' = T - T(s) , T; = Ti - Ti(s) and Ti * T.%,T Ts(s)
,.'
indicate the deviations' from the correspdnding steady state values.
I,:k' I
!
'*
The solution of (5.3) is
,
,'d
,:
T'(t) = cleVat +
:
0 '
.a
(5.4)
t
I
Assuming .that
0, we .find
initially the heater is at steady state, i.e. at t=O, T'(t=O)

'.
easily 'cl - 0. Therefore eqn. (5.4) gives
T'(tf
= !' f$ T;+ &A dt
(5.5)
,'
Equation (5.5) expresses
,the.relationship
between the inputs (T;,Ti) and the
output (T'), and constitutes the INPUT-OUTPUTS

MODEL for the tank heater.
:', t
relationship is also depicted p$ctorially in Figure 5.2,
This
. :
*,
,/ :
Example 5.2 - The Input-Output Model for,a Hixing Process
1
;
,:
::. '
Consider again the mixing of two siream& process discussed in Example
,
.(I
'_
4.11 (Figure 4.8). Assume that:
:
- Fl -k F2 - F3;' which implies dV/dt = d, i.e. "V'i constant.
.'
- The heats ofsolut&ons'are
rsl
Af?d
independent of the-concentration
-
p82.-'Afis3]
='
(.j
'
which,,z&mplie$:
<,'
".'
*
i
Then, the state equations are reduced to the following:
dCA
-2+
($++cA3
= &i;
+' +cA2
.c
(5.6a)
* '
and
t
dT3
dt
Fl
.,F2
"
+ \v + $T3 ,
'
,
,' (5 6 ; '&.
I,
,;
At steady state eqns, . a
-
Fl
;.
F2
?j-Tl'+
7T2
(, ,,,;iG,,
' .
F1
V.CA
*!
and
U8)
'
+ -&
7,~
)' .'
I'
>
F2
t+CA
,:.
Z(s)
(5.6b)
'*'
'
'.
i
:
(5.7a)
,
-- ,,
;i't.jj.
: ,.
F.
F,
F1
F2
F1
F2
Q(# f
0,.I +> Ctf. + -$T3(oj.. I T Tx(idd) + p T2(#j f -j
p=p..
i
;
Subtract ,$5,7a) from: (5.6a) and (S.fb) from (5.6b) and take:
!I
(5.7b)
(5.8a)
F2
,+ 7 Td *+.,'KQ'.,
where A1
c' ,:.*c'
Ai' c'
A3' T',1:
follows:
L
,.
.I
i li
F2
v;
The solution of (5+8a)
ci (t)
3.
and
'
and
If the system is iriitially,

ci
(VO)
3
= 0'
as
31 :.i
:A3 - %3(s)
.
,I
;i'
T2 - T2(s) *, TJ .* T3 - T3(s+Q'+ Q.- Q(s)
,( i
I--.;;,
s-z
,,
',
.,i.;,..
I
x
,,:
;:
j
.:.:)
K.+3
ql .:I:;'
: " '_
., ;:. ,.
,:
yields:
T;(t) = c2eBat
vhriablesdefined
and (5.8bl)
- cleeal
:
,(4,8b),
' =i; = 'A2 - CA2(sj ' %3($;
:.
F1
&* .v..+
,;
.
>
Ti 9 T1 L Tl(s) , T; =
" /..
"-(
Also,
,are ,deviarjlon
- =A1 - Cilo
; -.
*'
and
,T'2, Ti 'and Q'
,:
:,
p2 *,,
'- +- c'
dt
A1 : _r P : A2 3 I;
/
:i ':*
..,;i:- /_; " ; / ',

; '.
:'.
_t, :
c,g,,:.
,./I
'i,'.
.f,$.,"
'I'.:. . .
: I
.i
,.~ .,
+
( :
i.e.. at tA0, at.bEeady
and'
T;(t=O)
-~
,$' :
state, then
'
(5,9a)
,(5.9b)
':
,
,
Equations (5.9a) and (5.9b)
represent the input-output,model for the
mixing :. process s$ lis shown schema tic-ally in Figure 5.3

.-; c ;
R&arks : (1)
,
In Examples 5.1 and 5.2 the;.output,

:.
state variables of the two processes.
variables coincide with the

@&equently, in order.
to develop the,, input-output* modelwe
need only solve the

; i dif- :
ferenti+ equati&s of the: mass and energy ,balances., phi; is
I,-
not always trued;.
-,Taks as an example the binary distfllation,

.
t
model (Examble 4.13;: and Figure 4.10). F o r t h i s systemi :
,$umn
wi have:
state
,. :
J :*
>
variables:
Liquid holdups, Ml,M2,*,;~f,***~~,~~

a n d -M&
,:
*
/
i
,
Liquid concentrations, Xl,X2,***,Xf,*** ,x,,. s ,ana
output
variables:
:*
.:
I$
~
,,
D$stillate
p r o d u c t flowrate ind,, &m&si&on, TD, a n d 4.

.__ :
,,I
x.
Bottoms product flowrate a&l tiomposltioni $R and XR
I
..
:,
:
We notice that we have many more state.y$rlables thin outputs.

,
.,,
For such systems, theC.development of- the input-output. model is
quite involved and difficult: E
Figure, 5 P 4 depidts pfc &ally
the input-output model thet we would like to develop for t&e,
binary Ideal dist,illatlon column,

:
:.I
Lf
(2) In subsequent chapters we will study the method of Laplace
transforms which aalows a much sinreler develonment of innut-
.,
,.
I
<
,..,
j .
:
5.2
DEGREESOF
'
FREEDOM
.The degrees of freedom of a processing system are the independent

variables which must b? specified in order to define the process completely.
Consequently , ,the desired control of alprocess
when all theidegrees-fofS;freedomrhave
will be.achieved
when and only
been specified.
A good understanding of how many degrees of freedom are inherent in a

process and whick,:are
:they,.is very crucial forth&
_'
2' .,.
trollers.
For a specifiedsystem,
its mathematicil
design ofeffective con-
model is the basis of

:
: )
'and 'static conditions. Let
:
I" '.
'finding the degrees'of
fi;i4edom unaer'both~dyn&ic
'. :
us start with't'wo characteris&
&amples;
'i
.$.
lh,,/
. i,
.
5.3 - Degrees of Free&m in,a Stirred Tank Heater'
;:I'>
. .. .
.' c
:;
The mathematical model ofa'$tirred tank heat& (Example 4.4) is given by,
"
.'.
/
i
A;$ p F ":a F
,.
Example
A; j$
9: "$(Ti_
;jry
,$
,;:
_*/
;]
.',>,:.':)i2:
(4: Sbj,,
p,
;;. f
.
.: ; ; // :jy /. (
When eqns. (4.4a) and (4.5b) are solved, simultaneously,-we ca, :fi,d.how h
;,1 *: "',.iJ
' "
(liquid level) and T (liquid temperature) change with t&&e: taben the,inputs
jl
i
,%;.
.:.
'.
(Ti,FiiQ) change-. Let us ask though' the following twoquestionstI.
_
.*.
- Is the solution of the equations possible? ' :I::~
' ., 6:".
- If the solution is possible,: how many satu'tiona *e&t? .r St

;"~r
'-:'.:'
,/
To answer the above questions let us count'equations -&d Lariabl~s.
.'
Number of equations = 2;; Equations (4.4a) and.'(4.@).
"'
.,
,
I
..
*:
c :
12
i,
Number of variables = 6s h.; T, Fit F, Ti, and Q '
We have assumed'that A, 6 and'."c
We notice that
.i.Vt
-a
are parameters with given constant values.
'
^ \
._
3:
il,
1.
::
f
:
)V.
:;
,,
,;
./.
Number of variables
I -'
_-.*
_-& .L
.,.
:
, -z
6 *:~.
!, ~:;I1
,: j? \
: ;,,
.,
-?;
,,.&
If
'
$mbe%iof
equations
I .,; ,*-: .,
,;. I; 1:
Consequently,.the answer to. ths-fir.& q#@$tion.is~, .yI$S there exists at least
.";
,i
: ;.
-_.
one solution to;the equations mode&ing,.
-hank. h*ater; With respect to the
I/ ;,,, .',-')
,.
i;
second question!we eagily+conclud$
that&here
"is
an'
infinite number of solu~
.t
-i
tions since we can specify arbitrarily&e
values+ four variables (4 - 6 - a
. si-
1
I.,
and solve eqna,.,(4.4a) and (I).Sb),.~fqr th$r+nainiqg twc 3
variabl'es.
_'
:
The
arbitrariiy,specifie@
vs$iables a& tke .degreea,,>of freedom and their
,
;
.'
z_
number is Siveni'by the:followinS ~~vioue.ie~a~~~nship,~::, ;
,~
J .'
,f
>
- j.(Number of variables) - (I$umbqr
of eq$$.onsj,
-'
Suppose th?t we specify the values of $I$) ,: folIowing, foyr va,niabl+s

f$ 4:.
and
% TYs I7
Then, we can integrate eqns. (4.4a) and <4.,5bjY anb find how h
,(
'4:.
' '2 -',
with time. If we give different value co "'
or ,P,
I
j.,
:', ,-;pi,' a ?UX Ti
1
/:_ T+'
thst h and -T,' change d,iffe"re@tly
than>befoke. Consequently;
.'
. and T change
<
,or./I Q,.we,find I ~ .
'if we want h'

,yr
+
ha& any d&reas of
and T to change in a prescribed manner we$ho&ld,,not

;
,<:
Fri?edom,
i.e. vclriabl.oswlrich
can. t&e a&$&~,&$$&$,uee.
'Ttijk: lc?p&us to the
,. _.i.
I
4
,. *'
I
'_
conclusion that,,'in order to specify compIet&
a'*procesh the number of,,degress
1'
*
-I, : f "'
/,
,( ! :: 't,"* I
:v
I.
;~
I, /
of fre'edom
shoulh be. zero. ." % ,'
1%. ,., > : '.
: :
3. ),, ~, + * -" -z ..,).
: jr .: .~<.i :. ,~ ; i
I ,-- 1
1
I, ,:
y,
,,:/.
qg$
I ,i::_;, ' '.,J. I,', :
.A
.T .' ,,:
.i:
Example 5.4 - Degrees of I?ree&m'in -an $deal:Bin&ry Bistillat!~on@dl~mn
i
Consider t&e model for an idea18'Bin&y distillati~ca~~n'deire~~psd
in
,
Example 4.13. We have: : ,; ';.. 4~: .;' ", 7
,-.,
..'
_I
;f,
Number of Equations
."a<
:or&+&
: Equilibrium'reXb&&hips~
N-b1
N
.L
-'
llydrtluiic
Xeqn.
relatio&hips'"
;.
Balances on"feed'tray
I
(eqn.
(4.20))
(4.21).)
'.
(eqns. (4.22a),
(4*22b))
.'
Balanties o n t o p t r a y
(aqns. (4.23a);
(4.23b))
Bake&es on bottom tray I(eqna. (4..24a),
2 (N-3)
Balandes on i-th tray; i # l , N , f ( e q n s .
(4.24b))
(4.25a),
Balances on reflux drum (eqns. (4.26a);(4.26b))
2
Total = 4N + 5
i;
Balances on column base (eqns. (4.27a),
(4.27b))
I_
Number of Variables
m.
N-I-2
xi
i=1,,2****,f,***, N,D,B
liquid
compositions
s
1 .i :. ,
-,
yi # W,2,:***,f,*** ,N,B v a p o r com$&sit$zons
i,Msl,
N+i
,.
,j
..:
Li
6
Total = 4N f 11
i=l 2 l
,
Ff c,; FD
liquid holdups
.
.
.) :
**,f,*** ,N l i q u i d f l o w s
.
,;
FB,
fFR
j
,!!
(4N C 11)
(4N
$ &
(. .z
The number of degrees of freedom For the ideal bin&y distiliation

-
,Mi fnl,.2,r**,f,*;*,k;I,~
.I ,.
N
(4.25b))
.f*
:.
column is
::
.I
i. e, we need to specify the values of alx variabWsbefore kk c&. solve the

$,I.~
model of the b&ary distillation.

/
_i.
, . .
).
.I
y
, L/ :*
_. ,
_;
:,:y
_,
I
8, ,.:$,,c
:I
al..
,
The observations made and the conclusions drawn from the above two &tamples
_,S
J.,
/ :.
f
*
b :.
i
f.
can now be generalized for any pradessing system deefribed by.,a s.et of E
,
*
I
equations (differential and/or algebraic) containing V varisb$es.
The num,I.
.,
_
b e r o f d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m forsucha s y s t e m is given%:by,
:, li,, .
. ,
_
/
t
_/ * ,I:., ;.
;
:
,)
f i Y _ E ,1
v
Accardfng to the value of f t we can have the falluking c@s&k: !, ,

Case 1.
,.
'.gi..
If f-O., then we have a system of equant&ons

variables.
The sdlut,ion
for the V variables.

exactly
specified.
w$th,?equal
of the E equations yields
numb&~~of
i
udique~\ralued
In this ease we. say that: the process is
Case 2.
If f>O, then we have more variables, than equations, Multiple
soluti!yns result from the, E equat&~~ng since we can specify

'e
arbitrarily L of the variables. ,In this case we say that the
-:
process,) is underspecified by f equations, i.e. we need f
additional squationa in order to haves uniqua solution.
Case -3.
If f<O, then we have more squation s than variables and in general

; >
ther e%s no solution to the E 'equations, 'In this case tie say 1
~.
9.
that the system
system isis ovirs$ecified
ovirs$ecified bybyf equations,
f equations,
i.e."we
i.e."ws
needneed
I ,_ I ,_
*.
_ :
to. r em&e. f <equat,ions
in order t;q have a solution for the &&am, "' "
Remarks:
(1) ,It is clear .from-
the above r* analysis that a sloppy.mopellng
of
a* process may lead to a model

.Y which
'" does not include all the
'n
,*
relevant eouations .and va&ables:o?"includes
redundnti6
:.
equations and variables.
:In either'cise we have an"erroqeous

,.determination.,of;the:degr$e{'of
ErFedom ,which'may imply,
. I. ._ ,( ,
,'
I.
I .;
i'
incorrectly that we have an infinite number of solut.ions'or
'I, .A'
."
no
solution
at
all.
.;
:
">
.,, ,* :' .:;,/,,' azi::; .,:h 4'G:v q
:.
"
.i
(2) The presence of a cont'rol,;jloog
in,~.~~~~al,,.proSeas.
intro- '
duces an additiotial equation be$wedt+$the

,(I :.*
_ m(
I..
/
.
;
4,
and the manioula&l
vari&bles. thus reduoir
initial
Example
f
5.5
The stirred tank heater is modeled 'hy two equations"conta&ng

variables,
thus:yielding
if the effluent flowrate.,F
foup:degreea
six
oft freedom (Example 5,3); This is. true
ia detarmined
by a pumpi:valve;
ets.. ':-Let us
suppose that this is not the case and' that theliquid. flows out 'fromlthe tank
'1
:e,
'
>
/I 3
I
-,
:i.:.
\. % ; :
k+
,,
freely under
pressure oE the liquid, ih the t&k,
In tli38 cn8c
.; *t the
,,,.; hydroa{atic
,: !t
there is, .? an additional
equation relating F to h, e.g. F = $&, which
_* -i
reduces the numbyr
.I
Example 5.6 '
of degrees of freedom by one.
r,
.,
Consider again the stiired task heater, but noti &id& f.eed&ck control
(Figure
5 . 5 ) Loop
.
%ontr&
1 inaintainlb
the. l&&d level ai a desired-'v&&&by

, "
measuring the revel of the liquid atid adj'ui3&lni
&e va$e~of the,efflue&t
flowrate.
h.
Therefore, Control Loop 14ntroducei
a'relationship
SimilarI)', Contrd'l Loop 2 ma&&s the &p&i&r4
bqtw&eri F and
1
1
bf the liquid at the
desired value by*?n&ipulatirjg
&ha,floG 02 eta&$ a&I &I~&$*&.&

of heat 6.
.
Consequently,?&ntrol
Loop 2 &trod&es'.&
tela&&hip"'b&&en
' g and T.
,
It is cliar from the. above analysis ttiat th& two dofit& lopp.& introdtice
two
additional
equaitons, thus red&irig t&. d&$&s of fk&do!m

,
5.3 DEGREES OF FREEDOM AND
b$ two.
I
). i
.
*,<
I%
PROCESS CONTROLLERS
".
::'T
!_
.,,.
In general, a carefully modeled

.I , process
, . i: will.,pqqsass
, ?
,: oyV9,,oi more degree?
of freedom. Since for f>O L the &qxs~ +.ll.i have an @fini@ ntimber pf ,
solutions the following question
ar+es;t
'.'j:Q
-I
"
t'
"How do you reduce t& number -of d&grees of. freed4p to szaro :
so that ydu can have a cromplately
dpecified syst4m w&h
unique behavior?" ,
.I
.
,
It is clear that, for an unspecified

system wit$ f degreeqof
.i
to introduce f addtional equations to,make the Tyetem
There are two sources which ,prq,vid+
the,addifional
external world and (b) the control system.
,frF,edc?n,
cpmpJ+@y,
we;"need
spe#ic?d,
equations$~' (a) the.
Let us examine them closer using:

I
the: stirred tank heater as our example,
,.
,
:*
Recall from Example 5.3 that the s&red tank heater powetises four
,
N ,I
degrees of freedom.
Therefore, we need four a?lditional. relation&hi&, independent of the linodeling equations (eqns J (4.4a) , (4.5b). These are provided
from
the
following
considerations:
- The feed flowrate Fi and feed temperature Ti are the maiin two disturbancae
for the stirred tank heater ;and they are both speclf,ied by the
t*external worlds, elgl th,; unit that

r , pre&ee# the tank, hea.ter.
A& though the
equations which specify

Fi ( and Ti may not .be known,. te,
nevertheless
:
. .us,
.,
they exist .,and remov. two (2) degrees of freedom. Tbus,,we have. 4 -2 - 2
( .
remaining ,+degrees of freedom.
.,
;
i ,.
:!
- The acceptable operation of
that!,,the liqu,$d level
( the tank heater,;r<equires
3:
and liquid temperature
in the
atI,.I .desired
values.
I
( /.85%
.I )
,I.. tank
), heater .I area maintained
/ ,
,
These two b,contrql
ob+t+ves can be, gc;fiieved,. with ,\the two. $ontEol looqs
.i
.
\
shown in Figure! 5.4
and
discussed
!n
$.ample
,5: 6 i BQ$-~ : tp, $y$$+~tfont of
. ~ r~ .* ,*.
the two contry
^equations ,:(see ..,
Example ,5.6) thus
r .. loops add,s ty, cadditiqnal
removing the temaining two degrees.,of freedom.

Summarizing the above observations we co&lude the following:
;.; ::
- The external world by specifying the values%f the.d$sturbances, :it removes
I
1I
>;+ -,
as many degrees of freedom 8s the number of,.., &turba&es. .
L The control system required to achieve: the iontrol objec&ve$, it removes
as many degrees of freedom as the nurnber~~:.cdn~r;;~
obf&%ies~.
_
During the* reduction in the numberI,,of
degrees
fir. a, chemical
_: :t.;-of. f?eedom
I
.,,i
1
process, care must be exercised not to specify more control objectives than it
I
-
is possible for the particular system. Thus we can have tit most two control
objectives for the stir&d tank heater.
Attemptfng
to have three controi
objectives we are lead to an overspecif ied syst& &Yth fe0. ,,

:;
/ i ;
I.
, ;,.
3 * ._
,
\
-_
,L :
Example 5.7 :L Re.duce the, Degrees of Freedom of an ideal Binary Distillation

Column .)
, ; I ,I
;
r
-,
Return;0 the ideal binary distillation column (Figure 4.16). The system
.
poss&ases six degrees of freedom (see Example 5.4) which are specified as
follows :
;.
11
Specif
j
,, &&on of the disturbances.
. .I
binary. disfil,lstlon column ;
(I
Two are the main disturbances

for the
.i
the< feed flowrste Ff, and the feed

,.,
composition
cf. The&r,values are speoified by the external world, e-.g. a
I,
I
A
1 tllou~:ll
reactor whose, affluent
stream
is
:.the
Feed
to
the
JSs
ti3lation
L
co
~mt\
I
_
;.
,
the equations specifying Ef ,and j Q are not known to us j nevertheless they
exist and remove two degrees of freedom, leaving four for additional
specifications.
.?,
.,
Specification of the control objektives.

objectives since there are four remain$ng
d.
.,
I,i
We can have up to four control
degrees of freedom.
The acceptable
operation of the binary col,umn requires that$he follo@ng variabZ& be mainc

tained at desired va2ues%
(i)
c o m p o s i t i o n o f the; distillltizr &ream@
(ii)
composition
of
the
bottoms
Ei,;~~ : Ij b s:. - <

1
stream,~XB;
ri 1 : : :,
(iii) liquid holdup in the reflux drum, J$,;

(iv)
liquid holdup at the. base of the column, MB.,
Specification (i) and (ii) characterize the two product str8ams.i
Specifi- :
cations (iii) and (iv) are, required for opkrational,
feas&blii.ty; i.e. -we do . .

{I.
not want to flood or dry up the reflux drum or the base of therolumn for
safety purposes.
Figure 5.6 shows the ,four control loo,ps,which
aatlsfy the
above four ob j ectives .

We must note that the above four specifications of the control objectives
may differ, according to the particular operating objectives.
For example, in
r-
a different application we,may
impose the following control objectives:

;: * ,
"Keep at the desired values the distillate flowrate FD,, its
com$osition
xl.), and the two"liquid holdupsi,,MD and MB
!
t
.
i a'
"Keefi at the desired values the bottoms flowrate Fg, its
comlksition
xB, and the two liquid holdups MD and' MB." .' '
1 ,.
'?
Care must be exercised noi'to%pecify
&re'contro&
objectives'than the
or
8'
available number of degrees of fre.ed0m.i
In such case the.system
becomes F' over_I

specifiid'alta"i,f'ig'impo8aibra..tr &sign'a~control
syktr& that satis&s~$ll
:p
! '.,'.,,,
the desire&i ~c)ntrtil'bbjbctives?,':T~~s, it is:imbossible to design a'.,dontrol
"
system for the"idea1
column that cansatisfy the following

.>
1'
-' ,
""'
six
operational
biniry;'drLitlPrstion
(control)
objectives: '?.
"Keep at the desired values &he FI), x~; Fg, xg; MD and' I$?
i
2 .:c;..
%,
,~
s': I
-,o
,.
%@,) !
_'
<
Example 5.8:+ 6cgrees:Of.~reedom~pilla

Mksing$%ocess.,
,I/
,
.
'
:, :
8.
'Consider the non-isothermal mixingiof two str'ea~$!. diPcussed
4.11 (Figure 4:'8).The mathematic&
dV
TE
II (F1 + F*)
.
d c it,
;
v -4 - (c,
"F
*1
model.& given by the equstions,

1.
_ .pj
' :
in Example
":
f<.
( '. ' .a.I /
d..
(4.12a)
.>I
'i
- CA )t
3l
.'!
(4.13a)
I,
..
dT,
~F~c~(T~-T~)~~P~~c~~~~-T~)~~~Q
-
, i
Number of variables - 17:

f
*
(4.14a)
v,c A3'. T3, pi.7 'F2', Fj I "Al' CA; 9 'Ai'
Tl, T~,;Q, 6, cp, Ap, ) aii, , AtiS .
12
3
Number of state equations - 3
.j
'.
Initial degrees of freedom - 17 - 3 = 14
', ;..

1.
6
:
Ii
. . Further 1imLiationof the degrees of freedom.

-PhysP&l @rope&& of the.liquids
m_,.
are specified, i.e. p and
=P
are functions of the corres-
- The heats of solution, Afi, , A$, , and AiS

1
2
3
ponding concentrations, and the tefe?ence temperature To, i.e.
,.i
.a
Afi
- fl(cAl,cB1,To). AHs2 - f2(cA2,cB2,To), $3 - f3(CA3,cB3Jof
s1
These three equations reduce the degrees of freedom by 3; Consequently;
a f t e r the, abwe:spec%fications
14
- 5
we have.left,
degrees
of
freedom.
The eight degrees of freedom are now specified as foll&s: l:*,.; ,

i
,
T h e r e , ak& pix uain- d4ifhAhmncee corni*
.:.,
from the two feed styream, *tee., : , . /r\_ $. *,:
1 ,. ~1 ,:I.
, _.
3; L*
j
1 .
Feed stream 1; Fl, Tl, and tii , _ :p&& stream .2; %?2~ T2. And. cA .
2
,
1
,
,
L
:
I,
*I
/
,
.
,,.:
,I.
I.
The values of the dist$rbances are$pe$f&d by the extert&,world.
.. ,. .;..,,. 3,s: *: ,,
>.I .; s_: .
Specification of,:rfie son&o& &bje&t$v&,~ a, Considering s&x disturbances
*
Q i+
i.
,.
specified by the external world,. we ha&$&y 9 - 6 = 3. degrees o f .freedom
* ,. .i I .,:,j -@..$ L,, ;....i; ;. *:,,:;- A,: j j _, :
l e f t . Therefore, ye dan specify up to fhre$
controlobjectives~ I* ese are:
I.
; , ,.& /& $
I
Keep the volume (i) of the mixture tn ithe t&k a& tie11 &I
,
the temperature (T) and;;compositrtod (a& ) of! &e~eff&uent 8
,
3.
stream at desired values.
3
.,*.
_:.i.
2;:
,
Figure 5.7 shows three possible feedbaa conttol* loops which
<the above
: ., satisfy
!
:
.:.,
.
*
,
_
3
.
j
:
4
,
<
.
objectives.
,_
< r,
.
4,
.;
It should be .clear by now that effi.c%ent modeling of B chemical process

:>
is a non-trivial task but, also-very crudfal. for the design: of a control system.
Before closing the present chapter let usemphasizesome
of the factors which
will determine
will
determine .the
.the scope
scope of modeJ.$,ng
modeJ.$,ng for: .qontrol
purposes,
It.T
Before attem4pting to mode!., a* pro!esg, tie wuqt pose the, follow$ng questions
ad try to understand their +mplicat&ns
well:
I
(1) What are the

the control
control ,objectives,we
,objectives,we must
must oat&y?
(2) What are the

t.he expected disturbances and their impact?
(3) What are the dominant physical and chemical phenomena taking place in
I,I,
/,
the- process to be ,controlled?

Clear understanding of the above .questions
and their, ansyera will, help
greatly to define and simplify,
_,,
,-,
(a) the system-iwhich we will attempt to.model,
/ *.I I.I.
s.
(b) the mass, energy.
knergy. and momentum balances that we sho@tLd ,-develop and,
,I
(c) the additional equations that, will be needed: tb complete tha!,mathe-
matical mod& of. the process- i.e. transport and kineti,crrate

:
. (,
expressions, reaction
and phase equilibria relationships) etc.
:, ; , -: _, !., I
! , .i . . J
.
.
3.7 z -1
j
They will also T. help to identify,

.,: . . 6.
.i
.6 ( i, j (. . .,>, ,i_,
;.+:rp -:,I: >
I ,... 1 ~~
*
..,:
^
the
stat;
variables,
,:
(11
, :
. I :
ti _*
/ ? a.
,. , I
, . I//
>I(
the i,nput
$put variables
variables (manipu&ted
(manipu&ted kr@
&d disturbances)
disturbances) and
and
(ii) Fhe
< :! . _
> I> ,, ;
t.:..:
:
~: i, ; : 1>
(iii) the
the output
outptt variables,
variables, ,,
.
:
rr\*
-2:.:
;r
il.
..
:
./.
,\
:,
,
that the mathe&tical model sSI&EdT Ynclu&.
1- 1 .,*. 1,:. j.I;, ;
v , .
Let us now examine each of-. the above three
questions and how they affect
j
, :, 1
t
1( .I * i:,.-,
: * ? : .f
the modeling of a process for control purposes through iseries of examples.
A.
.,
Control Objectives
As it has been discussed in Chapter 2 the,_objective.s.
is calted to satisfy may have .to doi ,..

with: ., ;:;
_,
that a control system
- knsuring
bnsuring thiat
the stabikl.ty
stability in the
the operetip)tl
oper%tip)tl ,of
,of aa process,
proows, or
Qr l l
.:
- sup~,ressing tthehinflus&
e influs&
of, ex~ar~i,8Ssturbancas,
of, ex~ar~i,8Ssturbancas,
o
o r
- optimizing the economic performance of
9; .+a plan!,
plant, or
or usually
$ually ,, jj
- combination of the above.
.,
!
.
;.,,
,-.
1.
All the above.dbjectiv&

terms of the floGrates;
I,.
1
of the form
are translated in quantitative e2pr&sions
in
-temperatures, pressures, compositions, volumes, etc.,
variable
- desired value or
variable
2 desired value
where variable x = flowrate, temperature, pressure, volume; composition,

etc.
.
,, 1
J
!,. j, .-I
: _
..,,
,,
It is clear therefore that if we have identified the variables x which
;:
S
&
::define quantitatively our, control objectives the mathematical model ~that we
i:
,
i
,
_(
,
, .
,I.
will develop must descrJ,be
! ~.I
how the$e
variables change with time.

i A l s o.a ;p
.
:. .
will help ua
determine what balances are. needed for the development

of the
,:.I
,*?
, , r:!.
+,
mathematical model.
t
* \i.,
I
: _
; -:
,..
.,
I ,
.,.
_:.
,i
: 1 I I
,
<..
!
L/
jjrl_
:
E x a m p l e 5 . 9 -
A.
Consider the stirred tank heater dlscussed

.in Exam$le 4.4.
I
),.
s,;*,,,
If our control objective is to keep the -liquid level at a desired value,
:
i -,
then the only state variable of interst is the volume if the&quid in :
<
a
.
I
the tank (or* equivalently the 1 height of the liquid , l&l>
%nd.,con-,,
.;
,
.I
sequently we need only consider * the-total mass balance. The d$st&bance
.
.:
:
s
;
; i
of interest-is the flowrate of the inlet stream, Pi, while the manib
/ . ..I..~ _,
A_
6
pulated variables to be considered are the outlet flowrate $ or the
,
i n l e t Fi.
B.
;. y /
: .,
;F i 4>,. 1~
If on the other hand our control objective fs.to k& the.tem$ature
;. :. : 3 ;: 1 :,pf y ,.,ii I/,
of the outlet stream, T, at a desired value, them
I we r&et .cons;Ld&
_:
. ~both
b,
:
state variables, i.e. the temperature and the level t& the:%qu$d in the
.,~ . .
tank.
This implies that we need write both total mass and lenergy
l,.
,f
balance. The disturbances of interest are the temperature and the
flowrate of the inlet stream; while the available mani&ated.var&bles
.
are
Fi, F and Q.
_
.h,
--
c.
If, finallyr, OUT

effluent s;t;re$m.
control objectivesare
to keep the temperature of the
and ,the: liquid, level, at desired values, we ,have
situation similar to the case, , LB above.

,
#
:. ,:*
:.
:
:.
..
,:*
:.
..
Example 5.10
.
Consider the continuous m&id proiess d&cussed in Example 4.11 (Figure :
,
*.
,i
4.8).
We can distinguish the following control situations:
:*
,
A.
If our control objective i&o keep the concentration of the effluent
/,
/,
,,
xx
- I.
ii
stream in A at a desired value, t&n the. state varsables of interest
.I I
, are the vo#.ume o,f the mixture in the ta6k and its concentration in A.
,
The relevant balances are thoaa,on total mass and on comionent A. tie
dlsturbancfa of intereet are:
cA
F2;
i0r CB 1, Fls cA ( o r cB2) a n d F21
2
1
1
: The available manipulated variables;
i are: Fl, F2, F3 or the ratio 6,
.:..,!
Fl,/F2.
:
_Ij, j,
k4
7 I
,.
*
Ir .
.Lf on the other hand our conttiol objectives are . to keepthe

composiion,.
.
I , ~, .
-.
17 ,
., i
and the temperature of efflu?nt stream
,at .desired values,
,$i
-t then
.(I, we : need
~
i
i .*
:*-
:
consider a.11 three state,.,: variabl.es (c ,V,T -) and ,formula
I _: ter-all thre,e
;.A.3 .
(A3
.. 3 .i *s :
balances (&o.tal mass, component PI, total energy). .I

case the
: this,
r
disturbances are:
important
available
manipulated
!. Al. Fp TIT !42 s F2 ant, T2
variables
are:.F13
_I. .
and
Q.
B.
Expected Disturbances and Their

/,
. ,i
/
The external disturbances
which
.>
.r,
(
operation of a process will influence
,
.<
1,
develop.
:
\ Fur thermor; , .disturbances
.Fa.
F3,
the a.. r+o
II
The
Fl/p2
a i
1
Impact
....
arei expected,.to
,
.:
/.
;,
,,
appear and affect the
the mathematical model that we need>,,to

,:
_
*
1
.
with very small impact on the operation of the

.::r
Ii
./ I
process ean bsheplected while
while dirturbanoee
dirturbanoee with significant
significant Impact
Impact on
on the
the
I.
,:,,
.,
..
I
process must be included in the model.
This will deter&e

-.,
what complexity
model is needed, i.e. what balances andiwhat state

, variables should be
.
included in the model.
State variables which are

very little by the expected disturbances
, af,fected
_ it, 0
C
can be eliminated from the model and.&png with them the corresponding
:
balances.
.,
;.,
Example 5.11
Let us return to the stirred tank heater (Example 4.4). If the feed
flowrate (disturbance) is not.expecte&to vary*significantly,.then.the
volume
+
of the liquid in the tank w$llremain almost constant. In this;
.,./case
:
>,A
.
1 .jl
. ;_ *
dV/dt - Adhjdt a 0. and we can uegledt the total:mass balance and the jr
&e-.;&~~aatical m;del .& inte;;st ior c*r;$rol
associated state variable hi
i
purposes is given by the total: energy balance alone ieqn; (4, 5bj)iwith tern;
22,
(,!
.* Y, T:, i p
paratura the o;ly && v&iabg*
I .i
Remark:
;
Note that if the feed tempera&e, Ti, ke no&exp&ted .to qary sig-
;
*_
,
nificantiy but the feed floGrate, Fi, is expected to! change
-substantially,
above,
then the mathetitical
model can&$ be simpl&iedas
but it will be given byboth eqnsi (4:4;) andi(4,%?$
Similar results as .above
can b,e deduced f-b+ the~&i&sys,&m~

~l%~arnpie 4.10) .
_
If the feed flowrate is not expected to change significantly, the model can be
simplified, i.e.
C.
dV/dt = 0 and it is given by eqns. (4.9a)
and (4.,lOb).
f 1
. . 2
:
, .
The Physical-Chemical Phenomena in a Process
l
r
A good understanding. of the physical, chemical phenomena taking place in

a process can lead to signif icant simplifications for control purposes.
simplMicot.ion
can be done by excluding from the balances
,,,
This
(model) those terms
which
j
have
small
contributions.
Example 5.12
Let us return to the continuous mijring ,prodess dkussed inExample 4 .ll.
:.
1.
Assume that for the particular combnents A and B of the mixture, tlie
heat of solution do&s not depend significantly bti the.-composition of A and
:.
.;
B.
In this case (see Example 4.11)
:
f
. Afi .I
Afi
z 0
s3iI
,~ s3]j
<i,.,.
[ 3
1
and .the to
total
ealknekgy
knekgy balance
balance (eqn.
(eqn. (4.
(4. Ida)9
Ida)9 &n
&n be
be simplif
simplif &d
&d r 6 .the following:
following:
,
a
:
..(,
(
:.
dT3
~
f Q
PCpV.rdt - %=p% -: )T3) + cPF2CP(T2 -T)
:
, . 3 __
)
i-.
aa Ait
C sl
Afi
In other words, we see that the qature of thk sr$xing

. Q
s&plif ication ,of the model.
,I
7.
Furthermore, assuming that

that from
from ali~possible
ali~possible
compositions
CA,
feed flowrates
F1-
disturbances,on\y
the feed
I
II
:,.
c
aye expected, to change significagtly
whiJe the,
:
by,.
,,
a n d F2 and feed temperatures.
Tl, and i; are expected
i
can
I j n+gleg&from
,s
grid, from, fhs sezFr_of
.,:.
1 ; j i:.
and
to remain almoat the same w&

!! ,)
cucrgy balapce
phenomenon leacjs
I_ ._- to a :
t+e mathematical mbdel the total
state; _*.:
variables the temperature Ji,
the
. s i m p l i f i e d po$,el Ss &e,n o,n+y&y
.L
I
7.
:
.i; )
;;
Example 5.13
TINIS )
t;h,e; balegce in @nponent A ( e q n . 4.13a).

,tf
( -,
Consider agian the CSTR discussed ih Example 4.10.. If the heat of

reaction for the particular reaction A-B
,_
is :very Small. and the temper%ture

_I
. -.
i
of the feed stream is. not expected to cpange signiflcpntly, the ,Wmperature of
i
the reacting mixture will not change appreciably. In this case the reactor
,.
/,
,,
_
can bei assumed iso thermal.
II
We can exclude-the total energy balance from the
mathematical model and the temperature from the ,set of state variables;
_ .
., I
(,
,.
,.,
.
L
5
Examples ;.9, 5.10,
5.10, 5.11, 5.12 and 5.13 demonstrate very simply but also
!;
>
)
vividly how the %.mathematical
model
o;f
a
process
.can
be
simplified
when we take
,y
,
;
:
,
: _
into account various consider-ations Lrelated to the nature of the process and
:,t ii, 4 I
the characteristics
of the control problems.
~
._
,~,
The control designer always looks out for such s
f icatio.n.j$
icatio.n~~.~(_,f! i( ., z1 : ?I:
i
* I
.
>
SUMMARY biND CGNCLIJDING REMARKS
-<; i 1.., * _*F[.x

8 , 5?
,i!
. _ i .*.
The mathematica,l:
mathematics,!: model .describing,:i,the
.describingLi,the dynamic
dygmic behayi&,
behav,i&, of
of ,$:
,a: pqoc&
proces& is
,
the result of a series of assumptions made the modeler* : :For ;socessi &ntrol .,I
purposes
the
!aasumptionsl
made should: . , ,~ __
_ ,.L (,,
(,, . . . bb: : :;,
.i.
8.
- identify and retain the
the %tipo~tant,~iqput
irn~ortant,~input
v&ables) ,
/
. (dieturl?gncesl.~~nipulated v&iabl.es)
output and state
state yF:iabl& onlyb,
.,
; .::,t
3
,v (, ,.
.a,
- select the simplest type
t&b of,
of, ,model thtl& desq$bee
describea tibe; proqe&Iw$,thinprooess,w$thin- the
the
-.
1
desired accuracy _*.
._ .;,.w - t&J., .it.:y :
! : . . :9
3 !.
.
: /
The construction of a s&m@
s&m@ Iand
and effec;tiv~~.model.,,requ~~e$:
effec;tiv~~.model.,,requ~~e$: a:;goo$+
a:;goo$., knowledge
knowledge df
*: ,
). i, :
i
:
the physical a,nd,. chemical ptierromena under cons~~ezario~.~~nd..a~~;,~~a~a
:under.e
standing of the
(eig, oQi&rtjl
oQntrh1 dbjact~~~ir,~~~pacted
,d control problems ,involved (eig.
. 1 ,,
,I
.
disturbances and their magnitude, etc.):
,_I
.i;t
;
.
*.
_The input-output
is aa mathematical
des&ipti+ ,$aj$q
,rela$$g directly
directly ,,
input-output., model
mo,del is
matheatical ~@#r~pti+
,
the inputs (disturbances ; matiipulated
variables) to the outputs of a .,process .
.
*
.d
It is preferred over a stat;e model because it is simpler and depictsnicely
:; 1 ;
the cause-and-effect logic in a physical system.
The input-output model can

,
be developed from the St-ate model through the integration of the ,state
equations when the outputs coincide with the state variables.
In Part III we
will study a simpler method to develop an input-output mode3

.;
I
us+ng&he
, -:
Laplace
transforms,
:.
2
Using the mathematical model of a process we can find the number of its
r:
inherent degrees of freedom. A well modeled process should never be over..
specified.
Usually it isunderspecif id and we need to provide .additional
>.
,,
*l.
equations to make it exactly speoified. Such
additional equations come from

._
L I .,
the specifidation of the ~externalc&&ba,nces and of the control objectives.
*.,< .
: J)
>/
For a system with f degrees of freedqahd d ,dleturbances we can. have no
./
more than (f-d) independent control objectives,
.
!
1.
,. _.; .
THINGS TO THINR ABOUT
1.
2.
What is an input-output model and.haw
can you develop it.froma s&t=-, I

,~
model? When is this
possible? +: :.
. *.
.
Describe a.: procedure which would alilowyou to develop the ?&xit-output
model for an ideal, binarydistillatiod

3.
I
Define the:.concept
of
4.
equations
&riat.il&$;
'
&lat$it to the solut$on. ~
">' , c ~
'$:. : '
"".
vi&
componen&?
(.&&&~~;$&.,a
$;i).;
How many degrees of freedom do..youh&e

in~~$&!m composed ok P
>
.>
phases *w&h C components If the mass of eachphase^is gi&&, i.e. _
M1,M2,***
6.
li
How many degrees of freedom do you have in a system composed ojE P ,

p&ses..
5.
of degrees of f.r&xiomand
with
.1i ,: :
do&m~
,MP?
(Recall
Duhems
ruler)
.I
,. t
r.
How does the number of *degrees of &e&iom affect the number and the
selection of the control objectives in a, chem$eal process? :.,
7 .
Why do we claim that d disturbances reduce the number of degries of

frPredom
8,
by
d?
,_
l_.
*i
,;.
:
W h y c a n t y o u deuld a control, syst&a f o r an tierirpecified procelici .
I.
!I
:*.,
.
,,
.
.,.
J5
.
.
*
.,.
Can. you
Can
you have
havethe
thedesired
desired
operation
operation
for
explain w
explain
why.
hy.
10.
an
for underspecified
an underspecified
process?
process?IfIf yes,
yes,
If no,
no, explain
explain how,can
how,can you
youlift
liftthetheunderspecification.
underspecification.
ConszQler a system modeled by the following set of state equations

Consi@%hi
e
fl(xl,x2,ml,m2,m3,dldZ)
dt:
dX2
dt-
f2h1,x3al,d2)
f2h1,x3ayQ)
dx3
f(x
d)
dt-,f(x
3 1x x2x x3mM2mm3 d1 dd2 d)
3
where
where
xx 1
1,, xx22,, xx3 are the state variables, m 1' m2' m3 are tbe manipulated
variables,.and
d l , 62, d 3 are the external disturbances.
(a) How
How many
many degrees
degrees ofoffreedom
freedom does
does the
the system
system .possess?
(b) How many control objectives can you specify at most? -;
11.
(c) Consider the above system at steady state. How many degrees of
.,
freedom does it possess?
.
i
A system is described by the follow$ng , sbt of state equationsi
dXl
dr* fl(ml,m2~dl,d2)
..dx
~ kd ,-J$
,
,
<A f2(ml,n$,dl)
;i,,
*,.
Find the degrees of freed&n for the system at its dynamtc state &d
: I.
steady state. Are they equal? If ndt, why? What are the implica$ions
on control in this case?
_z
12. What are the main control conslderatsons
consideratsons which afiect t.he slope of
mathematical modeling for achenkl
achemica1 process?
13.
In what sense do the control considerations gffect the~mathematical

modeling of a chemical process?
14,
What are the usual, general quantitative representations of the control

I.I.
objectives?, In terms of what variables are they expressed?-
..
c,
I
I
i
; fl\
#?N
1
I
I ,,
h Ts
I
/I
I
I
I
1Llnll-r - )UfPUT ~0DE.t.
L - - w e - - - -------c---m-----------c--.
F;qtlre
d d
I ,_
I
I
:
*
k.2~
;
--------------------e--*-r.----rI
I
II
'I
I
I
a'&)
INPUTS
fF, ,4(,-
\-,
I
I
I
I
1
1
l- --------.----c&
I~~PuT-OUTPUT EJIOPEL I
- - - - - - - - - - - - -
ricjure 5 . 3
OUTPUTZ
..,--.
__
*.
.. . .
c
m
1
i
\
A
,
).
15:+"H&w
caia the ?Jnpact'of
the disturbances simplify the model of a process?

:i
Give an example other than that discussed in the text.
",
:16. G&ve examples to demonstrate how you can'simpIify the model' of a process
',
':~by'~Ef&regar$.ng'physicai and khemacal phdndmena with-sma&l impact on
the
behav.fpr
of
-3 ,,
*
,a::.
17.
.the process.
.'
Give'an outline of the steps tbat'yo$
of the tnathema&al
REFERENCES
;,
_'-
,"
,.
should take .during the development
.. 1
. ..:',
model f'or a 'cbemidai process,.
I_ '\, )'
.;
, .,. :
; ,i :
, ,,
""'
Chapter 4: ,Three'
eiceptional
'
,a .,large number
of
;
" process,
..
references
-with
i:,
modeliqg
(1)
(2)
(3)
examples parer
.~ .,'
5
.rl S,
a = ,. " ,:
:,
+
, .'
Process Dynamics and Control.' -voi ;i j., I b$ *J, MI": Dousl&, $~eniidg-Hall,
],
Inc., E~glewoO;d Cliffs, N.d. (1972). ,
.,:-'\
',
,.*
.,:I
-f,i ,,
.I
1 ./ , .~ ",.
Process Modeling, Simulation and 'Control for Chemical %ngin&&,
by'
W. L. Luyben, McGraw-Hill Book C.o**I p 'New York (1.7,3)i, .* :. ,,:,' t: .
. ;p. .%i -'
Dynamic Behavior of Processes, by J. C. Fri&ly,
Prentice-Hall, It&.,
Englewood
Cliffs,G
N.Jj.
(1972)
Iz
,,
II
I_
f7Q,
,,~
_ .
For the development of the dynamic material and energy..;ktalanees,

the rgader
7
could also consult &he following book mhere . Examples:
4.1-11,have
been
.*' ,4.l@'.and
*j
. .
a:' : i ;. /
:"
1
'.
<1
I
adapted from:
.I
..
(4) Introduction, to Chemical Engineering ~~~~sis'~:'by,lj?'.:'IW;:Pir.,RueselJ.
and
M. M. Denn, J;.Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York (1972);:
/ 53
o
we,::
. , : ?\I*
I'
Additional references for material'and,energy
balanoer are: : '
.s
. . ,.
'j
*y;;
:,,
..i.
'.
(5) Basic Principles and Calculations,.in Chemical Engineering,'3rd
Ed., by
D, M. Himmelblau, Prentice-Hall, Ina*, EngL&?00&C1@!f*,.N.J*
(-l.974).
L.
(6) Elementary Principles of Cbemieal~Pgdc~se~~~.by~~K.
M...Feldsr*
an&R. W,
Rousseau, J. Wiley and Sons, Ink., New York,$l978),
1'
:".,
,"f
"/ '._ : ,.
(.'
s.' i
For the modeling of specific unit operations and reactors, there &fists a large
I
'.
number of textbooks that the reader could use. Not all models included'in
these books are convenient for process control purposes, but they could,help
to develop simplified
models.
. and useful
.:
the following constitute a par.tial.fist:
For the modeling of ch,emical
Among
all the available references
.'-,
::
,
'reactors:,
, ,:
(7)
Chemical Reaction Engineering, by 0. Levenspiel, J. Wiley and Sons, Inc.,

New York (1962).
(8)
An Introduction to Chemical Engineering kinetics and Reactor Design, by

C. G. Hill,
Jr., .I, Wiley and Sons,
New Yorks (1977).
i*
i
_I
(9)
Elementary Chemi'cal reactor Analys$s,

Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (1969).
(10)
Chemical and Catalytic Reaction Engineering, by J. J ,* Carberry,

Hill, New York (1976).
For
the
modeling
of
transport
by R. Aris, ;P,rentice-Hall,
Inc.,
McGraw-
pro&&es:"
TransportiPhenomena,
by R. Bi Bird; W; E. Stewart and E. N;~Li&tfoot,
'v
J. Wiley and Sons, Inc,, Naw York (1960). t
I._
,h
,
,
.,
Q,
.~
(12) Mass-Transfer Operations, 2nd" Ed.; by R.'k. Treybal, M&raw-Hill Book Co.,
I.
New York'"(1968).
:. * .,
:
?.' 1
.,:
'.
and R; M. Drake, Jr.,
(13) Heat and Mass Transfer, 2nd Ed.', byE, R, G'.'Eckart
McGraw-Hill Book Go., New, York (1959).
,
>.'
* >. ._
For more on the reaction equilibria and'phase equilibria the reader could con
sult the following books:~
' ' '
(11)
(14)
Introduction to 'Chemical ERB;in,e~~~~g".~ermod~lamics, 3rd Ed.', by J. M.

Smith and.H. 6. Van Ness, McGraw-IiXlt Book Co., New York(1975).
(15) Chsmlcal En inaarin Kinetics, 2ndE&., by J. M, Smith, McGraw-Hill Book

.&;,
'NewJ&
(197$,
,"
I
:
..;,';:ir;:;
i/
-..,,
c -'-.P.;, : ,., _++;F
~
. , :.L;.
I; ty
: i
?. ~ z,
: ; :
.V
_
!r
*
For an extensive discussion of the mathematica.1 modeling ok'am ideal.; binary
;. . : j. ;_ ' ,j.
I',$
/
;* .!a "i., :' f.
distillation column and of a nonidaal multicomponent column, the reader can
,. : ", ; j: , .
: '
consult the books byi1T. ~~~'D~&gla~~~(Ref;
1); 'W,. L.'Luyb& (Ref.'2) a& J, C.
I
Friedly (Ref. 3).
An'interesting
discussion of the difficulties encountered'

.%
, :~:'
.<
during the modeling of chemical processes 'can $e found in
).
,i.
_
:
.I
i..P'
t:
(16) "Critique-of Chemical Processi.iontrol Theory," by A., S. Foss, AIChE J.,
* '
2, p. 209 41973),'and
1
'
(17) "Advanced Control Practice in the-chemical Process Industry: A View from

Industry," by W. Lee and V. W. Weekman, Jr., AIChE J., 22, pa 27 (1976).
Chapter 5:
For additonal study on the,degrees
of freedom and thair
the design of process control systemsS the reader should ref.er
impact on
to the following
book:
by P,.:W.
(18) Automatic Control of Processez,

co., Scranton, PA (1967).
Murrill,
I&
PROBLEMS
1.
;
;..
:. I /
I'
Consider the two systems shownin
Figure P.&-l.
System 2 by the fact that the level of liquid.in

the effluent flowrate,from
International Textbook
.,$y&m 1 differs;from
ii ,
t&k 2 does hot affect
tank 1 which is the case for System,e2.
I~
(a). Develop the mathematical model for each of the two systems.
'I
(b) What are the state vari&les,for
balance. equa$ons
(c) "Which mathemhtical
%ave'you
e@i'syst;km,:and what type,of;,

,'
.;,
used?
,
model is elsier to a&ve~;~'0hat for System 1

i
' or that for System 2 andi,why8

Assume ,that
the,fl&rate
1:
of an effluent stream from aGt&la
portional to the hydrostatic liquid prelesure.jthat
cau8es
"._
pro-
the flow-of
The cross sectional area of tank 1 is' A,$&t2 and of.'Itank

d
A2" ft3 (for both systems). The flowratee :Fl, Pi, F3' are $a
liquid.
'is
Do the eame work a8 in ProbUm
(abova).for
P.II-2.
All the flowrates are'volumetric,
areas.of
thg three tanks are ;Al, A2, A3.
flowrate
ft3/min.
2.
F5
i8..constantand
th&syetb:8h@n
in Figure
whi&a th&,cro8s.earctional
in ft2, rerapectively.
2.
does not depend on hg.a l*i:i d
The
/Y
3.
Cons.ider t.he / tvo ,grtirred

tank,,,heat,$rs,
shov, ,in Figure
.:_ (2 P..II.q.
:
1.
( a ) I d e n t i f y t h e s t a t e variabl,es
(b)
the state model .th$t $escribes the dgn.amic
o f the system.
:D,etermine what balances you, should, perform., , .
(c) ,Deve$op
1
$f,.the, s y s t e m . .b*,,l J , .
behavior!
(d) How would you express the hea$s

given by the ttio ,steam flbws I_
,1
in terms of other variables?
The flowrates of the effluent etraa+ are assumed to be proportional to,
the liquid static pressure that. causes the fl&w of the liquid. T h e
I
cross i?ipaetipeX areas of the. two tanks .are ,. Al and A2 i;n f.t? ,an&.iirhe
. .
is
1
f lowW&s&e lvolumetric , iNo vapor ia produced either in I the
first or
1
:nd+a*& AtX a n d At2 are the heat: .exchange areas for, the,
.,
: ,. h: _ <, x ., ( ,^ ,I ,1
c
ip ?robQm 3 C+pq$
for C&B s,t+yd tank h,qvs
I,
For the TankLi, the st,eam ia,.~,z&njocted
; & the Liquid
fwater. Mater,r vapor ..is produc*: ,in ,;the .,e,ecc,nd
.d
are the cross sectional ar.aas .cf the &NJ tanks?,

. . .i ,
Assume that :the ,effluent flowrates .are.:proportional,;ta,,4h~.
l&&d, !
static pressure that causes their flow,
afea for the steam coil.
5.
At
is the heat transfer , zr :

,
*
Consider the mixing process taking;: place in., a two-tank system, (Figure
i
:* *! : .: \V(*,.
P.II-.5).
(a) Identify the state variables of the system.
(b) Determine what balances you should perform..
(c)
,!
Develop- the state model that describes the dynamic behavior. of

the process, assuming that the heats of solution are strong
I
.
.,
functions of tha composition.
y. . . ;;
,
a.
i
.., +.
\
weak functions of the compositibn?
. ,f% ,.i.,, :,,, ai *
Assume that the flowrates are volumetric $nd ,the compositi&s are in
moles/volume.
The effluent f lowratea are proportional to the liquid
static pressure that causes their flow.
6,
bl
a n d
A2are: the cross
sectional areas of the two tanks and At is

the-heat transfer area
t
.~
,I
:.
1
. .
/I _!
a
for the steam coil.
;(/ t
1
$ i CI!
,.i
I.
Develop then state model for .the.b&chbemixing of two
solutions (Figure,
3~ ; .
. )i : .
_ . s
di * ,;
i.
I .,
P.II-6). Initially the tank is empty., The volume of_ the
Qank
is,l,;cY
,
r
-* :
,
a,_. -& i ,.
are volumet2i.c apcjthe eohcentrat~ons ategilt
~,
(f2). The flowrates
).I:
*
,i.
i
CL
:_
j
.,,
!.:
,t i
a*
..
moles/volume.
I
.
:. ; ,:
d
(
-.
.
,
,i.,;;
.
:
I
/;
&
(H) How long does- it take to fill upthe tank?
,
(b) Show how would youf And, the
:; :v
;
mixture in the t~nk*;fu&$ t
I
;gi
f i l l e d upu
,Assume that the flowrates are volume
7.
volume, and that the heat, oft solution depends on the oom@s,~tio~n
.. - 3
Develon the state model for a batch reactor whese ehe F&&Y
. s &j Z.,I $ I.2 . r:*
1; i
.
reactions take place.
I,
* .
8,
c!*_
4. :..... .
, 1
\
~;
9 ,,
kZ
D
,r:
*
,
All reactions are endothermic and *have, f irst-ord.er k&n,et+s,:, :@he :::#i,,
,
.r;<;r
reacting mixture is heated by,steam of., lS&~ps,ig.w?&zh. f&$wsthrough
.-.
2
a jacket around the reactor with a rate of : Q (lEr/at$n)-,. ?
~1
<$
, .
Consider the continuous stirred tank rea&tor, system shot+Win,,,~FiguVe
A
k,
,tB
k,
+C
::
P.II-7.
Stream 1 isaaixture of A ..and,-,,B _I with composition CA
and c
(moles/volume) and has a volumetric flowr$te Fl and a
B1
i',21. :
temperature
Stream 2 ia pure,.,R.,J
; .'(
:i : T1',*
are:
?,$S
f
I
: ~,kl,
'.
A:+ R - P 1
(Reaction '1)
L
'9
i"
'.
The,reactions
9.
,
t
10.
<,
_.',
I
:~ Li, .:.
t
content with! 'At ' 'h&t.transfer
taking place
,,
a&&.
';,
-:
..*-
"'f). 2 -I,
',
-'t
;,,
a
(d) ,Iiow can you 8;mplify
the
state,model
ir
k2 &lo, ;l"
k
,;.
i
i
.. j
large range
of~tqnpera&,res?
;i
'
1
:;* .':
": ', ',* i: ; .F1 .,: .> ~
:
&I
(e) Define the assumptions that, s,kould be made in order tos, r., have:&':
I
v_(
>
c ,,:.,:
..
isothermal
reactor.
.'
j
; .; ,/, . p.I .1
,
'\ :.; ;-. ::g;
Develop the ,state model for the twoCSTR.ayetem
of Figure:P.II-8:. ,A
Tr I
I,. : ias,_ ".: '/ .,_I'
.b';
. .
%
simple reyction with 1st order kine,tics
takes place: A.B.
.:
L :
,;
Assume isothermal conditions. : .,4,
'
'
j
O'_
Assuming plug flow conditions for a jacketed tubular, react&
P.II-4)
develop-its state mo$eL A
with lst,o$rder kinetic8
olmple
exoth.etrmic
temperature
malten
et
,-
reaction,'A
levels,
salt along the lengthsof
Aqsume:,con@tant
u+ R
the ,reactiort
the reactor.
temperature for the
The reaction takes place
, ..
,'
-*
(Bigure
tube of t&e reactor,, ia used to keep-the reaction
acceptable
i .'1
".' _
takes~,$&&c~ Due ta the very largeheat:&;
reaction, malt* salt*, which flows gounterourrantly.to

' mixture around,the
L.'
'
.,
in the gaseous, phase.

in
moles/volume.
Tl&~lowrates
,.
are .volumetr&
and thk compos&ions
Theinternal
diameter of the tube is d (in.) ano
.,
.j,.;
.,L
_
6
i t s langth >,;,II ,
(a) fs the s&tern a lumped parameter (described by ordinary

!..
differential equations) or a distributed p%rameter?
.
(b) Does the realtor
&plain.
11.
-.
F i g u r e P.,lI-10
shows
.c
possess dead time between inputs and
outputs? ,/
., . I
a s i m p l i f i e d reoresentntion nf a clt-lllll bnftrrr.

j
__
.~
-.
,z
Feed water-enters the boiler with a flowrate Fl (mass/hr)
,and a,, tern?:

:
TX and it is heated by ; an :./
amount ofSheat Q (Btu/hr)
perature
which is supplied by burned fuel.
The.:generateci s t e a m flows o u t
r .
from the top of the boiler, with a flowrate P2 (&ss/hr), and a
; 4,
J
1: . <
p r e s s u r e p (psig) .
,
(
:i
,:
,
.,
?,
z
1
,:
A sjmple feedbaclk control system has been..instaUed
tlo keep the level
of the water in the drum boiler constant bv ,:man&l$tine-
(a)
t&-@idre;t&
What are the state variables deacribinn the.+
(b) What balances are aonronriate for the drum boiler

1
Develop the state model of the system,; For the Fe
(c)
F1 -- f (N -, . :
trol system use a relationship of the form:

..
,I,
h
desired)
::
12.
Consider a p.ipe of length L -(in.) with an inter& h&k&. d
(ilk).
Water flows through the pipe withs

be the pressure at the entrance.of
Let.- P l
pressure
at
.,
i
,;.,
the
exit,.
%
-4.
(.
,
,
^
.
~~ol&etri~ fle&ate*
the pipe and 62 the.

i!. . .
\ I :
,
1; b
$.
.>
*
.:
,
.*ir,.
,i 3,, -p, ,,.
6 r.I
, x- I ,*TL
/
:
(a) Identify the appropriate state variables to describe

the system.
5; ,
-, ./,
, :
(b) What are the relevant balances, for the system?
!, 1
3
(c) Develop the state model for this flow system.
13.
1
,
Consider again the flow system described in

. Problem 12, (above), eat
P
time t=O a stream containing pure component A is mixed with the
entering
water, causing a concentration
water enters the pipe.
Assuming the t
I
length of the pipe: .
cA (moles/volume) as the .
A does not diffuse along the
1. : , : 1 .
(a) Develop the state model that describes how the <, concentration of
1
A changes with time and along

: the length of the, pipe,.
(b) Show that the system possess& dead time

between input and
.
14.
.(
-.:
output and compute the value of the dead time.

I
.. /
$A
A liquid stream is a mixture of two components A and .,B and has a
?,
v o l u m e t r i c (volume/hr) flowrate Ff, tempprature Tf and pressure
* _
Let!
cA
and
cB
be
the
molefractions
%f
t. A j and B in the
Pf.
,lkquid s t r e a m . It. is eesumed that, the..,pte~.sura pf i s l a r g e r t h a n
:/
: , , I
the bubble point preasuri of the
r&ture A and. D; so that>.there :,.
%
,:
/LI
.is io v a p o r ~pnosent. 1 T i).
,i
.(
3
i 1,
_. _I
/
,/a
:
The liquid stream passes through an isenthalpic ,expans.ion valve and
&:. 1
2 I
i:..
/.
is Flashed into, a flash drum (Figure 416).
The pressure p in
I
* .I
_s
the drum is assumed .to be lower than the bubble point pressure 04
the liquid mixture at ,Tf. As a result, two phases at equilibrium

!>
!
with each other appear in the flash drum; a vapor
with a compo,f, phase
_,.
_ .
sition
yA
and yB (molar fractions) whic$ is drawn with a
volumetric flowrate
F
v
h,
and a liquid with a composition ,xA and
xB (molar fractions) drawn with a .volumetric flowrate FE,, Let T

:
be the temperature of the two phases at equilibrium in the flash drum.
;
_:.
: .:a
,..
(a) What are the fundamental ,dependen,t
quantities whose* values .
describe the,znatural state of the flash drum?, (See Section

A
!:4&2)
,:*r
* \
(b) ..What :are the boundarias,.of
(c)
(d)
ci,
L
the system(s) around which::you will
.
perform the -various balances%

>
- (.
What: ari the relevant balances?
._
.,
.%
, :+
Besides the balance equations what additional aelationships

:a
do you need to, complete. the bta.te model for .&he flash drum?
( e ) Ident&& t h e :state:&riablss
ad the-:input v a r i a b l e s (manipu..
(...
lations, disturbances) of the system,, - *, 9
.,
( f ), Dev&op :thecompkeee
15.
st$te mode,,& o f t h e system>
StaFting with the statg,models for the two ,%&tams of Probl& L

: ., ii .., i (..._ :;, \ .L ::, _ :: I I_
,. .
:,
: : .i %I
4
(Figure P*II-f),
t.;.
*i,, : i,::., feve@p
.: * ,. the corresp9~~~g~ipput~plutp~t.
l. .
.
., models. Also,
,
( a ) F i n d t+ d e g r e e s.I..^.
o f f r e e d o, m f o,. r : ev!..f,$.t
a c h. .&~&em,~:~~d.~,,U, I ,
I
:
(b) Specify,, how i many control objectivee c& you h#vefor;each:
, ,
..--I2% , : .i ,,:;t3.j f:;r),
1
systaQi!l
.,\
For each of the fallowing syst&e

( a ) . Th? n u m b e r o f d e g r e e s
(b)
find?
-:>.r
~
,: .
,:.
,df freedom:.
fre$ddm:. *, ,.
The number of independent ko&rol

I,
joikj ectives you can specify,
System A:
c
!:s
:_.
,
1.
1..
The three-tank system of Figtire,
R&tire, iPC,II-%
~PC.114 (Problem 2) .
System B:
The: two stirred tani
(c) The input-output model.I.
:i
heater s&&em of Figqre

.,
(Problem 4) . .
system c:
The two-tank mixing proce&s:of

(Problem 5) .
1,
Figure P.IIi5
P.Zf-4
i)
17.
For the CSTR system of Figure P.II-7 (Problem 8) -..find:.

(a)
The
number
od
degreea
of
freedom,
and
1 : j.
(b) The ;umber of independent control objectives you can specify.

(c) For the number
control objectives you have specified, do you
havean equal number of manipulated variables softhat

can achieve your control objectives? :,
you
.,.
::.
,
(d) Identify Maat would you use of:conlrol objectivea.
b
(e) Develop. the linearized model.of the CSTR::around
the steady ,a:
?
state and then show howyou.
would ,form, the corresponding
input-output model. ,
18.
Do the same work as in- Problem 29 for the two .CSTR ,system of Figure
., i
P.II-8 ( P r o b l e m 9 ) .
19.
For the f,lash
drum system of Problem 14 (see also Figure 4.6) find:

_.
(a) The number of degrees of freedom, and
_
(b)
of independent control obj&tives you can specify.

: , , (
_a.:
( c ) Identify,a s e t o f c o n t r o l o b j e c t i v e s bhichare m$&ngfui ;
(
,.
.t ; i
.I
from a practical operation point of view,
,,:,+,:
s
~$
(d)
Show how wouii you develop an, input-output model &r the
The ifi&nber.
flash drum.
:
l
20.
.$mpT&&
(k
ag$
.^
.;
!i
A simple chemical reaction, A + B; with first ord& kinetics,. tak&
place in a CSTR.
The. &fluent of the reactor enteis an ideal binary
distillation column where the unre&ted A :sis taken as tha overhead

\ /.
product with a composition yA (molar frection)and is recycled back
to the reactor after it has been mixed wbthfresh feed (Figure
P.II-11).
thermal.
Assume that the mSxing

I ,
process and the CSTR are both iso-
i,$.
(a)
Identify
the.
fundamental
dependent
the natural state of, the piant.
variables
.
which
describe
(b) What are the relevant balances and whatare the boundaries
of the systems around which you wiil perform the balances?
;.,
/
(c) Formulate all the relevaht balance equations.(d) Identify the state variables of the plant.
(e) Deter&& the number of degreesof freedom for . the plant..

._
(f) If (d,egrees of freedom)> O,.:how would you specify the
;
_,
additional equations needed to render an exactly ep&&!ied . .
.f
& idegrees of fr-ed;mj. I +b: _I _ I .,
, *
I
SyBtem,
,.
:
,
1
rj 2
.i
;.
(g) How many disturbance specifications do you have &d howmany
j_ ..::
.i ,
controlobjectives c a n y o u identify? ,!
21.
Consider the small plant described in Problem 20 (F$gurePi%ll)

(a) Determine the number of degrees
of freedom, for the plant.
.
I
(b)
a
If (number of degrees bf freedom) ; C* h&would youspecify

i
!I$; i _,; i-g*,
:.
2i
t&t ,I- , :
t h e add.itlonal e&atioh n&d& t o E&d& k-wta&&$ Eipecifk-ed
:
P.&&& ,
,
:~
.:
system, i.e. (number of degrees of freedom) = O?.,
i
-j.
s
!.. ,
i
I.
<.
,,I.
.!
(c) Iow many disturbance specffications do you%ave
and
h&many
n
!;..rL
:.
.i
Q.
control objectives can you iden$!fy? ?* il

;
.
.:i,-s
*J
(d) Specify the control objectives which havea,~.pracfical
meaning
,.
e .
.
.^b.
*
I
for the plant.
.
(e)
22.
Develop a s$nple~inpu&output
model for the plant without

_
+*a:;,
t:a-.
p e r f o r m i n g e x t e n s i v e computations,~
Develop the state model for an ideal binary l&&h distillat& column
* ,
with N ideal plates (Figure P.II-12). At t=O,- the composition of
;.
t h e i n i t i a l m i x t u r e i s cA a n d
mass is M (moles).
(a) -List the assumpt;lans you will make for modeling the system.
,
( b ) I d e n t i f y t h e r e l e v a n t balance,;equations.
(c) :,I, addition to the balance eq&tions what other, relationships
do you need to complete the. state
. . umodel? -.
(d) Show -how you can find the time when .the composition, of the
~ )
overhead product has reached a composition
;:, yA. (molar fract.ion) . ,
: .,
(e) How many degrees of ..freedom dqes the system pos?ess?
.I
(f) How many control objectives
can you specify?
/
,
I
Additional questions:
.,
:
(i)
Does the vapor*I flowrate remain constant if theLheat input Q remains

..
constant with time!
,
::
~1.
(W What about Fk, does it remain constant?

* :.. I Under what conditions would
you change it?
23.
24.
.
,:>
:
,, ;:
a .
j ,
;
Develop the state 1,.
model,
for a gas
(J?igurq
F,.XI-13)
! >,i.: 3 , .a*> : : column
, a&sorption
i :
21
with N ,:-ideal/ transfer
Tha,
?%a,
: .: f&x&ate
::r ; #&blhr)
: ppr,,:~ of the
,.L
)I
i units.*.
,
+,.
entering gas stream is : ,rg w,lth a oomqbsitioxa.~(m#ar
fraction) yA
rl
r,>, r;ilr? ,. :., ip,?:\. . *, it
t
.,
>:
while the ;composition of t!he effluent
effluent gas) :,stgeam
stgeam should
be i-*x yb, (mofar
jf i< should
. , ,)be
ftt. 11 :
:i
fraction) : The flowrate of the% liquti
absorbing stream
=. is l?$ (moles/
,_(. ,, . { . .) ,: :(.. : L. ., :, >
Ia-) and it Is free of .t!lp;cd,myncnt,
A. 1..,, '.' ,_
)
.l
: ", .
f, ! ,;:;i,
.
Develop the i:state

!$$a compone$s). nonideal. .
; I t&mponent:
*t,i9;,,
. model for &nul
:
,.
,i :.
distillation column with 13 trays. Use the goneral
noneqcl.atura
I,
..;a .
developed in &ample 4.13 for the, ideal bin&y dittillation,, ,!
;
,,I
!.
(4
state
your
assumptions
(b) Include the dynamScs
!il:
,).
..,*;;,,
-:
,(
(/
.,
of*the
.? condenser and,, reboilor ,cons%der&
,.
,i
them as perfectly stirred tank cooler

I: and heater, respectively.
(c) What relationships do you need in addition to thebalance
equations?
..I
.,E
. .
.,,
12,
(d) How m&y degrees bf freedom does the system possesa?.

(e) How many control objectives can you specify?
.
L
.
I
ioo*psi
Q, (lblmin)
_- -
Fiqure
P.p-
I FR : cons-kud
Figyw ?.0-8
.
CSTR
- I I
FR
:
~,
AL
..a- 1
d
y;
Fe
Liquid S.ream
*
.**-:.- :.I 1.
. . .. .. .. .. .
.. .. :.
--,
. . ..- **.
. . . : . --.
a..:.
*. ,
. .:.*. . * 1. ::
..** .. *.. *. .* .
..,
..*. ..*.
--:
. . .- . ...
Fiqure P.X -13
a.v .
Liquid t A
1
.,,
.,;-
PART III
ANALYSIk
*.
BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES
OF THE DYNAkiIC
In Part XII we will study the ctynamlc: rind lwl~nvlor of
SCVCViIl
t
, f3 iniplo
process%ng
Understanding the dynamics of such simple s)tstoms
sys terns.
a.l.low61
us to analyze the behavior of more complex systems such as the chemical

processes.
_'
:
.I ,)
,The analysis is limited, to linear dynamic sysbems; T@s may se& incompatible with the fact tha<'moost of the dhemical'eng&k&&ing
_ /. processes are
'.) _, .~
,
.'
,..
I"
,$e'very v&luab&e
modeled by nonlinear equations,' Rowe$or, linear .technique;
.
:*
,.' .,/ _,:I
,j : $,.;
and of great practical importance
the follov~hg reascns:. (a)..:There
is no
3 for'
';.
general theory for the analytic sokution of nonlinear' dif'ferential
e@nations,
: .; :".
" , I"
and consequently no compreh&sive
analysis o,f :nonlinear
dynamic syst+ms.
,. *, ,I
-ip I...'
,. _,.
,. j': s
(b) A nonlinear sjfstem can be ad,~~tely,appr~~~~~i(?d
by
~linoar
system
., I 1%,' near
I'
:! '
some
operating-conditions; (c) Significant 'kdvancei in .,the'~inearl,;eontrol
'!.
I '
theory permit the synthesis and dsisign
of.veri effective co&llers
even for
.'
.,
.*, -: !",
,)
:
nonlinear
processes.
Fundamental, therefore, is the concept.of linoariMtGn.and.
t&e&to;
$
cedure for approximating nonlinear s&&s with linear &ea~$hich%ill
be
studied in Chapter 6.
:/
',
:'
which
we
will
discuss
$n
Chapter
7,
,offer
a very
The Laplace transforms,
f.
simple and elegant procedure ,Wsolve linear differential. equations and con-
sequently analyze the behavior of linear systems.

In the remaining chapters of Part III we will cover the following items:
- the development of
the Laplace
simpie
input-output models for chemical,processes,,
transforms.
..
a
using
- the dynamic analysis of various typical pr'ocesses and their stability

b
characteristics.
.
.
.f
,/CCMPUTBR SIMULATION AND THE LINEARIZATION OF NONLINBAR

_ .I
Q ; , ;r:
SYSTEMS
,...__,
to,find the.dynamic
behavior of a chemical process, we have to
, ; : LG.InJorder,
. :
;.
1
integratet2the state,equations used to model the, process.;,. But, most of the,
.1
,
processing systems that we will be interested in are modeled, by nonlinear differential
equations,
and it is well known thatthere is. no, general,mathematical
r
I
theory for the solution:o,F
.~nlinear.eq~iations., Only -for lineat I differential
,J
. ,.
equations are closed form,
analytic: solutions avail,able. ;,,
~.
:,
When confronted
with dynami.c,analysis,of nonlinear syst,ems, there,are
.I ,L
$
i
several things that,& Gan ,do ,suchi as:
3
t
(a) Simulate.the
nonlig~~r..sys,t~,,osl,an
a-nalog or digital .compu,ter and
^
. .>.
compute its soiution num+ically.
~.
(b), Transform~the nonlinear;~,&%tem into a linear one by:an npproprinto
. 1,; ,,
:
., ;.
I
..,.
transformation of its variables.
.r
(c) Develop a linear &de1 which approximates the dynawi& behavior of-a
.I
nonlinear system in thesreighborhobd
of:epsc~~isd~~peratfnjg,
&nditions..
$
,.
,
: The alternative.(b) @an be used in v+xy fW M~~~~i~~.ir~~~~nathee
(a)
.I .- )
and.(c) are, in principle, .alwaya feasible, In :thih &a&r wal-+$dieeuss
the computer simulation of nonlinear processes very briefly~be&&Wse iq is a
<. j
>
subject to be covered primarily in a courseon numerical an&lysia:~~PIar~e:
:+
models by line&
ones.
J. emphasis will be given on the approximation of non&ear
)1
4
.;
It should be noted that all the-theory,tor the design of control sy.@&n,
availablefrom
pa,st work, is.:, based on linear systems, and,th&very small \
I
L_.
advances have .f been,made towards the divelopment
linear systems.
,.
of a control theory for non+
t
1
/-
6.1
I
COMPUTER SIMULATION OF PROCESS DYNAMICS

- i,
Nonlinear differential and/or algebraic equations cannot, in general, be
1 . . 1,
(1,
:I .,
.
:I
solved analytically, and computer-aided numerical solutions are required.
..
Numerical solutions are also preferred for the equations which can be solved
analytically, but the analytic'sbl'utions
are very cim@ex
'and provide little
!
insight Wthe
b&&v&r of's system;
i.
'.
Let us consider two pro&e&es
de have already modeled; the 'continuous

,',
1. _
stirred tank reactorand the ~dear,"~~~ary-diStfr~a~~~on
'column.
1
The model for the CSTR (see Eiiampke'4.'10)
'is given by eqns. (4.8a), (419a)
and (4.lOb).
:These
cdnstitutb
a set of nonlinear,equations
for 'which 'there,is
70
analytic solution
available. Therefore; iri order to study t!he dyna&
.
:'
behavior of the CSTR, '& must solve the%mxk&ixig eqilat.~aire'n~~eri~a~l~
using ,a
*.
,I',.,
(.
:; ,I
.
. .Y:;.,,
. ,. !
fpmputer.
,'.:.
.,
(
The model for the ideal, binary d&stkll&t$on: coltin'(eeeik$ca&$a~4.
13)As
1;
composed of
2N+4
nonlinear
2N + 1
I
differential,
nonl&near.algebraic
It is not 'only the aonlinear$ty
::?,:.
equaftions,
lequatlons..
of, the eqwtlons
.:
:'
column.
1
Today, computer simulation-is uhed~kctensively
chemical processes to aid in thedesign
', : ? /.
but alsothe sise of model
(24 differential and 21 algebraic equations fo!r.a-.,modest

,i
necess$tates a numerical solution fin order-t& study'the
the
,.<>:'
akdl~~
10 tray cdlu&").~-that
dytiamgt:
behsvTor,of
iI.
-/
$6 aaPal?ze
the~dynamki
09 controllers and &tu'dy~:thei~~

:. I
effectiveness in controlling a given ptb&ess. ' Ankiog'.'and
d'i&it$& computers
I
I
have been used for this purpose'with'the emphasis hia;vingsjlif-t;?d'-almost
entirely in favor of the digital computers.
of
,;
historically, analog computers were the first to be used to simulate the

..
dynamics of chemical processes with or without control. They iermitted a
~
rapid solution of the modeling equations, thus providing useful insight as to
+.
:.
I ,.
how a process would react to eiternal disturbances ir how effective was the
,.
.:i /
-1,
,,
control of the process using various measurements, manipulated variables and
:
1:
control configurations. The analog computers have several serious drawbacks:
.
Y
/
,
( a ) R e q u i r e s i g n i f i c a n t t i m e t o s e t u p t h e pioblemand g e t i t iunning.
$
,,:, , +
(b) Theneed of one hardware element per mathematical. oberatioh prohibits the
/
,2,
5
i: 3* ,i
siinulation of large, complex systems.
(c) The nonlinear terms are simulated
i
_.
by rather expensive %ardiare eid;ents (function generators)bi.th limited
flexibility
-
(d) They
do not possessmemory
likethe digital cohputers. ihe
: 3:
I
* .:,.
) I,!
subeequent revolution;brought ibout by the digital eorniutersi made the analog
,s
i t Y,q<. ,; ,*, .<:: >
,, y&;. & a 3 ;
;*i iE$?
computers obsolete
re sti?{I used in anme,Il ..$caFe and.$mari.ly
.I
_ ,_ .,
. I.
to train operzitorq on the dynamic opetiation Sf chAic% kiints. ,
* :,-,
. ..I*. . i
The computational power introduced with the digital computers,;~a$Song

wtth
: T j
has expanded tremer@ously, the scope
. -*<; *
c .~ -2 4% : .
r&hi: _ i I ( : 5 f i , 9 I ! ; ?_.j
!
I,.
,.
.1.
and the practical significance ,of computer simulation for91 prcc4s@zdmamics
.*
1 __
j s,.: ; ? ! ! :! : J I ?, 1 ,.!
.,,,; ))
and control. The availability of sophisticated equation goAGing foQtines for
:.,
i$.$,
.s, : 1; $&, q, , I
almost every digital computer sy.stem availabe has simpli.Eled therequired

i
)j a I . ~ i c.
. . 2; ,J,
.,
groundwork for process simulation and has relieved the engineer from the need
i. aI
,.*1 \ j_ ,;, ! .
:
to be an expert in numerical analysis.
I :, .
.,
I. .,
Digital computer simulation of process

dynamics
involves
:the
solution
of
.
,
(,/,
*s: ,
: \ I .
it.
.
.
a set of differential and algebraic equations which describe the process. l
i :.
,
There are several categories of numerical methods which can be used to
;_
4.
I,
integrate differential equations and solve algebraic ones. Let us examine
/
briefly the simplest and most populat hong them.
A.
Numerical Solution of Algebraic Equations

4,.
_:
.
.
I
At steady state, the state equations turn to simple algebraic equations,
/
,,
..
.;
since the rate of accumulation becomes zero. Therefore, in order to determine
.:
1
,
I .$
the steady state behavior of a process under given conditions, we should be
1. 1
:4
.;
able to solve sets of algebraic equatkons.
All available methods use an
.:
. .b, 1.
^
, I
iterative trial-and-error procedure, which approaches (hopefully) clo.ser and
:,;.
.
\i$..
i
L jv
.,
.
&oser to the solution with each iteration. The key question is to se1
: .dPg the
t
appropriate method, which for the given set of equation: converges ra$idly to
i :
,l.:,
1
,/. l
i
the correct solution. Unfortunately,
this is a very .$. difficult task and. in all
,*>*
: i. +. &:
,.
but a few instances is impossible to know % priori how.;successful
will bes,
.j
., -,: *. i : : , :
t L
,j
a*
ji
method in finding the solution to a particular set .of equations. Quite. of ten
j
*
+, I r; . > *I:
Ii
a method will not ,converge to the solution, or.& in

it app?oaches
.;; other1 ,ins,tan&es
>
1 . 3
_
., *
% I
the
solution
very.
/_
slowly.
,..
v:
Among
, a f ..ithe most of ten ,uoed..t
,.I;, <r$j!y! *.,hniques
, : : are
: , the*- ,- . ,_,
ii
following : (4) interval halving) (b) &nxeeslve aubr &tutio?%+ drnd (c) Newto?I_. ;#.
,..I
.3
j , . 2,: * _ i: - ; .s !
.X,
3:
R a p h s o n .
,.
.$
: ) ..: : j: y i ,: \.
.,,f
Wi;me&ai Integratidn o f Rif#.erential. IZe uations

B.
,.,.\ *, :r >.C :
:.:
,:
.;
\ T,
z.
,
t .j ., : , i
Here aga$ & have a .very large &mber of availab&e techniques. * Numerical
,:.I
t ;i 1. i , . / .
1 .-A,.
c,,*
,<
,s-: j h
j ;r ,;
integration +mplies an approximation of;. the. continuous dlff erential equatio&
,. , , * 7
1
;
2 ,.
ye,,,%!
*T.
~:
with discretei,f inite-difference equations. The: various integration methods
-3 , :,, ;. ;: -j, 4.
:
differ in the .way they implement this a&o&atlon. Thus, we have explicit
, *:
.,~, : i I I 1
!
e,
! * i..
:i
*
:
method,s which march on in time yielding the .sofution tn one. pass, or we have
i/
S.
J;;
*
5
_/r
T.i:fn,Rlitiit
h
merho$s
e
kwith e predictor-cc&rrectQr
y
q
u
ecapabilities,
s
t
i
o
n
s
Eor
3
,i.;
. .,
-,
r,:
an integration technique, aie the itabiiity of! the procedure and the speed with
:
ha:
.!, ._,. , . ,:i ),-;
;.. ..(: ,. ;*
which .it reaches ,.the solution, But again, these are questions which, in
I,,
,,.$
,
.
, (r
general, cannot be, answered to our satisfaction ahead of time. Among the most.
:
pppular integration methods is the explicit. fourth-order Runge-Kutta which pro:.
vides satisfactory accuracy and stability of computations as well as low cost.
:
i
j
,
I,
.t.
.~
,.
.;::,j..+
;
.,
s
Digital computer simulation of the chemical process dynamics .is used

:
/
extensively at the present.
It allows the engineer to anticipate thebehavior
.:.,
of a process not or&. qualitatively but also quantitatively. It has helped to
/.
,:.
1
design more complelt and sophisticated control systems. Themajor drawback of
-
computer simulation, is that it only gives you,.numbers and not a general

v
analytic solution in terms of arbitrafy, unspecified parameters which in turn
;/j
you taylor to your particular prob&m. ,Theref
ore, the results of computer

ia
simulation are of ad hoc nature , and you will have to make several runs with
:,
: _
.
different values for the input va&&es and parameter8 before you can estabii
,j
lish a good understanding of the dynamics of the particular procese.
.,j
.%
: . 1 v,.,
, ,C
,;
6.2 LINEARIZATION OF S,YSTRMS WITj;: ONR ;ARiAF&
L i n e a r i z a t i o n ia t h e p r o c e s s bywhichtbe
with linear ones.
approz&at!e
It is widely used fn-the,study
J
nor&rear &ten%
of procea&dyndmics
and
design of control systems for the following &(ai8sons:

.I ,
, ,
/: . ~ . /.
(a) We can have closed-farm, analytic. solutions for linear q&terns.
we can have a comRleQ
,aqd
ThUS,
general picture of ~a process *, behavior
.j i
independently of the par titular .values
&.&the par&ers and< input

_
variables.
This Is not possible for n&linear systems,: and comp~u.ter
(I
,.
simulation. provides us only, with.$he ,behalt%or of the .system at specs- *
I i:
f ied values of inputs and, par&neters.
> **.
(b) All the significant deV$!&qprR~ntS

systems
towards the design of. ef&titive &ontrol

~:j
,:, _ ,i .:
.,:;:
I
have been limited to;line$r epteqe. .,
:
.:':
':
First, we will study the linwhatioir
of a-+'pot&Ln@p
variable and then we will extend it, to,multivariable
ikqudtion
:wi.th.one
systems. 1
Consider the following nonlinear differential equation, modeling a given

process :
d x .=
7
f(x)
:
-'--'
dt
Expand the nenlinear

and take:
(6.1)
function f(x) into aTaylor series around the point x.

,
1i :.,
.:
II.
.
+
,.~
(&f)
::
xo)n
dx
.I
o n!
~..
+;;,*
(6.2)
,
?
If we neglect all the terms of order two and higher we take the following
r \i I
approximation for the value of f(x)::
t;, ,_, ,:.
,.
)
.:
f(x)
7.z f(Xo) + ($jx (x -ox,)
/
(6.3)
,o
ai
It is well known that the error ,introduced:

the
same
order.
.,
of
magnitude
as
the
,,
1 .
/
in ths appkoxima$i&
,. __
term f !
j +
1:(6.3) i s o f
I~2
Conscq uen t ly , t h e linear approxZm&tioti ( 6 . 3 ) ~~is~tisf~Ctoiy o n l y tihen i i s

very &lose to
xo
where the vai&ue
of the t&m I : is: very small.
Tn Pigure 6.1 w e ten sco .tl\o nonlihaar

,
linear approximation depends on, the ?lbcktian
:::
$unct$on f ( x ) )-and its J&tear
of the point xo around- &ich we
make, the expansion into a Taylor series, .~~@@~e .the.+&r appro&m;l;ion bf

/I
::
I:
f(x) at the points x. and xl (Figure aC.1). %z$ kpproxi@tion is ex& t only
at the point of linearization.
0,
(6.3)
In eqn, (6.1) replace

and
take,
.:
-L. I.
E.
f(x) by its linear approximation given by &qn;

1
dx
dt
- f(xo) +
(glx
(x - xo)
0
(6.5)
a
.
.I
This last equation is the linearized approximation of the initial dynamic

system given by eqn. (6.1).
In later chapters the design of the process con-
troller will be based on such approximate linearized models.

,
Example
6.1
Consider the tank system shown in Figure 6.&,
yi&&,
dh
A dt
= Fi - F.
._.,
where A is the cross-sectional.area

level.
level, i.e.
F.
balance
/
i
liquid
The total ma@+!

,,,
.* ,
of the'tank,and
h'the
(6.6)
'.
height of the
If the outlet flowrate

_,, 2. ; F is a linear funqtion'of the liquikf's
:!
>
. ,*
'.>
I
a - constant
(I
- a h, _' where
, .I
I
: .i
. . ,a I
which is a linear differential equation (modeling a linear dj&&c system) and
"' ! . _,
no approximation is needed.
i
,
,'
',
:
/
If on the other hand;
I
F.
then the resulting total mass balance yields a nonlinear dynamic model,
_* ,' :
_.
VfbFi
'..'
(6.7)
Let us develop the linearized approximation for the nonlinear model. The only
.,
nonlinear term in eqn. (6.7) is 13 v%. Take the Taylor series expansion of
this term around a point ho:
pig-
A0
(6
qh
as
.,[
+-ho>
t: o + .-dt-d(h
A-(h - hi) + :, fs
-sdi
(h
(B
I:
( h - h )2
210
*lo
JI;>
h=h 0
- ho)2
+
+
l
l
*
*
+ l .;
Neglecting the terms of order two

two and
and higher,
higher, we take
h
=&PO
+ m-k- ih - h o ) :
2%
I,
2,
which, if introduced in the nonlinear dgn8mi.c

dyn8mic
Qnearized
"
approximate model:
Adh+.di-hsF
dt
i
2%
.
.
fl
Letus
.i
the
I,
system (6.7) yields the following
:
,jP
compare
the
viij 3 i O
>p"
>p
:_
,#,.
>.$
2.s
.'.
(6.8)
!'!
I
linearized, approximate m&h& given by eqn. (6:g) to
3.
P
nonlinear
one, given by eqn.

eqn. (6.7)..
(6.7).. Assume
Assume that
that tha
tha tank
tank is
is at
at steady
steady
1
*,~j
state With
with a liquid level h
Then
at
time
t=O, & stop the-supply of liquid
0
.;
to the tank, while we allow the liquid to flow out,
Th&, a t r-O
t-o th,o l i q u i d
0
level is at the steady state value, i.e, h(t=O) -ho:!

-ho;;: Curwe (A) .$n Figure
;
solution of
of eqn.
eqn. (6.8)
(6.8) and,curve
and,"curve (B)
(B) in
in the::
the$s&e
figure ,is
,is the
the
6.2(b) is the solution
s&e figure
,a>
_'
: ,:i~ ,* 9,.
~
: ./
solution of eqn. (6.7). We notice that the two curves are very close to each
.:
.i
other for a significant period of time. This indicates that the linear$zed
,.
I
model approxim8 tes at the. beginning very well the nonlinear model.
1
As the time increases and the liqudd,level continues to fall, fts value
.,; -.
,r;:i
I
/
.
..
,
h 1 deviates m&i and more ;rom the~~&ri&al value ho around .which the
linearized
model
was
developed.
Figure ,6.2(b)
the differ
the
difference
enca 'ho
ho - h +ncrea8es the.
the. l%:neolriaed
l%:neolriaed
groesively less: accurate, 8s
?a0 expected.
indicates very &early that as

appro)cimation
appro)cimation becomeo
becomeo ;pro_s
6.3 DEVIATIO?j
VARIABLES
Let us now introduce the concept of the deviation variable that we will
find very helpful $I% later chapters for the control of processing systems.
Suppose
dynamic
that
system
(6.1).
-, . dx&'
(dt)
Consider
xs
xs
is the steady dtate'value

dtate'value of
of xx describing
describing the
the 'initial
,
Then,
'.
.;
I,
-
f(x$)
'/
the point of linearization for eqn. ,(6.1),
.i.e.
(6.9)
x. E xs.
xs. Then,
eqn. (6.9) yields the following linearized model,

dx
q
Subtract
= f'x#K)
"* ,
,i,',
df
,+ \dx'xg: ( .x -'x
. $)
eqn. '(6.9)?from,,(6.10~.~and't~~~'
, _.
:.i. :/ a
d(x - xs)'
xs)' .L.L :" .
'.
m (df, ') ( x - xs)
dt
dx xs
= xt
c x
'
.*
.,
i,2i
,.
(6,. 11).
* 3
,,,
:<,.
3.
="(q
dxxsd
' *
,,
..*
then eqn. (6.11) takes the following 'form:

dx'
dt
:. (6.10)
. .
If we define the deviation variable x' as,

j('-
-'
,
,
"'
S.&A
'.*'
i):
i
.y
"
"
(6.12)
:. .u :
r
,.(
5Equation (6.12) is the linearized approximation of
the
nonljnearidynamic
. >, ,,'.'P " I :. "
; 'St: (-. j sys.'
t,.
tern (6.1), expressed in terms of the deviation variable x'.
' ,' I 'kj! *
.
The notion of the.deviation variable is'vesy '? useful in' procesd,control.
~<
Usually we will be concerned with maintaining the value of a process variable

! :I
.i
.' .' ; .' a, T I:,
(temperature, concentration, pressure, flowrate, volume, etc.) at some desired
steady
state.
Consequently,
the steady'state becomes a natural candidate',
point around which to develop'the approximate llne&&ed
&del.
in such cases
the deviation variable describes directly the magnitu,de of the &l&cation

a system from the desired level of operation.
Furthermore,
if
the
of
controller
/c
,
,
of.the given process has been designed. well, it will not allow the,process
variable to move
Consequently,
. far away from the desired steady state value.
the approximate, .G linealieed model exp,ressed
will be satisfaqtory
to describa
in. terms of, daviat$on
variables,
the dynamic behavior of the .process
near tha
steady atate.
:r
I.
In the subsequent chapters we will make extensive use of'thelfnearized

fdrlr5i Of
dll:Furl!ntl,ill
cqilcltions,
in terms of deviation variables: ' "

r'
,-
;,
al
Exumpta 6.2
::
I_
/:
Consider the linearized model of the; t&k &is tem (given by eqn. ,.(6.8), of
_.,
._/
Example 6.1. Let hs be the steady st,ate
vakua
of
the.llq@l
level,fcw
a,,
(,
._, ,,. .,,
given value, Fi,s of the inlet flowrate, Fi.: Then,
^
, the linearlzed.model
:*
around ,,hs, i.e. h 0 5 hs, gives
"'.$
2 ~~ - Fi -: 2
zi
. 7
At steady state'from eqn. (6.7) we also'yhave.
*-J&g
d t
,J'
0 9
Fis
,
51
,.
,;
G
".-igr
.a..
A-$+Bq*
_'
V3)
./i
,:
,~
'e,
: , .,'F
2% ,
,.
(6.14)'
-!
Subtract eqn. (6.14) from (6.13),*

:' '.
, .,;
i
;
:* * 5 ii . 14,
d(h w,he)
':.
)
,,.
A
c + ---@--(h-h,):- Ft. :- a,;,
,df
21m;;
,.;
. . 1,:
1
.I
Defining the deviation variables
"
.
,, " )' 6 ';
^'
~
ii ish-hs
and
.( : @i,.' - Fi t Firs
/
we take the following linearized form interms
of deviation variables
',
:
(6.15)
6.4 LINEAJ.UZATION
OF SYSTEMS WITH MANY VARIABLES
In the previous sections we developed the linearized approximation of a

nonlinear dynamic system
that had only one variable.
approach to systems with more than-one varf-able.

. (
Consider the ,following dynamic system,
Fround
. .
the poind (k, n ,x,h) _ and take
a&f2
+c axlax 1
Neglect
Let us noG extend that
the
terms
of
order
~~~~~~~~~
two
(x 1 -x lo )(x,-x2())
and
higher
and
take
+*-**
the'following
approximations:
fl(XiSX*)
fl(XiSX2)
and
,.
-,
,1.I ><
afl
afl
fl(Xl~X20)
fl(Xl~X20) f
f (-)
(-)
afl
afl
(X
(X - X
X
)) ++ ((ax2+x1o,
11 10
10
4
4
axI (X ~(p2~)
ax1
1(p*$
X 20)(x2 - x20)
X2#x2
C
; ..
af2
f295) tf2(x1(92())
tf2(x+2()) +~~)(xlox~o)~~~-~~~~
,:
,:
.a+,.
+(;i;;;J(x
+(;i;;;)(x
10;2c~o) (x2 - x2*),

,,
CL.
.
_., .( ,:~
:
Sub,stitute t h e a b o v e l i n e a r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s o f f,b(x1,x2) a n d f2(x1,x2) in&
1
the eqns. (6.16) and (6.17) af ,the init& nonlinear dynamic system and take:
dXl
x=f1 (X ~~,X2~)f~~)(xl~~x20)(Xl-Xl~)+~~)(x,~~,x~~)(.i~2~)(6*l8)
;-
af;
dx2
,+
:)
+
;(---)
dt = f&&-J
ax,
.,.
(x?-y20)
(x
1,
1,
+,:I.,
X
:af2
10, )
10,
+ ax,l(x,
,:,:-
These last two equations are linear,differential

linearized, approxamate model of the initial:
,> (
eqns, (6.16) and (6.17).
i.e.
.
(x
pyre?.. 22
pyre?..
- ~20)
**
(6.19)
equatiod .and constitute the
nonlinear sytftrzim
des&ibed
by
_
,-
The comments made earlier for the one-dimensf,$nal

: I. .:;
,i 1
i
.&a& ?&ly also here,
,
- the approximation deteriorates as the point (x
x)
1 2
moves away fromthe
p o i n t (x10,x2$ o f l i n e a r i z a t i o n , a n d I
- the linearized approximate mod&depends on the point (x10,x29)
around
which we make the,.Taylor series expans&;

L
,
:\ )kL) 1 ^. k
*
Let us now express the linearized sF;tem in terms of deviation variables.
I
.
,.
Select the steady state ( x l,s ~2~s) as, the point around which you will make
.<i
i
the linearization, 1. e,, in eq&. (6.18) a&j (6.129) put x .: E x
1O
1 , s and
steady statem eqns. (6.16) and (6.17) yields:
x20 =
x2,s At the
-:
0. 0
.;
fl(xl,s,x2,s)
f2(xl,s,x2,s)
9
.
i
:;-
;.
(6.20)
(6.21)
,+
Subtract eqn, (6.20) from (6.18) and (6.21) from (6.19) and take:
. ,. af
, , ~ rhrx ) -~. ,
I~$&&& (1)
~,~~~~,l,*,x2,a)(2-,x*,~)~~;22)
axi (x l,~,x2,*)(x1-~l,a)
':"j'
and
l,s,x2,s)(x1-xl,s) + (~)~~l,sX2,s)(XZ-.X2.a)(6*23)
_/*
D e f i n i n g t h e d$v+ytion var,$ablea b y ,
*
1
Xi
3 ,xl
- x~,~
and
*;
.*2
XQg
eqns. (6.22) and (6,23) take the following form,in terms ofdevlation
variables:
hi
-
-dXi
dt
,i %,,dx;
dt
!'
3
aiixi
~
.:
akxi
where
af-
a2l
a12x;
=. axl)(xl
'
es;.
22x;
*
,L
3; :
~.
:,
_.
s,x2,;)
, a22
.,
af.
(q(x;
.+
,j
:.p ,,.-I*
s,x2;aj*
_:
oection,s we
A final comment is in order. IN the previoue x.andiG&e.p%&ent
/
!
, ,, 1
1
considered the presence of state variables only in the nonlinear &nctions.
ir ii
.
8.. ill,
Thus, for systems with one variable we had oniy the state .x>&d for systems
<+
^
j 9 ,. ,T :.;, f,
with two variables we had only states xl a n d X2. The above formulation
.:t;i
shouldnot be perceived as restrictive, *but it is~~~ily,,expanded-toinclude

,
and the
like.the tna~~p~l~t~dv~riablsa,
the presence of other inpu@iariablis,
?
disturbances.
j
; .;i
,
1
Example 6.3
,.
,
: ,,L;
Consider a dynamic system desciibed
.,
and the following state eqw$itino;,
by two state irariables xl
a n d x2
1
,
dxl
dt
fl(x1sx2~yn2sdl)
_, '.
dx2 i= ,
fZTL,x2;ml,m2d2)
dt
where m
1
a n d. m2
distukbances,
'.I .
are two &nipulritedi variables aAd
affea$ing
Linearizatidn*
the ,syst&m.
.I
of,. tlqs above .&&ions
around the nominal valu&

.r
8 .
(x10sx20sm10s~20sd10s~20~ w i l l y i e l d :
,.!
dxl
dt = f1(x10sx20sm10s~20rd10)
afl
,
afl
+ (T&~ lx,- xl01 + $qo
(x,-
x2$**
.
t.
f (<). (ml L ml01 + ($flo (m 7 m20) + ($,n,v(d,

n
--.I.
L,
1
_1
.i
and
!a_c
2) n (X,
+ (a~_
p--
dx,
-gf(X
2 10X20sm10Sm20~d20)
(6.$)
dl(+
3,
.,
ii
La
3.
)r
wh-@l-e
all the derivatives have been
camntr~d
+h-
a+
n~4..+
-e
,.,-r--.t--ll--
(denoted by the- subscript 0).

Assuming
t h a t t h e p o i n t o f linearization
the system, we can define the deviation

mi
xi.
*;
Xl
Xl0
Xi
3.
X2
Xi0
-
ml,
ia
varfahlem
ml
ml0
+hp n+a,Ar
ara~a
L-L-.-J--
-c
a,**
di
dl
did
=
di
d2
d20
--
Introducing theie deviation vari&les inl.eqns. (6.24) and (6.25) we take
. (*t *_ sallXi f .~;ZX; + bllmi + bl2m; + Cldi

., and
(6.26)
:,.
_ dxi . .
xi ,f_: tal$ + a22xi + bzlmi f bZ2mi + ~~$1 5.
.C6.27)
.*, ,;+
where the cons tante a.
i-j bij =i are the appropriate derivatfves in the
eqns. - (6.24) .annd (6.25)) i.e.
c ,t
and
.
form that we would like to have for process control purposes, i;e. linearized
,.
approximation of the nonlinear state equations, in terms of deviation
,! .:
_
\
1.
I
var iab 1 es.
,* .
I
,
Linearization of a Nor&o thermal CS~TR
,$!:: ~
r
:
I
I
> y>
The modeling eqt tations for a CSTR were given in Example 441O'by eqns.
Example
6.4.
(4.ga), (4.9aj a n d (4.10b).

mixture remains constant.
to the following :
'5
Assume that the volume V of, the reactlpg i

I,
Then,. the dynamic :model of the ,reactok
I is !relktced
_
_.
dCA
dt is.=
$ cc
k, e-E/RT
.O CA
- CA) Ai
:
I,
( 6 . 2 8 3
and
dT
L (Ti -T) $
J lo .-E!P;lTv Q - --$(p -,jj
.qL 29)
dt - f
P
,
I
I
.
?
.? .~
-& a:
This model is nonlinear due to the presence of the no&near term .e
. -- cAS
.
while all the o.ther terms are linear. *Thus, in order to linearize ,-n?qns.
,
(6.28) and (6.29) we need only to rinearize the abovenonlinear
term around
some point (ci ,To).

0
e-E/RTc
, e
-e
SubetitutXng
-E/RTo
-E/RT
+(
aT
ale
'A
Ql
* )To' CA
b 0
.I
d[*-ERTc
]
A), To,Q! (CA-CA :
(T - Toi +,(, 1 ac
.O
A
:*
-E/RTo
-E/RT
k e
(CA ) (&A To) f (8
O)(cA-CA
1
0
*
.
i
:
;
,
*
0
:
0,
RTo2
i
,.
\
I 1 -: : :
~.
the above approximation into eqns. (6 .J&y-&d (6,;;;) ;le i&e the
i t.
.-1
-E/RTo
cA
following linearized mod;1 for a nonisothermal CS:;iR:,

dc..
;. ,-*-+ (c Ai,-~A)
_,)
$+
(Ti-T)+
-E/RT
To,.-&;& $y- cA )
0
/
I.
-E/R%
-E/RT.
E
f!!!$+
-toe -.: o.#kS,-koL;iZ,,e
0
: RTo
::
,.
) :
j
- (
Jko
i.
-):,
; i '& .
(6.630)
4 :: j -,
: R >-E/RTo
: .
+&To
CA, .+ (- e
CA )(T-To)+(e )
R$
.:,
i
0
0
(6.31)
$e can proceed a stlp further co develop a more convenient form for eqns.
(6.30) and (6.31) using the deviation variables. Assume,that
To and CA
0
are the steady-state cgnditions

for the CSTR and for given input conditions
.J
.' ,
"_
cAio, Tie, Tco. Then from eqns. (6.28) and (6.29) we take,
-E/RTo
0
,.
= $ (;;4"' - cA ),- ki e
i0
0"
AO
.;..
-E/RT_
.t.
Jko e
- 5 (To-~Tc
'I.,/ ;a- . o. 'A 0 . ,.p
:o
0 - + 'Ti -To)+
8
_ .,
Q
Subtract eqns-.
_'
<take:
(6.32)
.-c
(6,32) ar rd
(6.$3)>
,,,
from (6.30) and:(6.31);
\
"(T-T~)-~~
,)
'!
,A :
.
4
1'
.Ljl
dT
dt:?' [(Ti- Tie) - (T,- To,It
respectively, and
'-R/RT_
e u(~ACA 0.~.)
!':.(6.34)
,,
,.
:
-E/RT
-. ')(T+To)
ii
'
.I
-E/RT
I + I (e
I
(6.33)
:- i
dca
-d'[(.c
-c
dt T
,:: Ai
;'
O)(cA-,CA)
0
,.,
i
-3 [(T-To)
P
-- (Tc-Tc
)I.
e(6.35)
:,
Define
the
following
deviation
variables:
I
Then, eqns. (6.34) and (6.35) take the following form,. in terms'of
: !variables:
the deviation
dCA f. i ,; i i . %
--7
dt
Cc&
.1I;
dT' m 5 (T;- +') + r
-
koE -E:/RT
-E/RT
cl> -, ~~~ !+. T - hoe, 1~:
3
.[,0
..
,,*
l ci :---g
I P
Jk
dt
_ (,
'<
1
(6.361,.
CT'-T;)
(6.37)
-.
SUMMARY AND CCNCLDDING:RRMARRS

.,.
ii
r,
1.
Most of the chemical engineer&rig syst& ire modeled with nonlinear
equations .(dhfferential,
algebraic);: .Slnestherk
is no general theory for the
;
solution of such equations, digital computer simulation is used widely to study
the dynamics of:,chemical processing systems,'
Computer simulation is nothing
:
;,
else but the numerical sofution.of the 'eq&ations describing the behavior of a
L
*
process.
Linearization is the approtimation of a nonlinear model by a linear
one
::
Taylor se&8
in the neighborhood of 'an operating point.' It is~'baas,ed~'on'the

:
expansion of nonlinear functions around a certain point and the retention of
only first order terms, while second and higher order terms areineglected.
,: -i$,
:"
j:
The lineaiized model provides very 'good',~Bprol;tnate'de~.~ripsidn of a ,process
only near the point of linearization.
':
For process control purposes the steady sta& operation of,, &stem
taken as the point
of. linearization.
.9
the-jatroductionbf
the
I
' deviation variables
ii whose values indicate how much a system is removed from
the desired steady state operation. The deviation variables are very useful
L
,
This
is
allows
.i,
"
quantitiss ip control and in subsequent chapters we will model a

2'
:
t
.;,
prOc888 alWay 'in tqm8 a$ deviation ~Varfidib?!S~~
,
?I
i
I
.
.,,
f
.I
.
,..
.A . , ii ; _ ,._
,)
.-_
;?
,I
:;.::
THINGS' TO" THINK 'ABOUT

1 . What-i&n computer simulation ifnd what is it used for?
2.
Discuss the methods of interval halving, successive

.Newton-Raphson
their
3.
methods.
4.
4.
5.
5.
What
for solving nonlinear algebraic equations.
relative
Do the bame
substitution
advantages
and
and
What are
disadvantages?
with Euler's and the fourth-order Runge-Kutta integration

b /'
is
linearization,?
i
Why are.the linearized, ap&%imate
purposes?
I*/
models
useful
:
for
process
control
6.
When is the linearized model more accurate, near or far from the point.
1
of linearization, and ,.. why?
7.
What is the most attractivepdint of linearization for control purposes

and whyi?
8.
Which linearieation
Which
linearieation iris mote
rnoi~~ uskful,
useful, the
the one
one around
erouad the
the point
point AA or
arc the,
the,
.
.
one around,'the
one
around,'the point
point B,
B, and
and why?
why? (See
(See Figure
Figure
9.
6.4-1).
What are the deviation variables? What is the point of linearization 'r
in order
order to
to define
define the
the deviation
deviation variables
variables that
that will
wiil bebe useful for
for
process
10.
control
purposes?
,.
.,
,*
Consider the tank system discussed in Example 5.6 (Figure 5.4)'where

the flowrate
of the outlet stream is proportional to the square root of
the height of, the liquid level.
Show that
Show
that we
we should
should rekearize
relinearize the
the
balance equation-every time that

level at
-..--.I-- $e- change
.I the desired l&&d-_--_e-...-
ssteady
t a t e .
.
.-
11.
The
following
differential
equations
provide
the
mathematical
models
for several processes.. Which of them $$e"linear

Process I:
+Apx -
Process II:
adxl
I bl-z-+ b2
1
dxl + x
Process III: al=
1
w*
lot
'1.
dx,
+'5
and which nonlinear?
'
.'
ml(t) t,d;(t)
//,!.
B-
1
4
< ,
5,
CH,APT?ER
,;: *I
7'
l.
? *it
LAPLACE
TRANSFORMS
,,:; I
The use of L&place transforms offers a very simple and elegant method to
I, & i '
solve the linear ar linearized differential equations.which ,#* result from the
; ,\S , .j,
mathematical modeling of .chemical processes.
:",
:. j
'
6
::,
The T,aplaee : transforms
), i"
<
.*, also allow;
::
1
~
.
I
various
external.influences.
,ld
i. '...
.,
!&.i
It is for all,',the
above reasons' that the Laplace trans,forms have been

:
,included in a Process Control ;,_bo$', although they\, constitute a,purely
rY' k,
-i.
: i :
!
mathematical
subject.;
:
7.1 DEFINITIQN
OF THE LAPLACETRANSFQRM
.,
;, ;
Consider the function ,f(t)r;G,The',Laplrce,

.
tr&or?n"
f(t) is defined as follows; , j,

&f(t)]
?(S)
.I.;o
I
Ranarks:
,:
?,
"
.
:d'
transform is given
"7: r
by eqn. (7.la).
T
-
T(e)
li
E-dd
T-m E'
Y$;t
..
"'
(7.fa)
"f(t)e
.L
If the function f(t) is piece-wise"ti&tinuous'

every value,of
(7.1)
/>i
I,
(1) A more rigorous def,inftion'of the Laplace
&[f(t)]
the function
;. 8
f(tl,e-st'&
m'
?(s):of
'3
and defined for
time from t=G to tm', %h& the .rigorous
definition (7.la) reduces to that of (7.1). For almost all
/<
the problems that we w%lL be concerned with in this book,

the simpler def initiqn given by (7.1) will suffice.
(2) From the definition (7.1) or (7.1a)
Laplace
transformatiun
we notice that the
is.a transformation of.a filnction
from the time domain .,&here time is the independent variable)

.
to the s-domain (with 8.. the independent variable). s is.
I.
,i
a variable def iried in the: tmmpiex plane ) i.e. sh a + jb.
(3)
From
the
dafini&n:
(i;
i)
zr
&:
@.
18j
i $8
&i& tfiihfi$he
:, .
&aplscy
~r~aaf~~m~~f
tde$&&
. .
6
f(t); @xi@& ip;&
: 1 t *j
integral iW f(t) e-*t ht / takes a kr$te valuel; il e.., rem&is

bounded.
C o n s i d e r t h e f u n c t i o n f ( t ) -: eat w h e r e ~0. % .
., : . ^
.,>,
1. .
i;.,:
men,*.
I1
*
.:
*I.
.,
_) :r,e(a-s)t
dt
!
[eat]
o eatemst.dt s
~ (7. 2);.
IJ=
:.,
.G
Now, if a - s > 0 o r s<a then&e

: .,
f-%i
i&g& i n ( 7 . 2 ) ,?.
.
becomes unbounded.
Consequently, tire iapia& transform of

:
e at is defined only for s>a,
.
which yield finite values
.,
f-or the integral in, (7.2).,;: AI,& the. fu$ctions that, we will
@
*
,;
be concerned with in this Ibook &ll possess Laplaca trans. !

forms so Mat we +ll nobtest their, existeace every ,time .
time we need them,

_
(4) The Ladlace
trax$fdrmation
is a linear operation, i.e.
$,l 7.
_.
:,
[alfl(t) +
a2f2(t)J - ,ala,-*Ifl(t)j +
a2 [f,(t)]
.>
w h e r e a% _.a& a2
straightfoeard,
&
are con*tant
i.e,,,.
;
I
3.: ::
;
.&~jL&
.,
(7.3)
:*
param,eters ? <me p r o o f i s
,j
*.
-.
:
.,:. 1 _
- ,a:.;.
&
..:A$
If,(t)
Note:
A bar on top,of a variable<will

variable.
.This
signify the Laplace fransform.of
I.
that
conventioii.'will,be used
II: throughout this text. *
"
OF_! I f@4E
BASIC F&CTIONS "
6.'
.q ,
now apply the Laplace transformation on some basic-.&ncfions
7.2 THE LAPLACE &UWFORMS

Let
US
that we
will use repeatedly in the folloi;i5pg'chapters.

.~
I
A.
Exponential Function : I
..',>
%, .1
This function is' def$ned as! ,_
,. . . .
-at ' foi
t?Q
f(t) =.
-. e,.
-'
From (7.4) 'it is clear that

&eat]
,.'? I
/ ~.
&
(7.5)
o--CL
,..
..
B.
Ramp Functions (Figure 7.la) L

This
Then
functian'is defined
S?
f(t) = at
for
as:
tzo
'
with a - ,-constant.
_., . .
Pro0 f :
;
&c[at]
&=-St
dt
;,
.*
.
0
Integratffig by. parts, where t and e et

1
are ,Ghe two hnct%ons,
.
: a.,
i .
, P ._ 0 TJ
.:
Consider the sinusoidal function i(t),=
$&(ut)
we take :
.,
.-
Then,
_(.
.,y.;
.i7,7)
Proof:
--
-*:
-.
.I-;
:.
r,
^
.:
f.,
,.
:
i
>
Note:
s2+42
In the above proof we have us&d

1
e3a _ g-N
sina : a
:_
.1
.j
Similarly, it can be proved that,,

~[cos(wt)]
<,
:
,^ p) L.
ri
the Euler ,identity

4
-_
:.:.,.
;~
.i
-.:
,,I
For the proof of (7.8) use

e3a + Ja
cosa
D.
gtep,Functi,on,
(Figure7.lb)
This funct%on is defined by,

f(t)
for
A
-0
and its Laplace
,]
00
tco
for
transform is
i
d[step f u n c t i o n o f s i e e A ] = As
(7.9)
L ,.
,
.y,
.9
Proof:
*
1
a.
We notice, that a.:discontinuitv in the value of- the function exists at
t=O, such that f (t=O) is undefined.
The definition of Laplace transform
1i
.:
4
from eqn. (7 .l) requires the knowledgeef
the function at t=O. *The drawback
is overcome if we consider the mere precisa ,mathematical definition of the
_
Laplace transformation from eqn. (71I.a)
(7.la)
T
&f(t)]
,,lsl;;,
&I Ic
T-MO
II.
&e-St&
f(t)e-stdt
(.
T h u s f o r t h e s t e p f u n c t i o n , t h e u p p e r lfmit is, T-m

T*m b u t .the lcwer
lrjwer llimit
i m i t i&
t=Oi-,
t=Ot,
i.e. aa very
i.e.
very small
small but
but finite
finite positive time, instead of.
of. t&O,
t&O,
for step function we .have
E.
Translated
li
.:
Hince,
.h
Functions
Consider the function, f(t) shown in Figure 7.2a, sf .thisfunct;ion is

4
delayed by to eeconds we take the function shown in Figura.7;2b, and if it
is
advanced
b y to
seconds then we have the .,curve
of, Figure 7.2~.
The
relationship among the three curves is:

f(t
+ to) =
curve in
Fig. .;7.2c
t
L e t
= f(t
f(t)
curve in
F i g . 7.2a
- to)
c u r v e
Fi;g. 7,2b
S!Z[f(t)]
= f(s)
)- be -the Laplace
i n
transform of, f (t) ; .Then
. .
.
$[f ;t
- toI1
e-sto
I!(s)
:.
,;
(7110)
.-_
and
.
$.[f(t + t )]
0
esto
T(s)
(7 .ll)
_.
Proof:
-a0
-SWto)
-f (t - to)emst .dt .f e.
. <;f(t.- to).e
, , : d(t- to)
I
r
.s?
0
.; . .O rs
L ,..I
I
_ , _ i
::.
S i n c e d t = d ( t - to). L e t ty to=ri t h e n
I
,.,
., . ;;.r:.
* ,,
c
j
,,$[f(t - to) ] =
-st
OD
-s(t-.to)
: ., ., . ?qt*., Q)
. / _ ~: ;,.
d(tL t ) * e ._
f(r)e-* dr
I i~.
0.
;toI
I:
-.,
,
:
1
z
*
-St0 *
4
f(T)
$-ST
dT,. 6: e ,o ?(s) ! : 1.4 ,(
- e
.
.
I ,
.
1
0 I
f(t=to)e
I
0
Notice that in the last. equality,we rep$aced tha lower., bound -to wPthv ,O.. (*
This will not change the value ,of the.Jntagra&
1
since f<(t) 4 9 -for t&k d 0.
Equation (7 .lO) will be pakt$cularly useful in the computation of

;;: ,
tiplace transforms of, systems wiq,*,dead, time.
V,
9
i.!
.,
: %
I
>
Example 7;l
1 4,:.
:;. -1
Let .us recall the flow of an 3ncompressibla liquid through& pipe

(Example 4.9 and.Flgure
4.7a) .I From eqn. (4.7) we have
(4.7)
t,
is the temperature of the liquid flowing out of the pipe and Tin
T*ut( t, - T& - t,)

w h e r e Tout
is .the temperature of the fluid flowing .in the pipe. The temperature of the
outlet is equal to the temperature of the inlet butdelayed by td .where
td
is the dead-time (transportation lag), i.e. the time required for a change in
the inlet to reach the outlet of the pipe.
I f
,?&Tin( t ) ]
- Tin(s)
J.
then, using (7.10) we have:
Tout(k)
= dfl[Tout(t)] - ,$%in(t
- td)] - e
-st
d f,,(S). .
,:
F.
Unit
Pulse
Function
/
i
.
Consider the. function shown in Figure 7,3a., The height is l/A and the
i .
,:
?
s
,:
I
is
width A. Thus, the area under the curve,
1
:>
/
if,
.,
area
1
X
i. _
This function is called unit pulse function of duration A and. 58 defined by:
0
rl
ii(t)
l/A
,/I
o
s -f
f o r
i .
for
t<O
1
&ct<A
; .
t>A
0,
*
1: 0 +/
1
,
.* :
It can also be described as the difference of two step functions of equal size
r..;
The first step fuktion occurs at time j t=O whiie the second is delayed
,t
_ .;
by A units of time. Thus, if
1
I.
first
l/A.
step
function:
,
t<o
second step function:
f,(t)
{l;A
then,
6A(t) - unit pulse of duration A = f l( t) -- f,(t)
3
T h e Laplace
,-f.(t)
f.6A)
t r a n s f o r m o f t h e u n i t p u l s e functibn o f &ration A isi

;
&s,(t)]
- GSA
a
(7.12)
i
Proof:
;ei$(t) 1
G;
&fl(t)
fl(tiA)]
Unit Impulse Function
.~,
_
I 3: I ;
Consider that the duratidn A of a unit pulse function& allowed t o
, *.
i.
.;
,r)
slirink, approaching z e r o , w h i l e t h e heiiht l / A .~ appr&ches i n f i n i t y . T h e
4:
area under the:curve remains always
,
A
+I
I
I
,,;
L/
/ .
,
As A+0 we take the function shown in Figure7.jb. This function is called.
i!
1
i
I~!L~,-Q!!~)~I~~
or I).Lrnc function and it Is usually represented hy
a(t)
i-
defined as equal to zero for all times except for t=O. Since the area under
).
;;-,
Ij, c .!
. _,iI
:
l.hc unit pulse remains equal to 1, i t in c l e a r tl& tlih ia true for the unit
.) :
,- ; !,.
.-I
r.,
impulse, i.e. L
m
G(t)dt
-cn
The Laplace
;erw1
transform
-
Proof:
Since a(t) - lim SAft) ,
Ad-l
Using L'Hospital's
iule
IIn Table 7.1 the,Lapla&i
tra&&ms of..&&'d&ic'; functiqns

i"
':
;7
'tabulated.
' '4
": ,.
Remark:
It ii Amp&tant'to
nO&z& tba$'Xhe
" ,i
;.a '.
baeie fundtiona exam3n;ed-P$.3zhis.:se
have p&en
b,.
>;
-: _:
. .,
"
shown in T&e 7 ,.l,ara
ra$$& of twb p6ly&tuiajs~j.n e~~.~,,The only

,.
-. ~
. .?.\,,k -2 *;j.-, .:exceptions ~ ire the Laplaca;tleiansfc32ma,,,<rf
fkn&bioiia &$wIa&d in
,_
.
,
-*,
time, which include the elrponential ie,, e,.+og . .!Bh+efo$e,
for..
any
%(
function
have
f(t) (not Including a tink translated -teGrn) we will

;;
._
_.
I .
. II -j .\
: _v.
Cd4 1
where qy(s) and q2(s) are two polytaomial$,in

41 (.s)
k,s"
+ k*ls m-l
8, i.e.,:
** + kls + ko "
'!
I
*. ,.
%.'
g,:'
)<
5
Example 7.2
rf f(t) = cos(wt) then f(s) =
and .q7(s)'L l-s2 + w?.
91w
8
= 42(s)
8 2 + to2
13th
w-?-y
q&ii)
- i4t 0
-
From Table 7.1 if f<t) T_ emat

cos(tiit) t h e n
:
' :
&". s&Q
s+a
q.2
~~~,.
(s+a)2 + w2,
* .
;
:
.I
.
./
-,,.i :j x
2:
2
,'
with Q,(S)
:
8 9.(ig~ ,-r- tlJ2):
"FZ'"-, 88 1.9~
-7 +- 2a
-J.- _ = i-s + a a&I~.. i:a,f85
?(s.): -
.'
( 7 . 16)
'.i
,.
* From eqns. (?.14j.
-- .(7.15) and*$7.161
-, k~&tr
~_ ----ce that in orde?.to ffnd the
I
Laplace transform of any derivative,,w$
n&$d,to have a number of initial con.,.~
ditions,
initial
To find the Laplace

conditions,
transform of an n-th,order
de?ivative
we need n
f(O) , f'(O) , f"(O) ,
** ) f("--l)(O)
.
l
7.4 LAPLACE
TRANSFORMS OF INTEGRALS
t
Pi f(t)dt]
(7.17)
"
where.
-.
%3>
&[f(tIl
.!'
Proof:
,.,
?,I
Inte&rate by. par&i j Put

.
and
dv
Now
t
J
0
,J
0
f(t)dt]e-*tdt
i -~-$
7.5
THE
FINAL-VALUE
THEOREM
lim f(t) = lim[sf(s)J
t--
where
s+o
'
I .
':,
:.L
.,
,...5;;
(7.18)
Proof:
Using the. Laplace
transform'of .a derivative (eqn;'
d-fdt .- St dt p &cS) _ f(o) .- , .
(7.14)) I"
lim
S-+O
.-:
5,
Take the limit of both sides as s-9
01 "
@&$ e-" dt - lim [s?(s) - f(O)]
8.
s-a
+
Since variable s is independentof time t, we take

'
lim"dflf)
!,
cost dt
1
- lim [s?(s) -,f(O)I
P;
Example 7.3
s+l
s(s-l)(sf2)(
the final-value theorem we heve.
Let Z(s) =
limf(t)
t-
= Mm [ST(s)1
S+O
= lim
S-+O
i
:s+j.
4 lim 8
s(s-l)(s+2)(s+&q
t
s+o
84-1
c s-l)(s+2)(s+3)
:*
The final-value theorem allows.us
approaches
as
t* when its Laplace
A note is in order.
'_
&
~
'
,
(
;
'
~
.
,
'
:
,
.
\
.
,
1
:=
i
!:
.
to compute the value
.
_
that a function
theorem applies gnly if the limit
lim f(t)
t-
_,_.
transform is known.
The final-va$e
a..
is bounded. Therefore,
pi_
! lim [sF(s>l
s-m
.:
the
limit
~
$
.,
must be bounded.
7.6 -TIN lCNITTAL,-VALUE
Z(B)
'( .I
,THJOR@'l
=.
E(t)e-=dt
r- - ( )*? > _,
o";
i .- Laplece transform of f(t) .

:"
.:.
/ ":> I,
"i
',
The proof ~follows the* $nme patteen &i:kdr the final-&alua

;
: ^
Example
theoreti,.
'
/^
1: :
,;r
.-,,
.I
;,
:*s,
;:*i
7.4
,*;.'
:..
.;
.,_
1;
&I. ._ ;
,.
Let Z(s)
b
we have,
lim f(t) - lim [s?(s)] - lim
t-a
e-gao
)'
1 =
m lim L + -2s + lo
s2 - 8 - 12J
Se
~ L
-:
l.+
--___ llm -2s + lo
S-+-B
=i- -_
-s-I2
As was the case with the final-value theorem, similafly
for the, initial-
value theorem, the limits.

lim
.t+o
f(t) and"
l i m
Es+-
[s?(s)]
mtlst be bounded ,
:
i.e. to have finite values.

,
I
F
.__
*,
SUMMARY
AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
;JI- , ;i i. .Y?, 7 +a
*I
The Laplace transform
The
transform of
of aa function
function f(t)
f(t) ,-defined,
,-defin&,by
eqn;,~.:~(!.l),
by eqn;,t,
,(T. 1) , isis aa
,.
linear transformation of a function from thetime domain to the s domain
* ,:.
where 8 is a complex variable.
..
The important feature of the Laplace transform is that it always leads to

I>
h 1
a function& t h e 13 d o m a i n , w h i c h -is t h e rgtl,pof two,polynomials In s
,I
(with the only exception the tranelrted Sn .Qrn~ ,fufz@ionr) t in$apendantly
I
*
,!
of the type of the initial function f(t) which can be: constant, linear
b
in time (ramp), trigonometric , exponential, or linear combination of the
.
above, etc.
3,:
c
,
I.,
li
I.., .
In addition, the Laplace transform <converts the derivatives and the integrals
into ratios of two. pplynomials.
This .imRortant
feature allows .tFie con-
version of integrodifferential equations into simple algebraic equations,

as we will see in the following chapter.
.
The final and initial-value theorems,:will be employed in,order to compute
<,
7 *
I 1
the unknown final or initial value of the function f(tj,when Its L&lace
transform T(s) is known.

1.
If T,(s) - ;Il'[fl(t)]
[fl(t)f2(t)]
and z,(s)'*
i<[f,(t)]
fo: general functions fl(t)
tllt2 .tUtIC!EiOlI
2.
l)OeS
3.
What is the Laplace
fl
= ;--i
can we find the

and f*(t)?
possess a Laplace
transform?
transform of the function f(t).=
5 cos(4t) f
e+ I- 5t?
4.
What is the Laplace
transform of the vector function
.
asint '+ belCt
gt>
a+b
'
cos(t) + b sin(t- td)

[
%
5.
Using
Euler's
cosa
identity
~'
-'.ms
,',
'.
,
1
.'
e j "+e -ja
2
show that
[cos(wt)]
s2 + u2
*
:
6.
Show that
$?Qf(t
+ t,)] = esed Z(s)
where
?(s)
7.
= iAf(t) 1
Starting from the equation yielding the Laplace

'a
i.e.
4
transform of a derivative,
df(t)
dt d-" dt - s?(s) - f(O)
prove the initial value theorem.

8.
What functions have Laplace

of two polynomials in 6.
transforms which cannot be cast as ratios

i
% ,.
/,,
,i :. !,8
x
. ,, <.
3ter>
_
,
/! WI
, I La.-.-J, ,.- 7 1
6)
II
Tnb-le
Time Futiktion ftz0)
7.1. Laplace
Laplace
'Transforms .of Various Functions

Tranwfdrm
Unit Impulse, 6(to)
Unit Step
Ramp, f(t) = 1
n.!
xi
a
I I
I
~ TabLe
Time Function (tz0)
Lapldce
7.1 (continued)
Transform
8
2 -U2,
s
cosh(wt)
.*
:. . . .
~.
'.'
t
"-I,
I-
._A
Table
Time Fynction
eaatsin(wtI
(tz0)
Laplace
7.1
(continued)
Transform
I CHAPTER 8
,a.,
SOLUTION
OF
LINEAR
DIFFERENTIAL
,;
USING LAPiACE
,
_ j.
EQUATIONS
k
1.
TRANSFORMS
1.
'
,,,As it"was mentioned,

earlier, the primsry:use,,,fpr
the Laplace transforms
5
'7.
I;; to solve linear differential equations or systems of linear (or linearized
/I +
nonlinear) differentialf equatiorik
w!i,th'constant
coefficients. The procedure
I
: _I :
'..
was developed by theEnglish
engineer
Oliver Reaviside and it enables us to
.;.
solve many problems without go&p
.through the ttoub1.e
of findiflg;$he comple-
mentary and the particular

solutions
for l&near ddfferential
equations. The
"/ L
A i .,?'< ; r;'.' h y: L
_ : I - &t;,c" :*z ! 4 ;
h &; :; I 1 *
same procedure'can,,~ie'exte~deb"to 's%ple otiq$!tems of paftial diiferential
_ .ir ./
,
$ ,I
,g
,$
i . .i
equations and to iritegral
equation&. ,. I.,
'
_*
.* ,.,j- / .:
+ aT- $ Ti + ,,iT* > j,
(5.1)
I
.
?,
Equation (5.1) can be expressed in terms of deviation vkri+bl&,
""
j.
:: ',,!" 1
.p
.* ,!
<
'
dT'
;'
+ ,aT' =' 5 T'i' + '^ KT'
(5.3)
dt
,I: ,"%
' 1:
',7 *i.. ,". ,'
: .,;
where
<; .
_.,j
T' - T - T(s) , T; = Ti - Tiis) , T; '= Ts - Ts'(s) *
I.
$f
are the deviation variables from the steady state
defined by the values

<.
,*J _ ,'
. .
Tb) a Tib) and Ts(s)'

c
Assume that the heater is initially
r
at steady state: i.e. T'(O) - b.,
'
At &O, the temperature of the inlet'stream increases by a step of 10F from
.I
its steady state value and remains at this new level. Thus, T'(t) = 10F for
,~ L
',
T
I
/
t>o.
The temperature of the h~uibin
tile tank will start increasing and we
'
want to know how it changes with time,

.:
,* ^.
In other words, we must solve eqn.
Equation (5.3) i3 a linear equation with constant coefficients. We can

, i.
. . . 2
use Laplace transforms tosolve it. Let us examine the solution procedure.
or. ,
T;(s) -- 0.
0.
T;(s)
Then eqn. (8.1) beg,ome$c )

.., *
...:
t
T(s) P $ . & . $
.; ..
.;
,.I..
__ ,.I..
The function , T(t),,w.bose ,Lapla.ce

o f eqn, (8.J) 5,s ourso$u~tion.
I. :
:
-1
i
,.
ii
,,
. . . .. \
(8.2)
(8.2)
.-. -
trap@&%
transgorm
is+: given
given by the. right hs,pd<;ride
ha,nd<;ride
i: ll. 19:
It
,is
easy to
tijr
~hhowthat,
~hhokqxthat,
SC
: 1 .:, ,,
..
T(s) - + : -& ? +y I s [$ - AL]
; : ,b ,
( 8 . 3 )
.I
*.
I,; _
From T a b l e.:. 7.1.,we
find,easily
that;:
:
.
/I
/ .;.a
: r .
* ,+
d,
I
.,
- ,the function Cith Laplaca transform IIs 1s. a unit. st+ function, and
. . .e,* .,
:
i
.,:$
.$
- the function. with Laplace; traneform-l/,(e+a) is e-at .
.
.I
Therefore, from eqn. (8.3) we find,
;
. /
T ( t ) - g ( 1 - eeat)
(8.4)
_ i
,
T(t) given by eqn. (8.4) is the solution to our Initial dlfferentlal eqn.
(i.3) . , Indeed, taking the Laplace
of eqn. .(8.4),
.- ~it ~l.yields eqn, (8.3j. i$e
<
procedure by. wh%ch we find the time function when its, Laplace transform is
I
.
known is called Inverse Laplace Transformation and is the most critical step
,s*.
-I1,
.
/
while solving linear differential equations using Laplace transforms. To
h
*
.
sum~~~M.~e the solution procedure described in the above example, we can

summ&3.?e
2
.s
hdentify,
*
, ( ,i .: ~ . the following steps:
A., 3 -itsi Take
3: 1 fjthe
I , Laplace
:
transform of bot,hsid&. of the different&l equation.

,
,U& eqni., (7;14), ( 7 . 1 5 ) and (7.16) to develop; the La@aee , &ran&orms
of thy vnr.tbus derivatives.
I
llle init tat cond-1.tions
giucn ~Fffr
.tlW tllf-
.ferential equation are incorporated in this step with the transforms

,:g :
IL ^
;
o f t h e deri&t$vtBs*.
.,
B.
So,lve the resul,tYng.algebra;Lc
equation 2n terms. of the Laplace transform
of the unknown function.

c
:.
. Find
the ,t+me function.
#$ch bs ,& $ts *place
Lap&ace trstis*orm,
tr&Morm, the. right
* : :
I
side.
side
instep It,? *is
This functiqn is the
.;
,s, 8of
i ,tBe,,~quat~on~Rb,taiqed,,
: hand
_.
. .
desired solution, since
it satisfies .&he differ&tiat equatlan and the
I
6
in&tier1 conditions.
Step C is the
tedious,, .Ghm Q general expression l$.ke,
~ most
j_
(.
(s2 + als, + bl)-te + cl)
Z(s)
/ ,i;s(s3 t a2s, bss + c2)
it is not obvious at all what is the function jt( t) whi-ch has the above; I
i
Laplace transform. : In Section 8.4we
8.2we .wcill
.wcili study a particular &ethodo$gy for
the inversion of Laplace transforms by .P,art&a$.-Fractions &pa&on: *. *
0:
/ ?
I
I
8.2 INVEIiiON
8.2
INVEIiiON OF
OF LA&ACE
LA&ACE TRANSFORMS.
TBANSFOEMS.
mw1~1m3 EEPAEsIoN
: i < i:,,
,.
;
:
,
.
As it was pointed out above, the critical point in finding the
/ y;solution
Q, .:
$
to a differential equation. using Laplace transforms is the inversion ofthe
w
Laplace
transforms.
In this section we: will study a method developed by

t I.,.
Heaviside for the inversion of Laplace transforms known as J-leaviside. or?,
.
Partial-Fractions
Expansion.
__,
.
I
.,
/
:.I
_,
:.
Assume that the Laplace transform of an unknown function x(t) is given
1
,
where Q(s) and P(s) are polynomials in s
of o&&r m and n respectively,
where m<n.
or&s using the expansion to partial
The inversion: of Laplacetransf
fractions is compoeard of the following three steps:-

A.
Expand the Q(s)/P($)

j;(s)
90
P(s)
into a series of-fractions, i.e.

c1
c2
+ r,(e),
rlb)
.t
+ 0.0 +
cn
rJa)
.)
(8.6)
where
rlW, r2W,*** ,rn(is) are low order polyno&ls like first,

;:
.
second order, etc.
B.
Compute the values of the constants Cl, C2,*;*,Cn
c.
Find the inverse Laplace

unknown
function
from eqn. (8.6).
transformof every pirtial fraction;

x(t) . Is giveh
by .** 1,
Then;
.the
: ,
r
.,,,,
wh.ere
z1
k-l@$j
X~[~~
ii*-+,,
&.?j]
f.
symbolizes the inverse L&lace transfcirm of the expression within
the brackets.
The inversionof each fr:action ean be done rather easily b,y

.
.,
inspection using tables of Lap1ao.e transforms for typical funat,ions like.
Tables 7.1 and, 8.1,.
! ,.
* -$.I 1
1
When Z(s) is given as the ratio of two polynomials (eqn. (8.&) its
, ..:, ,. .
expansion into a series of fractions is governed by the form and the roots of
: .
h
the polynomial in the denominator P(s), In general we will distinguish two
i
j. .!
_ ,
cases;
i /
. i : . ?,
- polynomial P(s) has n distinct (all different) roots, realorcomplex, or
,: -_
- polynomial P(s) has multiple roots :
.I
.I
We will examine each case separately using characte&tic examples:
.
r
:
I_
j
-4
-*
i
..!, I ,
,.
given by
(8.7)
P(s) in- s3
2s2
a n d h a s t&se r o o t s ,
Pl ; 1
- ,s -t 2
:..
,
*and . . pj
*P,y* = - 1
&.:
Therefort%;
P(s)
m ..s 3,-2sL,- s+ 2
and eqn. (8,7.) become@
Expand (8.8) into partial fractick aqd te
where $9 cp GJ
are unknown qocstar&s, to be &valuated.

9
From eqn. (8.9) it is clear that .
X
x(t)
Clelt
which is the inve,rse Laplace
,:
I .il ,.I I
d-l&
and using Table 7 .l we find that
C2ew1yt
-1 5
9-2
C3e2*t
transfo& of t& expiession,
in (8:7).
Let us see now how we can compute the constants Cl, C2, C3.
.,
L,
(8.10)
- Compute Cl: MultWe both sides of,(8,9) by (s-f),,.

,t.
(,'
I 'j ~qg>
=
" qs-1)
c1+-+
SC1
i
(8.11)
s-2
Equation (8.11) holds for all values of .s:: Set s - 1 - 0, i.e. s=l.
.i
The hast two terms in. the rip[ht ha& side of (8.10) become zero and.
we take,
;'.
- Compute C2:
Multiply both sides of (8.9) by(s+l),

'1
i
2
C1(s+l)
c&+1)
(s-;)~(s-*)
- s-l ,:- + c2 ,+ yg--
9
)i.@!-D
(8
Set
- Compute C3:
0,
i.e.
-1,
Multiply both si+rq of @3..9)
Set 6 - 2 - 0, i.e. 8-2,
.,,
by (.&2);:,";
_I
'*
l ,. i
,.
i , :, s
4 "
,I.
, f
II.
Dlstlnct Complex Roots of tha'Polynomia1
P(s)-'
Consider
..
I
the
Z(s)
The
following
polynomial
Laplace'transform
'
- -s-i-1
- - S2 -2s+5
P(s) is of secondorder,and
has ,two distinct roots!
which s
,'
.,
not real (as in the previous case) but complex conjug!ates, i,e.
ri
! , 'g
and
P2 - 1 - 23,
p1 -l-t 2j
: <'
Therefore, _I
','
P(s) - 82 - 2s + 5 - [s - (1+ 2j)][a - (1 - 2j) ,,.

-. , .!_
, ,'
Expansion into partial fractjons yields:
a+1
fi(p =
'i &- 2s-f.
and using the",transforms,
*
x(t)
of Table:7.1
c .(1+2j)t
1
The constants Cl and.,

- Compute Cl:
,cl
,s+l
5
= [s-(1+2j)].~.s-(b-2j~] - s-(1+23) +8_(l_zj),@*12)
'.,?
C2e
we find '. +I
'
i'
I.
'(l-2j)t
C2 *are qnputed-as
(8.13)
fn Case I. :
Multiply both sides of'(8.12)'by
(s-(1+2j)],
(s+l)[a - (1 : a.
La-h-c+-r-psfl[s'z 2j)]' - c1 '+
03 Es
-.(I + WI,
8 - (1 -;,2j)
i
,.
-.
Set [s - (1 + 2j)J = 0, i.e. s - 1 f 2j and take,
.
9
cl
- Compute C2:
Multiply both sides of (8.12) by [e T (1 - 2j)J end then set

..:"
s - (1 - 2j) - 0, i.e. s - 1 -'23, to find

c2
.' ,
"
"'
. */
'/
A$i
Notice that the coefficients C

.l
other.
and C2
&re
complex conjugates of each
P u t t h e v a l u e s o f C l a n d C2 i n ( 8 . 1 3 ) a n d f i n
. d:
,i
1
x(t)
l-+
.
,(1+2j)t
,a
,&2j.)t.
: j
,, *
or
Let us recall Eulerl;1

e.ta; =
1
.
&entity
cosa
<
:ri
,-,
&I $1
;.
(8
,.
joina
(8.15)
Then we have:
e 2jt
= cos(2t)
.P .
J
jsin(25)
,.
*::
pd
! ,<.
Lt
.-2jt
cos(*2t) + jsin(h2t) A ~z?os(Lt)

i jsin(2t)
h
-AL.
!
r e p l a c e eLJr byti leir .squal: f$bmth& above eq&~tions! a&$
8
t *_
:,
:p.
: .?
.,I
.
, . .I
ig
I n e q n . (8.14),
take,
x(t)
,:
or
\
*
g {(l-j) [coi3(;2t) lY .jsin(tLt) ]?+ (l+j) &as(&) ?.: &&(2t)
J*
1,)
L
:
-.Is
-5 ~5. 1,
_rl
.
:b
.
1
:
x(t)
et[ooi(2t>
sin(2t)
-,
,.
.,
i
Recall the trlgonomatrlc identity

alcdsb
where
II
:.
a2sinb
a3
2
2
r
al + a 2
.=
A p p l y ( 8 . 1 7 ) t o e q n . (8,.16).
x(tj
Ahere
:. $I
and.
(8.17)
-.
+ I$) j
:. :
tan-l(al/a2)
*<-,,
._ ,,
\. ;
and find :
Pt. &*sin(JZt
4 = tan-(l/l) = 45.
. .:, :;i
,
I
(8.16)
,
.>
egcrlo(b+~)
*
;y
., .
-..
-..
,* .I,
i'
Remark: yhenever the polynomial P(s)-has complex roots:
---YI
I
"(1).
they'will be always in'complex pairs, _r
.*',,
I)
(2) the coefficients of the cirresponding
terms in the partial
"T
fractions e&pansion will also be complex conjugates of each
:. . : ; )
.:
I
other, and
(3) they will give rise'to
III.
a:p&iodic
ter$ (e.g. sinusoidcil wave).
Multiple,Roots
of the Polynomial P(s)

8
/
:, ,"I .:~ '
!
The expansion into'p~rtial'fractions
and the computation of the
.',.,
%*.
i
P(s) has multiple roots. Consider
coefficients change when
the
polynomial
: ;.." '*
, ,: '
the follpwing Laplace t&kirform
*;.+g:* 7.: *
) ../ *I "
-*
". 1. / .:
(,,
!:
, .:<" i
(8.'18)
ii(s)
- &~,3<~+~)
*
n ' Ir, j'
*.
.
;i'I,,_,',
'()'
r0 $;';
'!
j, 1 ;:'
*
The polynomial P(s) has three"&& e&al and the fourth different, i.'e.
'$ ., . _
:
*,g.;. ,; .+, ,'" ,, ? .
:
".
1
pl - p2 - p3 r -1 iand p4 -.: -2
p1
) j
>
Rxpand (8?19) into pTrtia1 fractiops:
h'
,I
From Tables 7.1 and 8.1 we find that .c
,t-,;,
.-p
c;
z4,-1
C3
'C3
2 -t
= Tte
8. '
,
* .&w3 I, . . i. r.
:.
(s+l,j 2
_
Consequently, the inveroe Laplace tranlfosm 03 ' (8.19) ir easily foutid tq trek'
x(t)
- Clewt
C2teWt
+ C2tP
and
: cg ,.g I,
+ 2 -t e
+.*,' p i .
.+
(8.20)
Let us see then how can we compute the constants Cl, C2,1 C3*. and Ci.'
- Compute CA:
This constant corresponds to the distinct root'and
can be
both sides
computed using the procedure,described
earlier. Thus, :raultiply
.i
- Z.' *
of (8.19) by (s+Z) and they set sS2 - 0, i.e. s - -2 and find:
c4 = -1
- Compute C3:
.._
.'
Use the familiar procedure ,i,e.

1
.l
-'
s+2
- C1(s+l)L
+ C2(sfl)
multiply both sides of (8.19)
(8.21)
+* c3 + -*+2
I.
i
Set (s+I)~ - 0, i.e. B m -1 and f&d
;i
.cgi'-l'
.,
:n
:, '/ i
i
: . :*$',
- Compute C2: The familiar procedure used ibove cbnnot
-employed for the
L..; ,) be
i
" :
n
computation of C2.
Thus, if we multiply ,both sides of (8,19) by (~+l)~
'/
',!
we take,
iG
(s+&s+3)
Then,
e,(s+l)
ci
C3
+;(
i Cq(s+l)
+; --GE-
setting
s - -1, the term invo$vin$ C3 becomes infinite. The same

_'
i &r i"* ,,i.l,.' .; i a, ^_
problem ;8' encountered if we try to cpmpute Cl, Therefore, dn'alternite
*
_'. "
:,
procedure is needed to compute C2 and Cl. ' '
il
Differentiate both sides of (8.21) wtd respec@&'
s, &d take,"
r;.
I
<. >a I -:
.
1 A 'F 2C,(s+l) k '2, &> c,4 /hLr\ 2 ' /3an\
:' '_
Set s, - -1 and find
- Compute Cl:
lita@,
I:,2
Cl
3'
- " 2c1 + %;'c&
(e+2)3
.'
Set 8 - -li"and
i
.I
'_
To obtain t&e value

of, ,C1, diffetentiatd'g8,22)
once more and
I.:
.,_ . '. ;
':
*
i'."
;
'$ ,k-..
1 ? , )
,!,
..a
-3
.-
-1,
find
:' :
):i
",,'.,
9
,"..
: /> '
,\
,;
: :
.
'.:.
.( .,
~:'Substitute ihe values of Cl, Cp*,C3t and Ch in (g.20) knd find
,._
i.
'I/
,i
Ii
T .:
Remai k:
x(t)
-e,-t(l+t + f t*) + e -2t
If the polyiomial
.
P(s) has multiple roots, then the denominator
*of X(s) has a -. term (s - ,pi)m where pi is the multiple root

2
which is repeated m times. In such case the partial functions
: ,a~
.. expa&on p&duces terms such as
. c*
:(
.
*
,cm-1
:
.,?, ,r<
. Cl
cm
+
(?- P,) + (sy$ *.+
** + (8 - pi)m-A
(8 - Pi)m
!
( :
,
.;
I
From Table 7.5.$a know that
l
htne-at1
nln+l
,(gcg),
.,..
,,
, ,
./
Therefore the terms of the 4bove expansion lead .to..the following inverse Laplace
transform:
cm-1
m
&l
p.t
T3
,2
:
-F .yt + 21 t .+ a*. +*ft m - 2 +c (m-l)t: t
ei
[.
I
,:1
I.
The constant Ck can be computed:*in bhe usual manner by multiplying both
,
sides of the expansion .~ith (t 2 pi)m.-Yand setting saXY-, pi. I The ,,,remaining
,.
constants Cm-l l
**,C2,Cl are computedby su&ssivedifferentiations~of the
I,
j,
equation resulting from the amltip&a&n .of :tRe expacl-;aionl by (8 - pi)m.
< .
* Cl
8~3 EXAMPLES ON THE SOLUTION OF LINEAR DIFj?ER;ENTIAL

RQ&IONS USING LAPLACR
\ a% .,
?.
il
.
TRANSFOREis
3. .:
In this section we will give twa characteristic ex&~+.es ~.oP solving linear
differential equations using the Laplace
transforms,Y, .The first example is the

* I,
solution of a second-order differential equatien, whileln the second example
I * we find the solution to a system of i two differential equations,,
The solution of..any other Unear 1differential:-iequation
or of, a system of
linear differential ,,equations ; twill f aU,Qw j the same general p&tern outlilned in
the two examples.
For the solution of ghe general n-th order linear
differential equ?tion
and of a general system of linear differential equations;

:;.
the interested reader is encouraged to consult ip&ndic& A anti B at the end
.
.I
j
. .
I
of this clmaptey;
,
c, P ,i _, ;
*
,r,
Example 8.1 - The Solution of a Second-Order Differential Equation

: <.
-..P :
Consider the following seeond-order dif f &e&al equation
\.
I,
d2*
a2
dx
al dt
+&
where x(t) .is ,considered

initial
conditions
x(O)
.!
:_
aox
(&o.
- >sx(O)
or
f(t)
(8.23)
,;
I
* :.
to be in the form of B deviation &iabale iith
:
**
:. >
-
Take the Laplace transform of (8;23)

a2[s21(s)
.-,
.! ,b
,
/ I
&
if
..
_.
i:,
,I
; .j,;, ; j
:2J
I,
: .:
+ +f=W> ,+ QC$!&~~ .+ alx(0)

I(s). I
L(s) - .
2
I
:, J,
, >: a*s2 + y T 80 :; : ., +.p +as..+aO
Let us assume that f&t) is d unit .&i-fans&ion,
-
i
The polynomial
gtving *
.,
.-I
( iii 25)
< : : y -:
r
(,
L/s
e q n . ( 8 . 2 5 ) becomag.f,t
S(s)
- (2)
+ a ,.-_[d(e)
-0 i(O)] +ap - f ( s )
dt ]F-O
1
Z(s)
,!(8.24)
:.::
1
2
e(apeJ., +
;.
-[..,
,
a&.y.ao)
is
:;
-.\
,._
,, ::
I.
* r
P(s). 5. ais + ale.+ aiD,. is,aalled
.,,
<
:..
~,
,(&&)
,:.L< ; s.*
the characc&ristie polynon&al
of a second order equatiaai

In ;order tie invert <the right hand chide of (8.26)
r.:s
.
we need to knew .&e rooes of the poZyaomia1 P*(s) i Depeading .on. the values
:
;
i
i
,*
of ,.the
, .'. constants a2, a 1' and ao we can distinguish three cases:
.'. .;'
T
...f',
::
Case.1: .;a2 - 4a2ao * 0. Then, we have two distinct real roots,
.! I"
e.g., 'let a1,:,y,4, a2 - 1, a, - 3 then ai ; 4a2ao *'. 16 -1294>0
.,
%
_., ,_ ,: L,
sl =, -1 and.:: s2:'= '-3.
..
1
s(a2s2
"
+ als + a,)
*(is2
1
-I-
48
i.
I
'Z;.
3) &. s(s+3)(8+1)
(8.27) by s and set '~0. Find

i
: ,
*
i/3
,
':
c1
_'
Multi&
(8.27) by e+3 bnd'lset

*:
-l/G
I:,
Cl
a.4 -3.
,
C3
s+l
(8.27)
..-
Find
*
e2
- -ii- +s+3+
..a:
Multiply
c2
and
Multiply
Case2:
(8.27) by'
s+l and set B - -1.. Find

:
a:- 4a2ao - 0.
S1
T2
$hen, we,have
two equal roots.
-al/2a2
".l
.,.1
.)
Let al - 2, a2 ~'1, a0 - 1. a: - 4a2ao - 4 - 4*1*1 - 0
2,'
','
s1 - s2 - -1
*
1
0'
s(a2s2 + al8 + ao)
Multiply
(8.28)
by
s and
'-..
1
s(s2 + 28 f 1)
s(s+1)2
set
~0.
:
1 '" '.
.,
V;%;
C3
4*+$
8 83-1
(8.?28)
,,.
Find
c
'.
Differentiate
(8.29)'with
respect
to
.s
T'
'
.
'I :
.'. I_
set s - -1 and find,

- -1
c2
2
Case3: al4a2ao <
Let a, - 2, a3 = 1, a, * 2, a? -$ b&a- - 4
roots
are:
$2 ,$a,
c3
*-+-----+-(8.m)
s - k$U
s - +J.
3.
I, ._
.'
t
,.>A.
r
,v
, -.
_p
Multiply (8.30) by s, set s-O, and find,
:. "2..
L i:
112
c1
b
1'
Multiply (8.30) by (s - q), set s = -Iti
and find,
2(-1+j)
(-l-j)(-1+j;
Multiply
(8.30) by (s - =$J-), set
-l+j
s = y,' and find,
t
c.3'
#ii
2
-1+j
2(-lrj) ,I)
(-1+j)(-l-j)
_)
L t_- _
-q 1; ,1
EYIs- + . (-1+i)
z$
. . . + (-.w,i-l
-- k _ _ -yl
e 4: y-l 1
.
,;, ? i
or
x(t)
-I'
Consequently,
1.
x(t)
- c -l-j
Recall &k?i-ls;idemity'
d ,..a *. _L
.+
(-,,j)e*yw3G
-'a-.
if
- _.
+,~~,,(,l-j)e;l/z(ll'j)~.
s1 ty<,I
,
(8.31)
ta*-l(i/1)
tan-l(l):
ii:50
:,i
*
The use of Laplace
transforms is not limited to the solution of simple
differential
equations, like the seconf-order .equation of. Example, 8-1.

e
a j -, ,
extends to the solution of sets of differential.
equations. ,. Coti~,i&r
!.
example the following system of linefirr
dxl
t
dx2
dt
It
for
differential equations;
.I
allXl
a.21Xf
.+
- bllfl(t)
with initial conditions xl(O) - ~~(0) IL: 0. Taking the Laplace transforms of
., ,
.,
the above equations and after appropriate grouping- we find,
,
(8 - a lp$f) - l+$()
bllW
+
b&(s):
i,;,
-ia21Gl(s)
(8
T i
a )G~(s) - b&p:. : <~b&p);-~

<~~p~p);-~
ii,2? ;
/ , ?:+
_,I,. ,; a, ,,?
The last two equations,for a set of two linear a,lgebtaie eq&&$ns~~~th ?l(s)
.
.
e
J
and Z2( 8) as the two unknown variables, and can, be solved easily using, for
4
I
.<
,>
.
example, Cramer 8 rule. 1Thus; we find:
j-p) -
&f1(8) + b12~2(e)~4
(a -.;az2) + al2[b2l~,l(s) ,+ b22f2(s)-1

;.
I~,,~,(s) + b,&,fs) 3(@ - ai%> + az21[bll?l(s) + b12Z2(s)

~2(8)
(8.35)
(8.36)
82.. - (al1 + az2j8 - aa2a21 i j

*
(cThe above expressions can now be inverted
using thepartial-fractions expansion,
t
j
as it was deecribed in Section g. 2; to find the u&own sol&ion xl(t) and

x,(t).
:f
&
. The solution procedure described above can be extended to larger systems

of equations, but it is computationally more cumbersome, A short compact
description is given in Appendix B at the end of this chapter.

Let us now discuss the details of the solution'procedure, in terms of an
example.
/I*
Example
8.2 - The Solution of a'Set
Find the solution ofthe
dxl
dt=
dx2
dt
2xl
+ rx,
2xl
-t
of Linear Differential Equations
following set of equatiotis: \

+
x2
with
et
Xl(O)
Using Cramer"s
with
I
Take the Laplace
s'
I.
transforms and after rearrangement find.1
rule to solve the above system of linear alg&afc equations in

.
?$(s), Z,(s), we find:

;..r.i
'_
-z&
:'
_';
.'
-,
: : " & _( .
or
:,
+)
3
s'fs+l
s(s-l)(s-4)(s+l)
9,
/
:':. .and s2(s). i -..,; s: r.2,
s(s-l)(s-4)(s+l)
,
1,
'
d
Expand into partial fractiotis,

.,
i .x
*
cl
c2
s2*s+1
q(s) = s(s-l)(s-4)(&#+1) -y +x
i .~
r ;
:.;'
)I
"~2'-i
2 . '. Dl ,D2
Tz2w =
1
' s(s-l)(s-4)(s+l) -,7,+x +tsi4
<,
:'.
*.
:':+
,.1 :.
..L
/'
Taking
the
SUMMARY
AND
inverses
we
finally
have:,
i"..).
I::
.:
:,.;r
;'
41
CONCLUDING RRMARKS
.
\ !. " : :, ;.f; a . '\ s,__ ,:t+,< , ,>:
In the previous sections it was 'shown that
the golution of lineqr dif.
* ,t
, .I :;,.,:.'.
'
,problem
ferential equations (single or syeti?Ofj 'be&omes ~"sii&le'ilg$braic
follows:'
transforms are used. The propedure
.p.b ; @,as
i
,'~- ,.
.", #
- Take the Laplace transforms ofkboth &ides of' the diffj3rentia$~,9
e$uations.
/"
:,' ,-yi i .; ., I ,
3'
s
',.
,.s.
7 I: ,_
,'
- Solve for the Laplace transforms'ofjthe, tinknown fun<tions <lon%<:I' left hand
8.
!
*/
'when Laplace
side, while'keeping the Laplace'itransforms of. &e known forcing

* functions;on
.
.
.L
:-r,' ,.$ ,.
:
the right hand side of the equahio&,
i :
" ."'
]
q l"yx < -. ")
' 3
e
"5' ,, :,.:.:i&I yy
the right
- Find the'inverse Lap%a"ce tran:forms of the.'kn~~quantities'bn
).
,.,
%_
*
t
hand sidk of the equations. Tlie$te am\.& ;olutions to the &;rentinl
&:I>"
f&i,' '_
equations.
'
To find the inverseLa'pl@ce
..
L
tr+nsfo?m'of
a.I: gig&n expre$pt++,use

.the i.
i.,
of simple
Heavside (or Partial Fraction) expans$on. This leady,to,. aY, suvtion
'
_
L
termu.ln the s-domain, whose Inversa paplace transforms are easily found,
_ *
i
using Tables 7.1 and 8.1.
:r
Whilocomputing
the constants o$cthe terms in the Heavislde expansion,

,'. .'*,. '.
I
'
\L
it should be remembered that the multiplicity'of the roots of the character',
istic polynomial is a very~important3f&tor.
li
.;
.;.
/
I
,APPENDIXg.A,,~LDTIQN
+,' I '"5. 9.:" , ,. ,..<:.
*
EJQIJATION
..:
yetOF ) {AN" n~th~XR.LINEAR
J, r ,., i . '
8,. DIFFERENTIAL
'I,3 '";"-:: "'7 /!"I . , . , d:~;~,~'~'
equation, .
Consider the following,n-th
order,
.c* / lineardifferential
'b
1
,,
:.i .,r,'.
: s,i'
,
r
'n-l
Y
"
& +, a
.d
(8A.l)
+ ,.aox , L'.gi '1,:'.f&):*'
n-l',dt~~l,~
: 'n dt"
(i
:/
._
_ :. _
with the following initial conditions:
'$3.'.
'
8
. ;
~(0)
ko, (dxj
dt tm() t' kl'
Take the Laplace

:
(8A.3), I and ;:- after:algebraic
1I
_. i ')i,
:., c \*,
-:.
*
where
the initial
conditions
/
rearrangements find,. ,
r ",
+a**+ als +-\a0
+* i
(8A.2)
;: _I
.'
'<
transforms of both sides of (&A,l)'using
,).
,!
I"i
L_
ansn + an-s'
.i
i< '&
:.
.,ii
I '
.i
',
ty i LI
'Z
b n-l =ak
b
'
=
a,kl
+
an$ko,***,
n 0 ' n-2
I,
I _.
.
:
/
.;
bl*ankn.2+8
-',a n k n-l. -t-an-lkn,+~**+alko
.
'
.
: .::1:
:'.
_('
,,> '7 i * .': ').f '* : A , _ ii! : : .; j * ,
il.
s ", , . .
Define the ch&&ze&t& polynomial,for eqn. (BA.l)"as follows; ,<L :f 'd
.," ii(s) and

>:, x(t)
I
..
..I?
k.:
J )I\.
: .;
I!
If f(t) - C (no external influence)

we
i
'. .': have,the
i
:a! I) ;I.) / / ,$ . i
,;,c
,$
solutioni.to the n-th,

iI f.f i 2:'
._
'
,.:
-'
I!
.+
:i
I *i'
: *>
!'*
'*.,.
1,
.I
.
x(t)
.
I,
x2(t)
q*]~:
":..
;__
i' ,.
b.
,'
which is the complementary solutioi arid dependsonly on the initial conditions

! i ., I y.
(see definition of q(s) arid of bn, bnLIS*** ,bc),. The. other part of the
,
*
solution
.
?gF)
1=
a-Q&]
;.
,.
.*:
I,
.-:,
. 2
is the particular solution and -depends % the f&m of the ,fcrcihg function
j -!
J_
b:
f(t).
,
_I
I .-
-, . .i
For process control, purposes,~ the:&yn&mics of a ptocess are ,~described in
:*
terms of ,deviation variables. , ,In such case, if the system is initially~.at<,
1(
~ .,r
;
.;
steady state, then
.F ..
, ;
k. t= kl -
p
(*. k-i :i, 0
1,:
,~
i
?
,i....
.
C
*
,
.
# .A
,
z..
I
:.{~li.
*.
.
I,
.and the solution to the n-th order eqtiatioq, is given by the particular solution
;. __t.,. * .;.*.i.A
,
ji
..,_/.. .: j
only* I :Y i
4
.;
:
I
/
If any of the roots of P*(a) isOlocated to ther#jht of%& inagi&ry
1
I
1
:.
,,;
axis; the system desciibed by (8A.l) is unstable. In order tobe stable all
l
roots of the characteristic polynomial.. i.P*(s) should -lie i to the left of the
/.ii
I .- .
:
.
imaginary axis.
.I,
,
.r
,. I.i
:
I&
/
.t.
\
.,
A*
.
,,:.
i
k1.r:
:. :
,
I
.a.
,
L.
,:q
_,
,.
.r
.: .; +,
4
:
.. f,
-,
,
.
:,
...
I
.L
. . .. J,
, A,
APPENDIX8,.B4'HE. I SOLUTION
EG UATIONS
,-,
; .- OF A GENERAL SYSTEM OF,LINEAR . DIFFERENTIAL
I
equations:
Consider the following system of n linear differential
: .'
dX1 - allxl + al2x2 +
dt
i
'i
~,
i...,.!
L,
:.iv
i '
dki
--$,= a2lxl -I- a22x2 +
5
'
** + alnxn + bllfl(t) +
1. ,
** ,f a2nXn
** + blmfm(t)
.
_ ,
y;
v
f bqlflW + *;~
+:b2nfm(t)
. . . . . . .
: v
! :/ :
dxn
+ bnmfm(t)
x + a22x2 + ** f a2nxn + b,lfl(t) + : '0.
-qTa
<,l
8
'. 1.
;, : ! ' !- j
'A
:5,,
A
I" \ t
,;*
I 1'
with initial conditions xl(G), - ~~(0) - ** I x,(O) - 0. In matrix: form the
* .j
I/
j.
).
, ',
" '; I a
above. equations yield,,.
.'i '
'fl.
; , *i 1 .,t. .:~, .> 711
:-,.,
/
,'," .
.
,
.&B::
1
di I"
:
(8B.l)
,dt - & + j, Bf ..
.
3
//
where:
Taking the Laplrce transforms of .both

.: *
s
<s& - 8) g(s) '= @s,
sides of eqn. (8B.l) we have,
.
Or
gs)
where: II =
= (si - +g-l g(s)
[1
111. O
0
1
(8B.2)
s/,
= identity matrix; g(s) and
f(s) the Laplace
transforms
of the vectors x(t) and f(t), respectively.

From eqn. (8B.2) by taking the inverse Laplace
$t)
- ~-lr.(sJ
- g-l g(B)]
transform we have,
(8~~3)
Let us recall that thk ii.ivrCr&
P
,
where adj($)x
:,
of a matrix # ite &@I ,$y+ ;; : 1.

.. <
.i
,(!!I
ir.
,.+
,j
,?
.!
The inversioq will be done using $a&ia$.
k.
;I:
ftactidns expansion.
,
P*;s) = 1s: - 4ii - sn + C& G-l
is the characteristic polyn6miaJ

i
Al, Q,***,Xnts i.e.
,..
+.;;Yp+
...
The polpnomfal
c,B
cp
- AZ),
, (s :,+q ,) I**. 6 pi,

j
?,
1 (I.(
are called the characteristic values or+ eigenvalues ofi.,tI$ aiatrk ,of :
1. : -,,{&i
:, ,;
I
! id
coefficients &, which characterises the homogeneous iystkaf
e&+ohs.
,.
The eigdnvalues
&
of the fystem of equations and Its roots

.: ,
: y
P*(s) - Is& - kg = (8 - h$(s
< /
$t) *
:t PA
.$
: 2 :
,..:
.,l
I,
,:
1 ;,
!
:
L
:1
*a the adjoint of m&+x S~U- (isee Appendix B)r: ,Thctefore, eqn. j
i8~.3),~g~es,.,
:*
,>
also determine the forth of fh& solutiq6 :z(t). ,j

I:v
/
.
(,
,I
..:
S.
.,
.. ..
C
I
;)
1.
*. >; : / L i.
4%
.
,I;Jhat is 'the characteristic polynomial for a Pzi,r%t-order and +I socontlic,

:,
oz%jer
eystem? F i n d i t s roots,
root&,
,I
2.. Why
in-the roots of the charaeterlstic pol~no&~l of
. are: _/w%interested
.
an.n-th order linear differential squation, or a system of linear d.$f,I
:
f erential equations?
..
*
i
dI
3.
Ho~'doeg the prbcedure to: $&@ute othe &netants of the terms resulting
IjIj
_,:
I' $ 1
from t~epgrt!ili
t~epgre!ili fraotldns qpansibn V&y;
v&y,i in ,thQpreaence of, multiple
,. _,
ro$qsi , :; ;, :,, ,>* : : L :,

1 (I .
: I.I.,,
-.
_,
.h
a.
,
,.
4.
What 2s the complement&y
eolutioni, and what; i$ the particular eolutlon
(.
.,
,,.
: j11 ; I. I $ &-,
./ /
3%. . 1
* I.I
for (a) an n-th order iin+ar
differential equation, and (b) a 2x2 sysi!(. .
:
I ?
i.
tem of lfnear diffaren~~al,8quatiansi
%WhatL
do these eolutions mean?
1.;
;:,$. , . ,
,.,
6. / (
f
.,
,
,i. ; : $,
What fact&e deiermfne .the@
:
_
:
5.
Consider the foglowing e$st+ of aimdtaneoue
ifnear differential .
2
:
,(
equations .
:
I
dxl
dt: 811X1
:
dx2
dt .- C2Pl
:
+
I
,
a12xie
t a22x2
j-
/
with
fg(t)
f,(tj
with
,<,.I i
I l., 1 * I. ~ _
Xl(O) - ~0
x2(0)
Show that this system ksn be converted to the following equivalent

sys tern:
-dX1
dt
allXl
h(t)
I
and
dx2
dx2
+
+.b2dt
bl 2
w h e r e bl, b2, b3
on f,(t), ,f2(t)
b3x3
g(t)
depend on ,all, a12, a22; h(t) and g(t) depend
and their derivatives. Notice that the modified
System
can b6 s~lv&
seauentiallv
1:,
r, !
_ ,
and thlla
mnre
ma41v'+&&++kd.
Table 8.1.
Laplace
Inverse Laplace Transforms of Selec!ted Expressions
Trans,form:
I(s)
xirn+
Function:
f(tI-J
1.
(*+a)l(B+b)
,
3
-ct
ePt
e -at
(b-a>(c-a) + (c-b)(a-b) (a-c) (b-c)
(s+a) h:b) (f3+c) !
L.
s+a
(Mb) (s+c) - .
3.
a
n
(s+b)
4.
a
(s+bj3
5.
[ (a-b)dbt - (a-c)ect]
,-726T
\
at
- - -
lcbt
3 $ ,-bt
.
/_
r.
i
6.
-_
(a+b)+
7
8.
1 >
s(as + 1)
,.
i,
,$
^.,._.
..:.
j;
: :;I>
_:
_,..
a
s(as + l).*
;,
.:,
10.
12.
ekbt
>.
1 _ ply
a+t -t/a
7 -y- c. ,.
.;
2.
,;
s.
, .' -rwt
1 +?e, z;>p
9.
*2(s2
::
+ 11~0~ +, u2jl,
? 2
(l+as)(s
+w2
1
(a+a) [(sfb)2 + w2 ]
1 (1 + il"wS)
e-at
(a&j -ty w2
- ein(cJr- 4)
te
w[(a-b) +.k2]1e
w h e r e cp - taa - (--a-b.1
_.
4-d
CHAPTER 9
TRANSFER FUNCTIONS AND THE INPUT-OUTPUT MODELS
The use of Laplace transforms allows us to form a very simple, convenient

and meaningful representation of chemical process dynamics.
because
it
uses
only
algebraic
equations
have seen in Part II of this text).

quick
analysis
of
process
(not
It
dynamics
is
and
differential
convenient
finally, it
It is simple
equations
because
is
it
meaningful
as
we
allows
because
it
provides directly the relationship between the inputs (disturbances, manipulated
9.1
variables)
THE
and
TRANSFER
Consider
the
FUNCTION
simple
output (Figure 9.la).

n-th
order
linear
outputs
OF
(or
variables)
of
PROCESS
WITH
SINGLE
OUTPUT
system
with
single
input
processing
The
(controlled
dynamic
behavior
linearized
of
nonlinear)
the
process
differential
process.
and
is
single
described
by
an
equation;
n-l
a
&+a
n dtn
n-l
0.0 + al s + a,y = bf(t)

.
dtn-l
(9.1)
where y(t) and f(t) are the input and output of the process, respectively.
Both
are
expressed
that
the
process
output
in
is
terms
of
described
deviation
by
one
variables.
state
[Note:
variable which
We
have
coincides
assumed
with
its
variable].
Assume that the system is initially at steady state. Then,
2
Y(O) = (%I t=O = 84
dt2
(9.1)
m
m
we
*.
cdtn-l
tz()
transform of both sides of (9.1)
After taking the Laplace

conditions
t=o
n-l
d
L>
(9.2)
and using the initial
find,
G(s)
e
a,s" + an 1s
n-l
+ l
(9.3)
** + als + a0
G(s) is called the transfer function of the above system, and in a simple
I
I
.-
algebraic form it relates the output of a process to its input (Figure 9.lb).
I
Thediagram of Figure 9.lb is also known as the block diapram
for the system.
If the process has two inputs, fl(t) and f2(t) as shown in Figure 9.2a,
then
its
dynamic
model
is
n-l
a &+a
d
y+
n-l dtn-l
n dtn
** + al% + a,y = blfl(t)
+ b2f2(t)
1
_
(9.4)
with the same initial conditions (9.2). From (9.4) we take,

bl
Y(s) =
ansn + a
or
n-l
n-lS
f,(s)
+ 0.0 + als + a0
+- n
ans +a
b2
n-l +***+as+a Z,(s)
n-lS
l
o
equivalently,
Y(s)
G1(s)fl(s)
G2(s>7,b)
(9.5)
with
G1(s) E
bl
ansn+a
s n-l +***+as+a
n-l
l
o
and G2(s)
b2
n-l
ansn+a
+***+as+a
n-lS
l
o
G1(s) and G2(s) are the two transfer functions which relate the output of the
process to each one of its two inputs.
first input z,(s),
and
G2(s)
Thus, Gl(s) relates the y(s) to the
relates j?(s) to the other input z,(s).
These
relationships are shown by the block diagram of Figure 9.2b. A similar procedure can be applied to any system with one output and several inputs.
Figure 9.3 shows the block diagram for such a system.
Summarizing
all
the
above, we
can
define
the
transfer
function
between
input and an output as follows:

Transfer functionzG(s)=
Laplace
Laplace
transform of the output, in deviation form

transform of the input, in deviation form
(9.7)
an
hnilrk~.
(1)
The
transfer
input-output
(2)
It
function
model
describes
when
the
allows
than
that
completely
the
corresponding
the
development
discussed
dynamic
input
in
Section
behavior
Thus,
changes.
of
of
simpler
5.1.
the
for
output
particular
variation of the input f(t) we can find its transform

F(s),
and from (9.7) we see that the response of the system
is
=
Y(s)
G(s)ii(s)
Take the inverse Laplace

the
response
y(t)
in
transform of G(s)f(s)
the
time
and you have
domain.
(3) To find the transfer function for a nonlinear system, it

must
first
expressed
Example
The
9.1 - The
be
in
Transfer
mathematical
model
linearized
terms
of
the
deviation
Functions
of
around
of
stirred
steady
state
and
be
variables.
Stirred
tank
Tank
heater
Heater
in
terms
of
deviation
variables was developed in Example 5.1 and it is given by the equation

dT'
dt
aT'
where T', T;, T'S
are
t Tf
deviation
L
$+K,==
Take the Laplace

(s+a)T'(s)
KT;
(5.3)
variables,
Fi/V
and
and
UAt
r
PP
transforms of both sides of (5.3);

=
!if(s)
KTAb)
or
T(s) = g T;(s) + & Q(s)
(9.8)
Define
the
two
transfer
functions
Gl(4
T'(s)/T;(s)
T'(s)
G,(s)T;(s)
and
= T'(s) /F(s)
G2W
Then,
+
(9.8a)
G2(s)T;(s)
Gl(s) relates
and Figure 9.4 shows the block diagram for the tank heater.
the temperature of the liquid in the tank to that of the inlet stream, while
G2(s)
relates the temperature of the liquid in the tank to that of the steam.
Remark.
-___
Compare
the
the
more
input-output
complex
model
developed
9.2 THE TRANSFER FUNCTION MATRIX
given
in
by
Example
(9.8)
5.1
and
(eqn.
Figure
5.5
and
9.4
to
Figure
5.1).
OF A PROCESS WITH MULTIPLE OUTPUTS
Consider a process (Figure 9.5a) with two inputs, fl(t> and f,(t), and
two outputs, yl(t) and y2(t).
following
two
linear
deviation
form;
dyl
dt
The
ally1
alp2
dy2
-=
dt
a21yl
a22y2
initial
conditions
Yp
[Note:
differential
Let
its
mathematical
equations,
with
t>
bllfl(
b21fl(t)
all
the
be
given
by
variables
in
the
+ bl$2(t)
(9.9a)
(9.9b)
b22f2(t)
are
y2(0)
Here again we have assumed that the process is described by two state
variables,
which coincide with the two outputs yl
Take the Laplace
see
Section
and
~~-1
transforms of both sides of the two eqns. (9.9a) and
(9.9b) and solve with respect to s,(s) and y,(s).

procedure
model
8.3
and
Example
8.21.
Then,
[For the details of this
[(s - a22)b12 + a12b22l

[(s - a22)bll + a12b21l
?2(s)(9.lOa)
f,(s) + 2
J;,(s) = 2
S
S
- (a 11+a22)s-a12a21
- (all +a22)S -a12a21
Y,(s) =
[(s - a ll)b21 - a21bl11

.s2 - (a
[(s - all)b22
+ a21b121
f2(s)(9.10b)
ys) +
s2 - (a 11+a22)S- a12a21
11+a22)s-a12a21
or
$4 = Gll(s)~l(s)
=
Y2W
G21(5)+)
G12(s)f2(s)
(9.11a)
G22(4~2W
(9.11b)
G.,l, G12, G21 and G22 are defined as follows
where the transfer functions
(from eqns. (9.10a) and (9.10b));

s + (a12b21
- a22b11)
- (all +a22)S-a12a21
s + (a21b11
GZ1(4 -
The
block
Remarks.
- a11b21)
- (all + a22)S
diagram
of
the
- a12a21
s + (a12b22
- a22b12)
G12(S) E s2 - (all + a22) s - qp21
s + (a21b12
, G22(4 - 2
S
- a11b22)
- (all+a22)S
- a12a21
system is shown in Figure 9.5b.
(1) Eqns. (9.11a) and (9.11b) can be written as follows in a

matrix
notation;
The matrix of the transfer functions is called transfer

function
matrix.
(2) For a system with two inputs and two outputs, like the
one discussed above, we have 2x2 = 4 transfer functions
to
relate ail outputs to all inputs.
For
general
process with M inputs and N outputs we will have
MxN transfer functions or a transfer function matrix

with N rows (number of outputs) and M columns
(number
Example
After
Transfer
Example
we
reactor
in
rearranging
- rl2
dcl;
dt
inputs).
9.2 - The
In
tank
of
6.4
developed
terms
the
Function
of
Matrix
the
deviation
terms
in
of
linearized
variables,
these
of
by
we
take:
equations
+ L+ koe -E'RTjcL + E ;E'RTjT'
eqns.
continuous
(6.36)
= + cii
and
stirred
(6.37).
(9.13a)
UA T'
' =.i! T' +'A r i pcpV c
the
model
given
-E/RTo
Simplify
CSTR
(9.13b)
by defining
notation
-E/RT
=L+koe
all
'c
-E/RTo
kOE
a12 = z e
0
-E/RT
a21 =Jkoe
a22
1
=-r
JkoE
-2 e
-E/RTo
+
uA
PCpV
and
bl
l/-r
b2
= UA/bcJ)
Then, eqns. (9.13a) and (9.13b) become!
The
dcL
dt
+ all CL
+ al2 T' = blcii
dT'
dt
+ a21
+ a22
initial
conditions
CA
are:
T' = blTi
(9.14a)
b2TA
(9.14b)
c;(o)
= T'(C) = C
Take the Laplace
transforms of (9.14a) and (9.14b):
(s + all)?;(s)
+ al2 T'(s) = bl Ei (s)

i
a21 CL(s) + (s + a22)T'(s)
= blTf(s)
+ b2TA(s)
Solve for E:(s) and T'(s) and take:
bl(s + a22)
qs> =
a12bl
Ei (s) - ~.';'s'
i
P(s)
bl(s + allI
a21bl
Ws) =- p(s> z; (s) +
P(s)
i
a12b2
- p T;(s)
(9.15a)
b2(s + all)
P(s) +
2
where P(s) E s + (all + a22)s + (alla22
(9.15b)
T;(s)
P(s)
- a12a21).
In a matrix form, eqns. (9.15a) and (9.15b) are written as follows:
cp
f(s)
H
In
Table
9.1
we
Q)
G12W
G13W
G2#d
G22b)
G2+4
the
transfer
see
six
functions
corresponding
can be derived easily from eqns. (9.15a) and (9.15b).
The
to
the
transfer
CSTR.
These
function
matrix is nonsquare since the number of inputs is not equal to the number of
outputs.
Transfer function matrix = E(s) =
Figure
9.6
shows
the
input-output
model
for
the
CSTR
in
block-diagram
form.
Table 9.1.
output
Input
G
Element
-ij
am
cd, (s)
i
G1l.
bl(s+a22)/P(s)
G12
-a12bl/P(s)
G13
-a12b2/P(s)
'i's)
y(s)
T (s)
The Components of the Transfer Function Matrix for the CSTR
Eb, (s)
i
Transfer
Function
I
I
G21
G22
G23
bl(s+ all)/P(s)
b2(s+all)/P(s)
9.3 THE POLES AND THE ZEROS OF A TRANSFER FUNCTION

According to the definition of a transfer function we have
34
= G(s)
Z(s)
In general, the transfer function G(s) will be the ratio of two polynomials,
G ( s )
= $$
The only exception are system with time delays which introduce exponential
terms (see Section 7.2(E)).
For physically realizable systems, the polynomial
Q(s) will always be of lower order than the polynomial P(s). The reasons will
become clear in subsequent chapters. For the time being, all the examples we
have covered satisfy this restriction.
The roots of the polynomial Q(s) are called the zeros of the transfer
function, or the zeros of the system whose dynamics are described by the
transfer function G(s). When the variable s takes on as values the zeros
of G(s),
the transfer function becomes zero.
1
1I
The
function,
the
roots
or
of
the
polynomial
equivalently,
transfer
function
the
P(s)
poles
becomes
are
of
called
the
the
system.
poles
of
the
transfer
At the poles of a system
infinity.
The poles and the zeros of a system play an important role in the
dynamic
analysis
of
processing
systems
and
As we proceed along in the text, their
Example 9.3 The
the
design
usefulness
of
will
effective
become
controllers.
clearer.
Poles and Zeros of the Stirred Tank Heater
input-output
model
of
the
tank
heater
was
developed
in
Example
9.1
and
it is given by:
i'(s)
G1(s)
Tf(s)
G2(s)T;(s)
(9.8a)
The transfer function Gl(s) is
Glb)
l/T
s+a
and has no zeros and one pole at s = -a.
Similarly,
the
transfer
function
G2(s) which is given by

G2
sta
has no zeros and one pole at s = -a.
Notice
that
the
two
transfer
functions
have a common pole.
Example
The
9.4 - Poles and Zeros in a CSTR

transfer
and
functions
Example
9.2
common
denominator,
P(S)
are
5 'S2
corresponding
summarized
+ (all
in
Table
+ a22)s
to
9.1.
the
All
CSTR
six
were
developed
transfer
+ (alla22 - a12a21)
in
functions
have
23
and therefore common poles.
Since
P(s) is a 2nd order polynomial, the system
has two poles which are given by:

-(all +
p1,2
a221 + (all - a221 2 +
4a12a21
With respect to the zeros, the six transfer functions differ.

G12(s) and G13(s) have no zeros
G22(~) and G23(~) have one common zero at s = -all
Gll(s) has one zero at s = -a22.
9.4 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE RESPONSE OF A SYSTEM

The dynamic response of an output y is given by
Y(s)
= G(s) F(s)
For given input f(t) we can find easily its Laplace transform
Z(s), while
the transfer function G(s) is known for the partiuclar system.
Therefore,
the response y(t) in the time domain can be found if we invert the term
G(s)%).
Furthermore, in general,
G(s)
while the Laplace transform of all common inputs can also be expressed as the
ratio of two polynomials (see examples in Chapters 7 and 8 as well as Tables
7.1 and 8.1);
Pi(S)
f(s) = P2(S)
Consequently,
f(s)
$g
P,(S)
P2(S)
(9.16)
To
invert
the
right
hand
side
of
(9.16)
using
and
the
inversion
by
roots
of
partial
the
fractions
system and the roots of

system
are
system's
located
response
Let
us
we
to
use
polynomial
uniquely
determine
the
general
of
partial
fractions
i.e. the poles of the systerms
resulting
characterized
by
the
from
poles
the
of
the
if we know where the poles of a

qualitative
input, without
particular
following
The
p,(s).
Therefore,
Pz(s).
can
the
are
method
P(s),
we need to know the roots of the polynomial

tem,
the
example
characteristics
additional
to
clarify
of
the
computations.
the
above
statement.
Suppose that the transfer function of a system is given by,
Q(s)
G(s) =s =
(9.17)
(s-Pl)(s-P~)(s-P3)m(s-P4)(s-P~)(s-P5)
where
pl, p2, p3, p4, p2 and p5 are the roots of P(s), i.e. the poles of
the
system
The
partial-fractions
G(s)
located
at
various
expansion
A.
of
the
G(s)
complex
will
yield
plane
the
(see
following
Figure
following
+
c2
c1
terms:
'4
'2
'5
y+-
s-p4
P2
observations
9.7).
can
be
made
for
the
location
of
the
s-p4
S--P5
poles:
Real, Distinct Poles, like pl and p2, are located on the real axis
(Figure
C1e
9.7).
During
pit
9.8a).
the
inversion,
pit
poles
make
terms
the
to
exponential
terms
like
decays exponentially to zero as t -f 00 (Figure
which
response
P2t
Therefore,
with time (Figure 9.8b).

produce
rise
C2e
Also, because p2 > 0, C2e
axis
give
p2t
and
Since p1 < 0, Cle
B.
of
= s- + sPl
The
points
decay
of
the
to
grows
distinct
zero
system
with
grow
exponentially
poles
time,
towards
on
while
to
the
negative
real
infinity
Multiple, Real Poles, like p3 which is repeated m times.
infinity
positive
with
time.
Such poles
give rise to terms like

(c31 + J$ t + A$ t2 + . . . + (1:;) , tm-llep3t
.
.
.
The
The term within the parenthesis gorws towards infinity with time.
behavior of the exponential term depends on the value of the pole p3;
- if
P3 ' 0
then
p3t
e + ~0
'as
- if
P3 < 0
then
p3t
+
as
-if
p3=0
then
p3t
=
t +
00
-f
and
for all times.
Therefore, a real, multiple pole gives rise to terms

which either grow
.
to infinity, if the pole is positive, or decay to zero if the pole is
negative.
C.
Complex Conjugate Poles, like the p4, pt. We should emphasize that
complex poles appear always in conjugate pairs and never alone.
P4
jf3
and
p$
Let,
jS
In Section 8.2 we have seen that conjugate pairs of complex roots give
rise to terms like
eat sin(Bt + $) .
The sin(Bt + $) is a periodic, oscillating function, while the behavior
of eat
depends on the value of the real part a. Thus,
- If a>0 then eat + m as
t+m,and
e at sin(St + $) grows to
infinity in an oscillating manner (Figure 9.9a).

at
- If a<0 then e + 0 as t + w, and
eat sin(Bt + +I) decays to
zero in an oscillating manner with ever decreasing amplitude (Figure

9.9b).
- If a=0 then eat = 1 for all times, and eat sin(bt + 4) = sin(St+$)
which oscillates continuously (Figure 9.9c).

Therefore,
behavior,
pair
whose
of
complex
amplitude
conjugate
may
grow
poles
gives
continuously
if
rise
the
to
real
oscillatory
part
of
the
complex poles is positive, decay to zero if it is negative, or remain

unchanged, if the real part of the poles is zero.
D.
Poles
at
the
Origin.
Pole p5
is located at the origin of the complex
Therefore,
plane, i.e. p5 = 0 + j-0.
C5/s - p5 = C5/s and after
inversion it gives a constant term C5.

Remarks.
(1) The above observations are general and can be applied to any
system.
Thus,
we
can
find
the
qualitative
characteristics
of
system's response if we know where are the poles of the corresponding

for
transfer
particular
additional
roots
before
can
we
response
(2)
Poles
to
of
to
the
infinity
function
input,
f(t),
introduced
have
the
we
by
the
complete
right
of
the
with
if
In
9.7).
the
behavior)
located
subsequent
stability
consider
picture
of
the
of
the
that
f(s),
qualitative
of
axis
grow
exponentially
Such systems with unbounded behavior
time.
Therefore,
are
obvious
denominator
imaginary
are called unstable.
function
should
is
system.
with
bounded
It
located.
to
all
the
chapters
the
left
we
a system will be stable (i.e.

poles
of
will
of
the
its
transfer
imaginary axis
define
(Figure
more precisely
system.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS

The use of Laplace
venient
the
to
concept
use
of
transforms allows us to develop a very simple and con-
input-output
the
transfer
model
of
chemical
function, which
is
process.
defined
This model is based on

in
the
s-domain
(complex
plane).
The
transfer
function
ratio of the Laplace

of
the
given
between
specific
input
and
output
is
defined
transform of the given output, over the Laplace
input, provided
that
both
have
For a process with N outputs and
been
expressed
in
as
the
transform
deviation
form.
M inputs we have NxM transfer
functions, which compose an NxM transfer functions, which compose an NxM

transfer
function
The
block
matrix.
diagram
is
very
illustrative
representation
of
the
interactions
between the various inputs and outputs of a process. From the block diagram
we
can
how
identify
very
quickly;
(a)
what
input
affects
what
output,
and
(b)
by
much.
The zeros of a system are the values of s which make its transfer
function zero, while the poles of a system are those values of s

infinite
value
The
to
location
the
transfer
the
poles
system
to
external
positive, the
system
is
unstable.
of
Now,
which
we
are
Chapter
10
leaving
the
are
ready
to
modeled
with
certain
we
will
higher
study
order
of
the
common
dynamic
systems
system
inputs.
analyze
the
give
function.
of
response
which
for
will
determine
the
qualitative
If the real part of any pole is
dynamic
forms
of
response
Chapter
behavior
of
transfer
of
11.
the
various
functions,
first-order
processes,
In
systems,
2 .:
THINGS
TO
THINK
ABOUT
1.
Define the transfer function. Why is it useful?
2.
For
and
three
process
measured
formulate
3.
In
inputs
(disturbances
is
the
developed
that
concept?
many
a
the
Elaborate
on
manipulated
variables)
functions
should
corresponding
transfer
function
different
over
and
transfer
type
input-output
your
of
input-output
model
based
on
you
matrix?
model.
the
transfer
answer.
What
What is the block diagram of a process?

it
5.
What
we
prefer
four
outputs, how
why?
5.1
you
function
4.
and
Section
Would
with
type
of
information
does
convey?
Equations (4.4a) and (4.jb) constitute the complete mathematical model

of
stirred
tank
heater.
Develop
the
input-output
model
for
the
process, by formulating the necessary transfer functions. Draw the

corresponding
outputs.
modeling
6.
What
do
equations
Draw
the
block
Can
you
develop
inputs
7.
block
and
stirred
and
why?
Analyze
you
observe?
and
expressing
diagram
of
the
analytically
outputs?
The
diagram.
tank
If
yes,
heater
of
the
interactions
(Hint.
Start
the
variables
distillation
the
Example
how,
shown
don't
in
among
do
and
the
deviation
functions
but
inputs
linearizing
in
column
transfer
explain
by
among
form.)
Figure
the
4.10.
various
it.
9.1, is it a stable system or not,
For what values of the parameters a, r and K is it stable?
Can it become unstable? k

8.
Does the location of the zeros of a system affect its response to

external
9.
Repeat
inputs?
question
Elaborate
on
your
answer.
above, but taking the location of the poles of a system
into account.
10.
Show that the poles of a 2x2 system are also the eigenvalues of the
r;,<. ., ,.
I
matrix of constant coefficients in the dynamic model of the system.
11.
Under what conditions can the CSTR of Example 9.2 become unstable?
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
.
r------------,
!L-e-,--,-- ,,,J
W
I Fiqure
9.2
I Fi 3 we
9.4
..-
b)
I Figure
9.51
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
? G&l
l
I,- --_____
_____
__ ____- _ _____
!.
,
I
3
(P>
I
I
*ii,.
P4
I
- --
, 3 Real Axis
CHAPTER 10
THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS
The previous chapters of Part III have provided us with all the prerequisite tools we need in order to analyze the dynamic behavior of typical
processing systems, when their inputs change in some fashion, e.g. step, ramp,
impulse, sinusoid, etc.
order systems.
In this section we will examine the so-called first-
In particular, we will study:
- what is a first-order system and what physical phenomena give rise to

first-order
systems,
- what are its characteristic parameters, and

- how does it respond to the various changes in the input variables
(disturbances
and/or
manipulated
variables).
10.1 WHAT IS A FIRST-ORDER SYSTEM?

A first-order system is one whose output, y(t), is modeled by a firstorder, linear differential equation
al Liz?!
dt
where
+ 'soy
= bf(t)
f(t) is the input (forcing function).
If a0 # 0, then eqn. (10.1)
yields,
k!Y
a0 dt
$- f(t)
0
Define
al
-=
a
0
4.Y
TP
'p dt + y
TP
'
and
b
= K
P
a0
and take
= K f(t)
is known as the time constant of the process and K
(10.2)
P
is called the
steady state gain or static gain or simply the gain of the process.
I
I
I
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I
I
I
I
Their
physical meaning will become clear in the next three sections.

f(t) are in terms of deviation variables around a steady
If y(t) and
state, then the initial conditions are:

y(O)
= 0 and f(0) = 0
From eqn. (10.2), it is easily found that the transfer function of a firstorder process is given by;
G(s)
= ti =
w4
; :p+ 1
P
(10.3)
A first-order process with a transfer function given by eqn. (10.3) is also

known as:
first-order lag, linear lag, exponential transfer lag.
If on the other hand, a0 = 0, then from eqn. (10.1) we take
a,
dt
2. f(t)
al
= K; f(t)
which gives a transfer function

G(s)
=
F(s)
(10.4)
In such case the process is called purely capacitive or pure integrator.

10.2 PROCESSES MODELLED AS FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS
The first-order processes are characterized by:
(a) their capacity to store material, energy or momentum, and
(b)
the resistance associated with the flow of mass, energy or momentum in

reaching the capacity.
Thus, the dynamic response of tanks which have the capacity to store liquids
or gases can be modeled as first-order.
The resistance is associated with the
pumps, valves, weirs, pipes which are attached to the inflowing or outflowing
liquids or gases.
Similarly, the response of solid, liquid, or gaseous systems
I
I
I
which
For
can
such
walls,
store
thermal
systems
liquids
the
or
energy
(thermal
resistance
gases.
In
is
other
capacity, cp)
associated
with
words,
process
is
the
modeled
transfer
which
as
of
first-order.
heat
possesses
through
capacity
to store mass or energy and thus act as a buffer between inflowing and outflowing streams will be modeled as a first-order system. The stirred tank
heater
of
Example
4.4
and
the
mixing
processes
of
Example
4.11,
are
typical
examples of first-order processes.

It is clear from the above that the first-order lags should be the most
common
class
store
primarily
Let
of
us
dynamic
components
mass
and
energy.
examine
now
some
in
typical
chemical
capacity
plant,
processes
with
the
capacity
modeled
as
to
first-order
lags.
Example
10.1 -
First-Order
System
with
Capacity
Consider the tank shown in FigurelO.la.

flow in is Fi
The
and the outlet volumetric flowrate
for
Mass
Storage
volumetric
is Fo.
(volume/time)
In
the
outlet
stream there is a resistance to flow such as a pipe, valve, wire, etc.
Assume
that the effluent flowrate
pressure
of
the
liquid
level
=$=
F.
is
related
linearly
to
the
h, through the resistance R, i.e.

Driving Force for Flow
Resistance to Flow
At any time point, the tank has the capacity to store mass.
balance
hydrostatic
(10.5)
The
total
mass
gives:
Adh
dt
Fi
h
it
or
AR$+h=RF
(10.6)
where A is the cross sectional area of the tank.
At steady state
hw = R Fi(s)
(10.6a)
and from (10.6) and (10.6a) we take the following equation in terms of
deviation
variables:
AR%
where h'=h-h
=
h'
=R
(10.7)
l(S)
Let
l
time constant of the process, and
the steady state gain of the process
TP
K
RF!
1
and F;=Fi-F.
(s)
m
then, the transfer function is:

i; 6s)
G(s) = - =
p;(s)
K
P
TpS + 1
(10.8)
Certain notes are in order.

(1) The cross sectional area of the tank, A, is a measure of its capacitance
to store mass.
Thus, the larger the value of A the larger the storage
capacity of the tank.

(2) Since ~~ = AR we can say that for the tank we have
(time constant) = (storage capacitance)x(resistance
to flow) (10.9)
Example 10.2 - A First-Order System with a Capacity for Energy Storage

The liquid of a tank is heated with saturated steam, which flows through
a coil immersed in the liquid (Figure 10.2).
The energy balance for the sys-
tern yields:
Vpc dT =
P dt
where
= UAt(Ts - T)
(10.10)
= volume of liquid in the tank
P,Cp
its
density
and
the
overall
heat
the total heat transfer area and
the
At
Ts
temperature
heat
capacity
transfer
of
the
coefficient
saturated
between
steam
and
liquid
steam.
The steady state is given by

0
Subtract
UA(T
t s(s) - T(s))
(10.11)
deviation
from
(10.10)
take
the
following
equation
in
terms
of
variables,
vpcp $ =
where T'=T-T
will
and
(10.11)
yield
the
G(s)
(s)
and Ti = T, - T
following
I
(10.12)
UAt(T; - T')
transfer
transforms of (10.12)
function
UAt
T(s)
~ =
Tp
The Laplace
(s) *
P
TpS + 1
(10.13)
where
TP
K
Remarks.
= time constant of the process = Vpcp/UAt

= steady state gain = UAt
(1)
Eqn.
lag
(2)
The
(10.13)
demonstrates
clearly
that
this
capacity
to
store
is
first-order
system.
system
possesses
the
thermal
energy
and a resistance to the flow of heat characterized by U.

(3) The capacity to store thermal energy is measured by the
value
of
Vpc . The resistance to the flow of

P
heat from the steam to the liquid is expressed by the term
l/(UA$.
the
term
Therefore,
we
notice
that
the
time
constant
of
this system is given by the same equation as that of the tank

system in Example 10.1, i.e.
VPC,
uA
(time constant) = ~~ =J=(storagecapacitance)x(resistanceto
flow).
t
Example 10.3 - A Pure Capacitive System

Consider the tank discussed in Example 10.1 with the following difference,
"The effluent flowrate :Fo
is determined by a constant-displace-
ment pump and not by the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid

level h (Figure 10,lb)"
In such case the total mass balance around the tank yields
A dh
dt = Fi - F.
(10.14)
At steady state
0
Fi(s)
(10.15)
F0
Subtract eqn. (10.15) from (10.14) and take the following equation in terms of
deviation
variables:
which yields the following transfer function

G(s)
Remark.
P(s) r
F;(s)
l/A
S
(10.16)
A pure capacitive process possesses the capacitance to store mass,

energy, or momentum but there is no resistance associated with the
flow of mass, energy or momentum in reaching the.capacitor.
The
lack of such resistance is not encountered often in physical

phenomena, and consequently the purely capacitive processes are
rather rare.
10.3 THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A PURE CAPACITIVE PROCESS

The transfer function for such process is given by eqn. (10.4)
K
G(s) = f(s> = +
m
Let us examine how
y(t) changes with time, when f(t) undergoes a unit step
change, i.e.
for
f(t) = 1
t>O
We know that for a unit step change
P(s)
= f
Therefore, eqn. (10.4) yields
Y(s)
K;/s2
and after inversion we find (see Table 7.1)

y(t)
= K;'
We notice that the output grows l-inearly with time in an unbounded fashion.
Thus,
y(t) -+ Q) as
I
I
t-00
(Figure 10.3)
Such behavior, characteristic of a pure capacitive process, lead to the name

pure
integrator, because it behaves as if there were an integrator between its
input and output.

I
A pure capacitive process has no steady state, i.e. a state of natural

equilibrium.
Its presence in a chemical plant will cause serious control
problems, because it cannot balance itself.

In the tank of Example 10.3, we can adjust manually the speed of the
constant-displacement
pump, so as to balance the flow coming in and thus keep
the level constant.
But, any small change in the flowrate of the inlet stream
I
will make the tank flood or run dry (empty).
I
non-self-regulation.
This attribute is known as
Processes
The
most
inventory
with
often
integrating
encountered
systems
for
action
are
quite
tanks
with
liquids,
are
raw
materials
or
common
products,
in
vessels
chemical
with
process.
gases,
etc.
10.4 THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A FIRST-ORDER LAG SYSTEM

The
transfer
G(s)
function
for
y(s)
m
Let
us
examine
how it
such
we
Inverting
eqn.
(10.17)
Y(t)
by
eqn.
(10.3).
(10.3)
take
P
s(rps+l)
given
to a unit step change in' f(t). Since f(s) =
Y(s)
is
KP
rps+l
responds
l/s, from eqn. (10.3)
systems
we
KP
Kp-s
rps+l
(10.17)
take,
-t/T
e
')
Kp(l
(10.18)
If the step change in f(t) were of magnitude
A, then the response would be
-t/T
y(t)
Figure
10.4
dimensionless
= AKp(l
shows
how
- e
y(t)
(10.19)
')
changes
with
time.
The plot is in terms of the
coordinates
y(t)/AK p
t/T
vs.
P'
and as such can be used to determine the response of any typical first-order
system,
independently
Several
response
of
features
of
the
particular
of
the
plot
first-order
systems
of
and
values
Figure
thus
of
10.4
worth
A,
are
characteristic
and
remembering.
TP'
These
of
the
features
are:
(1) A first-order lag process is self-regulating.
Unlike a purely capacitive
process, it reaches a new steady state.
In terms of the tank system in
the Example 10.1, when the inlet flowrate
increases by unit step, the
liquid
level
pressure
goes
up.
As
the
liquid
level
goes
up,
the
increases, which in turn increases the flowrate
effluent
stream
restoration
(see
of
an
eqn.
(10.5)).
equilibrium
state
This
action
(steady
works
hydrostatic
F.
of the
towards
the
state).
(2) The slope of the response at t=O is equal to 1.
-t/r
d[W/AKpl
(e
dt
It=0
P)t,o
This implies that if the initial rate of change of y(t) were to be

the response would reach its final value in one time
maintained,
constant (see dotted line of Figure 10.4). The c
llary conclusions
are:
The smaller the value of the time constant T
initial
response
of
the
the
steeper
the
system.
Equivalently,
The
time
T ^ of a process is a measure of the time necessary

Y
constant
for the process to adjust to a change in its input.

(3) The value of the response
y(t) reaches the 63.2% of its final value

Subsequently,
when the time elapsed is equal to one time constant, T .

P
we have:
Time elapsed
y(t) a s percentage
Thus,
its
(4)
The
after
ultimate
ultimate
four
of its ultimate value

time
constants, the
2TP
3TP
4sP
86.5
95
98
response
.
has
essentially
reached
value.
value
of
the
response,
i.e. its value at the new steady
state is equal to
Kp
for a unit step change in the input, or AK
for a step of size A.

This
characteristic
explains
the
name
steady
state
or
static
gain
given
to
the
parameter K
since for any step change in the input
P'
A(output)s
K
where
A(output)s
A(input)s
(10.20)
A(input)s
= change in the steady state values of the output caused by

Equation
= change in the steady state values of the input.
(10.20)
also tells us by how much should we change the value of the input in order to
achieve
desired
change
in
the
output, for a process with given gain, K .

P
Thus, in order to effect the same change in the output, we need

l
a small change in the input if K
is
large
is
small.
(very
sensitive
systems),
and
l
a large change in the input if K
Example
10.4 - The
Consider
the
Effect
tank
of
system
Parameters
of
on
Example
the
10.1.
Response
It
of
possesses
First-Order
two
System
parameters;
- the cross sectional area of the tank, A and

- the resistance to the flow of the liquid, R,
or
from
another
but
equivalent
point
of
- the time constant of the process T
view,
and
- the static gain, K .

P
Consider two tanks with different cross sectional areas Al and A2 where
and
> T
Pl
p2'
i.e. the tank with the larger capacity has a larger time constant, while the
A1 > A2
static
step
gains
changes
according
notice
the
to
that
the
same
remain
in
the
beginning,
the
the
eqn.
resistance,
inlet
(10.
tank
but
same.
R.
From eqn. (10.9) we find that
When we subject the two tanks to the same unit
flowrates, the
liquid
level
in
each
tank
responds
) and its behavior is shown in Figure 10.5a. We

with
the
smaller
ultimately, both
cross
levels
sectional
reach
the
area
same
responds
steady
faster
state
at
values.
This
is
in
agreement
have
different
resistances
cross
our
physical
sectional
areas
and R2, such
R1
A1
with
Suppose
experience.
A1
and
now
that
both
and different flow
A2
that
R2
=q
AZ
tanks
(10.21)
Equation (10.21) yields:

=
AlRl
A2R2
rP2
Tpl
But, since Al > A2
then from eqn. (10.21) R2 > Rl which implies that
Figure 10.5b shows the responses of the two tanks to a unit step
>K
p2
Pl'
change in the input. Since both tanks have the same time constant, they have
the
same
initial
speed
of
the larger resistance R2
But, as the time goes on, the tank with
response.
allows less liquid out of the tank.
Thus, the
liquid level grows more in this tank and its ultimate value is larger than
the value of the level in the tank with resistance Rl.
with our physical experience and
also
demonstrates
the
This
fact
again
that
the
agrees
larger
the static gain of a process the larger the steady state value of its output
for
the
same
input
change.
10.5 FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS WITH VARIABLE TIME CONSTANT AND GAIN

In
order
the
differential
conclusion
cess
a
previous
were
that
more
often
Let
equation
the
constant.
chemical
process.
processes
us
sections
examine
we
(see
assumed
eqn.
that
(10.1))
the
coefficients
were
constant.
of
the first-
This lead to the
of the proand steady state gain K

P
TP
But, this is not true for a large number of components in
time
constant
As a matter of fact, in a chemical plant, we will encounter

with
two
variable
time
constants
characteristic
examples:
and
gains
than
not.
Example
- A
10.5
For
the
Tank
tank
System
system
with
Variable
discussed
in
Time
Example
Constant
10.1,
and
assume
Gain
that
the
effluent
flowrate, Fo, is not a linear function of the liquid level, but it is given
by
the
following
F.
Then,
the
relationship
BJi;
material
Linearize
this
variables
(this
(which
[3
yields
around
problem
Adh+
was
f3
dt
for
turbulent
flow);
= constant
balance
equation
holds
the
following
steady
solved
h=
state
in
nonlinear
and
Examples
put
6.1
it
and
equation:
in
terms
of
deviation
6.2);
F;
or
dh
rp dt
KF!
PI
where
=
rP
We
notice
that
2A$7O
both
the
and
time
constant
24733
and the steady state gain K
rP
depend on the steady state value of the liquid level

the value of
Fi(s) 2 we
Example
Let
h (s)
conclude
10.6 us
return
hw *
can
vary
by varying the steady state value of the inlet flowrate

that
the
Heater
to
system
with
the
has
Variable
heater
variable
Time
system
time
Constant
discussed
constant
and
in
and
UAt
and
Gain
Example
constant and the static gain for the heater were found to be:
TP
Since'we
10.2.
static
gain.
.
The time
1
I
The
overall
period
heat
of
or
of
heat
the
Corrosion,
operation.
internal
coefficient, U, does not remain the same for a long
transfer
external
surfaces
transfer
dirt,
of
various
the
coefficient.
happen
The
time
of
such
First;
order
even
question
variable
are
to
simple
then
constants
and
systems.
There
we
use
can
This
differential
quite
to
how
two
possible
analytical
example
one
gains
is
in
handles
the
gradual
order
first-order
to
find
decrease
of
what
systems
the
dynamic
with
response
solutions:
which
with
variable
coefficients.
of
very
little
that
such
systems
and
characteristic
solutions
equations
complicated
in
on
systems.
static
are
the
as
deposited
This in turn will cause the time constant
first-order
arises
solids
coil, result
heating
and static gain of the system to vary.

can
other
value
are
to
available
us
Such
for
for
first-
solutions
process
control
purposes.
-
Second;
we
can
assume
possess
constant
time
At the end of
and static gains for a certain limited period of time only.

such period we will change the values of T
and K
P
and
have a new first-order system with new but constant r
P
Such an
will be changed again at the end of the period.
consider
values
is
rather
which
case
the
time
period
of
that
we
and K which
P'
adaptive
can be used successfully if the time constant and the stagic

process change slowly, in
constants
procedure
gain of a
relatively
constant
long.

First-order
order,
linear
their
capacity
common
is
process
differential
to
components
store
in
whose
dynamic
equation.
material,
chemical
All
energy
plant.
behavior
such
or
is
governed
processes
momentum,
Therefore,
the
are
and
by
first-
characterized
constitute
majority
of
the
simple
by
most
input-output
configurations
represented
by
first-order
G(s)
The
that
will
dynamics
encounter
with
in
transfer
first-order
chemical
plant
will
be
function
K
+
P
two
we
constants
which
characterize
system
are;
the
time
constant of the process r
and the static gain K . The first is a measure

P
P
of how long a process takes to adjust itself to the new value of an input,
while the second indicates the size of the change in the steady state value
of an output resulting from a unit input.
associated
related
with
to
the
its
steady
purely
and
no
resistance
is
the
dynamic
state
capacitive
to
lags
flow
arises
of
process
which
of
system,
while
time
the
constant
static
gain
is
is
behavior.
process
the
non-self-regulating
first-order
behavior
Therefore, the
are
from
mass,
leading
energy,
to
process
in
which
reaching
serious
control
self-regulating, thus
causing
has
only
the
capacity
capacitor.
problems,
milder
It
unlike
control
problems.
In Chap ter 11 we will study the dynamic behavior of systems with higher
order
dynamics.
Furthermore,
order
we
Particular
will
examine
attention
how
will
several
be
given
simple
to
capacity
the
2nd
order
processes
with
dynamics, combined with each other in various ways, give rise to
higher-order
systems.
systems.
first-
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
THINGS
1.
TO
3.
ABOUT
What is a first-order s'stem

of
2.
THINK
first-order
What
is
the
what
causes
lag
principal
the
of
purely
characteristic
appearance
of
capacitive
of
purely
the
process?
first-order
capacitive
processes
and
process?
In Examples 10.1 and 10.2 it was found that for a first-order process
(time
Is
this
constant)
appropriate
Show
that
also
has
5.
Discuss
6.
How
would
= (storage capacity)x(resistance
for
simple, irreversible
4.
or
and how do you derive the transfer functions
tank
an
isothermal,
reaction, A-tB,
with
variable
variable
time
constant
system
which
stores
you
regulate
the
constant
volume
CSTR,
where
takes place?
cross-sectional
and
static
momentum
purely
to flow)
and
capacitive
area
along
its
height
gain.
exhibits
process
first-order
of
the
tank
dynamics.
in
Example 10.3 so that it does not flood or run dry?

7.
Consider a closed vessel with air flowing in it.

capacitive
or
first-order
lag
system?
Answer
Is this a pure
the
same
question
if
the vessel is supplied also with an exit for the air.

8.
Study the response of a first-order lag to a unit impulse input.

(Recall
9.
that
for
unit
impulse
F(s) = 1).
Study the response of a first-order lag to a sinusoidal input. What

do you observe in its behavior after a long time, i.e. as t*?
257
0
I
1234
t/q
I ure
FJ
m4
CHAPTER 11
THE
Systems
with
in
chemical
in
drastically
higher-order
origin
of
first-order
different
will
with
way
than
this
analysis
left
OF
SECOND-ORDER
behavior
that
chapter
second-order
The
be
dynamic
In
dynamics.
systems
BEHAVIOR
are
SYSTEMS
not
the
only
ones
encountered
An output may change under the influence of an input,
process.
characteristics.
dynamics
DYNAMIC
for
we
systems
first-order
will
dynamics,
of
Chapter
of
analyze,
and
with
(b)
system,
(a)
their
higher
the
following
physical
dynamic
than
second-order
12.
11.1 WHAT IS A SECOND-ORDER SYSTEM?

A
second-order
system
is
one
whose
output,
y(t),
solution of a second-order differential equation.
is
For
described
by
example, the
the
following
equation describes a second-order system:
&
&?L
+ al
a2 dt2
(11.1)
= bf(t)
dt + ao
If a0 # 0, then eqn. (11.1) yields
2 d2y
-cdt2
25~
(11.2)
+ y = Kpf(t)
where
T2 = a2/ao
Equation
(11.2)
is
in
25~ = al/a0
the
standard
the
natural
period
?l
the
damping
factor,
of
form
and
of
oscillation
= b/a0
second-order
of
the
system
where
system
and
= the steady state, or static, or simply gain of the system.

P
The physical meaning of the parameters r and 5 will become clear in the
next two sections, while K
systems.
has
the
same
significance
as
for
the
first-order
If
eqn.
(11.2)
is
in
terms
of
deviation
variables,
are zero and the Laplace
transformation of eqn. (11.2)
standard
for
transfer
G(s)
function
=
'j(s>
with
second
situations.
These
or
be
Processes,
into
following
/
(11.3)
dynamics
classified
the
conditions
system;
P
T2S2 + 25TS + 1
higher-order
can
Multicapacity
(i>
second-order
initial
yields
f(s)
Systems
the
can
arise
three
i.e. processes
from
several
physical
categories:
which
consist
of
two
or
more
capacities (first-order systems) in series, through which material

or
energy
istics
(ii>
must
of
flow.
such
In
Second-Order
components
of
acceleration.
be
11.3
we
will
discuss
the
character-
systems.
Inherently
will
Section
Systems,
process
Such
discussed
like
which
systems
briefly
possess
are
in
the
inertia
rare
Section
fluid
in
11.4
or
mechanical
and
are
subjected
chemical
processes.
and
examples
two
solid
to
They
are
given
in the Appendix ll.A at the end of this chapter.

(iii)
Processing
order
System
dynamics.
installed
on
With
Its
Controller,
In such cases, the

processing
unit
may
exhibit
controller
introduces
second
which
has
additional
or
higher
been
dynamics
which,
when together with the dynamics of the unit, give rise to second or
higher-order
this
The
in
control
second
behavior.
example
in
Section
11.5
will
demonstrate
point.
very
large
majority
chemical
plant
come
systems.
or
An
higher
Very
order
of
from
rarely
the
second
multicapacity
we
dynamics.
will
find
or
higher
order
processes
or
systems
with
the
systems
encountered
effect
of
appreciable,
process
inherent
11.2 THE DYNAMIC RESPONSE OF A SECOND-ORDER SYSTEM

Before we proceed to examine the physical origin of second and higherorder
systems,
let
us
a unit step input.

dynamic
features
of
analyze
the
Such
analysis
second-order
dynamic
will
response
provide
us
of
with
second-order
all
the
system
to
fundamental
system.
For a unit step change in the input, f(t), eqn. (11.3) yields:
K
The
two
f(s)
poles
of
P
S(T2S2 + 2<TS + 1)
the
second-order
transfer
(11.4)
function
are
given
by
the
roots
of
the characteristic polynomial, i.e.

T2S2
25TS
and they are
p1=-$+
/-c2-1
(11.5a)
J52_1
T
(11.5b)
and
p2=-$-
Therefore, eqn. (11.4) becomes
Y(s)
= s(s - KP
Pl)(S - P2)
(11.6)
and the form of the response y(t) will depend on the location of the two
poles, p1 and p2' in the complex plane (see Section 9.4). Thus, we can
distinguish three cases:
Case A - when
~-1 we have two distinct and real poles
Case B - when c=l we have two equal poles (multiple pole)

Case C - when
5~1 we have two complex conjugate poles.
Let
us
CASE A.
examine
each
case
separately.
Overdamped Response, when <>l.
In this case, the inversion of eqn. (11.6)
by
partial-fractions
expansion
yields,
y(t) = Kp l- e-5t'r(cosh&$+l
fc2-1
where cash(0)
and
sinh(*) are the hyberbolic

a
sinh(a)
(11.7)
functions defined by
-a
-2
and
cash(a)
e' + e-'
2
The response has been plotted in Figure ll.la for various values of 5, <>l.
It is known as overdamped response and resembles a little the response of a
first-order
system
response
we
response
is
the
to
notice
that
rather
system
unit
step
the
system
sluggish.
becomes
more
It
heavily
input.
But
initially
becomes
when
delays
more
overdamped.
compared
to
respond
sluggish
Finally,
to
as
we
a
and
first-order
then
it's
5 increases, i.e.
notice
that
as
the
time goes on, the response approaches its ultimate value asymptotically. As
it was the case with first-order system, the gain is given by,
K
A(output steady state)

A(input steady state)
Overdamped are the responses of multicapacity processes, which

combination
CASE B.
of
first-order
y(t)
response
system
in
series,
as
we
will
see
in
from
Section
the
11.3.
Critically Damped Respone, when 5~1.
In this case, the
The
systems
result
with
overdamped
is
of
eqn. (11.6)
gives
the
result,
Kp[l - (1 + $)e-t/Tl
also
critical
system.
inversion
shown
damping
in
Figure
a-proaches
(11.8)
ll.la.
its
We
notice
ultimate
that
value,
second-order
faster
than
an
Underdamped Response, when <<l.
CASE C.
The
inversion
of
eqn.
(11.6)
in
this
1
e-Tt/.r
case
yields,
sin(wt
+ $)
Il-c2
(11.9)
where
/l-c2
oJ"T
(11.10)
and
I4 = tan-l l-C2
5
The
response
factor, 5.
-
The
has
been
From
the
underdamped
Although
the
in
Figure
plots
we
can
response
is
faster
responses, which
-
plotted
are
observe
characterized
underdamped
response
ll.lb
than
as
is
for
various
the
following:
the
critically
values
of
the
damped
or
overdamped
sluggish.
faster
and
reaches
quickly, it does not stay there but it starts ocillating

decreasing
response
-
The
amplitude.
quite
its
ultimate
value
with progressively
This oscillatory behavior makes an underdamped
distinct
oscillatory
damping
from
behavior
all
becomes
previous
more
ones.
pronounced
with
smaller
values
of
the
damping factor, 5.
It
chemical
units
must
be
plant
they
emphasized
are
control.
very often, and
it
caused
that
by
the
Therefore,
is
wise
almost
to
all
interaction
the
of
underdamped
the
responses
controllers
with
in
the
process
it is a type of response that we will encounter

become
well
acquainted
with
its
characteristics.
Characteristics of an Underdamped Response

Let us use as reference the underdamped response shown in Figure 11.2, in
order to define the terms used to describe an underdamped response.
1.
Is the ratio A/B, where B
Overshoot:
is the ultimate value of the
response and A is the maximum amount by which the response exceeds

its ultimate value.
The overshoot is a function of r, and it can be
shown that is given by the following expression:

(11.11)
OVERSHOOT = exp(x)
/l-c2
Figure 11.3 shows the plot of overshoot vs.
5 given by eqn. (11.11).
We notice that the overshoot increases with decreasing

approaches 1 the overshoot approaches zero (criticaly
2.
Decay Ratio:
5, while as 5
damped response).
Is the ratio C/A, i.e. the ratio of the amounts above
the ultimate value of two successive peaks.

shown to be related to the damping factor
DECAY RATIO = exp(---2'r; )
Il-c2
The decay ratio can be

5 through the equation
(OVERSH~~T)~
(11.12)
Equation (11.12) has been also plotted in Figure 11.3.

3.
Period of Oscillation:
From eqn. (11.10) we see that the radian
frequency (radians/time) of the oscillations of an underdamped response

is given by
fl-G2
radian frequency = ___
T
(11.10)
To find the period of the oscillation, T, i.e. the time elapsed between
two successive peaks, use the well known relationships w = 21-rf and
f = l/T where f = cyclical
T
2x-r
=I-l-c2
frequency.
Thus,
(11.13)
4.
Natural Period of Oscillation:

system
free
of
any
K
G(s)
damping.
has
two
purely
according
to
the
analysis
The
constant
wn
= l/T
imaginary
of
Response
is
(11.14)
(on
9.4
the
it
natural
imaginary
will
frequency
oscillate
(see
cyclical
period,
Tn,
is
given
continuously
eqn.
(11.14))
271-c
Time:
(11.16)
The
response
of
an
that gave its name.
underdamped
system
will
For
it
reached
been
agreed
to
consider
that
the
response
reach
practical
its
value, when it came +5X
of its final value and stayed there.
needed
to
for
and
by
ultimate value in an asymptotic manner, as t-toJ.

has
axis)
(11.15)
It is this property of the parameter T

5.
function
+)
poles
Section
amplitdue, and
corresponding
Tn
transfer
P
(s-j +)(s+j
i.e. it
Its
T2S2 + 1
with
A second-order system with <=O, is a
the
response
reach
this
situation
is
known
as
its
purposes,
final
The time
the
response
time, and it is also shown in Figure 11.2.

6,
Rise
Time:
This term is used in order to characterize the speed with
which an underdamped system responds.
It is defined as the time
required for the response to reach its final value for the first time.
/
/
From Figure 11.1 we notice that the smaller the value of 5, the shorter
I
I
I
same time the larger the value of the overshoot.
the rise time, i.e. the faster the response of the system, but at the
Remark:
In
subsequent
chapters
(Part
IV),
our
objective
during
the
design
of
a controller will be the proper selection of the corresponding 5

and T
values,
so that the overshoot is small, the rise time short,
the
decay
ratio
small, and
the
response
time
short.
We
will
realize
that it will not be possible to achieve all these objectives for the
same values of 5 and r, and
that
be defined.
of
second-order
Good
system
understanding
will
help
an
acceptable
the
underdamped
tremendously
in
compromise
behavior
the
design
should
of
of
efficient
controllers.
11.3 MULTICAPACITY PROCESSES AS SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS
When material or energy flows through a single capacity, we get firstorder system.
two
of
If on the other hand, mass or energy flows through a series of
capacities, as it moves from the input to the output variable, the behavior
the
system
is
described
by
second-order
dynamics.
Two
multicapacity
systems
are shown in Figure 11.4 with two mass capacities (the two tanks) each.
Examine the two systems of Figure 11.4 more closely to identify a significant
qualitative
difference
between
them.
In System 1 (Figure 11.4a),
Tank 1 feeds Tank 2 and thus it affects its dynamic behavior, while the
opposite
is
not
true.
Such
system
is
characteristic
so-called,
non-interacting
in
On the contrary, in System 2, Tank
series.
capacities, or
interacting
capacities, or
Multicapacity
processing
the
same
capacity
column
processes
unit.
It
processing
process
is
unit.
with
another
is
interacting
do
quite
of
have
possible
For
capacity
example
not
large
affects
class
of
the
first-order
systems
the
behavior
dynamic
Fl depends on the difference
This system represents the so-called

first-order
to
systems
involve
that
all
more
in
series.
than
capacities
one
are
physical
associated
with
example, the stirred tank heater is a multito
store
multicapacity
storage capacity (liquid holdup), which

L----- - -----,L--
non-interacting
of Tank 2, and vice-versa, because the flowrate

between the liquid levels hl and h2.
of
mass
in
and
energy.
process.
turn
allows
distillation
Every tray has a mass

for
thermal
energy
Let
We
us
will
A.
now
start
see
with
how
the
NON-INTERACTING
When
described
by
multicapacity
non-interacting
result
in
second-order
systems.
capacities.
CAPACITIES
system
is
composed
of
two
set
dyl
rP1 dt
processes
y1
of
two
non-interacting
differential
K
equations
of
first
f,(t)
capacities,
the
following
then
it
general
is
form:
(11.17a)
capacity
p1
dy2
-+y2
rp2 dt
K p2 y1(t)
second
(11.17b)
capacity
In other words, the first system affects the second by its output, but it is
not affected by it (Figure 11.5a).
then we can solve eqn. (11.17b).
Equation (11.17a) can be solved first and

This sequential solution is characteristic
of non-interacting capacities in series.
The
corresponding
transfer
functions
are:
Y,(s)
KPl
Gl(s) = ~ =
fl( s) rplS+l
The overall transfer function between tba external
Go(s)
Y,(s)
y,(s)
y,(s)
= q(s)
= - * - = G1(s)G2(s)
Y,(s)
f,(s)
input, f,(t)and Y2(t) is:
K
Kpl
Pl
=
s+l * r
P*s+l
rp1
(11.18)
or
GO(s)
=
(Tt)2s2
K'
P
+ 25'T'S + 1
(11.19)
where
(Ty
= T
25'T'
PlTP2
Equation
(11.19)
indicates
very
= T T
Pl p2
clearly
and
that
the
K' =K K
P
Pl p2
overall
response
of
the
system
is
second-order.
overall
From eqn. (11.18) we also notice that the two poles of the
transfer function
Pl =
are
real
and
and
1/T
distinct,
=
p2
Pl
i.e.
l/T
p2
If the time constants r
and
are equal, then we have two equal poles.
Pl
Tp2
Therefore, non-interacting capacities always result in an overdamped or
critically
damped
second-order
system
and
never
in
an
underdamped.
The
response
of two non-interacting capacities to a unit step change in the input will be

given
by
damped.
eqn.
(11.7) f or the overdamped case, or eqn. (11.8)
Instead
of
eqn.
(11.7) we
can
use
the
following
for
the
equivalent
critically
form
for
the response
-t/T
(-r
-t/.r
p1
Pl
where Ki = K K . Equation (11.20)

Pl p2
of eqn. (11.18) where fl(s) = l/s.
can
be
p2 >
T e
p2
derived
(11.20)
I
easily
by
simple
inversion
For the case of N non-interacting capacities (Figure 11.5b) it is easy

to show that the overall transfer function is given by
K
Go(s)
Example
11.1
= G1(S)G2(S)GN(S)
T WO
Non-Interacting
System 1 in Figure 11.4a
K *..K
'1
'2
'N
= Gs+~)(~
s+l)...(T
ss-1)
p2
PN
Pl
Material
Capacities
is such a system.
the two tanks are:
and
The
in
(11.21)
Series
transfer
functions
for
where, according
K
to
Example
=R1
10.1
we
=R2
have,
can
easily
find
Go(s)
Equation
Fi(
are
deviation
transfer
form.
function
Since,
is
,
K
=
p2
s+l)(T
(T
p1
indicates
Using
r #
p1
eqn.
that
(11.22)
s+l)
p2
the
relationship
between
the
t
/
T
t
/
T
c
Figure
same
11.6
as
extewrnal
input,
those
of
response
of
we
S-shaped,
is
change
transfer
the
response
in
at
la&
qualitative
an
overdamped
the
notice
of
p1
K 1
'
(.c
e
p2
rp2-rpl
p1
the
with
11.6
This
shows
Figure
is
for
of
two
non-interacting
T e
p2
capacities
, we find:
comparison
The
(11.20)
p2
h;(t)
overall
in
t), and the final output, h2(t)' is that of an overdamped second-order
with
the
q(s)
F;(s)
(11.22)
system.
that
= A2R2 .
rp2
rp1
and also variables hi, hi, F;, Fi
we
and
= AIR1
p2
Pl
features
system
first-order
of
(see
response
the
p2
response,
for
example
would
be
which
Figure
are
ll.la
instructive.
the
with
511) *
Thus, from
that:
the
overdamped
i.e. initially
contrast
to
the
beginning.
and
is
multicapacity
changes
slowly
first-order
This
and
response
sluggishness
characteristic
of
system
to
step
input
then
it
picks
up
which
or
has
delay
multicapacity
the
is
change
speed.
largest
known
also
rate
as
systems.
As the number of capacities in series increases, the delay in the initial

response becomes more pronounced.
See
also
Figure
11.6.
B.
INTERACTING
CAPACITIES
In order to analyze the characteristics of such system, we will use the

The
two capacity System 2 of Figure 11.4b.

dhl
Alx=F
dh2
A2dt
Assume
linear
F1
F1
F2
resistances
=
F1
to
flow,
Then, eqns. (11.23a) and (11.23b)
+ hl -
dh2
A2R2 dt
h2
(11.23a)
Tank 2
(11.23b)
i.e.
(11.24a)
R2
of
effect
characteristic
of
the
two
(11.24b)
"1"'
is
mutual
h2/R2
= RIFi
and (11.24b)
central
F2
We notice that eqns. (11.24a)

the
yield:
become:
R2
(l+R)h
1 2
balances
Tank 1
and
(hl - h2)/R1
dhl
A 1R l dt
mass
must be solved simultaneously. This
interacting
capacities
and
indicates
the
capacities.
The steady state equivalents of eqns. (11.24a) and (11.24b) are:
hw
R2
+ir;)h2&)
(l
Subtract (11.25a)
ducing
the
h2(s)
dhi
dt
dh;
A2R2 dt
where
R2
- q
variables
+
hi
(11.25a)
RIFi(s)
from (11.24a)
deviation
AlRl
Qs)
= 0
and (11.25b) from (11.24b)
(11.25b)
and after intro-
take,
hi
R2
(l+~)h'
l2
RlFf
(11.26a)
(11.26b)
h =
1
hl - hi(s) , hi = h2 - h2(s) and F! 1= Fi - Fi(s)
Take the Laplace
transforms of eqns. (11.26a)
(AIRIS
+ l)Ci(S)
- F;;(S)
and (11.26b)
and find
= RlFf(s)
-
R2 -,
- R1 hl(s)
R2
+ (1 + 5) I;;(s)
1
Solve these algebraic equations with respect to El(s) and g2(s) and find:
CT p R1b + CR1 +
r;;(s)
=
T
(11.27a)
+('I
+T
+ A1R2)s+1
Pl
p2
Pl p2
i;;(s)
R2)
R2
=
2+(T
rP1TP2S
(11.27b)
+T
+ A1R2)s+1
Pl
p2
and r
= A2R2
are the time constants of the two tanks.
= AIRl
rp1
p2
Equations (11.27a) and (11.27b) indicate that the responses of both tanks
where
follow second-order dynamics. Compare eqn. (11.27b) for the interacting tanks
with eqn. (11.22) which corresponds to the non-interacting tanks. We notice
that they differ only in the coefficient of s
term, A1R2.
cates
the
in
the
denominator
by
the
This term may be thought of as the interaction factor and indidegree
of
interaction
between
the
two
tanks.
between
the
two
The
larger
the
value
of AIR,,
the
Remarks:
(1) From eqn. (11.27b) it is easily found that the two poles of
J.
larger
the
interaction
tanks.
the transfer function are given by:

I
-(TV, +T~ +A1R2) I! 4~ +T +A1R2)% T
7
Pl
p2
Pl p2
p1,2 =
2r T
Pl p2
But
(T
2 - 4 T T
+T
+ A1R2)
Pl
p2
Pl p2
>o
(11.28)
Therefore, p1 and p2
the
response
of
are
distinct
interacting
and
capacities
real
is
poles.
always
overdamped.
(2) Since the response is overdamped with poles p1

by eqn. (11.28),
qcs,
F;(s)
Consequently,
and
p2 given
eqn. (11.27b) can be written as follows:

R2
R2
(rls+l)(T2s+l)
(S--Pi) b-P,>
(11.29)
where
and
'I1 = -l/P1
Equation
(11.29)
implies
r2 = -l/p2
that
two
interacting
capacities
can
be
viewed as non-interacting capacities

- - but with modified effective
time
constants.
Thus,
while
initially
the
two
interacting
tanks
had effective time constants

and
=P2
rp1
when
they
are
veiwed
as
non-interacting,
they
have
different
time
constants
and
r1
(3) Assume that the two tanks have the same time constants, i.e.
T. Then, from eqn. (11.28) we take,
TP1 = rp2 =
-(2-c + A1R2> + 7
A1R2 + 4-cA1R
VT2 = P2/P1
=
-(2T
A1R2)
- JA:R; +
~TA$X
Thus, we see that the effect of interaction is to change the ratio

of
the
effective
time
constants
for
the
two
tanks,
i.e.
one
tank
becomes faster in its response and the other slower. Since the
overall response of h2(t) is affected by both tanks, the slower
tank
becomes
sluggish
are
Example
11.2
the
due
controlling
to
the
and
the
interaction.
more
sluggish
than
- The
Dynamics
of
the
Two
overall
Therefore,
response
becomes
interacting
Interacting
and Rl = R2/2. Then, 'c = T /2=~.

Pl
p2
Tanks
T2S2
+ 5-rs + 1
Let Al = A2
From eqn. (11.27b) we take:
R2
+ 1)(4.8~s
R2
capacities
non-interacting.
Consider two interacting tanks like those of Figure 11.4b.
~;(s>
~
F;(s)
more
= (0.21~s
(11.30)
+ 1)
For a unit step change in F;(t), i.e. for Pi(s) = l/s, eqn. (11.30) after
inversion
yields
h;(t)
= R2[1 + 0.014e -t/0.21T
_ 5 . 2 e-t/4.8.r
1
F;(t)
-t/0.21T
= 1 + 0.014 e
_ 5.2 e-t/4.8T
or
If
the
two
tanks
were
non-interacting, then
system would be given by eqn. (11.22),
q<s>
F;(s)
which
by
R2
s+1)(rp2s+1)
=
(T
the
transfer
function
of
the
i.e.
R2
(U?+1)(2Ts+l)
p1
inversion
yields
h;(t)
= R2[1
F;(t)
=l+
+ e
-t/-c - 4e-t/2T]
or
e
-t/T
4e-t/2T
Let us compare the responses of the two systems:

(1)
They
are
both
overdamped.
As
such
they
have
the
characteristics
discussed
in Section 11.2, i.e. they are S-shaped and with no oscillations.

(2) For the system of the two non-interacting tanks the time constants
are:
T
2T
and
For the case of the interacting tanks the effective time constants
have become
0.21r
4.8T
and
i.e. one was decreased and the other was increased.
Their ratio
from l/2 changed to 0.21/4.8 = 0.044.

(3) As a result of the change in the effective time constants, the response
of the interacting tanks is more sluggish, or more damped than the
response of the non-interacting tanks.
Figure 11.6 dramatizes this
result.
Example 11.3 - The CSTR as a System With Two Interacting Capacities

The linearized mass and energy balances for a constant volume holdup
CSTR are given by eqns. (9.14a) and (9.14b) in Example 9.2.
dci
+
allci
a12T'
= blcii
dT'
- +
dt
a21ci
a22T'
dt
blT;
(9.14a)
b2Ti
(9.14b)
Both equations, being first-order differential equations, denote systems with

capacity.
In particular, eqn. (9.14a) characterizes the capacity of the CSTR
for storing component A, while eqn. (9.14b) denotes the capacity of the CSTR
for storing thermal energy.
they are interacting.
From the form of the equations we realize that
Thus, the term a12T'
capacity on the amount of component A.
denotes the effect of the thermal
Similarly, the term a21ci denotes
the effect of the amount of component

the
reacting
A in the CSTR on the thermal content of
mixture.
Consider now that the CSTR is at steady state when one of the following
variables
changes
by
unit
step;
- feed concentration
cd, , or
i
- feed temperature T!, or
1
- coolant temperature T'.
C
According
to
the
the
analysis
input
made
change
above
like
we conclude that CL(t) and T'(t) will
respond
to
second-order,
overdamped
systems.
[Note:
In the above example it has been assumed that the linearization of the
CSTR was made around a stable steady state (see Example 1.2) and that unit
step changes do not move the system far from this steady state.]
11.4 INHERENTLY SECOND-ORDER PROCESSES

Such
be
process
decomposed
can
into
exhibit
two
underdamped
first-order
behavior
systems
in
and
series
consequently
(interacting
they
or
cannot
non-
interacting) with physical significance, like the

systems
we
chemical
or
the
(b)
mechanical
resistance
and
conclude
their
in
process, and
resistance
we
examined
to
to
previous
they
are
translation
motion
capacitance
that
inertia
the
the
associated
of
and
solid
(c)
are
motion.
The
with
parts
capacitance
characteristic
inherently
second-order
three
They occur rather rarely in a
sections.
examples
the
motion
possessing;
to
store
and
of
systems
in
of
(a)
liquid
inertia
mechanical
the
are
Appendix
masses
motion,
energy.
first-order
characterized
ll.A
to
Since
systems,
by
clearly
demonstrate this feature.

Newton's
Law
applied
on
Balance of forces
on the system
given
=
system
yields
(mass of system)x(acceleration)
(11.31)
Since,
acceleration
d(velcoity)
dt
and
velocity
we
conclude
that,
Balance of forces
on the system
The
& (spatial displacement)
second
term
of
of the system.
the
d2
= (mass of system) x---- (spatial
dt2
the
right-hand
Equation
point
for
examples
11.5
SECOND-ORDER
(11.31)
of
side
or
Appendix
SYSTEMS
CAUSED
gives
its
rise
equivalent
(11.32)
displacement)
to
the
second-order
(11.32)
is
the
behavior
starting
ll.A.
BY
THE
PRESENCE
OF
CONTROLLERS
The presence of a control system in a chemical process can change the

order
of
exhibit
we
the
process
without
the
will
being
have
let
us
the
and
produce
presence
of
opportunity
consider
a
the
to
simple
dynamic
simple
the
tank
first-order
shown
system
many
which
the
process
cannot
In the chapters of Part IV
such
situations.
For the time
example.
in
with
controller.
examine
Example 11.4 - A First-Order Process

Presence of a Control System
Consider
behavior
With
Figure
Second-Order
10.1
transfer
(Example
function
Dynamics
10.1).
given
by
Due
to
the
This is a
eqn.
(10.8).
We
would like to control the liquid level at a desired value when the inlet
flowrate
Fi
undergoes step changes.
control
system
measures
the
liquid
If
level
is
the
(see
Section
level
higher
2.2)
and
than
In order to do that we use a feedback
shown
in
Figure 11.7a.
compares
it
with
the
value,
it
the
desired
This control system
desired
increases
steady
state
the
effluent
value.
flowrate
Fo by opening the control valve
V, while it closes the valve when

Let us now see how the presence
the level is lower than the desired value.

of
this
first
controller
to
second
order.
The
dynamic
mass
A dt
dh
while
changes
at
the
=
the
deviation
around
the
the
dynamic
tank
behavior
of
the
tank
gives,
state
we
have
(11.34)
Fe(S)
from
(11.33)
(11.33)
F;
dt
of
F.
steady
from
Adh =
where
Fi(S)
(11.34)
order
balance
Fi
desired
0
Subtract
the
and
take
(11.35)
F;
variables
are
defined
by,
h' = h(s) - h 9 F; = F~(S) - Fi and I?: = Fe(s) - F. .

When the liquid level is not at the desired value, h' # 0, The measuring
device measures h and this value is compared to the desired value h(s).
The
deviation
(error)
h'
the effluent flowrate
is
used
by
the
controller
to
increase
or
decrease
according to the relationship

(11.36)
where KC
and
'I
are
constant
parameters
with
positive
values.
According
to (11.36j:
- When h' = 0 then F = Fe(s)
and the valve V stays where it is.
- When h' > 0, i.e. the level goes down, then from eqn. (11.36) gives
F. < Foes),
the
effluent
rate
goes
down
and
the
level
starts
increasing.
- When h' < 0, i.e. level goes up, then from eqn. (11.36) we find F. >
F
.
1-e.
o(s) '
i.e.
the
effluent
rate
increases
and
the
level
decreases.
The
control
Control,
action
because
terms, one
of
described
the
value
which
is
eqn. (11.36)
by
of
the
is
manipulated
proportional
to
the
called
variable
error
h',
Proportional
is
and
determined
the
Integral
by
other
two
proportional
to the time integral of the error.

In eqn. (11.35) replace FA
A dh'
dt
The Laplace
Kch'
with its equal given by (11.36) and take:
h'dt
(11.37)
= F;
transform of (11.37) gives

A s K'(s)
K
c 1 F;ys>
=I s
+ K$'(s) +
F;(s)
or
=I
2 s2 + TIS + 1 E'(s) = K
P;(s)
K
C
I
[ C
From
eqn.
(11.38) we
find
that
input F;(s) and the output
the
transfer
function
between
the
external
6'(s) is that of a second-order system and given
by;
m=
F;(s)
P
T2S2 + 25r.s + 1
where
T2
From
the
=A~I/K~ , 25-r
above
equations
= TI and Kp = TI/K=
we
find
that
Depending on the values of the control parameters Kc and -cI we may have
the
following
cases:
-qp2.
is
that
The, <cl and the response g'(s) to a step input in P;(s)
of
an
- JK&A = 2.
underdamped
Then, -c=l and the response is critically damped.
- Finally, w > 2.
In Figure 11.7b
change
in
The
the
system.
Then, <>l and we have an overdamped response.
we can see the dynamic response of the liquid level to a step

inlet
above
flowrate,
example
with
and
demonstrates
without
very
control.
clearly
how
the
simple
first-order
dynamic behavior of a tank can change to that of a second-order, when a

Proportional-Integral Controller is added to the process. Also, it indicates
that the control parameters Kc
the
dynamic
behavior
overdamped
of
the
and rI
system
which
can have a very profound effect on

can
range
from
an
underdamped
to
an
response.

Chemical processes may exhibit second-order dynamics, which are: (i)
inherent,
result
or
of
(ii)
the
The
come
from
control
second-order
first-order
systems
in
series,
(iii)
come
as
the
damping
action.
systems
are
characterized
by
two
and the natural period of the system, '5.
factor 5
or
parameters;
Depending
on
the
value
of
zj we can have; overdamped response (Al), critically damped (c=l) or underdamed response (<cl).
-
The
underdamped
is
'Ihe
a
following
quick
but
observations
oscillatory
can
response
be
and
made:
it
is
usually
exhibited by controlled processes.

-
The
overdamped
exhibited
with
i
by
increasing
action
between
or
critically
first-order
value
damped
systems
of
first-order
the
in
damping
systems.
responses
series.
are
The
sluggish,
and
sluggishness
are
usually
increases
factor, and with the degree of inter-

1 .'
What is a second-order system?
Write the differential equation describing
its behavior in the time domain and give its transfer function.
2.
Explain the physical significance of the two parameters T and 3 of a

second-order
system.
Consult Reference 10 (Section 10.11) and Reference
11.
3.
Identify the three classes of second-order systems and give one representative example for each class.
What is the origin of the most second-
order systems in chemical processes?

4.
Discuss the overdamped, critically damped and underdamped responses of a

second-order
system.
Identify
their
distinguishing
characteristics.
5.
Describe the characteristics of an underdamped response.
6.
Develop the expressions for the overshoot and the decay ratio (eqns.
(11.11) and (11.12)).
7.
How do you understand the interaction or non-interaction of multicapacity

processes?
Give ghe general set of two differential equations describing;
(a) two non-interacting capacities and (b) two interacting capacities.

8.
Explain why two interacting capacities have more sluggish response than
two equivalent but non-interacting capacities.
9.
Show that as the number of non-interacting first-order systems in series

increases the response of the system becomes more sluggish.
10.
Develop the equations giving the response of a second-order system to a

unit impulse input for ~1, 5=1 and <cl.
11.
Prove eqn. (11.20) for two non-interacting capacities.
12.
A drum boiler (Figure P-11-10) has a capacity to store material and

thermal energy.
Are these capacities interacting or not?
13.
What is the origin of the most common systems with inherent second-order
dynamics?
14.
Describe an example.
You can use References 10 and 11.
In Example 11.4 if you use Proportional Control only would you change
the order of the tank's dynamic behavior?
Il ,. 6
30
Kp
IL
i.0
0.4
---A--- - -
--
;z
4
>
APPENDIX
ORDER
EXAMPLES OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS WITH INHERENT SECOND-
ll.A.
DYNAMICS.
Systems with inherent second-order dynamics can exhibit oscilla-
tory
(underdamped)
behavior
but
are
rather
rare
in
chemical
processes.
In this appendix we will present three simple units which can be encountered
1.
in
chemical
plants
and
which
possess
second-order
dynamics.
Simple Manometers and Externally Mounted Level Indicators.

Consider the simple U-tube manometer shown in Figure ll.A-la.
When the pressures at the top of the two legs are equal, the two
liquid levels are at rest at the same horizontal plane. Let us assume
that suddenly a pressure difference Ap = pl - p2 is imposed on the two
legs
of
the
manometer.
We like to know what is the dynamic response of
the levels in the two legs.

Let us apply Newton's law given by equation (11.31),
meter.
We
on the mano-
take,
forcepduEnt;ePgr;ssure)
1
_ (forcepduEnt;e;rqssure)
2
force due to liquid

force due to
- ( level difference ) - (fluid friction)
in the two legs
=
mass of liquid
( in the tube > x (acceleration)
or
ii A (2h) _ ( force due to ) = p$ (ll.A-1)
PIAl - p2A2 - p gc 2
fluid friction
C
where,
pl'p2
= pressures at the top of legs 1 and 2 respectively.
Al,A2 = cross sectional areas of legs 1 and 2 respectively.

Typically Al = A2 = A.
density
acceleration
conversion
gC
of
liquid
in
manometer.
gravity.
constant.
= mass of liquid in the manometer = PAL
= average velocity of the liquid in the tube.

assumed
flat
that
the
(plug
deviation
velocity
profile
in
the
We
tube
have
is
flow).
of
liquid
level
from
the
initial
plane
of
rest.
L
Poiseuille's
the
force
equation
due
(Poiseuille's
to
length
for
fluid
of
liquid
laminar
friction
in
flow
with
the
in
the
manometer
tubes.
pipe
be
flow
can
velocity.
used
Thus,
we
relate
have
equation)
rR4 AP
dh
(volumetric flowrate) = A dt = -811 L
where;
to
= radius
of
the
pipe
through
which
(ll.A-2)
liquid
flows.
viscosity
= length of the pipe.
AP
= pressure drop due to fluid friction along the tube of

length
Therefore,
applying
of
the
flowing
liquid.
L.
Poiseuille's
equation
to
the
flow
of
liquid
in
the
manometer, we take:
(ll.A-3)
Recall
also
that
the
v = dhldt
fluid
and
velocity
and
acceleration
are
dv/dt = d2h/dt2
given
by,
(ll.A-4)
Put equation (ll.A-3) and (ll.A-4) in equation (ll.A-1) and take:
pAL d2h
8pL.A dh
Ap*A -yh ---=-C
R2gc
dt gc dt2
Finally, after dividing both sides by 2pgA/gc
we take,
+ 41.1L dh
gC
Tx+h=2pgAp
P@
(ll.A-5)
Define,
T2 = Ll2g ,
26~ = 4uL/psR2
and Kp = gc/20g
and
take,
T2 d2h
dh
- + 2r;T dt
+ h = KP'Ap
dt2
(ll.A-6)
the transfer function between h and Ap is
Therefore,
k(s)-KP
(11 .A-71
T2S2 + 25TS + 1
*i(s)
Both equations (ll.A-6) and (11-A-7) indicate the inherent second-order

dynamics
of
For
the
the
manometer.
measurement
of
liquid
levels
quite
often
we
use
the
externally mounted displacement-type transmitter, which is shown in

Figure ll.A-lb.
chamber,
has
We
many
notice
that
similarities
the
with
system
the
of
the
manometer.
tank-displacer
The cross sectional
areas of the two legs are unequal and the Ap (external) pressure difference is caused by a change in the liquid level of the main tank.
Therefore,
we expect that the response of the level in the displacer
chamber (h,) will follow second-order dynamics with respect to a change

in the liquid level of the tank (h), i.e.
h,(s)
'rn
-=
,;s2 + 26,T,S + 1
a)
2.
Variable
Capacitance
(ll.A-8)
Differential
Pressure
Transducer.
The variable capacitance differential pressure transducer is a

very
popular
ferences.
device
which
is
used
to
sense
and
transmit
pressure
dif-
Figure ll.A-2 shows a schematic of such a device. Pressure
differences cause small displacements of the sensing diaphragm. The

position
both
of
the
sides
of
sensing
the
diaphragm
diaphragm.
is
detected
by
capacitor
A change in pressure pl
plates
on
in the process
(such as a change in the pressure of a vessel, or a change in liquid

level in a tank, etc.) will make the pressure p2 at the end of the
capillary
A
tube
force
to
change.
balance
around
the
capillary
will
yield;
Force due to the

Force due to the
pressure pl of the process) _ (pressure p2 exercised)
( exercised at the end 1
at the end 2 of the
of the capillary.
capillary
(mass)
(acceleration)
or
plA
- p2A
ALP
= (7)
C
d2x
(ll.A-9)
dt2
where,
A
cross-sectional
area
length
capillary
= density of the liquid in the capillary tube.
fluid
of
the
displacement
of
in
the
capillary.
tube.
the
capillary
tube
= displacement of diaphragm.
The force p2A at the end of the capillary is balanced by two forces,
i.e.
P# = (
resistance exerted by
viscous friction force
the diaphragm
)+( exercised by the fluid >
which acts like a spring
dx
=Kx+cz
(ll.A-10)
where,
K
= Hooke's constant for the diaphragm, and
= damping coefficient of the viscous liquid in front

of the diaphragm.
Substitute p2A in equation (ll.A-9) by its equal given by equation

(ll.A-10) and take:
(ll.A-11)
Equation (ll.A-11) clearly indicates that the response of the device

(i.e. the diaphragm displacement, x) when the process pressure, p 1 ,
changes,
follows
second-order
T2 = A-u/g
c
'
dynamics.
If we define,
26T = C/K and K = A/K
we take the following transfer function,
24 _ L
Fl (s) T2S2 + 2FTS + 1
3.
Pneumatic
The
ment.
Valve.
pneumatic
It
is
Consider
a
a
valve
is
system
the
that
typical
most
commonly
exhibits
inherent
pneumatic
valve
like
used
final
control
second-order
that
of
ele-
dynamics.
Figure
ll.A-3.
The position of the stem (or equivalently of the plug at the end of
the stem) will determine the size of the opening for flow and consequently
the
size
of
the
flow
The position of the stem is
(flowrate).
determined by the balance of all forces acting on it. These forces

are:
-
PA
= force exerted by the compressed air at the top of the diaphragm.
Pressure p is the signal that opens or closes the
valve and A is the area of the diaphragm.
This
force
acts
downwards.
- K x
= force exerted by the spring attached to the stem and the

K is the Hooke's constant for the spring and x
diaphragm.
is
the
displacement.
dx
- Cx= frictional
contact
of
coefficient
Apply
Newton's
law
force
the
exerted
stem
between
and
It
with
stem
take:
M d2x
pA-Kx-Cz=r~
c dt
or,
acts
upward.
upward
and
valve
and
resulting
packing.
packing.
from
the
close
C is the friction
Let,
T2
= M/Kg
'
XT = C/K , K = A/K
and take,
=2 -+
d2x
dx x = Kp*p
2<r dt+
dt2
The last equation indicates that the stem position x follows inherent
second-order dynamics, when p changes.
ad
P(s)
A/K
_
(g-)s2
The transfer function is
(ll.A-12)
+ ; s + 1
Usually, M << Kgc and as a result the dynamics of a pneumatic valve

can be approximated by first-order.
k - --c
_-L -_L-..- -.- t -.
L
_
.
_
.
.
-.
c_
cc
_-:r+
-_ -.-_
- _. -- -.L ._ __ - _ ,
CHAPTER 12
THE
Systems
with
higher
Three
processes.
DYNAMIC
are
BEHAVIOR
than
the
OF
HIGHER-ORDER
second-order
most
often
dynamics
encountered
SYSTEMS
are
not
classes
uncommon
of
in
chemical
higher-order
systems:
-
first-order
processes
in
series
(multicapacity
processes)
- Processes with dead-time

In
Processes
this
with
inverse
chapter
we
response.
will
analyze
their
typical
dynamic
characteristics.
12.1 N CAPACITIES IN SERIES

In
Section
non-interacting,
11.3
give
we
found
rise
to
that
a
two
capacities
second-order
in
series,
interacting
or
If we extend the same
system.
procedure to N capacities (first-order systems) in series, we find that the

overall
fer
response
function
is
is
ans n
of
an
+
n-th
n-th
anls
order,
order
n-l
+
i.e. the
denominator
of
the
overall
trans-
polynomial,
** + als + a0
If the N capacities are non-interacting, then the overall transfer

function
is
given
by
eqn.
(11.21)
K
Go(s)=G1(s)G2(s)"'GN(~)
p1
s+l)(T
= (T
p2
p1
where Gl(s),
For
G2(s),***,
interacting
In
11.3
PN
we
the
overall
studied
the
transfer
basic
function
dynamic
is
be
easily
N capacities in series.
drawn
from
the
discussion
in
more
characteristics
capacities in series when the input is changed by a step.

possible for
(11.21)
s+l)
GN (s) are the transfer function of the N capacities.
capacities
Section
**OK
'2
'N
s+l)***(-r
Similar
complex.
of two
analysis
is
The following general conclusions can

Section
11.3.
A.
-
NON-INTERACTING N CAPACITIES IN SERIES

The
response
the
characteristics
oscillatory
and
very
sluggish.
Increasing
the
number
of
the
B.
-
has
of
an
in
series
capacities
overdamped
system,
increases
the
i.e.
it
is
sluggishness
not
of
response.
INTERACTING N CAPACITIES IN SERIES
Interaction
It
is
necessitate
increases
clear
the
sluggishness
therefore,
controller
that
which
will
of
the
process
with
not
only
overall
response.
N capacities in series will
keep
the
final
output
at
desired
value but will also try to improve the speed of the system's response.
Let us now examine some typical examples of processes with N capacities
in
series.
Example
12.1
- Jacketed
Reactors
as
Multicapacity
Processes
Consider the batch reactor shown in Figure 12.la. The reaction is exothermic and the content of the reactor is cooled by constant flow of cold
water
circulating
capacities
in
through
the
jacket.
We
can
identify
the
following
three
series:
Heat capacity of the mixture in the reactor.
Heat
capacity
of
the
reactor's
wall.
- Heat capacity of the coolant in the jeacket.

It is easy to show that the three capacities interact.
For
the
jacketed
CSTR
of
Figure 12.lb
i.e.
-
total
material
capacity.of
the
tank,
- tank's capacity for component A,
we
have
more
interacting
capacities,
29
heat
capacity
of
the
reactor's
content,
heat capacity of the reactor's wall, and
- heat capacity of tht cold water in the jacket.

Again, all
five
According
reactors
Example
to
capacities
to
what
input
are
interacting.
we
have
said
changes
will
be
above, we expect that the response of the
rather
slow.
12.2 - Staged Processes as Multicapacity Systems
Distillation
chemical
and
processes
gas
for
absorption
the
columns
separation
of
Each
systems have a number of trays.
are
very
mixture
tray
has
often
encountered
in
Both
into
its
components.
material
and
heat
capacities.
Therefore,
each column with N trays can be considered as a system with 2N
capacities
in
easy
to
see
series.
that
Therefore,
top
of
the
the
From
2N
absorption
capacities
column
of
solvent
in
because
the
input
change
in
physics
of
distillation
the
produces
valuable
has
to
and
absorption
it
is
interact.
a step change in the liquid flowrate
content
capacities
the
very
delayed,
component
travel
of the solvent at the

sluggish
response
for
the
A (see Figure P.II-13). This is
through
large
ratio
of
number
of
interacting
series.
Similarly, a
step
change
in
the
reflux
distillation
column
(see Figure 4.10) will have quickly an effect on the composition of the overhead
product
sluggishly
while
(delayed
the
and
composition
of
the
bottoms
an
immediate
will
respond
very
slow).
Finally, a step change in the steam flowrate

almost
stream
effect
on
the
composition
of
of the reboiler will have

the
bottoms
stream
since
few trays intervene between the returned to the column stream V and the
very
bottoms product. On the contrary, the

head
product
will
be
delayed
and
effect
very
on
the
composition
of
the
over-
slow.
12.2 DYNAMIC SYSTEMS WITH DEAD TIME

For all the systems we examined in Chapters 10, 11 and Section 12.1, we
have assumed that there is no dead-time between an input and the output, i.e.
whenever
taneously
change
took
observed
and
contrary
to
will
involve
some
in
place
the
our
in
behavior
physical
time
the
delay
input
of
the
experience.
between
variable,
the
output
its
variable.
Virtually
input
effect
all
and
the
was
instan-
This is not true
physical
processes
output.
Consider a first-order system with a dead time td between the output

y(t) and the
input
(forcing
function)
f(t).
We
can
a series of two systems as shown in Figure 12.2a,

series with a dead time.
transfer
while
for
For
first-order
such
system
by
i.e. a first-order system in
system
we
have
the
following
the
delayed
function,
the
dead
time we
have
[y(t) 1
the
(see
Section
7.2,
eqn.
(7.10))
-t&i
[Yet - td)l
Therefore,
the
represent
= e
transfer function
between
the
input
f(t)
and
output
y(t - td> is given by (Figure 12.2b)
I
-tds
[Ytt - t,)l
[f(t) 1
Similarly,
by,
the
KP'e
rPs + l
transfer function
for
second-order
system
with
delay
is
given
-tds
- t$l
[f(t)1
[y(t
(1)
Remarks:
Figure
KP e
=
12.3
(12.2)
T2S2 + 25TS + 1
shows
the
response
of
first
and
second-order
sys-
tems with dead time to a step change in the input.

(2)
Quite
often
the
exponential
or second order Padi:
first-order
the
first
(12.3a)
approximation
second-order
^ ^
(td)'sL + 6tds + 12
Processes
output
by
(td)2s2 - 6tds + 12
-tds
(3)
approximated
approximations
- 2
& '
::
is
td
1
ewtds
term
with
does
dead
not
time
are
contain
difficult
information
to
about
.approximation
_
(12.3b)
control
because
current
events.
the
12.3 DYNAMIC SYSTEMS WITH INVERSE RESPONSE

The
dynamic
behavior
we have seen so far.
of
certain
the
called
opposite
Inverse
small
number
Example
direction
Response
of
Consider
the
to
or
We
Inverse
simple
where
it
Nonminimum
processing
12.3 - The
deviates
notice
that
eventually
Phase
and
consequently
the
initially
ends
from
the
what
Such
up.
response
behavior
Response
and
it
is
exhibited
Liquid
Level
in
Boiler
is
is
by
units.
Response
drum
boiler
of
the
shown
in
Figure
of the cold feedwater -.

is increased by a step, the
water
drastically
Figures 12.4b and 12.5b show the response of such sys-
terns to a step change in the input.

in
processes
liquid
level
will
be
If the flowrate
P.II-10.
total
decreased
volume
for
System
of
a
the
short
boiling
period
and
then
it
will
increasing, as shown by the response in Figure 12.4b.
start
Such behavior is the net result of two opposing effects and can be explained
as
follows:
The
cold
the
entrained
of
the
12,4b),
-
feedwater
With
temperature
water,
the
liquid
following
form
level
(pure
drop
which
decreases
the
volume
of
This leads to a decrease of the liquid level
bubbles.
first-order
i.e. -K /(r s+l).

p1
p1
constant heat supply, the
integral
i.e.
vapor
boiling
sequently
an
causes
of
steam
the
capacity)
behavior
production
boiling
water
leading
to
(curve
remains
will
pure
in
constant
start
Figure
and
increasing
capacitive
conin
response,
/s (curve 2 in Figure 12.2a).

p2
- The result of the two opposing effects is given by
K
- p2
S
and
K
-
p1
s+l
rpl
-K
)s+K
'c
p2 p1
p1
p2
S(T s+l)
p1
(12.4)
for
K-r
p2 Pl
the
(K
second
response.
<K
p1
term
-K /(T s+l) dominates initially and we take the inverse

p1
p1
If the above condition is not satisfied we do not have inverse
response.
[Note:
function
The
When
has
above
opposing
K 'c <K
then
p2 p1 p1
a positive zero.]
example
demonstrates
effects.
Table
or second-order systems.
an
inverse
response,
its
12.1
In
from
that
the
shows
all
transfer
(12.4) we
eqn.
inverse
several
cases
we
function
response
such
notice
has
notice
that
is
the
opposing
that
result
effects
when
positive
the
the
zero.
transfer
of
between
system
two
first
possesses
In general,
the
transfer
function
of
system
with
bmsm + b,-lsm-'
G(s) =
ansn + anels
inverse
response
is
given
by
** + bls + b.
n-l + 0.0 + als + a0
where one of the roots of the numerator, i.e. one of the zeros of the transfer
function
has
positive
Systems
with
real
part.
inverse
response
are
particularly
difficult
to
control
require
special
Example
12.4 - Inverse Response from Two Opposing First-Order Systems
Figure
attention.
12.5a
effects
result
response
equal
and
shows
from
two
another
possibility
different
of
first-order
inverse
response.
Two
opposing
processes,
yielding
an
overall
to
K
Y(s)
K
p1
p2
(
s+l - T s+lms)
Tpl
p2
(K r
-K
T )s+(K
-K >
p1 p2
p2 p1
p1
p2
(T s+l)(,r SSl)
p1
p2
or
Y(s)
We
have
inverse
initially
ultimately
i.e.
Figure
[Note:
system's
response
PROCESS
_. _
PROCESS
1
1
when
reacts
slower
reaches
than
higher
PROCESS
steady
2,
state
i.e. T
> T
but
p1
p2'
value than PROCESS 2,
> K
p1
12.5b
When
p2'
shows
the
inverse
response
of
the
overall
'I
>'c
,K
>K
and K 'I < K 'c
p1
p2
p1
p2
p1 p2
p2 p1
transfer function has a positive zero, i.e.
system.
we find that the
- K
p1
p2
K T
-K
T
p1 p2
p2 p1

Chemical
processing
systems
may
exhibit
higher
order
The
response.
most
common are; (a) N capacities in series, (b) systems with de-d time and (c)
systems
with
sluggish
and
if
inverse
response.
the
The
capacities
time.
First-order
in
chemical
response.
sluggishness
are
with
dead
process.
The
effects, usually
the
N capacities in series yield delayed and

increases
interacting.
time
inverse
difference
of
covers
systems, (b) second-order systems, (c)

without
are
time
difficult
delay.
to
Systems
control.
with
the
number
of
capacities
Virtually all processes possess dead

the
response
the
with
large
is
the
responses
first
significant
majority
and
dead
result
between
of
of
(a)
second-order
time
and
dynamic
two
elements
opposing
first-order
systems,
inverse
with
response
or
I
I
I
I
I
I
3
I
I
I
I
I
I
THINGS.TO THINK ABOUT

1.
How would you define a higher-order
2.
Using the above definition why is a system with dead time a higher-order
system?
3.
(Hint:
system?
See item 4 below).
Show that as the number of non-interacting
or interacting capacities in
series increases, the response of the system becomes more sluggish.

4.
Consider
N identical non-interacting
capacities
in series, with gain
and time constant ~~ for each capacity. Show that as N + 00)

P
the response of the system approaches the response of a system with
dead time T
5.
and overall gain K .

P
P
In an ideal binary distillation column the dynamics of each tray can be
described by first-order systems.

not.
What general type of responses would you expect for the overhead
and bottoms compositions

6.
to a step change in the feed composition?
How many capacities can you identify in the mixing process of Example
4.11? Are th-ey interacting
7.
why?
8.
What is an inverse response aud what causes it?
9.
Shw qualitatively
distillation
10
,tbat the response of the bottoms composition of a
column to a step change in the vapor boilup, V, can exhibit
inverse behavior.
or not?
What is the most common transfer function encountered in chemical processes?
Are these capacities interacting or
(rOnsuIt
References
I , 1.
Why do you think-a system with inverse response is difficult to control?
REFERENCES
Chapter
6:
Two
very
good
references
on
computer
simulation
(digital
or
Engineers
by
analog)
are the books by Luyben and Franks.

(1)
Process Modeling, Simulation and Control for

W. L. Luyben, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York
Chemical
(1973).
(2)
Modeling and Simulation in Chemical Engineering

J. Wiley and Sons, New York (1972)
by
Both
books
the
neering
can
and
our
for
also
series
demonstrate
enhance
trollers
are
provide
digital
to
understand
systems.
included.
For
examples
how
ability
such
of
Computer
more
solution
of
algebraic
or
consult
the
following
two
computer
the
differential
on
from
dynamics
in
the
E.
of
of
develop
FORTRAN
for
the
Franks,
chemical
chemical
and
numerical
equations
G.
area
simulation
programs
details
classic
drawn
R.
reader
processes
better
con-
typical
techniques
is
engi-
systems
for
the
encouraged
to
books:
(3) Digital Computation for Chemical Engineers, by L. Lapidus, McGraw-Hill

Book Co., New York (1962).
(4)
Applied Numerical Methods, by B. Carnahan, H.

Wilkes, J. Wiley and Sons, New York (1969).
The
notion
and
the
linear
approximation
standard
the
texts
on
characteristics
of
of
nonlinear
the
Taylor
systems
can
R.
Luther
series
be
and
J.
expansion
as
found
in
all
D.
well
as
the
calculus.
In Section 6.1 of his book Douglas [Ref. 51 discusses a procedure that

allows
for
us
to
which
ascertain
the
the
linearized
range
model
of
is
values
around
the
point
6.1
was
Russell
motivated
by
and
where
Denn
the
linearization
acceptable.
(5) Process Dynamics and Control, Vol. 1, by J. M.,Douglas,

Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (1972).
Example
of
physical
the
reader
system
can
analyzed
book
by
find
more
(6)
Introduction to Chemical Engineering Analysis, by T.

M. M. Denn, J. Wiley and Sons, New York (1972).
Prentice-Hall,
in
Section
2.3
of
information.
W.
F.
Russell
and
the
The Laplace
Chapters 7 and 8:
transformation has been the object of a large

For
body of mathematical research.

Laplace
of
transforms
the
reader
will
(7)
Operational Mathematics, 2nd

For
the
use
of Laplace
more
details
find
useful
edition, by
transforms
to
the
on
the
the
R.
V.
solution
theoretical
following
book:
Churchill,
of
aspects
McGraw-Hill
differential
equations
(ordinary, partial or sets of) the book by Jenson and Jeffreys can be very
valuable.
(8)
Mathematical Methods in Chemical Engineering,

Jeffreys, Academic Press London (1963).
by
V.
G.
Jenson
and
G.
V.
In the following two references the reader can find tables with the Laplace
transformation
of
large
number
of
functions:
(9) Feedback and Control Systems, by J. J. DiStefano, III, A. R. Stubberud

and J. J. Williams, Schaums Outline Series, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York (1967).
(10)
Handbook
Stegun,
Chapter
10:
of
Mathematical
Functions,
and 9)
and
an
momentum
valuable
. Abramowity and . .
The book by Weber [Ref. 111 is an excellent reference for the
dynamics of first-order systems.

8
by
extensive
balances,
physical
coverage
with
interpretation
The
of
first-order
large
of
interested
number
the
systems
of
notion
reader
will
based
examples.
of
capacity
find
on
(Chapters
mass,
energy
It provides also a
for
various
pro-
T. W.
Weber,
J.
cessing systems.
(11)
An Introduction to Process Dynamics

and Sons, New York (1973).
and
Control,
by
Wiley
In the books by Douglas [Ref. 51 and Coughanowr and Koppell [Ref. 121 the
reader
inputs.
can
find
the
response
of
first-order
systems
to
impulse
or
sinusoidal
The response of a capacity process to a sinusoidal input is also
given in Chapter 12 of this text.

(12) Process Systems Analysis and Control, by D. R. Coughanowr and L. B.
Koppell, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1965).
Chapter
11:
The book by Weber [Ref. 111 is also an excellent reference for the
development and physical interpretation of second-order systems (Chapter 10).

It
contains
find
examples
quite
useful.
Douglas [Ref. 51
of
inherently
second-order
which
the
reader
In the books by Coughanowr and Koppell [Ref. 121
the
reader
can
find
impulse
and
sinusoidal
inputs.
For
mounted
level
measuring
systems,
or
order
systems
characteristics, the
reader
the
response
more
the
can
of
information
manometers,
consult
the
second-orcer
on
the
and
and
systems
to
externally
their
References
will
dynamic
18
second-
(Chapter 18),
11 (Chapter 10) or the book by Shiskey [Ref. 13, Chapter 31.

(13)
Process Control Systems, 2nd

The
following
variable
control
two
references
capacitance
differential
F.
consulted
pressure
for
G.
Shinskey,
further
transducer
McGraw-Hill
details
and
the
on
the
pneumatic
Part 2: Proces Control Loops, by J. C. Guy,

24, p. 111 (1981).
Measurements and Control Applications for Practicing

J. 0. Hougen, Cahners Books, Boston (1972).
Chapter
the
be
by
valve.
(14) Process Dynamics.

Chem. Engng., Aug.
(15)
can
edition,
12:
bottoms
Luyber
[Ref. l]
composition
boilup (Section 11-5).

following
of
has
good
distillation
Engineers,
discussion
on
the
inverse
column
change
in
to
by
response
the
of
vapor
More details on this system can be f;ound in the
paper:
(16) "by W. L. Luyben, Inst. Chem. Eng. (London), Symp. Ser. No. 32, p. 6
(1969)."
Iinoya
and
exhibit
inverse
situations
(17)
Altpeter
[Ref. 171
response
(transfer
and
discuss
give
functions)
the
table
which
give
characteristics
of
the
rise
most
to
inverse
response
of
common
inverse
"Inverse Response in Process Control," by K. Iinoya

Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol. 54, No. 7, p. 39 (1962).
In the book by Shinskey
of
and
the
systems
which
physical
response.
R.
J.
Altpeter,
[Ref. 131 the reader can find further discussion on the

drum
boiler.
A-B
,
I Figwe
12 . 31
I-
,!%.
S
Input
+)
k
.
t,st4
*<
-- ----
(. a )
Cb)
C-+.
PsoCEsS 1
cc )
S
output
>
PROCESS
?j (9
Table
1.
12.1.
Pure capacitive minus first-order response (Figure 11.11)

K
for
P2
K
P2
G(s)
2.
Systems With Inverse Response
<
p1
-K
)s+K
p1
p1
P2
S(T s+l)
p1
(K T
p1
s+l
P2
Tpl
zero = -K
p1
/(K
p2
T
p2
p1
-K)>O
p1
Difference between two first-order responses (Figure 11.12)

K
K
-K
T )s+(K
(K T
-K >
p1
p2
p1
p2
p2
p1
p1
p2
G(s) =
s+l - T s+l =
CT s+l)(T
s+l)
Tpl
P2
p1
p2
for
3.
K T <
p1 p2
Difference
K 'I
P2 p1
between
zero = (K
-K
T )
- K )/(K
-r
p2
p1 p2
p2 Pl
p1
two
first-order
responses
-T
4.
Second-order
l e
first-order
Difference
between
two
>K
and T
>'I
L 0
p2
dl
d2
p1
p2
for
s+l
second-order
>K
K
p1
P2
for
r;s2 + 2C2T2S + 1
I
6.
p2
Pl
responses
K
G(s) =
p1
T2S2 + 25TS + 1
5.
for
response
K
G(s)
time
s+l
minus
dead
d2
P2
G(s) =
with
2
T2
K
p1 >
-7j K
Tl
p2
Difference between two second-order responses with dead time
I
-T
K
G(s)
l e
dl
p1
T;s2 + 2yp + 1
-T
l e
S
d2
P2
T;s2 + 2c2T2S
for
+ 1
K >K
and
p1
p2
dl Id2 2 0 .
PART
ANALYSIS
In
systems
Part
III
we
under
the
influence
manipulated
system
in
AND
to
studied
variables).
respond
controlling
in
the
DESIGN
the
of
IV
OF
FEEDBACK
dynamic
changes
CONTROL
behavior
in
the
of
input
SYSTEMS
various
typical
variables
processing
(disturbances
or
In doing so, we were not concerned about having the
specific
behavior
of
manner:
the
in
other
words,
we
were
not
interested
process.
Starting with Part IV, our main concern will be; how can we control a
process
in
order
input changes.
as
FFEDBACK,
VI
we
to
We
which
will
exhibit
will
we
discuss
certain
start
with
touched
the
upon
additional
desired
very
control
response
most
common
briefly
in
in
the
control
Chapter
configurations
presence
configuration
2.
such
of
known
In Parts V and
as;
feedforward,
cascade, ratio, override, split range, multivariable, etc.

Thus, in the subsequent eight chapters of Part IV, we will do the following:
-
Discuss
the
Identify
control
the
and
Analyze
learn
notion
types
examine
the
how
to
of
the
of
feedback
their
stability
design
feedback
effect
loop
controllers
on
the
characteristics
the
and
appropriate
of
present
which
response
a
feedback
its
are
of
feedback
system
hardware
available
a
for
chemical
control
elements.
process.
system
to
control
during
the
process
and
given
process.
-
Solve
some
feedback
special
problems
controllers.
which
are
encountered
design
of
1
/
I
CHAPTER 13
INTRODUCTION TO FEEDBACK CONTROL
In Chapter 1 we introduced the notion of a feedback control system. In
this chapter we will expand the discussion by introducing the hardware elements
of a feedback system and the types of the available controllers.
13.1 THE CONCEPT OF FEEDBACK CONTROL
Consider the generalized process shown in Figure 13.la.
It has an output
y, a potential disturbance d and an available manipulated variable m. The

disturbance
d (also known as load or process load) changes in an unpredictable
manner and our control objective is to keep the value of the output y at
desired levels.
A feedback control action takes the following steps:
- Measures the value of the output (flow, pressure, liquid level, temperature,
composition) using the appropriate measuring device.
Let
yrn
be the value
indicated by the measuring sensor.

- Compares the indicated value y, to the desired value ySP (set point) of
the output.
Let the deviation (error) be E = yd - y,.
- The value of the deviation E is supplied to the main controller. The

i
controller in turn changes the value of the manipulated variable m in
such a way as to reduce the magnitude of the deviation 8.
Usually, the
controller does not affect the manipulated variable directly but through
another device (usually a control valve) which is known as the final control
element.
Figure 13.lb summarizes pictorially the above three steps.
The system in Figure 13.la is known as open loop in contrast to the feedback controlled system of Figure 13.lb which is called closed loop. Also, when
the value of d changes. the response of the first is called open-loop response
while
that
of
the
closed-loop
is
evident
Example
The
13.1
second
is
from
Feedback
following
the
the
Figure
Control
represent
closed-loop
The origin of the term
response.
13.lb.
Systems
some
typical
feedback
control
systems
which
are
often encountered in chemical processes.
(4
Flow control.
Two feedback systems are shown in Figures 13.2a and 13.2b,
controlling the flowrate
(b)
Pressure
Control.
The
F at the desired value Fd.
feedback
system
in
Figure 13.2~
controls
the
pressure of the gases in the tank, at the desired pressure pd.
(cl
Liquid Level Control.
Figures 13.2d and 13.2e show two feedback systems
used for the control of the liquid levels at the bottom of a distillation
column
Cd)
and
its
Temperature
condenser
Control.
accumulation
tank.
The system in Figure 13.2f controls the temperature
of the exiting hot stream at the desired value Td.
Cd
Composition
Control.
Composition
is
the
controlled
variable
in
the
blending system of Figure 13.2g. The desired value is Cd.

Remark:
To
simplify
the
presentation
of
feedback
control
system,
we
will
usually replace the diagrammatic details, e.g. measuring device,

comparator,
the
controller,
following
with
simple
circle
carrying
the
one
of
characterizations:
FC for flow control,

PC for pressure control,
LC for liquid level control,
TC for temperature and
CC,
for
composition
control.
Also, little squares with the characterizations LT, TT, PT, FT, CT are used to
indicate
level,
transmitters.
temperature,
pressure, flow, and concentration measurements and
Figures 13.3a and 13.3b are equivalent to Figures 13.2b and
13.2d, respectively.
All
the
feedback
1.
control
place
Measuring
bellows
examples
loop
Process, the
take
2.
above
are
indicate
the
material
heat
instruments
or
diaphragms
the
basic
hardware
components
of
following:
equipment
(tanks,
or
that
where
the
exchangers,
reactors,
sensors, like
(for
pressure
(for flow), gas chromatographs
physical
or
separators,
thermocouples
or
chemical
liquid
etc.).
(for
level),
operations
temperature),
orifice
plates
or various types of spectroscopic
analyzers (for composition), etc.

3.
Transmission
to
the
lines, used
controller
and
the
final control element.

air
4.
or
liquid)
Controller,
it
or
to
carry
the
control
These
measurement
signal
lines
from
can
be
signal
the
from
controller
either
the
to
pneumatic
sensor
the
(compressed
electrical.
also
includes
the
function
of
the
comparator.
This
is
the unit with logic that decides by how much to change the value of the
5.
/
manipulated
variable.
value
point).
(set
requires
Final control element, usually

metering
from
of
It
the
the
pump.
This
controller
manipulated
is
and
the
the
specification
control
device
implements
that
it
by
valve
or
receives
of
a
the
physically
the
desired
variable-speed
control
adjusting
signal
the
value
variable.
Each of the above elements should be viewed as a physical system with an

input
and
different
an
output.
equation
or
Consequently,
equivalently
their
by
behavior
transfer
can
be
function.
described
In
the
by
following
sections of this chapter we will take a closer look at the dynamics of these
hardware
elements.
13.2 TYPES OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS

Between
the
measuring
device
controller (Figure 13.lb).
and
Its
the
function
final
is
control
to
receive
elements
the
measured
signal y,(t) and after comparing it with the set point yd

actuating
value
signal
to
the
output
produce
the
c(t) in such a way as to return the output to the desired
Therefore,
YSP'
comes
the input to the controller is the error

The
ysp - y,(t) while its output is c(t).
various
types
of
E(t) =
continuous
feedback controllers differ on the way they relate E(t) to c(t).

The
output
and
may
be
an
electrical
There
(b)
of
pneumatic
one
are
functions
of
for
three
basic
essentially
Proporational
Its
output
Kcc(t)
of
(c)
the
is
+
for
feedback
among
same.
(or
air)
on
its
pneumatic
construction
controllers
controllers;
(a)
or
proportional,
proportional-integral-derivative.
differ
Controller.
actuating
c(t)
and
depends
controllers.
types
may
controller
(compressed
electronic
construction
are
feedback
signal
proportional-integral
details
A.
signal
the
Let
us
various
study
manufacturers
each
one
The
but
their
separately.
Controller)
proportional
to
the
error,
i.e.
(13.1)
cs
where K = controller proportional gain and cs = controller bias signal,

c
i.e. its actuating signal when E=O.
A
gain Kc
The
proportional
controller
or
equivalently
PB
proportional
by
is
its
described
by
the
proportional
band,
the
over
value
of
its
proportional
PB
loo/Kc
band
characterizes
range
which
the
error
must
change
in order to drive the actuating signal of the controller over its full range.
Usually,
PB
<
500
It is clear that,
"the larger the &ain Kc
smaller
the
controller's
Define the deviation
and
or
c(t)
c(t)
c(t)
c(t)
K$t)
equation
yields
smaller
actuating
of
-
the
the
the
signal
actuating
proportional
will
signal
band
the
be."
by
cs
take,
The
last
(13.2)
the
following
transfer
function
for
proportional
controller
Gc(s>
(13.3)
Kc
Proportional-Integral
B.
Controller
(or
PI
Controller)
Most commonly it is known as proportional-plus-reset controller.

actuating
signal
c(t)
is
related
KCW
to
the
KC
-y-
I
where
an
r1
it
c(t)dt
by
the
parameter
varies
in
and
the
is
equation,
(13.4)
cs
is the integral time or reset time
adjustable
Usually
error
Its
sometimes
in
referred
minutes.
to
as
The reset time is
minutes
per
repeat.
range
0.1 I TI 5 50 minutes
Some manufacturers do not calibrate their controllers in terms of TI but in
terms of its reciprocal l/rI (repeats per minute), which is known as reset
rate.
At this point it is instructive to examine the origin of the term "reset".
Consider that the error changes by a step of magnitude E. Figure 13.4 shows
the response of the output of a controller as it is computed from eqn. (13.4).
3f3,
We observe that initially the controller output is Kc~ (the contribution of

the integral term is zero).
After a period of rI
minutes the contribution
of the integral term Is
c(t)dt
K
= 2 EATS = Kc~
r1
i.e. the integral control action has "repeated" the response of the proportional
action.
This repetition takes place every TI minutes and has lent the name
to the reset time.
Therefore,
"reset time is the time needed by the controller to repeat the

initial proportional action change in its output."
The integral action causes the controller output c(t) to change as long
as an error exists in the process output.
Therefore, such a controller can
eliminate even small errors.

From eqn. (13.4) it is easy to show that the transfer function of a
proportional-integral
Gc(s>
C.
(or
proportional-plus-reset)
controller
is
given
by
(13.5)
= Kc(l +-+-)
I
ProportionalrIntegral-Derivative
(or PID Controller)
In the industrial practice it is commonly known as proportional-glusreset-plus-rate
controller.
The output of the controller is given by,
c(t)
Kc
= K$t) + y
dc
E(t)dt + Kc 'D dt
(13.6)
where
TD
is the derivative time in minutes.
With the presence of the derivative term, Kc d&/dt, the PID controller
anticipates what the error will be in the immediate future and applies a control
action which is proportional to the rate of change in the error.
Due to this
property,
the
derivative
control
action
is
sometimes
referred
to
as
"anticipatory
3
control".
The
-
For
major
response
since dc/dt
-
For
and
drawbacks
the
constant
derivative
non-zero
control
error
it
action
gives
are
no
the
following:
control
action
= 0.
noisy
thus
with
of
response
with
large
control
yield
almost
zero
action,
error
it
can
although
it
is
compute
not
large
derivatives
needed.
From eqn. (13.6) we can easily derive the transfer function of a PID controller,
Gc(s>
13.3
= Kc(l+
m~ME;AsuRING
The
critical
DEVICES
successful
manner
(SENSORS)
operation
upon
the
of
good
uncorrupted
transmission
of
requirement
implies
need
the
(13.7)
-& + TDs)
I
any
feedback
measurement
the
of
the
measurement
for
an
control
to
accurate
system
controlled
the
depends
outupt
measuring
device
and
The
controller.
in
while
very
the
first
the
second
necessitates good and effective transmission lines.

There
is
large
number
of
commercial
sensors.
They
differ
either
in
the
basic measuring principle they employ or their constructional characteristics.

For more details the reader can consult the various references at the end of
Part
IV
or
the
technical
Let
us
look
the
most
common
A.
Flow
Sensors
The
those
The,
flow
which
using
more
measure
the
closely
process
sensors
well
booklets
at
circulated
the
various
by
the
various
manufacturers.
typical
sensors
used
to
measure
outputs.
most
the
known
commonly
pressure
(from
employed
gradient
fluid
in
the
developed
mechanics)
industrial
across
equation
a
of
practice
are
constriction.
Bernoulli,
we
can
compute
the
flow-rate.
Such sensors can be used for both gases and liquids.

Venturi tube (Figure 13.5b) and Dal1 flow
The orifice plate (Figure 13.5a),

tube
are
typical
examples
of
sensors
based
on
the
above
The last two are more
is more popular due to its simplicity and low cost.

expensive
but
also
more
The first
principle.
accurate.
A different sensor is the turbine flow meter which uses the number of
turbine
revolutions
Flow
sensors
to
compute
have
very
the
fast
flowrate
dynamics
of
and
liquids
they
quite
are
accurately.
usually
modeled
by
simple algebraic equations, i.e.

Flow =
where c1
is
the
sensor,
flow
striction
B.
and
(13.8)
a&constant
by
the
construction
characteristics
of
Ap is the pressure difference between the flow con-
and
determined
point
with
fully
developed
flow.
Pressure or Pressure Actuated Sensors

Such sensors are used to measure the pressure of a process or the
pressure difference which is employed to compute a liquid level or a flowrate

(orifice
plate,
transducer
device.
has
Venturi
become
Pressure
The
tube).
very
variable
Figure
popular.
differences
cause
small
capacitance
ll.A-2
shows
displacements
differential
a
of
schematic
the
pressure
of
such
sensing
diaphragm, Thepositionof the sensing diaphragm is detected by capacitor

plates
the
A
on
both
sensing
force
sides
of
diaphragm
balance
the
and
around
the
the
diaphragm.
capacitor
sensing
The
plates
diaphragm
differential
is
leads
converted
to
the
capacitance
into
between
d-c
voltage.
following second-
order model
2 d2z
'cdt2
where
25~
dz
dt
Kp*Ap
(13.9)
is
the
the
AP
T,C,K
actuating
details
Chapter
on
11.
by
the
the
sensing
difference,
diaphragm,
and
parameters of a 2nd order system defined in this
the
constructional
development
Various
of
pressure
are the +.hree

case
For
displacement
other
of
the
device.
eqn. (13.9) see Appendix ll.A at the end of
of
types
characteristics
sensors, all
of
of
them
measuring
the
dis-
placement of a mechanical part under the influence of Ap, are also in use.
C.
Temperature
The
most
Sensors
common
thermistors.
All
thermocouples, resistance
are
provide
the
measurement
in
bulb
terms
of
thermometers
electrical
and
signals.
Independently of their constructional differences their basic dynamic behavior

can be examined in terms of the temperature profiles in Figure 13.6a and 13.6b.
The
temperature
sensing
element
is
always
inside
thermowell,
Figure
13.7.
In the first case (Figure 13.6a)
we assume that the major resistance to heat
transfer
thermowell
is
located
outside
the
In such case we have a
casing.
single capacity with resistance and as we know from Chapter 10, it is modeled
by
first-order
system,
dTm
-+
=P dt
In
the
inside
in
second
and
series
and
second-order
Tm
case
outside
as
of
eqn.
construction).
(13.10)
the
casing.
we
thermowell
know
(overdamped)
the
T
we
from
dT
-$
have
Chapter
behavior,
25~
The parameters r and

of
(Figure 13.6b)
istics
i.e.
+ Tm
11
major
heat
transfer
This
is
equivalent
the
thermocouple
film
to
reading
resistances
two
capacities
will
exhibit
i.e.
= T
(13.11)
5 depend on the constructional and material character-
temperature
sensing
device
(i.e.
thermocouple,
casing,
materials
It is clear that the response of a thermocouple modeled by
(13.11) is slower than that of a thermocouple modeled by (13.10)(Figure
13.8).
D.
Composition
Analyzers
Typical examples of such sensors are: gas chromatographs

types of spectroscopiL
They
analyzers.
are
used
to
and various
measure
the
composition
of liquids or gases in terms of one or two key components or in terms of all

components
present
The
(dead
in
dominant
time)
in
dynamic
their
chromatographic
column,
process
to
stream
process
stream.
feature
response,
the
of
which
time
can
required
column, plus
the
composition
the
be
by
analyzers
quite
the
time
is
large.
sample
required
Thus,
to
to
the
time
for
travel
travel
delay
from
the
through
the
column, plus the time needed by the detector at the end of the column to
respond,
can
be
quite
large.
Such
long
time
delays
result
in
ineffective
control.
Other
features
operational
characteristic
reliability
(easy
of
composition
breakdown)
and
(b)
analyzers
their
are;
(a)
relatively
their
high
low
cost.
13.4 TRANSMISSION LINES

These
are
used
control
signal
to
mission
lines; the
the
the
long,
the
dynamic
from
consideration.
that
the
carry
final
the
process
of
element.
(compressed
changes
behavior
measurement
control
pneumatic
Unless
found
to
very
a
fast
signal
to
pneumatic
controller
and
the
There are two types of trans-
air, liquids)
or
the
the
and
the
transmission
transmission
line
electrical.
lines
can
be
are
very
neglected
When the above assumptions do not hold, it has been
following
transfer
function
correlates
successfully
the
pressure
at the outlet (PO> to the pressure at the inlet (Pi) of the pneumatic line,
-Td s
p,(s)
e
-=rps+l
pi
with
r /T s 0.25.
d P
IN
[Note:
the
subsequent
pneumatic transmissioLl
chapters, as a rule, we will neglect the dynamics of
lines.]
13.5 FINAL CONTROL ELEMENTS

These
are
the
control
and
adjust
The
the
hardware
action.
They
accordingly
most
common
components
receive
the
the
value
final
of
of
control
the
output
the
control
of
is
which
controller
manipulated
element
loops
implement
(actuating
signal)
variable.
pneumatic
valve
(Figure ll.A-3).
This is an air operated valve which controls the flow through an orifice by
positioning appropriately a plug.
The plug is attached at the end of a stem

As
which at the other end is supported on a diaphragm.

troller
output)
consequently
above
the
the
plug
diaphragm
restricts
increases,
the
flow
the
stem
through
the
known as an "air-to-close" valve (Figure 13.9a).

diaphragm
is
lost, the
valve
stem and the plug upward.
will
There
are
pneumatic
air
moves
pressure
down
orifice.
(con-
and
Such
valve
is
If the air supply above the
open" since
"fail
the
the
valves
spring
with
i.e. "air-to-open" which 'Ifail closed" (Figure 13.9b).
would
push
opposite
the
actions,
The most commercial
valves move from fully open to fully closed as the air pressure at the top of
the diaphragm changes from 13 to 15 psig.
In
Appendix
11-A
of
we
mathematical
which
describes
the
This was shown to be of second-
order.
But, the response to changes of most small or medium size valves is so

the
term
will
remain
signal)
For
to
the
dynamics
which
fluid
non-flushing
F =
can
be
relates
flow
control
model
behavior
that
pneumatic
the
dynamic
fast
developed
neglected.
the
through
liquids
the
valve.
output
In such case only a constant gain

from
the
valve.
flow
through
the
the
controller
valve
is
(air
given
pressure
by,
where
AP
= a constant
specific
f(x)
valve
The
valve
shape
of
the
the
pressure
drop
flow
plug's
the
valve,
which depends on the valve size,

gravity
flow
across
of
the
flowing
characteristic
characteristic
surface.
liquid
curve.
curve, f(x),
Figure
plugs and the corresponding f(x).
and
depends
13.10
shows
the
Figure
13.11
shows
on
most
the
geometrical
common
the
types
flow
of
capacity
characteristics for the various valves.

Other
final
control
elements
equipment, variable-drive
actuators,
motors
include
for
relays
fans
to
start
or
pumps, heavy
or
stop
load
various
electrohydraulic
etc.

Feedback
processes.
deviation
adjust
The
from
most
desired
value
controller's
set
Every
the
common
for
the
control
of
chemical
of
value
the
action
is
to
activate
the
manipulated
variable
such
the
that
controller,
through
output
the
variable
which
in
final
control
is
turn
returned
will
element.
to
the
point.
feedback
process,
(b)
loop
is
measuring
system
with
input
composed
sensor,
and (e) transmission lines.

physical
configuration
Its basic idea is to measure the controlled variable and use its
the
desired
(a)
is
Each
and
of
(c)
of
the
controller,
these
output.
following
(d)
elements
Their
hardware
dynamic
final
should
be
behavior
components;
control
element
considered
can
be
as
modeled
using the same principles as in Part II, and as we will see in Chapter 14, it
is
very
The
Integral
crucial
three
(PI
for
types
or
the
of
closed-loop
feedback
response
control
Proportional-plus-Reset)
of
the
controlled
process.
are; Proportional (P), Proportionaland
Proportional-Integral-Derivative
(PID
or
response
chapter
Proportional-plus-Reset-plus-Rate).
varies
we
There
elements.
requires
and
The
be
also study
will
is
will
great
their
variety
selection
information
extensively
which
of
the
the
analyzed
relative
of
measuring
appropriate
reader
can
Their
in
on
Chapter
and
devices
(sensors)
find
in
is
the
14.
advantages
element
books and are beyond the scope of this text.
effect
In the same
disadvantages.
and
important
technical
closed-loop
final
but
manuals
control
it
and
hand-
THINGS 'TO THINK ABOUT

1.
From all that you know so far, what

a
2.
feedback
Describe
control
one
are
the
strengths
and
weaknesses
of
system?
example
of;
(a)
liquid level control, (d)
flow
control,
(b)
control, (c)
pressure
temperature control, (e) composition control,
and which are not the same as the examples covered in this chapter.
Draw the appropriate diagrams.
3.
4.
Define
an
open,
closed,
What
are
Identify
the
Write
and
loop?
the
temperature
5.
open-loop
Also
basic
Bernoulli's
define
hardware
hardware
control
closed-loop
equation
an
difference
tank
for
points
between
the
in
stirred
how you can compute the flowrate

pressure
of
present
two
Why
open-loop
components
elements
of
system.
do
we
or
closed-loop
feedback
feedback
use
the
response.
control
loop
term;
loop?
for
the
heater.
of
Venturi
tube
and
show
through the tube by measuring the

two
points,
i.e.
prove
the
essence
of
eqn. (13.8).
6.
The
model
for
variable
capacitance
pressure
in Appendix ll.A and is given by eqn. (13.9).

is
does
7.
Is
inherently
this
it
second-order
mean
possible
for
the
to
have
and
can
exhibit
applicability
an
of
oscillatory
perature (T,) of a thermocouple, if
transducer
It
shows
underdamped
such
device?
behavior
by
the
measured
the
was
that
developed
the
system
response.
indicated
What
tem-
temperature
(T)
account,
before
deciding
pneumatic
control
valve.
changes by a step?
8.
Discuss
if
you
some
would
of
the
use
an
factors
you
air-to-close
should
or
take
into
air-to-open
9.
Compute
the
ramp
change
the
contributions
On
the
in
basis
derivative
10.
response
the
of
error
of
of
control
References
factors
which
PD
E,
the
this
Consult
(Proportional-Derivative)
i.e. E = at
proportional
example
with 01 = constant.
and
discuss
controller
the
derivative
nature
Sketch
actions
anticipatory
to
separately.
of
the
term.
6
(Chapter
affect
the
15)
and
selection
of
(Chapter
the
valve
10)
and
type,
discuss
i.e.
the
linear,
square root, equal percentage and hyperbolic.

11.
When
an
error
E(t)
increases
Idt)dt
troller
to
its
persists for a long time the value of the integral

significantly
maximum
and
allowable
may
lead
the
output
value.
We
say
that
of
the
PI
con-
controller
has saturated and in physical terms it means that the valve is fully
open
before
or
closed
the
error
before
has
the
been
control
driven
action
to
zero.
has
been
This
completed,
situation
is
i.e.
also
known
as reset windup. How would you handle such a situation? You can consult References 7 and 15.
COtiTROLLER
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tt)
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a.;>:a., . ,.J -
FINAL
CONTfZOL
ELEMENT
U&VICE
?I
PP cell
LiL
Orif iCf2
~Ficpre
cs
..
..
.
..
13.31
.
.w
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> time
g%-,
;--Alp---,
_-.. ._-
Prcc ess
Trmpautun
-I-
ExtfAcd film.
wsi sbw2, 6.
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Square
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0.B
0.3
0.6
/3.10(
CHAPTER 14
THE
In
the
DYNAMIC
previous
system
and
we
analyze
the
dynamic
control
system
yd
change.
chapter
discussed
we
its
behavior
when
This
BEHAVIOR
the
of
a
of
will
FEEDBACK
defined
hardware
values
analysis
OF
the
basic
notion
components.
process
the
be
CONTROLLED
which
done
by
of
feedback
control
In this chapter we will

is
disturbance
PROCESSES
controlled
(load)
considering
or
various
by
of
feedback
the
types
set
of
point
feed-
back controllers, i.e. P or PI or PID.
14.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM AND THE CLOSED-LOOP RESPONSE

Consider
each
of
and
final
its
relating
of
the
the
generalized
four
components;
control
its
closed-loop
element, we
output
to
its
tmds
transmission l-es,
system
process,
can
inputs.
measuring
write
In
shown
the
in
device,
Figure
controller
corresponding
particular, if
we
13.lb.
transfer
neglect
the
For
mechanism
function
dynamics
we have:
Process
y<s>
Measuring
= Gp(s) iii(s) + Gd(S) a(s)
(14.1)
Device
= G,(s)
Y,(s)
Controller
(14.2)
y(s)
Mechanism
E(S)
Y,,b>
C(s)
= Gc(s)
Ym<s>
E(S)
comparator
(14.3a)
control
(14.3b)
action
Final Control Element

G(s)
where G
inputs
Gf(s)
P' Gd, Gm, Gc, Gf
and
outputs.
(14.4)
Z(s)
are
the
transfer
functions
between
the
corresponding
Figure
14.1
shows
the
block
diagram
for
the
generalized
closed-loop
system
and it is nothing else but a pictorial representation of eqns. (14.1), (14.2),

(14.3a) and (14.3b)
the
block
diagram
The
G
series
hnd (14.4).
of
of
Figure
block
Notice
the
direct
correspondence
between
14.1 and the schematic of Figure 13.lb.
between the
comparator
and
the
controlled
output,
i.e.
and G
constitutes the forward path, while the block Gm is on the
P
feedback path between the controlled output and the comparator, If G=
C
Gf
GcGfGp
then
Figure 14.2a
block
diagram.
Algebraic
shows
manipulation
m(s)
of
simplified
the
= Gf (s)C(s)
above
last
expression
in
3s) = Gp(s)(Gf
and
after
readjustment
equations
of
eqn.
the
yields:
(14.3b)
(14.3a)
(14.2)
- G,(4Tb)l
(14.1)
(s)G=(s)
[y,,(s) - G,(s)y(s)
1) + Gd(s);i(s)
take;
GpbNf (s)G,(s)
() =
version
[j;,,(s) - T,(s) 1
= Gf(s)Gc(S)[~Sp(s)
the
equivalent
= Gf WGc(s>3s>
= Gf(s)Gc(s>
Put
but
4+Gp(s)Gf(s)Gc(s)Gm(s)
Gd(S)
S+)
+4+Gp(s)Gf(s)G,(s)Gm(s)
()
(14.5)
Equation (14.5) gives the closed-loop response of the process. We notice
that it is composed of two terms.
The first term shows the effect on the
output of a change in the set point while the second constitutes the effect
on the output of a change in the load (disturbance).
functions
are
known
as
GpGfGc
l+GGGG
p f c m
closed-loop
'
G
l+GG m
transfer
functions.
The
In
corresponding
transfer
particular
GSP
is the closed-loop transfer function for a change in the set point and
(14.6)
Gd
l+GGGG
p f c m
is
the
shows
closed-loop
block
For
every
Servo
set
transfer
diagram
servo
function
equivalent
feedback
problems; the
-
Gd
' 1 + GGm =
or
control
the
for
to
that
system
regulator
(14.7)
GLOAD
change
of
we
in
the
Figure 14.2a
but
further
distinguish
two
types
can
undergoes
as to keep y
of
control
problem.
change.
The
feedback
controller
acts
changes.
Y(s)
the
such
= 0 while
&+>
Then
= GLOAD(S)
feedback
way
(14.8)
GspWs;sp(s)
- Regulator Problem; the set point remains the same, i.e.

load
in
In such case,
close to the changing yd.
T(s)
and
simplified.
Problem; the disturbance does not change, i.e. j(s) = 0 while the
point
the
Figure 14.2b
load.
(14.9)
ii(s)
controller
tries
to
eliminate
the
impact
of
the
load
changes and keep y at the desired set point.

Remark:
The closed-loop overall transfer functions GSP and GLOAD

on
the
dynamics
control
Example
elements.
point
or
whose
selection
14.1 -
Consider
of
load
the
measuring
Consequently,
changes
depends
becomes
sensors,
the
on
closed-loop
the
therefore
controllers
dynamics
of
and
depend
final
response
for
set
these
elements
critical.
The Closed-Loop Response of the Liquid Level in a Tank
the
liquid
level
control
system
for
the
tank
of
Figure 14.3a.
The level h is the controlled output while Fi is the load (disturbance)

and F.
the
manipulated
of the feedback loop are:
variable.
The
transfer
functions
for
each
component
The
Process.
material
balance
Adh=F
dt
i
-F
around
the
tank
gives
and easily we find that
K(s) = -& Fi(S) - & Fob>

Measuring
Device.
This
transducer
(section
13.3)
h.
can
be
measuring
variable
the
capacitance
pressure
of
differential
liquid
column
pressure
of
height
The dynamic response of the sensor is given by eqn. (13.9). Let Ap = a*h
where a
is
constant.
Then
take,
T2 -+2&$+2=
d2z
dt2
where
the
(14.10)
z - hm, i.e.
transfer
the
function
value
for
the
Kp*Ap
indicated
sensor
by
Kp*a*h
the
measuring
device.
Therefore,
is:
Kpoa
Eim(s>
(14.11)
i;(s)
T2S2 + 2qLs + 1
Controller.
Let hSP
Z(s)
be the set point.
= $pw
Then,
- Grnw
and for a PI controller (eqn. (13.5))
F(s)
= Kc(l
Control Valve.
response
is
Let us assume that for the control valve of this system, the
that
Fo()
Figure
transfer
14.3b
(14.12)
of
first-order
system,
i.e.
%
= qTi c(s)
shows
functions
the
for
block
each
(14.13)
diagram
component
for
of
the
the
closed-loop
loop.
of the liquid level will be given by eqn. (14.5)
The
where
system,
with
closed-loop
the
transfer
the
response
functions
P' Gd, Gm, Gc and Gf

when the inlet flowrate
point.
are shown in Figure 14.3b.
The servo problem arises
remains constant and we change the desired set
Fi
In this case the controller acts in such a way as to keep the liquid
level h, close to the changing desired value hSF. On the other hand, for
the regulator problem the set point hSF
remains the same and the feedback
controller acts in such a way as to eliminate the impact of the changing load
and keep h at the desired value hSP.
Example 14.2 - The Closed-Loop Temperature Response of a Tank Heater

Consider the temperature control system for the heater of Figure 14.4a.
The temperature T is the controlled output while the inlet temperature Ti
is the load and the steam temperature is the manipulated variable. The
transfer functions for each component of the feedback loop are:
Process.
If T, Ti and Ts
are deviation variables, then from eqn. (9.8)
the response of the process is given by

(14.14)
T(s) = g T,(s) + & Tp

The parameters r, a
Temperature
Sensor
and K have been defined in Examples 5.1 and 9.1.

(thermocouple).
Assume that the response of the thermo-
couple is very fast and its dynamics can be neglected.

=
T,(s)
Thus,
(14.15)
K,T(s)
Controller. Let Td be the set point. Then,

-(s)
T,,(s)
Tm(s)
(14.16a)
and for a proportional controller the actuating output is given by,
E(s)
= Kc?(s)
(14.16b)
Assume first-order dynamics, i.e.
Control Valve.
f(s)
(14.17)
= & C(s)
V
Figure 14.4b shows the block diagram for the closed-loop system with the
transfer functions for each component of the loop.
The closed loop response
is easily found to be,
T(s)
= Gsp(s>Tsp(s)
+ GLOAD(s)
Q(s)
where the closed-loop transfer functions, GSP
and
GLOAD' are defined as
follows:
Gsp(4
&I [Kc 1 [-&I
1+ [-s;al [Km1 [Kc1 [-q&l

V
and
rg1
GLoAD(4
=
1+[.;a1 [Km1 [Kc1 &I
V
Remark:
To expedite the construction of the overall closed-loop transfer

functions for any feedback control loop use the following rules:
(1) The denominator of the overall transfer functions for both
the load and the set point changes is the same.
It is
given by
1 + Product of the transfer functions in the loop
i.e.
l+GGGG
pmcf'
(2) The numerator of an overall closed-loop transfer function
is the product of the transfer functions on the forward
path between the set point or the load and the controlled
Thus;
output.
- The transfer functions on the forward path between the set

point
ysp
and output y are: Gc, Gf and Gp.
Therefore
the numerator is
G;Gf lGp
- The transfer functions on the forward path between the
load d and the output is only Gd. Thus, the corresponding
numerator is:
Verify these two rules with the overall closed-loop transfer functions GSP
and
GLoAD
=w
(14.6) and (14.7)).
Also, these rules can be used to
formulate the closed-loop transfer function between an input anywhere in the

loop and the output.
14.2 THE EFFECT OF PROPORTIONAL CONTROL ON THE RESPONSE OF A CONTROLLED PROCESS

Let us now examine how the response of a normal, uncontrolled process is
changed when a simple proportional, integral or derivative feedback controller
is incorporated.
In this section we will consider only the proportional con-
troller and its effect on the most commonly encountered first- and second-order
systems.
The effects of integral and derivative control actions will be
studied in the following two sections.

The closed-loop response of a process is given by eqn. (14.5). To
simplify the analysis assume that
G,(s)
and
Also, for a proportional controller

GJs)
KC
Gf(s)
and eqn. (14.5) yields:

G&d
Gp(s) *Kc
y(S)
A.
1 + Gp(s)*Kc Y,,(s)
First-Order
1 + Gp(s)*Kc
&s>
(14.18)
Systems
For first-order systems
L-!Y
= Kpm + kdd
=p dt + y
with y(O)=m(O)=d(O)=O ,
which gives
K
= *ii(s)
P
3s)
+ + &s)
Thus, for the uncontrolled system we have:

- Time constant, 'c
- Static gains; Kp
P'
for the manipulation and Kd for the load.
Put
Gp(s)
K
A
Tps+l
and
Gdb)
Kd
= 1:
P
in eqn. (14.18) and take the closed-loop response,

j;(s)
KpKC
~~s+l + K K
PC
Kd
Y,pb>
a(s)
=P"+l + K PC
K
Rearrange the last equation and take,

j;(s)
K'
-q-- 7 (s)
rps+l SP
+ & a(s)
(14.19)
where
% -i&t-
(14.20a)
PC
K K
K'
P
and
1 +PKCK
PC
(14.2Ob)
K;
Kd
l+KK
PC
(14.20~)
The parameters K' and "ii are known as closed-loop static gains.
P
From eqn. (14.19) we conclude that the closed-loop response of a firstorder system has the following characteristics:
(i>
It remains first-order with respect to load and set point.
(ii)
which means that

The time constant has been reduced, i.e. r' < -c
P
P
the closed loop response has become faster with respect to changes
in the set point and the load (see Section 10.4 for the effect of the
time constant).
(iii) The static gains have been decreased.

To gain a better insight on the effect of the proportional controller,
consider unit-step changes in the set point (servo problem) and the load
(regulator problem) and examine the resulting closed-loop responses. For the
servo problem, S;,,(s) = l/s and a(s) = 0.
Then, eqn. (14.19) yields
K'
sits1
r;+l
P
and after inversion we find
-t/T
y(t)
= Ki(l - e
(14.21)
')
Figure 14.5a shows the response of the closed-loop system to a unit-step

change in the set point.
We notice that:
"The ultimate response, after

set point.
t*, never reaches the desired new
There is always a discrepancy called offset which is
equal to
offset = (new set point)-(ultimate value of the response)
= 1
K'
P
KK
+PKCK
PC
1
l+KK *'I
PC
The offset is characteristic of the proportaional control.

Kc
It decreases as
becomes larger and theoretically

offset _f 0
when
For the regulator problem, y,,(s) = 0.

load, i.e. a(s) = l/s.
KC-+'.
Consider a unit-step change in the
Then, eqn. (13.19) yields
and after inversion

y(t)
= Ki(l - e
-t/T '
')
Figure 14.5b shows this response to a unit-step change in the load.
We notice
agains that the proportional controller cannot keep the response at the desired
set point but instead it exhibits an offset;
offset = (old set point) - (ultimate value of response)
= 0
Kd
- l+KK
PC
The benefit of the proportional control in the presence of load changes can be
seen from Figure 14.5b.
Although it cannot keep the process response at the
desired set point and introduces an offset, the response is much closer to the
desired set point than would have been with no control at all. Furthermore,
as we increase the gain Kc
offset -4 0
Remarks:
the offset decreases and theoretically,

when
Kc-=.
(1) Although the offset tends to zero as Kc + ~0, we will never

use extremely large values of Kc
trol.
for proportional con-
The reason will become very clear in the next chapter
where we will study the stability of closed-loop systems.
337
(2) If Gm = Km and Gf = Kf
the
offsets
For
set
then it is easy to show that
become:
point
unit-step
offset = 1 -
changes
K K K
Pcf
l+KKKK
p c f m
For load unit-step changes
offset = -
Remark
(3)
In
(1)
the
for
still
subsequent
response
gained
above
for
the
already
the
Kd
l+KKKK
p c f m
holds.
sections
servo
we
will
problem
the
facility
regulator
problem.
assuming
to
repeat
in
(4) Processes having the term l/s

when
they
are
controlled
examine
with
only
that
a
the
the
reader
similar
their
analysis
transfer
proportional
has
function,
controller,
do
not exhibit offset for set point changes but they do for
sustained
strate
load
this
changes,
important
e.g.
feature
step
for
the
level
flowrate
Fi.
In
of
terms
is
controlled
the
by
manipulating
variables
the
tank yields,
dt
F;
and in the Laplace
K(s)
level
demoncontrol
the
inlet
The load (disturbance) is the flowrate

deviation
*dh =
liquid
us
The output F. is constant
system shown in Figure 14.6a.

and
Let
changes.
F;
domain,
= & F;(s) + & F;(s)
mass
balance
around
Fd.
the
Therefore,
= l/As
Gp(s)
Consider
proportional
Gf = 1.
The
control
closed-loop
and
block
for
simplicity,
diagram
is
shown
Gm
in
=
Figure
14.7b and gives:
P(s)
l/Kc
i;;,(s> + A
IL
$ s+l
y- s+l
For a unit step change in the set point, i&(s) = l/s and
F:(s) = 0. Then,
Ii(s)
+ s+l
C
From
the
final
value
theorem
h'(t*) = lim [s L'(s)]
= 1
S-4
Therefore,
offset = h& - h'(t*) = 1 - 1 = 0
For,a
load
unit
g(S)
step
l/K
A
c
change,
K s+l
C
h'(t*)
lim
1 = l/Kc
[sii(s)
s-+0
Therefore,
offset = 0 - l/K
-l/Kc
For liquid level control systems like the one of Figure 14.7a, usually we
are
not
interested
in
maintaining
the
liquid
level
exactly
at
the
desired
value
In such case the value of the offset l/Kc may be
but with a certain range.

acceptable
for reasonably large Kc.
"liquid
Similar
level
can
conclusion
can
be
be
Therefore,
controlled
reached
effectively
for
gas
with
pressure
proportional
systems
whose
control."
transfer
function also includes the term l/s.

B.
Second-Order
Systems
The
function
transfer
Gp(s)
Put
this
(servo
for
Y(s)
m(s)
expression
in
Problem)
second-order
process
is
P
- 2 2
T s t 2STS + 1
eqn. (14.18)
and
recalling
that
for
the
servo
problem
d(s) = 0 we take,
Y(s)
K'
P
(14.22)
- L,,(s)
(q2s2 + 23'~'~
+ 1
where
(14.23a)
J~+KK
PC
(14.23b)
v'ltKK
PC
From
the
KpKc
=
above
(14.23~)
l+KK
PC
we
notice
that
the
closed-loop
response
of
second-order
system with proportional control has the following characteristics:

-
It
The
Both
an
remains
second
order.
static
gain
decreases.
the
natural
overdamped
period
process
may
and
damping
become
factor
underdamped
control and appropriate value of K .
decrease.
This
(oscillatory)
implies
with
that
proportional
Consider a unit-step change in the set point, i.e. yd(s) = l/s. Then,
K'
Ji(s>
(,,)2s2
p
+
Z<TS
Depending on the value of 5'
the inverse of the above expression may be
given by,
- eqn. (11.7) for the overdamped case, <' > 1, or
- eqn. (11.8) for the critically damped case, 5' = 1, or
- eqn. (11.9) for the underdamped case, <' I 1.
Independently though of the particular value of r,', the ultimate value of
y(t) is given by the final value theorem (Section 7.5). Thus,
KK
Y(t->
= lim [s y(s)] = K; =
s-to
1 +PKCK
P C
Consequently, we notice again the presence of offset

offset
Again,
offset -+ 0
Remarks:
(new set point) -
l-
for
K K
PC
l+KK
PC
K
--+
(ultimate
value
of
response)
1
l+KK
PC
0~.
(1) Depending on the value of the damping factor 5 for the
uncontrolled second-order system, eqn. (14.23b) shows

If 5'>1
that 5' 5 1.
the overdamped response of the
closed-loop system is very sluggish.

to increase the value of Kc
Therefore, we prefer
and make r' < 1.
Then, the
closed-loop response reacts faster but it becomes oscillatory.

Also, by increasing Kc the offset decreases.
(2) The increase in the speed of system's response and the
decrease
at
the
in
the
expense
offset,both
of
higher
vary
desirable
overshoots
(maximum
features,
errors)
come
and
longer
oscillating
causing 5'
to decrease
(11.11)
from
eqn.
Thus, as Kc
responses.
we
see
that
the
increases
overshoot
increases
while
-
eqn.
(11.12)
Finally,
shows
that
eqn. (11.13)
the
shows
decay
that
ratio
the
also
period
for the closed-loop response decreases as r;'

All
the
above
features
are
demonstrated
in
Figure
increases.
of
oscillation
decreases.
14.7.
14.3 THE EFFECT OF INTEGRAL CONTROL ACTION

In this section we will repeat a similar analysis to that of the previous
section
whelm
our
but
the
using
reader
attention
integral
with
to
the
instead
of
repetition
first-order
systems
proportional
of
and
algebraic
for
Recall that for the servo problem, d(s)
the
=
controller.
manipulations
servo
problem
Not to overwe
will
limit
only.
0, and eqn. (14.18) yields:
G G G
S(s)
Let
for
Gf
first-order
G
P
while
i-+ :pif:cGm
(14.24)
'd(')
simplicity
Gm
For
simple
Gc
process
we
have
K
z-f-..-.
Tps+l
integral
=
control
action,
Kc&
I
Substitute Gm, G
B(s)
P'
Gc, Gf in eqn. (14.24)
(--IF_
TKS+PK c 1)
TIS
P
1+ (--TK:+l)(K
A)
by
Y,,(s)
their
equals
and
take:
-,
.,.
or
Y(s)
(14.25)
j,,(s)
T2S2 + 25TS + 1
where
T =
(14.26a)
PC
(14.25)
Equation
"it
Thus,
that
of
effect
dynamics
of
for
order
and
consequently
it
characteristics.
Furthermore,
as
by
increasing
may
we
the
the
process, the
order
of
action
alone
is ecpected
closed-loop
response
have
have
the
system
integral
of
in
the
closed-loop
different
Section
its
response
to
make
action,
response"
drastically
seen
control
11.3
becomes
and
more
Thus ,
"integral
Let
order
important
uncontrolled
sluggish.
the
the
in
first-order
second
dynamic
12.1
(14.26b)
indicates
increases
for
becomes
1
?
-z JTKK
PPC
control
closed-loop
us
examine
system
the
more
dynamic
T(s)
of
From
eqn.
response
of
sluggish."
behavior
set point changes by a unit step.
the
the
closed-loop
(14.25)
we
system
when
the
take:
. -1
T2S2 + 2STS + 1
The shape of the response y(t) depends on the value of 5 (overdamped,

critically
be
found
damped, or
from
the
y(t->
underdamped)
final-value
s-to
but
theorem
the
ultimate
(Section
value
7.5),
lim [s y(s)] = lim

s-to [
r2s2+
of
the
i.e.
1 = 1
25TS + 11
response
can
Therefore,
offset
This
indicates
the
most
characteristic
effect
of
integral
action,
i.e.
"integral control action eliminates any offset."

The
reader
can
verify
easily
that
for
the
regulator
problem
trol action produces a second-order closed-loop response

zero
the
integral
con-
and leads again to
offset.
Remarks:
(1) Equation (14.26b)
indicates that
the form of the closed-
loop response (i.e. overdamped, critically damped, underdamped)

depends on the values of the controller gain Kc and restt
time rI.
Therefore,
tunign the integral control action for

a n d -cI
the appropriate values of K C
is an important question
and will be discussed in Chapters 15 and 18.

(2) From eqn. (14.26b)
we observe that as Kc increases the

The consequences of decreasing
damping factor < decreases.

5
are:
The
to
response
faster
moves
but
in
general
oscillatory
from
sluggish
underdamped
overdamped
behavior.
- The overshoot and the decay ratio of the closed-loop

response
both
increase
(see
eqns.
(11.11)
and
(11.12)
and
Figure 11.3).
Therefore,
we
conclude
that
we
can
improve
the
speed
of
the
closed-loop response at the expense of higher deviations

and longer oscillations.
characteristics
for
(3) From eqn. (14.26b)

5 decreases too.
set
Figure
point
14.8
summarized
the
above
changes.
we also observe that as -CT decreases,

The consequences of decreasing I on
the closed-loop response will be as above in Remark 2,

i.e. increased spped comes at the expense of higher overshoots
and long oscillations.
effects
very
Figure 14.9 demonstrates these
clearly.
(4) The conclusions drawn by Remarks 1 and 2 above can be

restated as follows:
"increasing the integral control action, i.e. increasing
and decreasing rI, the response of the closed-
loop system becomes more sensitive."

In the next chapter we will see that such trends lead to instability of the
closed-loop response.
14.4 THE EFFECT OF DERIVATIVE CONTROL ACTION
For
derivative
GC
control
action
alone
we
have
K/TDS
Assuming again for simplicity, Gm = Gf = 1, the closed-loop response of a

first-order
system
with
derivative
control
action
is
given
by
K
I?
___
T
U(s)
Kc(y)
s+1
K
1+-J--*
y+l
Ysp(s)
KckDs)
or
Y(s)
Equation
(14.27)
derivative
(5)
control
(=
leads
KpKcDS
+KK-c)s+l
P
pcD
to
action
the
has
following
on
the
(14.27)
Y,,(s)
observations
closed-loop
on
response
the
of
effects
a
that
the
system:
The derivative control does not change the order of the response. In
the above example it has remained first order.
.,
..,,
.
TaQ
.4
..j
L _*
(ii)
For
unit-step
j;(s)
with
in
the
set
point
eqn. (14.27) yields,
KK-rs
pcD
(TV + KpKc D)s + 1 * :
an
change
ultimate
value,
r
= lim [s
SO
Y ( t-m>
Y(s)1
l$lKcTDS
= lim
s-to
+ K K ~ >S
pcD
i
and
offset =
This
is
l-
an
=l.
important
Ifderivative
state
result
and
demonstrates
that,
control action does not affect the final steady
the
system
approaches,
i.e.
it
does
not
reduce
to
offset".
(iii) From eqn. (14.27) it is clear that the effective time constant of the
closed-loop response is (rp + K K T ),
i.e. larger than r .
means
that
that
of
the
original
increases
the
effective
becomes
Remarks:
(1)
the
response
progressively
It
is
control
very
of
the
time
the
servo
is
slower
Furthermore, as Kc
increases
and
the
on
to
the
problem
examine
response
Gf
the
effect
of
of
second-order
is,
P
2 2 + 25TS + 1
T
s
K
Kc~D~
l+
or
response
the
derivative
system.
= 1, the closed-loop response
y(s)
than
slower.
Assuming again that Gm =

for
process
process.
constant
instructive
action
controlled
first-order
This
PCD
22
T s + 25TS + 1
~ - K&9
Kc~D~
f(s)
2
T
From
-
the
the
last
same
Y,,(s)
+ (25~ + K K -c )s + 1
pcD
equation
natural
the
KpKcTDS
period
we
of
observe
the
that,
closed-loop
response
remains
while,
- the new damping factor 5' is given by

Z<'T
25-c
K K r
pcD
i.e.
T' > 5
Therefore,
the
closed-loop
response
damping increases as KC or -CD

istic
produces
more
robust
is
more
damped
increase.
This
behavior
by
the
and
the
character-
controlled
process.
(2) The decrease in the speed of the response and the increase
in
the
damping
demonstrate
that
the
derivative
control
action,
"produces
more
controlled
stable
and
robust
behavior
by
the
process."
14.5 THE EFFECT OF COMPOSITE CONTROL ACTIONS

Although
case
for
proportional
integral
or
control
can
derivative
be
control
used
alone,
actions.
this
is
almost
never
Instead, proportional-
integral (PI) and proportional-integral-derivative (PID) are the usual controllers
employing
A.
Effect
of
PI
Combination
of
proportional
The
following
effects
integral
on
and
derivative
modes
of
control.
Control
the
and
response
of
integral
a
control
closed-loop
modes
system:
lead
to
the
the
The
order
The
offset
- A s
R
C
of
the
is
response
eliminated
increases
(effect
(effect
of
of
integral
integral
mode).
mode).
increases the response becomes faster (effect of
proportional
mode, see eqn. (4.20a) and more oscillatory to set point changes,, i.e.
the
overshoot
and
values of Kc
(see
-As
Chapter
-rI
decay
create
ratio
increase
(effect
of
very
sensitive
response
and
may
mode).
lead
Large
to
instability
15).
decreases, for constant Kc, the
oscillatory
integral
with
higher
overshoots
and
response
decay
becomes
ratios
faster
(effect
but
of
more
integral
mode).
B.
which
The
Effect
of
PID
Control
Combination
of
the
three
has
resulting
in
from
general
PI
the
control
same
control
alone.
modes
leads
qualitative
Let
us
to
dynamic
now
closed-loop
characteristics
describe
the
main
as
response
those
benefit
introduced by the derivative control action.

We have seen that the presence of integral control slows down the closedloop response of a process.
To increase the speed of the closed-loop we

But increasing enough Kc in
increase the value of the controller gain Kc.
order to have acceptable speeds, the response becomes more oscillatory and may
lead to instability.
The
introduction
stabilizing
the
system.
speed
by
effect
selecting
to
an
appropriate
of
Thus,
value
the
we
derivative
can
for
the
achieve
gain
mode
brings
acceptable
K C while
a
response
maintaining
moderate oversh-ots and decay ratios.

Figure
14.10
summarizes
of a controlled process.
the
effect
of
PID
controller
on
Notice that although increasing Kc
the
response
leads to faster
responses,
shorter.
the overshoot remains almost the same and the settling time is
Both
SUMMARY
AND
The
dynamic
are
results
CONCLUDING
dynamic
of
overall
and
transfer
GLO~D
have
on
the
set
control
effect
response
the
action.
or
this
is
affected
i.e.
process,
The
form
of
load
very
the
process
loop,
element.
that
of
controlled
in
point
indicate
the
dynamic
feedback
control
for
(14.7)),
to
derivative
elements
final
function
respect
the
and
(eqn.
With
of
all
sensor, controller
the
REMARKS
response
behavior
of
changes,
the
measuring
the
i.e.
by
closed-loop,
GSP
(eqn.
(14.6))
clearly.
various
closed-loop
types
system,
of
we
feedback
can
controllers
observe
the
following:
-
The
proportional
loop
dynamic
time
constant.
its
an
-
The
of
with
and
become
The
and
(b)
it
serious
makes
the
is
derivative
takes
(b)
simple
control
appropriate
response
we
closed-loop
dynamics
and
effect.
changes
the
order
even
action
notice
(b)
the
slows
small
the
feature
action.
one
With
down
by
respect
track
very
presence
first
response.
character-
response
that
are
anticipates
to
of
closed-loop
oscillatory
(errors)
that
is
ultimate
The
indicates
dominant
alone
or
the
the
the
acquire
deviations
only
of
the
control
closed-loop
offset.
dynamics may
is
corrective
it
decreasing
disturbance
demonstrated
the
second
The
and
always
by
proportional
of
is
since
first-order
wherever
closed-loop
stabilizing
importance
of
point
eliminates
unstable.
needed
set
faster
effect
This
action, (a)
and
it
drawback
completely
desired
particular
processes
even
the
control
response
is
action
most
reject
between
integral
istic
while
The
to
action, (a) does not change the order of the closed-
changes in the set point.
offset
dynamic
response
inability
closely
control
its
while
behavior
integral
control
undesirable.
future
effect
errors
on
the
that, (a) it does not change the order of
allows
for
higher
proportional
gain
due
to
its
THINGS TO THINK BOUT

1.
Develop
one
the
block
diagram
of
generalized
feedback
control
system
with
disturbance, incorporating in each block the appropriate -ransfer
function
and
the
on
each
the
3.
Repeat items 1 and 2 above for a process with two disturbances.

handle
for
set
variable.
Develop
controller
responses
appropriate
2.
feedback
closed-loop
stream
simultaneous
point
changes
and
in
load
both
changes.
Can
loads?
4.
Define
5.
The following block diagram (Figure Q.14-1) corresponds to a control

system
in
with
physical
two
terms
loops.
I c*
,
the
-- r"
servo
and
_ -..
._ -..
regulator
control
.s
cw
.I ;
the
problems.
-..
_I--.--I-____
Figure
Reduce
Q.14-2)
the
above
block
diagram
to
4.14-l
simpler
one
like
the
following
(Figure
by identifying the appropriate transier functions G1, G2 and G3.
Figure
0.14-2
6.
7.
What
are
the
relative
advantages
proportional,
process?
The
on
the
closed-loop
proportional
response
the
control
response
leads
compared
controlled
from
Section
10.4.
What
is
order
process
the
with
to
to
the
PI
process?
of
the
controlled
with
process
controlled
adjustable
12.
Repeat
item
13.
Which
one
11
of
the
the
closed-loop
the
and
PI
TI
TV
gain
for
uncontrolled
the
closed-
process
(see
definition
of
the
static
dynamic
response
for
control
destabilize
on
the
closed-loop
TV
on
the
gain
second-order
such
response
process?
of
and
closed-loop
response
of
PID.
Could
Consider a first-order process.
their
of
static
PI.
with
loop responses with
lower
Recall
Discuss the effects of Kc,

a
gain
Can
control?
of
Is a lower gain more favorable or less
Discuss the effects of Kc

process
11.
the
effects
for
10.
of
What are their characteristic
eqns. (14.20b and (14.20~)).
9.
disadvantages
integral and derivative control actions?
loop
8.
and
PI and
you
have
almost
the
same
closed-
PID controllers and appropriate values of
parameters?
above
the
but
for
second-order
controllers, P,
three
process.
PI, PID, would give more robust
closed-loop response to an underdamped second-order system?

14.
Integral
control
oscillatory
or
action
less,
makes
process,
(a)
faster
or
Repeat
item
14
above
(b)
more
(c) with larger deviations from the set point or
smaller? Explain your answers.

15.
slower,
but
for
derivative
control
action.
r PROCESS
---- ---
CONTROLLER
CoN-rRO~
ELEMENT
do)
----_,
2-L I
-
L-------- _ _ _ _ _ _ 1
ym CSI
Gm,
MEASURlr\lG
DEVICE
Fi
L-s-)
i,- _ _ ---a------_
yd(+)
L-3
4
+Kc '
I F i g we
14.51
I Fi g ure
.,
14-r
. .
L---------
----
CHAPTER
STABILITY
In
Chapter
14 we
ANALYSIS
examined
the
15
OF
FEEDBACK
dynamic
SYSTEMS
characteristics
of
the
response
of
closed-loop systems and developed the closed-loop transfer functions which

determine
the
dynamics
of
such
systems.
It
is
important
to
emphasize
again
that the presence of measuring devices,-________controllers and -----._--___.

final control elements
-change
--
the
dynamic
an
_ - uncontrolled
- - - - _ . - - -process.
.---__
characteristics of
Thk~s , non-
oscillatory first-order processes may acquire oscillatory behavior with PI

control.
Oscillatory
second-order
processes may become unstable with a Pl
controller and unfortunate selection of K
and
Xhile
designing
tuning
its
feedback
controller, we
characteristics.
designing
Therefore,
feedback
control
are
before
control
system,
seriously
we
and
TI'
i.e.
concerned
proceed
with
selecting
about
the
its
its
components
stability
particular
details
of
loop, we will study the notion of stabilitv and
analyze the stability characteristics of closed-loop systems.

15.1 THE NOTION 0.F STABILITY
In
Section
1.2
we
introduced
tem
was
considered
its
output took off and did not return to a state of rest.
unstable
simple-minded
How
on
the
stability.
A sys-
Figure
1.6
shows
Example 1.2 also described the
CSTR.
do we define a stable or unstable system?
depending
of
if, after it had been disturbed by an input change,
typical outputs for unstable processes.

unstable operation of a
notion
mathematical
rigorousness
of
the
There
are
definition
different
and
its
ways,
practical
utility for realistic applications.
In this text we will employ the following
definition
the
which
is
often
known
as
bounded
input, .-bounded output
stabilitv.
---.-.L
"A dynamic system i.s considered to be stable if for every bounded input
it produces a 1~o11nc~~d wt.put , regardless of its initial state."
E7ery
systcm
f:n'l..led
-
wllicki
is not stnhlr
unstable.
bounded
is
an
according tr? t11t
T0
complete
the
ti~finition,
input
wl~ich
always
remains
alcove
consider
between
an
drl'inition
wi1.1.
be
that.
upper
and
lower Iknit
( 12 I g . si.nitsoidal , step but not the ramp), and that

~.&2)o~ln+.if~il
01.1
/,*5ys i :x1
tptitc;
exist.
rlilantit i<":
c-n1 y
31'e
in tl;t:c~r-y
and nr?t
Thwefort:,
!.imited.
in pr:3~tice
b~~.a~lse
the t crm unl~oiindecl
all.
means y:er!
? xr F e
Accord-in::
F'jgure
t:!) tllc above def j.nition, a
1ij.l~
ic:
stabtt
while
system
with
response
like
those
of
shows the rpspnnses of unstable
Figure 15.lb
'T-f '3 ! "Ills *
1.-t 11.5 consjder

j tr c!priamiI*
a tiv2ami7
system with input m
bci~nvior can be described by a transfer function

)I(sj
it gives rise to a term c1 e Pt
producing
an
an
unstable
uncontrolled
controlled
7.'h en )
y-
C(sj,
c(sj fiiis)
Tn Section 9.4 we concluded tbnt if

then
and output
system.
process
or
system, e.g.
it
%P
G(s) has a pole with positive real part

which
grows
continuously
with
time,
thus
The transfer function G(s) can correspond to

can
Or
be
the
GLOAD'
closed-loop
transfer
Therefore.
the
function
stability
of
analysis
of
a system can be treated in a unified way independently if it is controlled or

llncont
rolled.
The location of the poles of a transfer function gjves

criterion
us the first
for checking the stability of a system:
"If
the transfer function of a dynamic system has even one pole with
positive
Therefore,
real
al.1 poJes
complex plane.
part, the
system
is
unstable."
of a transfer function must be in the left-hand part of a
Example 15.1 - Stabilization of an Unstable Process With P Control

Consider
process
with
the
following
response,
Y(s) = ; iii(s) + & m

Clearly, this
pole at
process
s = 1> 0.
is
unstable
Figure
because
15.2a
shows
its
the
Let
control only.
us
introduce
Assume
that
for
feedback
the
response
function
of
the
possesses
uncontrolled
d which verifies its unstable
system to a unit-step change in the load

character.
transfer
control
measuring
system
sensor
with
and
the
proportional
final
control
element
G
Figure
15.3
The
our
Gf
shows
the
=l
the
closed-loop
system
From
block
response
diagram
of
of
system
the
the
closed-loop
is
given
by
3(s)
lO*Kc
= s _ (1 - 10K ) %P(') +
C
last
equation
we
conclude
that
s - (1 - 10Kc)
the
closed-loop
SP
s - (1 -
;O*Kc)
'
GLOAD
stabilized with simple proportional control.
effect
of
of
which
for
the
controlled
to
the
behavior
the
controller.
d(s)
transfer
functions
5-K C
=
s - (1 - lo-Kc)
have negative pole if Kc > l/10. Therefore, the
it
(15.5)
5*Kc
10-K
Compare
eqn.
becomes:
response
system.
system
of
to
the
original
system
can
be
Figure 15.2b shows the dynamic
unit-step
uncontrolled
change
in
system
and
the
load
realize
for Kc=l.
the
stabilizing
Example
15.2 - Destabilization
Consider
second-order
Gp(d
system
has
two
Therefore,
a
change
to
in
the
with
PI
following
Control
transfer
function
final
element
with
negative
and
P2 =
criterion
the
real
parts
-1 - j
system
is
stable.
Indeed, if we make
input, the response of the system is as shown in
the
Introduce
PI
have
controller.
the
following
Let
the
transfer
measuring
element
and
the
functions:
= Gf (s) = 1 .
G,(s)
The
poles
our
Figure 15.4a.
control
with
Process
+2s+2
complex
according
unit-step
Stable
process
-1 + j
Pl =
=
S2
The
of
closed-loop
response
to
set
point
changes
is
given
by,
GG
P(s)
+PGCG
j,,(s)
Gsp-Ysp(s>
PC
To
examine
the
stability
of
the
closed-loop
response
we
have
to
find
where
the poles of GSP are located.

,.L
T s+l
. Kc m-i!?s
s2+2s+2
GpGc
GSP = l+GG=
pcl+
'
,2+2s+2
KC(71s+1)/71
rIS+l =
.Ks3 + 2s2 + (2+Kc)s
c
-rIs
K
-I- 2
=I
Let
KC
= 100
and
Then, the poles of GSP
S3
2s2
and
"I
the
roots
= 0.1
of
the
polynomial
+ (2 + 100)s + g
.
which are found to be

P 1 = -7.185
p2 = 2.59 + j(ll.5)
and
p3 = 2.59 - j(11.5)
Example 15.1 - Stabilization of an Unstable Process With P Control

Consider
process
the
following
response,
= $+ ii(s) +
Y(s)
Clearly, this
pole at
with
process
is
s = 1> 0.
unstable
Figure
because
15.2a
shows
its
the
transfer
response
function
of
the
possesses
uncontrolled
system to a unit-step change in the load
d which verifies its unstable
character.
control
Let
control only.
us
introduce
Assume
that
for
feedback
the
measuring
system
sensor
with
and
the
proportional
final
control
element
=
Gm
Figure
15.3
The
our
Gf
shows
the
closed-loop
system
1
block
response
diagram
of
of
system
the
the
closed-loop
is
given
the
by
Y(s)
last
equation
(15.5)
which
for
5KC
s - (1 - 10Kc) %P(') +
we
conclude
that
s - (1 - 10Kc) '(')
the
closed-loop
lO*K
G
SP
with
s - (1 - ;O*Kc)
simple
transfer
functions
5*K
have negative pole if Kc > l/10.

stabilized
eqn.
becomes:
lO.Ke
From
system.
proportional
'
GLOAD
Therefore,
control.
=
the
s - (1 -clO*Kc)
original
system
can
be
Figure 15.2b shows the dynamic
response of the controlled system to a unit-step change in the load for Kc=l.
Compare
effect
it
of
to
the
the
behavior
controller.
of
the
uncontrolled
system
and
realize
the
stabilizing
Example
15.2
Consider
Destabilization
of
second-order
GpW
Stable
process
Process
with
the
with
PI
following
Control
transfer
function
s2 +2s+2
The
system
has
two
according
unit-step
change
to
in
our
the
Figure 15.4a.
Introduce
final
element
control
G,(s)
The
closed-loop
To examine
negative
p2 = -1 - j
criterion
the
system
controller.
the
Let
following
is
parts
stable.
Indeed, if we make
the
transfer
measuring
element
and
the
functions:
= 1 .
to
set
point
changes
GG
+PGCG
- s;,,(s>
PC
real
and
PI
have
= Gf(s)
with
input, the response of the system is as shown in
response
P(s)
poles
-1 + j
Pl =
Therefore,
complex
is
given
by,
Gsp*YspW
the stability of the closed-loop response we have to find where
the poles of GSP
are located.
1
GpGc
G SP =
l+GG=
PC
,2+2s+2
1+
rIS+l
l Kc
v
T s+l
'Kc&I
l
s2+2s+2
K$y+l) hI
s3 + 2s' + (2+Kc)s
K
+c
-?
Let
Kc
= 100
Then, the poles of
S3
and
GSP
2s2
and
r1
the
roots
= 0.1
of
the
polynomial
(2 + 100)s + g
.
which are found to be

pl = -7.185
p2 = 2.59 + j(11.5) and
p3 = 2.59 - j(11.5)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
We notice that p2 and p3 have positive real parts.

to
our
criterion
the
closed-loop
response
is
Kc = 100 and rI = 0.1 have been used.
Therefore,
unstable,
when
the
according
values
Figure 15.4b shows the response of
the system to a unit-step change of the set point.
Compare it to the
response
destabilizing
of
the
PI controller.
stable.
uncontrolled
system
notice
the
For different values of Kc and TI
effect
of
the
the response becomes
Indeed, lowering the gain to Kc = 10 and increasing TI = 0.5 we

GSP have negative real parts, i.e. the closed-loop
find that all the poles of

system
and
of
is
stable.
15.2 THE CHARACTERISTIC EQUATION

Examples
15.1
on
the
stability
organize
and
systematize
have
appropriate
the
closed-loop
characteristics
our
the
of
effect
process.
feedback
loop
may
In this section we will
analysis, introducing and defining some
for
feedback
such
G G G
Pfc
1 + GDGfGcGm
control
system
is
system
given
by
shown
in
eqn.
(14.5)
+ 1 + GIEfGcGrn
'SF(')
stability
= GSP
Ysp(s) +
characteristics
of
GLOAD
Figure
14.1.
(14.5)
'(')
the
;i(s> .
closed-loop
response
by the poles of the transfer functions GSP and GLOAD.

common
are
control
equivalently
Y(s)
The
dramatized
generalized
response
7(s)
or
15.2
terms.
Consider
The
and
for
given
both
by
the
transfer
functions
solution
l+GGGG
=
p f c m
of
0
the
because
following
they
have
will
be
These
poles
common
determined
denominator
are
and
equation
(15.1)
Equation (15.1) is called the characteristi

feedback
system
of
Figure
Let pl,p2,"*,p,
equation for the generalized
14.1
be the n
roots of the characteristic eqn. (15.1),
i.e.
1 +
then
we
can
Gp Gf c
G mG = (s - pl)(s
state
the
following
- p2)***(s
criterion
for
- p,)
the
stability
of
closed-loop
system:
"A feedback control system is stable if all the roots of its
characteristic
equation
left
imaginary
of
the
have
negative
real
parts,
i.e.
are
to
the
axis."
If any root of the characteristic equation is on or to the right of the

imaginary
axis,
i.e. it
has
real
part
zero
or
positive,
the
feedback
system
is unstable.
Remarks;
(1)
The
of
stability
a
criterion
feedback
sytem
stated
above
independently
if
in the set-point or the -oad.
secures
the
stable
input
response
changes
are
The reason is that the roots
of the characteristic equation are the common poles of the

two transfer functions, GSP
and
GLOAD which
stability
with
respect
of
the
closed-loop
to
determine
changes
in
the
the
set point and the load, respectively.

(2)
The
product
=
Go,
GpGfGcGm
will
be
the
measurement
feedback
called
loop
Y,(s)
is
open-loop
transfer
indication
broken
just
= GOLW *Y,,(s)
function
because
it
to the set point yd
before
the
comparator,
relates
if the
i.e.
Therefore,
the
characteristic
GOL
equation
can
be
written
as
follows,
1
and
we
notice
that
it
depends
only
on
the
transfer
functions
-
of the elements in the loop.

(3)
The
roots
of
the
They
Example
15.3
of
the
closed-loop
are
often
Stability
characteristic
transfer
called
Analysis
equation
functions,
closed-loop
of
Two
are
also
and
GSF
the
GLOAD'
poles.
Feedback
Loops
In Example 15.1 we have:

G
10
=s-l
the
Therefore,
1
which
has
corresponding
the
Gf=l
'
pG G
f GcGm
following
and
Gm=l
characteristic
=l+S*
Gc
equation
l*Kc*l
=K
is,
root,
p = 1 - 10Kc
and the system is stable if p<O, i.e.
Kc > l/10.
For the system of Example 15.2 we have:

Gp=
Gf=l
Gm=l
and
s2+2s+2
Gc = Kc(l+&)
I
The corresponding transfer function is:

l+GGGG
p f c m
=l+
'
s2+2s+2
l*Kc(l
+ -+)*l
I
For KC = 100 and -cI = 0.1 the above equation yields
s3
2s2
+ 102s + 1000 = 0
poles
- ._. _ . . ./ .,
.I
%.3&t
I
with roots, -7.185, 2.59 + j(11.5) and 2.59 - j(ll.5).
The
tem
equation
is
unstable
positive
real
because
two
roots
of
the
characteristic
closed-loop
sys-
I
I
have
parts.
I
I
15.3 THE ROUTH-HURWITZ CRITERION FOR STABILITY
The
criterion
calculation
It
of
of
the
stability
actual
for
values
of
closed-loop
systems
the
of
roots
does
the
not
require
characteristic
the
polynomial.
only requires to know if any root is to the right of the imaginary axis.
The
Ruth-Hurwitz
imaginary
axis
closed-loop
procedure allows us to test if any root is to the right of
and
thus
system
Expand
the
without
by
computing
conclusion
the
actual
equation
into
as
to
the
stability
values
of
the
roots.
the
following
it
is
negative
then
multiply
both
form,
sides
of
the
above
-1.
test.
If any of the coefficients al,a2,***,an,l,an
there
is
least
part
the
First
real
polynomial
of
aosn t als n-l + ** t anmls t an = 0 .
z
If
a0 be positive.
equation
quickly
characteristic
1tGGGG
p f c m
Let
reach
at
and
one
the
root
of
corresponding
the
characteristic
equation
unstable.
No
ao,al,a2,***,an-l,a
system
is
is
which
further
negative,
has
then
positive
analysis
is
needed.
Second
test.
If all coefficients
are positive, the
first test cannot conclude anything about the location of the roots. Form
the
following
Row
array
a
(known
as
Routh
array):
a4
a6
a2
al
a3
Al
A2
A3
B1
B2
B3
cl
c2
c3
4
5
a5
***
a7
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
*
.
***
-*-
where
Al = ala2 - aoa3 ,
al
Ala3
B1 =
A1
c1 = B1A2
alA
- A1B2
A2 ,_ ala4
A3 - =aoa5laba;
al
A1
A1A5
>
B2 =
B1A3 c2 = B1
El
aoa7
~..
alA
...
A1B3
etc.
Examine the elements of the first column of the above array, i.e.
a()>
al' Al, B1, C1,-*J1
- If any of these elements is negative then we have at least one root to the
right
of
the
imaginary
axis
and
the
system
is
unstable.
- The number of sign changes in the elements of the first column is equal
to the number of roots to the right.of
Therefore,
Routh
a system is stable if all the elements in the first column of the
array
Example
the imaginary axis.
are
15.4
positive.
- Stability Analysis With the Routh-Hurwitz Criterion
Consider
the
feedback
control
system
of
Example
equation is
The
corresponding
2s2
Routh
(2 +
array
Kc)s
can
+
now
KC
-r
I
be
formed:
15.2.
The
characteristic
Row 1
2+K
Kc
?
K
2(2+Kc) -$
I
The
elements
of
the
first
column
are
Kc
2(2+Kc) -y-I
K
C
All
are
always
positive
except
T-1
11
'
the
third
which
can
be
positive
or
negative
dpending on the values of Kc and -cl.

-If
100 and -cI = 0.1 the third element becomes -398 < 0, which
Kc =
means
that
elements
real
of
parts
the
the
(see
system
is
first
unstable.
column.
Example
We have two sign changes in the
Therefore,
we
have
two
roots
with
positive
15.2).
t2
- If Kc = 10 and rI = 0.5 the third element is equal to $1 > 0, and

the system is stable since all the elements of the first column are
positive.
-
In
general, the system is stable if KC
and
TI
satisfy
the
condition
2(2 + Kc) > 5 ,

r1
Example
15.5 - Critical
Stability
Conditions
for
Return to Example 15.4 and let rI = 0.1.
Feedback
Then,
the
Loop
third
element
of
the
first
column
in
the
2(2+Kc)
Routh
.
that
The value of Kc
constitutes
Therefore,
-If
makes
the
third
element
zero
is
for
feedback
= 0.5
and
becomes,
- 10Kc
array
the
critical
according
K/0.5
to
the
conditions
Routh-Hurwitz
test
first
all the elements of the
positive
and
the
system
equation
are
located
to
is
stable,
the
left
we
the
system.
have:
column in the Routh array are
i.e. all
of
control
the
roots
imaginary
of
the
characteristic
axis.
- If Kc > 0.5 the third element of the first column of the Routh array
becomes
We have two sign changes in the elements of the first
negative.
column, therefore
we
have
two
roots
of
the
characteristic
equation
located
to the right of the imaginary axis.

It is clear therefore that as Kc
increases
two
equation
axis
and
when
Kc = 0.5 then we have two
imaginary)
which
give
roots
move
on
the
sinusoidal
Remark:
towards
the
imaginary
imaginary
axis
(pure
roots
of
the
rise
characteristic
to
sustained
term.
The
two
purely
imaginary
2s2
K
.-A
r1
2s2
g
.
roots
can
be
found
from
the
equation
i.e.
=
and they are:

+
j(2.5)
The coefficients 2 and Kc/r1

the
Routh
array
just
before
are the elements of the row in
the
element
of
the
first
column
which
is zero, i.e. the
elements
of
the
second
row.
15.4 THE ROOT LOCUS ANALYSIS

The preoceding
characteristics
Thus,
in
examples have demonstrated very vividly that
of
Example
15.1
when Kc > l/10.
>
system
notice
in
that
Example
depend
the
on
the
closed-loop
15.4, the
system
stability
value of the gain Kc.

system becomes
is
stable
stable
when
Kc
F
I
= 0.1 yields
=I
0
we
Also,
2(2+Kc)
which for
closed-loop
the
<
KC
< 0.5 .
The root loci are merely the plots in the complex plane of the roots of
the characteristic equation as the gain Kc
is
As
determining
the
changes.
Let
such
they
are
very
useful
in
closed-loop system as the gain K

of
us
to
infinity.
characteristics
examine
the
of
construction
locus
Example
15.6
- The Root Locus of Two Capacities in Series with P Control
and
have
capacities
transfer
specific
stability
zero
root
two
from
the
The
using
varied
in
series
example.
may
be
two
stirred
tanks,
function
K
GpW
P
(T1s+1)(T2s+1)
Let,
Gm
Then,
the
Gf
=l
characteristic
1+
and
equation
KP
(Tls+1)(?2s+1)
is:
K = 0
c
Gc
= Kc .
two
heaters,
etc.
or
(~~s+l)(y+l)
Consider
K=KK
.
PC
where
K as the changing parameter instead of the gain Kc, and make the
following
(0
observations:
When K=O (i.e. Kc
0)
the
characteristic
equation
has
as
its
roots
the poles of the process, i.e.

= -l/r1
Pl
(ii)
and
p2
-l/T2
As K increases from the zero value, the

equation
are
given
of
the
characteristic
by,
-(T1+T2) t &+T2)2
P1,2
roots
- 4y2(1+K)
.
2TlT2
They are distinct real and negative as long as
2
K
(T1+T2)
<
4=lT2
i.e. as long as Kc
satisfies
the
inequality
(15.2)
c1
%
(iii) When
(15.3)
then, we have two equal roots

T +-r
Pl
P2
2
-
2=1r2
(iv) For
(15.4)
K+
P
we have again two distinct roots which are complex conjugates of
each
other,
i.e.
-(T~+T~)
P1,2
J4'rclr2(l+K)
2 j
- (TV+ 2)
2T 1T 2
Notice that the real part is equal to

=1+=2
-~
2T12
and independent of K, while the imaginary part tends to infinity
as
K -f a.
Using the above information we can construct the root locus of the system as
follows:
(a) The beginning of the root locus corresponds to
by
the
points
A(-l/rl, 0) and B(-1/~~,0),
(b) As long as Kc
and
negative
satisfies
inequality
roots.
Therefore,
emanate
from
curves
which
axis.
Furthermore,
points
(15.2)
Kc = 0 and is given
see Figure 15.5.

we
have
two
distinct
real
the root locus is given by two distinct

A and B and remain on the real
the two curves move towards each other and meet
at the point C (Figure 15.5). At this point, Kc i\as the value given
by eqn. (15.3) and we have a double root.
(c) For larger values of Kc
two
distinct
curves
of
plex conjugate roots.
the
satisfying inequality (15.4), we have again

root
locus
because
we
have
distinct, com-
Since the real part of the complex roots is
,...
constant,
the
two
branches
of
the
root
locus
are
perpendicular
to
the
real axis and extend to infinity as Kc + 00.

The complete root locus is given in Figure 15.5 and since all its branches are
LQGated
tQ the Left af the inagtnaary a?sis-,
More CQRC~NdC tkat tke ClQsed-
system is stable for any value of K .
Furthermore.
satisfying
of
inequality
oscillatory.
the
response
the
It becomes oscillatory for Kc
Example
provide
(15.2)
15.6
demonstrated
information
about
the
that
the
root
stability
of
we conclude that for KC
system
to
satisfying
locus
a
of
step
loop
the
input
inequality
system
closed-loop
is
not
(15.4).
does
system
us about its general dynamic response characteristics as K C

Therefore,
b2~
not
but
only
informs
changes.
the root locus analysis can be the basis of a feedback control
design
roots
methodology,
of
controller
the
gain
whereby
the
characteristic
can
be
movement
equation)
clearly
due
of
the
closed-loop
to
the
change
of
poles
the
(i.e.
proportional
displayed.
The construction of the root locus for the system of Example 15.6 was
rather
simple.
For
higher
order
systems
to
find
the
exact
location
of
the
root locus branches we need a computer program that can find the roots of a
high order polynomial.
system
and
the
Such
interested
programs
reader
can
are
find
available
one
in
in
any
Reference
large
computer
7.
Quite often though we are not interested in the exact location of the
root
to
locus
draw
system.
the
the
branches
general
and
simple
conclusions
but
qualitatively
about
the
dynamic
correct
behavior
graphs
of
will
a
suffice
closed-loop
Appendix 15.A gives a set of general rules which can be used to draw
approximate
root
locus
of
any
given
system.
Let us close this chapter with one more example on the construction of
the root locus for a reactor system and its use for the analysis of the
system's
Example
dynamic
response.
15.7 - -The -Root
Douglas
Locus
for
Reactor
With
Proportional
Control
[Ref. 121 has developed the model for the reactor shown in
Figure 15.6.
The
control
objective
is
to
keep
the
concentration
of
the
desired product C as close as possible to a given steady state value

despite the upsets in the inputs of the reactor.
He
attempts
to
achieve
the
control objective with a proportional controller which measures the concentration of C and manipulates the flowrate
The
transfer
Gp(s)
function
3s)
for
instantaneous
we
have
the
Gf
responses
following
1+
is,
(s+l.45)(~+2.85)~(~+4.35)
with
the valve that controls the flowrate

Gm
process
2.98(s+2.25)
G(s)
Assuming
the
of the reactant A.
gain
for
the
measuring
device
and
of A, i.e.
1
characteristic
equation
2.98(s+2.25)
2 (s+4.35)
(s+1.45)(s+2.85)
-K
for
the
closed-loop
system:
(15.5)
When Kc = 0, it is easy to find that the roots of eqn. (15.5) are:

p1 = -1.45 , p2 = p3 = -2.85
As
Kc
to
find
through
increases,
the
the
roots
use
of
and
p4
-4.35
we need an iterative, trial-and-error, numerical procedure

of
a
the
characteristic
digital
computer.
Such
equation.
Table
15.1
of the four roots change with the value of Kc.
solution
shows
These
how
results
is
the
have
feasible
locations
been
Table 15.1.
The Roots of the Characteristic Equationfor the System of Example 15.7.
5
-
p1
-
-1.45
-2.85
-2.85
-4.35
-1.71
-2.30 + j(O.9)
-2.30 - j(O.9)
-4.74
-1.98
-1.71 + j(1.83)
-1.71 - j(l.83)
-5.87
20
-2.15
-1.09 + j(3.12)
-1.09 - j(3.12)
-7.20
50
-2.20
-0.48 + j(4.35)
-0.48 - j(4.35)
-8.61
100
-2.24
-0.35 + j(5.40)
-0.35 - j(5.40)
-9.75
p2
p3
p4
-
transferred
for
the
in
Figure
15.7
closed-loop
which
reactor
displays
the
four
branches
of
the
root
locus
system..
Let us examine the root locus branches of Figure 15.7 and draw some conclusions
on
the
dynamic
proportional gain K
(i>
response
changes
of
the
from
zero
closed-loop
to
reactor
as
the
infinity.
The system is stable for gain values up to 50 because all the roots
are located to the left of the imaginary axis.
between
50
and
100
the
root
locus
crosses
critical
value
of
reactor
the
between
50
becomes
and
100
for
For a gain value
the
moves to the right of the imaginary axis.
(ii)
system
imaginary
Therefore,
which
the
axis
and
there is a
closed-loop
response
unstable.
For any value of Kc > 0 until the critical value there are two
complex
conjugate
roots
with
negative
real
parts.
They
imply
that
the response of the reactor to an input step change will be a

decaying
oscillation.
(iii) For Kc
larger
unstable)
the
jugates
with
response
of
oscillatory
Remark:
very
reactor
than
roots
positive
the
critical
that
cause
real
value
the
parts.
closed-loop
system
with
growing
amplitude.
approximate
system
be
Appendix 15-A.
can
the
system
becomes
instability
are
complex
con-
Consequently,
the
satisfactory
(where
to
an
sketch
constructed
input
of
using
the
the
the
step
root
unstable
change
will
be
locus
for
the
graphical
rules
of
SUMMARY
Almost
stable.
the
all
Under
feed
stability
during
its
control
processing
back
units
control,
characteristics
design.
loop,
employed
of
in
though,
a
chemical
they
can
closed-loop
plant
become
system
are
inherently
Therefore,
unstable.
are
of
uppermost
importance
They depend on the dynamics of all the components in the
i.e.
sensors, controller
process,
and
final
control
element.
The notion of stability that suffices for our purposes is that of the
bounded input, boudned output. According to this, a system is stable if it
produces
bounded
response
to
any
bounded
The
input.
criterion
that
we
will
use to examine the stability of a system is related to the location of the

poles
-
of
For
its
transfer
uncontrolled
function.
systems
Thus,
the
poles
of
the
process'
transfer
function
must
be located to the left of the imaginary axis for the system to be stable.
-
For
closed-loop
systems
the
closed-loop
poles
(the
roots
of
the
character-
istic equation) must be located to the left of the imaginary axis for the
closed-loop
response
to
be
stable.
The Routh-Hurwitz tests allow us to examine if any pole is located to

the
right
poles.
of
the
imaginary
axis, without
computing
the
actual
values
of
the
This procedure should be used whenever we need to know only if the
system is stable or not.

The
stability
characteristics
of
closed-loop
depend
on
the
dynamic
of
the controller used which are affected by the values of the parameters Kc,
locus
analysis
permits
the closed-loop poles as Kc
changes
from
TI
and ~~~
The
root
us
zero
to
to
examine
infinity.
the
location
From the location
of these poles we can draw conclusions on:

-
the stability of the feedback loop and
the
of K
general
C
characteristics
of
the
system's
response
for
of
various
values
The
back
root
locus
loops.
efficiently
It
has
been
has
systems
several
with
powerful
design
system.
Consequently,
use
control
for
historically
techniques
we
design.
dead
like
will
drawbacks
popular
like
its
method
for
the
design
to
handle
instability
of
feed-
time, and today it has been replaced by more

those
spend
based
no
more
on
the
space
frequency
response
and
expanding
time
of
on
a
its
3,
THINGS
TO
THINK
ABOUT
1.
Define
what
is
known
as
bounded
input,
bounded
output
stability.
2.
Based on the above definition examine if a system with a pole at s=O

is stable or not.
3.
4.
Define the
terms:
closed-loop
poles.
If
open-loop
transfer
function,
How
or
6.
does
Does
What
the
8.
the
pole
controlled
of
7.
location
an
the
stability
determine
the
If yes, why?
stability
of
an
uncontrolled
process?
of
the
uncontrolled
is
location
zeros
of
major
advantage
of
system?
transfer
function
affect
the
response
process?
of
the
Routh-Hurwitz
criterion
for
examining
What conclusions can be drawn if one element in the first column of

the Routh array is zero?
9.
equation,
a closed-loop response is stable with respect to changes in the set
point, is it stable to changes in the load?

5.
characteristic
The
why?
root
locus
analysis
Consult
cannot
References
handle
easily
13,
14.
systems
with
dead
time.
Show how systems with dead time could be handled with root locus
analysis.
10.
Examples 15.6 and 15.7 indicate that the root locus has as many
branches
Thus, in
as
the
Example
number
of
15.6
the
poles
of
open-loop
the
open-loop
transfer
transfer
function
has
function.
two
poles
and
the root locus two branches., while for Example 15.7 we have four poles
and
four
branches.
Is this true for any closed-loop system? Explain.
376
t
3
Y
- - - t
A+R - ?I
%+a-, c
C4Rr-D
D-l--R-E
I Figure
i5.4
I
6
I
k .;I00
c?
-6
\\
.,,,....
,-
,,,.
.,
. . .
~.
APPENDIX
15.A.
RULES
FOR
THE
CONSTRUCTION
OF
ROOT-LOCUS
DIAGRAMS.
Consider the characteristic equation for a general closed-loop

system,
l+GGGG
pmcf=
Let the open-loop transfer function G G G G^. be written as the ratio

pmct
of two polynomials of order m and n with m < n.
Then,
the
characteris-
tic equation becomes:
Z1
Z2 -*-,
zm
are
the
the
As Kc changes from 0 to 03
we
pl, p2'
a*-,
Pn
tic equation (15.A-1).

tutes
the
The
Root-Locus
Root-Locus
The
for
the
1.
following
Number
of
Origin
whenK
Curves.
Thus,
ing
is
of
C
if
from
(15.A-1)
a* (s-pr) = O
of
the
open-loop
of
the
find
different
geometric
locus
for
the
general
transfer
open-loop
roots
of
transfer
for
the
the
roots
all
corresponding
closed-loop
function,
function.
characterisconsti-
closed-loop
system
with
system,
the
char-
can be approximately constructed, using
rules:
Root-Locus
2.
(s-z
poles
Diagram
acteristic equation (15.A-l),

the
-*
m __zeros
are
while
2
1
c (s-p,)(s-p,)
l+K
equal
Curves.
=O.
p
The
to
Each
number
the
of
number
branch
branches
of
(locus)
(loci)
open-loop
composing
poles,
originates
from
the
n.
a
pole,
From multiple poles originate multiple branches,

=
the
-1 is a double pole, we
point
(-l,O).
will
have
two
loci
originat-
3.
Termination of Curves. As Kc + 00
Root-Locus
terminate
at
either
zeros
the
open-loop
the
- approach
4.
of
(n-m)
zeros
Loci on the Real Axis.
at
the n branches (loci) of the
transfer
infinity
function,
along
or
specified
asymptotes.
The real axis is part of a branch (locus)
if the sum of the number of poles and zeros to the right of any
5.
point on the real axis is odd.
A double or triple pole or zero
should
times,
be
counted
twice,
Location
of
Asymptotes.
branches
of
the
the
poles
and
three
The
Root-Locus
zeros
of
(n-m)
emanate
the
etc.
asymptotes
from
open-loop
the
approached
center
transfer
of
function.
by
(n-m)
gravity
of
The center
of gravity is given by
c1 = i"l 'i n - m
j~l
The
asymptotes
make
'i
(15.A-2)
angles
of
n[(2k+l)/n-m)]
with
the
real
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . . (n-m-l)
axis.
This
means
that
they
are
equally
spaced
at
angles of
2T/(n-m)
with
6.
each
Breakaway
other.
Point.
Whenever
two
branches
emerging
from
two
adjacent
real poles intersect, they leave the real axis at a point which is
determined
by
the
equation,
m
1
c
s - z.
j=l
J
The
7.
two
branches
Entering
Point.
poles
move
n
1
c
i=l ' - Pi
leave
the
Whenever
towards
two
(15.h-3)
real
axis
at
two
branches
adjacent
real
right
coming
zeros,
angles.
from
they
two
enter
different
the
real
axis at right angles and at a point satisfying equation (15.A-3).

8.
Angle
of
Departure.
The angle of departure of a branch from a
simple pole on the real axis is 0 or TT.
For
multiple
real
poles
of
k-th order, the k branches of the Root-Locus leave the pole, at

angles
given
by
Eli =+
(2i+l)v
+ T&,
j=l
(pq-zj>
+ T& (pq-pj)
j=l
!
7%
for i = 0, 1, 2, . . . . k-l
where
9.
Angle
q
of
(15.A-4)
is the k-th order pole.

Approach.
The
angle
zero is either 0 or
IT.
Root-Locus
branches
of
the
For
of
approach of a branch to a simple
multiple
real zeros of k-th order, the
approach
the multiple
pole
at
angles
given by
n
oi = i
(2i+l)n
L
+ Y& (zq-zj)
j=l
7%
'
j=l
('q-pj)
for i = 0, 1, 2, . . . . k-l
(15.A-5)
where z
10.
is the k-th order zero.
Symmetry
of
the
Root-Locus.
Since
the
complex
roots
of
char-
acteristic equation (15.A-1)
always appear as conjugate pairs, the
Root-Locus
respect
Example.
is
symmetric
with
to
the
real
axis.
Consider again the Example 15.7. The open-loop transfer
function has four poles and one zero; pI = -1.45, p2 = p3

P4
the
= -4.35 and z1 = -2.25. Therefore, the
four
branches
branches
other
(loci)
1, see
(branch
three
which
(4-l)
emerge
Figure
approach
from
15.7)
zeros
at
the
Root-Locus
four
terminates
infinity
is
poles.
at
the
along
= -2.85,
composed
of
One of the
zero,
the
three
while
the
asymptotes.
The center of gravity of the poles and zeros is given by equation

(15.A-2)
c1 = (-1.45) + 2(-2.85)
The
asymptotes
+ (-4.35) - (-2.25)
(4-l)
-3.08
make
angles
of
-1~[(=+1)/(4-1) 1
k = 0, 1, 2
with the real axis; i.e. 60", 180" and 300".
The
and
the
shown
The
following
Between
location
of
the
segments
-1.45
and
of
three
the
-2.25.
asymptotes
real
axis
are
are
part
center
in
of
of
Figure
the
gravity
15.7.
Root-Locus:
One pole to the right of every point of
this segment.
- Between
every
point
and --m.
of
this
Four poles and one zero to the right of

segment.
,.
I
. ...
The segment from -1.45 to +m has no poles or zeros to its right, while
the segment from -2.85 to -4.35 has three poles (pI,p2,p3)
zero to its right.
Both these segments cannot be part of the Root-
Locus, according to the Rule 4.

-2.25
to
and one
The same is true for the segment from
-2.85.
From the double pole of -2.85 emanate two loci with angles of
departure given by equation (15.A-4).
Figure
Example
15.7
15.7.
shows
the
approximate
Root-Locus
for
the
reactor
of
CHAPTER 16
DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS
the
In
this
type
of
chapter
the
we
will
feedback
confront
controller,
the
i.e.
critical
questions:
how do we select
P, PI or PID, and how do we
adjust the parameters of the selected controller (i.e. Kc, TI, rD) in order
to
both
of
achieve
an
"optimum" response for the controlled process?
questions
lead
closed-loop
to
the
behavior
synthesis
studied
in
of
the
the
control
previous
The
answers
and
the
chapters
of
Part
system
three
to
analysis
IV.
16.1 OUTLINE OF THE DESIGN PROBLEMS

Consider
the
block
diagram
of
general
closed-loop
system
shown
in
Figure 14.1.
When the load or the set point change, the
deviates
and
the
controller
desired
set
point.
tries
Figure
16.1
to
bring
shows
the
to a unit step change in the load, when

been
used.
We
notice
the
response
of
Question
1:
the
that
different
controlled
What
type
control
feedback
given
output
response
different
controllers
process.
of
the
response
Thus,
of
again
of
have
the
controller
close
the
types
the
the
process
controllers
different
should
to
controlled
of
first
process
effects
design
be
have
used
on
question
arises:
to
process?
Given that we have decided somehow to use PI control, we still need to select
the value of the gain Kc
demonstrate
on
the
very
and
two
of
controlled
response
known
these
that
the
as
time
r1*
parameters
process.
Thus,
Figures 16.2a and 16.2b

have
the
an
important
effect
second
design
question:
How do we select the best values for the adjustable

parameters
is
reset
clearly
Question 2;
This
the
the
of
controller
feedback
tuning
controller?
problem.
1*
._.
-.
...
"keep
the
maximum
deviation
as
small
as
possible,"
or
"return to the desired level of operation and stay close to it
in
the
we
would
then,
shortest
time,"
have
selected
the
Similar
dilemmas
response of type B.
the
design
of
For
-
steady
other
controller
will
be
yielding
encountered
the
closed-loop
quite
often
during
controller.
every
process
state,
and
control
application
we
can
distinguish,
- dynamic response performance criteria.

The
state.
We
cannot
know
usual
steady
state
seen
already
have
achieve
that
zero
for
performance
The
based
-
on
that
steady-state
proportional
zero as Kc -+ 00.
performance
No
most
error,
control
further
in
criterion
steady
discussion
is
zero
error
situations, the
while
the
is
PI
needed
error
on
steady
proportional
controller
state
at
can.
(offset)
controller
Also, we
tends
the
steady
state
closed
loop
system
to
criteria.
evaluation
two
types
of
the
of
dynamic
commonly
performance
used
of
is
criteria:
Criteria which use only a few points of the response.
They
are
simpler
but only approximate.

- Criteria which use the entire closed-loop response from time t=O until
t = very large.
These
are
more
precise
but
also
more
cumbersome
to
use.
In the remaining of this section we will deal with the first category of
simple
for
performance
the
The
of
the
next
criteria
we
will
leave
the
more
complicated
criteria
on
some
characteristic
most
often
section.
simple
performance
closed-loop
Figure 11.2):
and
response
criteria
of
are
system.
based
The
quoted
are
features
(see
- overshoot,
- rise time, i.e. time
for
-
the
first
settling
the
decay
frequency
for
the
response
to
reach
the
desired
value
time,
time,
desired
needed
i.e. time needed for the response to settle within 25%
of
value,
ratio,
of
oscillation
of
the
transient.
Every one of the above characteristics could be used by the designer as the
basic
criterion
for
selecting
parameters.
Thus,
overshoot
minimum
one
or
simple
Usually,
overshoot
designs
based
istics.
and
on
not
suffice
that
minimize
we
using
increase
simple
the
subjectively
From
all
the
popular
by
above
the
to
order
be
to
its
have:
emphasized
describe
the
be
etc.
of
desired
that
dynamic
i.e.
Unfortunately,
response
minimum
though
satisfied,
conflicting
adjusted
controller
character-
shows that by decreasing the value of the

time.
as
balance
performance
practicing
to
-values
in
must
time,
lead
criteria
and
the
objectives
settling
settling
design
It
more
criteria
and
controller
etc.
require
multiple
the
time,
does
intervene
most
design
settling
we
controller
For example, Figure 16.4
overshoot
while
could
characteristic
response.
minimize
we
the
Scuh conflicts will always arise
the
the
above,
The
conflicting
criteria,
engineers.
the
control
designer
must
characteristics.
decay
ratio
Specifically,
has
been
experience
has
the
shown
that a decay ratio (see Figure 11.2)

c/A
is
time.
reasonable
This
criterion.
l/4
trade-off
criterion
is
between
fast
usually
known
as
rise
the
time
and
one-quarter
reasonable
decay
ratio
settling
Example
16.1
Consider
controller.
Controller
Tuning
the
servo
control
The
closed-loop
With
problem
response
the
of
was
One-Quarter
a
Decay
first-order
developed
in
Ratio
process
Section
Criterion
with
15.3
PI
and
is
given by eqn. (15.23) when Gm = Gf = 1

rIs+l
'*(s)
(15.23)
Ysp (s)
T2S2 + 25rs + 1
where
r,
1
r1
? JT K K (' + KpK~)
PPC
Yp
K K
PC
(15.24a)
and
We
notice
that
the
closed
loop
(15.24b)
response
is
second-order.
For the selection of the "best" values for Kc and 'II we will use
simple
criteria
tem.
Select
know
that
stemming
the
from
one-quarter
Decay Ratio =
the
decay
underdamped
ratio
-2lT3
exp( --->
fl-r2
Therefore,
for
our
problem
we
have,
exp
After algebraic simplifications we take:
response
criterion.
of
From
a
eqn.
second-order
(11.12)
we
sys-
T-
J4rpKp;c _ l (1 + KpKc)
-2r
= an(14)
Therefore,
Equation (16.1) has two unknowns; Kc, rI.

controller
settingg
Let K =l
P
K
and
r1
etc.
which
satisfy
-cp=lO.
=l
Kc
= 0.49
the
Then,
=
one-quarter
we
10
find
Kc
the
30
7I = 0.16 ,rI = 0.06
The question is which one to select.
proportional gain Kc
so
that
the
(16.1)
we
will
decay
ratio
following
Kc
50
have
several
criterion.
solutions
Kc
100
~~ = 0.04 ~~ = 0.02
Usually,
controller
has
we
select
the
first
necessary
the
"strength"
to push the response back to the desired set point and then we choose the
corresponding
TI
value
so
that
the
one-quarter
decay
ratio
is
satisfied.
16.3 TIME-INTEGRAL PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

The
shape
of
the
complete
closed-loop
response
from
time
t=O until
steady state has been reached could be used for the formulation of a dynamic
performance
criterion.
characteristics
criteria
of
(e.g.
this
Unlike
decay
category
the
simple
criteria
ratio, settling
are
based
on
time)
the
entire
which
of
use
the
only
dynamic
response
of
the
isolated
response,
the
process.
The most often used are:

1.
Integral
of
the
Square
Error
(ISE),
where
co
ISE =
(16.2a)
e(t)dt
0
2.
Integral
of
the
IAE =
.P
0
Absolute
Idt> Idt
Value
of
the
Error
(IAE),
where
(16.2b)
AC
.,...,L
,,
.,
. . .
34
3.
Integral
of
the
Time-Weighted
Absolute
Error
(ITAE),
where
cm
ITAE =
(16.k)
tlE(t) Idt
I
where
the
E(t) = yd(t) - y(t), i.e. the
desired
The
set
deviation
(error)
of
the
response
from
point.
problem
of
designing
the "best"
controller
can
now
be
formulated
as
follows:
"Select
the
type
of
the
controller
and
the
values
of
its
adjusted
parameters in such a way as to minimize the ISE, IAE or ITAE of the

system's
response."
Which one of the above three criteria we will use depends on the characteristics
of
the
system
impose
on
the
controlled
general
-
to
response
control
and
of
process.
the
some
additional
The
requirements
following
are
we
some
If we want strongly to suppress large errors, ISE is better than IAE
the
For
we
-
want
guidelines:
because
we
To
tune
the
errors
are
squarred
and
thus
contribute
more
to
the
value
of
integral.
the
square
supporession
small
suppress
the
of
numbers
errors
which
controllers
small
errors, IAE
is
better
than
(smaller
than
one)
they
become
persist
for
long
times,
the
better
because
the
presence
of
ISE
even
ITAE
large
because
when
smaller.
criterion
will
t amplifies
the effect of even small errors in the value of the integral.

Figure
16.5
responses.
ITAE
demonstrates
When
performance
Different
For
the
different
the
controller
criteria, two
criteria
same
in
time
designs.
lead
to
integral
qualitative
manner
parameters
points
different
have
are
the
been
very
tuned
important
controller
criterion, different
shape
of
the
using
to
closed-loop
ISE,
IAE
emphasize:
designs.
input
changes
lead
to
and
Let
us
analyze
Example
16.2
these
two
statements
- Controller
Consider
the
feedback
on
the
basis
of
Tuning
Using
Time-Integral
system
shown
in
Figure
the
following
example.
Criteria
16.6.
The
closed-loop
response is:
-rIs+l
-
L(s) =
5s
Y,,(s) +
;i(s)
r1
2
--Q s+l
20Kc ' +5(l+20Kc
or
TIs+l
T s
I
d(s)
+4 = r2s2 + 2cTs + 1 %P(s) +,282 + 2T.s + 1
where
T =
(16.4a)
and
=I
2 J20K (1 + 2OICJ
(16.4b)
In order to select the best values for Kc and TI we can use one of the
three
criteria:
ISE, IAE or ITAE.
Furthermore,
Finally,
either in the load or the set point.
we
can
consider
changes
even if we select set point
changes we still need to decide what kind of changes we will consider, i.e.
step,
sinusoidal,
criterion
and
impulse,
unit-step
etc.
changes
Let us say that we select ISE as the

in
the
.rIs+l
Y(s)
2
T
2
s
set
+ 25TS + 1 s
Invert the last equation and find (if 5~1):
point.
From
eqn.
(16.3)
we
have:
-rtlT 1ITI
y(t)=l+e
f-l-52 5) - sin( /-l-52t
sin(
7 + tan
- 1 ___
Il-c2
r
(16.5)
)1
Il-C2
Then solve the following optimization problem
03
"Minimize ISE = [ysp - y(t)12dt
by selecting the values of
and 5, where y(t) is given by eqn. (16.5)."
The optimal values of r and

equations
(conditions
a(ISE)
a7
for
< are given by the solution of the following
optimality):
a(Iw
ar
(-J
Let -r*
and
<* be the optimal values.
we
find
the
can
corresponding
optimal
Then, from eqns. (16.4a) and (16.4b)
values
for
the
controller
parameters
TI
and K
C
If the criterion was the ITAE then we would have to solve the following
problem:
co
"Minimize
ITAE
Idt by selecting
dYsp - y(t)
the
values
of
and 5 where y(t) is given by eqn. (16.5."
The solution r* and c*

a(ITAE)/ar
is
given
= a(ITAE)/ar,
by
the
equations
= 0
and in turn, from eqns. ((16.3a) and (16.3b))
It
criteria
Let
is
clear
will
us
be
that
in
consider
the
solutions
general
now
of
unit-step
changes
.-1
s
T2S2 + 2<TS + 1
I
two
problems
with
different
different.
yields;
Y(s)
the
we can find the optimal Kc and
in
the
load.
Equation
(16.3)
and
inversion,
-?t/T
y(t)
2 t
*I e
sin(fl-5 --)
(16.6)
T /-l-c2
We can find the optimal values of Kc and TI
as
previously.
Since the response
following a similar procedure
y(t) is now different than it was for a
unit step change in the set point (compare eqns. (16.6) with (16.5), we expect
that the optimal settings of Kc
and
will be different, even if we use
the same criterion, i.e. ISE or ITAE.

16.4 SELECT THE TYPE OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLER
Which
control
manner
-
one
given
as
Define
of
the
three
process?
popular
The
feedback
controllers
can
answered
question
be
should
in
be
very
used
to
systematic
follows:
an
appropriate
performance
criterion,
e.g.
ISE,
IAE
or
ITAE.
- Compute the value of the performance criterion using P or PI or PID

controller with the best settings for the adjusted parameters Kc, -cI,
Select
that
controller
which
gives
the "best"
value
for
the
performance
criterion.
This procedure although mathematically rigorous has several serious
drawbacks
like:
- it is very tedius,
-
it
relies
control
-
it
on
modes1
element,
which
incorporates
criterion
and
troller
using
may
certain
what
Fortunately,
(transfer
not
functions)
for
be
exactly,
ambiguities
input
changes
known
as
to
to
the
which
process,
is
the
sensor
most
and
final
appropriate
consider.
we can select the most appropriate type of a feedback con-
only
general
qualitative
considerations
stemming
from
the
analysis
in Chapter 14.
and
derivative
clusions
There
control
were
as
Control
- Accelerates
the
Produces
except
an
modes
response
offset,
those
had
examined
on
the
the
effect
response
of
of
the
proportional,
integral
In
the
system.
summary:
con-
follows:
Proportional
we
with
of
controlled
i.e. non-zero
l/s
terms
process.
steady
state
error
for
all
processes
in
their
transfer
function,
(integrators)
like
the liquid level in a tank or the gas pressure in a vessel (see Remark in
Section
14.2).
Integral
-
Control
Eliminates
The
any
offset.
elimination
of
the
offset
comes
usually
at
the
expense
of
high
maximum
system
becomes
devications.
- Produces sluggish, long oscillating responses.
to
- If we increase the gain Kc

more
oscillatory
Derivative
Anticipates
Introduces
16.1
may
lead
to
faster
response
the
instability.
Control
Figure
and
produce
future
a
errors
stabilizing
reflects
in
and
introduces
effect
very
on
the
simple
appropriate
closed-loop
way
all
the
action.
response
above
of
process.
characteristics
which
should be used in a general manner.

It is clear from the above that a three-mode PID controller should be
the best.
to
achieve
parameters.
This
the
At
because
we
have
desired
response
is
true
desired
the
to
in
the
controlled
same
time
adjust
against
sense
the
three
it
that
it
response
by
introduces
parameters.
tuning
difficulty
offers
the
having
more
To
we
three
complex
balance
can
highest
the
adopt
flexibility
adjustable
tuning
problem
quality
the
of
the
following
rules
1.
to
If
select
possible
Simple
controller.
use
simple
proportional
acceptable
has
the
an
offset
proportional
controller
with
integrating
can
moderate
action,
controller.
be
used
values
i.e.
Kc or (b) the process
of
term
(a) we can achieve
if:
l/s in its transfer function

Therefore,
for which the P control does not exhibit offset.
for
gas
pressure or liquid level control we can use only P controller.

2.
If simple P controller is unacceptable use a PI.

?I
controller
provide
should
sufficiently
be
used
small
when
proportional
steady
state
control
errors
alone
cannot
Therefore,
(offsets).
PI will be used seldomly in liquid level or gas pressure control systems
but
very
often
(almost
always)
system,
mode,
3.
despite
remains
Use
PID
The
PI
eliminates
For
slow
down
caused
control.
The
response
the speed of the closed-
by
the
integral
control
to
the
increase
offset
the
but
multicapacity
speed
of
reduces
the
process
whose
the
closed-loop
speed
of
response
the
is
response.
closed-loop
very
the addition of a PI controller makes it even more sluggish.
sluggish,
In
such
casestheadditionof thederivativecontrolactionwith its stabilizing

effect
without
allows
the
excessive
recommended
for
of
satisfactory.
controller
response.
the
flow
Consequently,
. a flow system is rather fast.

loop
for
use
of
higher
oscillations.
temperature
sluggish, multicapacity
and
gains
which
produce
faster
responses
Therefore, derivative action is

composition
processes.
control
where
we
have
Example
16.3
Let
control
us
Selecting
discuss
Type
various
We
systems.
the
will
of
Controller
processes
address
for
Various
which
are
to
be
primarily
the
question
Processes
controlled
of
by
feedback
selecting
the
appropriate type of feedback controller.

(a) Liquid level control.
the
bottom
drum
of
(Figure
Consider
the
distillation
16.7).
Our
two
column
control
liquid
and
level
its
objective
is
control
condenser's
to
keep
systems
for
accumulation
each
liquid
level
within a certain range around the desired set point and not to meet it
exactly.
This allowance for non-zero offsets dictates that proportional
control alone is satisfactory.

(b) Gas pressure control.
Our objective is to regulate the pressure p in
the tank of Figure 16.7c, when the inlet pressure p1

in
p2
within
downstream
certain
process
range
change.
around
or
the
pressure
Usually, we want to maintain p
desired
value, thus
making
proportional
controller satisfactory for our purpose.

Here we can have loops which react quite fast
Cc> Vapor pressure control.

or
are
shown
relatively
in
Figure
and
manipulates
the
vapor
PI
while
slow.
16.8.
the
maintaining
caused
by
the
in
is
for
example
the
of
the
vapor, thus
process.
satisfactory.
acceptable
integral
mode
by
the
vapor
condensed.
in
distillation
configurations
For
such
flow
of
Such
systems
column.
of
the
control).
cooling
The
directly
systems
with
and
quickly
fast
response,
It eliminates any undesirable offset
speed
of
affecting
response
For
the
16.8b the situation is different. Here, the

indirectly
two
The loop in Figure 16.8a measures the pressure
flow
pressure
controller
Consider
water
may
slow
be
dynamics
system
vapor
which
used
(despite
pressure
affects
for
of
in
the
controlling
the
heat
some
slowdown
Figure
is
controlled
amount
the
of
pressure
transfer
Ic-
.U.
-.
1,
. . .
process
are
introduced
in
the
control
of the system will be rather slow.
loop.
We
expect
that
the
response
A PI controller will make it even
slower and if we attempted to use high gains to speed up the response,

we
may
get
an
selected
unstable
which
(d) Flow control.

16.9.
Both
will
system.
provide
Consider
respond
the
quite
Therefore,
enough
two
speed
flow
and
controller
should
be
robustness.
control
Therefore,
fast.
PID
systems
a
PI
shown
in
controller
Figure
is
satisfactory because it eliminates offsets and retains acceptable speed

of response.
(e) Temperature control.
Figure
16.10.
mixture
at
Our
accomplished
the
reactor.
have
two
reacting
(ii)
controller
PID
value.
Since
the
manipulating
the
rather
the
temperature
steam
the
control
system
temperature
of
reaction
of
to
heat
sensor
the
is
steam
temperature
processes: (i)
the
from
flow
measured
slow
and
is
temperature
keep
Between
the
the
transfer
(see
mixture.
this
jacket
between
around
effect
the
13.3)
We
in
reacting
control
Section
reacting
the
endothermic,
in
and
shown
and
expect,
that the overall response will be rather sluggish and a PI

will
make
controller
high
gains
the
system.
for
it
would
faster
(f) Composition control.

temperature
sensors.
the
to
transfer
therefore,
by
mixture
heat
objective
desired
is
we
Consider
control,
Therefore,
even
be
more
the
response
so.
most
Consequently, for such systems
appropriate
without
because
undermining
it
the
can
allow
stability
of
Here we have a similar situation to that of

i.e. very
a
PID
slow
controller
response
should
caused
be
the
by
slow
most
composition
appropriate.
397
16.5
CONTROLLER
After
the
is
the
problem
known
TUNING
type
of
as
TECHNIQUES-
of
deciding
the
feedback
what
controller
values
controller
to
tuning
has
use
been
for
problem.
its
There
selected,
adjusted
are
we
still
have
This
parameters.
three
general
approaches
we can use for tuning a controller:

-
Use
simple
minimum
criteria
settling
simple
and
like
time,
easily
the
one-quarter
minimum
implementable
decay
select
-
Use
performance
single
time
16.2).
set
integral
This
will
of
performance
approach
mathematical
model
is
etc.
on
actual
process.
an
on an actual process, it is
In
Use
semi-empirical
this
methods
Cohen
section
known
and
rules
we
as
will
the
be
for
Additional
needed
the
criteria
rather
(transfer
Such
error,
then
values
(see
largest
multiple solutions (see Example 16.1).

closed-loop
ratio
to
like
function)
and
of
approach
it provides
specifications
the
is
on
the
multiplicity
and
parameters.
ISE,
cumbersome
an
Usually,
break
adjusted
Example 16.1),
IAE
or
relies
the
ITAE
(see
heavily
on
process.Applied
Example
the
experimentally
time consuming.
which
discuss
Process
have
the
been
most
Reaction
proven
in
popular
of
Curve
Method
practice.
the
which
empirical
was
tuning
developed
by
Coon.
Consider
disconnecting
the
the
control
system
controller from
of
Figure
the
16.11
final
which
control
has
been
element.
"opened"
Introduce
by
a
step change of magnitude A in the variable C which actuates the final

control
element.
In the case of a valve, C is the stem position.
the value of the output with respect to time.

Process Reaction Curve.
function
(see
Figure
Between
16.10)
ym
The curve
y,(t)
is
Record
called
and C we have the following transfer
YmW
GpRC(s) =
~ =
(16.7)
Gf(s)*Gp(d-Gm(s>
C(s)
The
last
equation
shows
that
the
process
reaction
curve
is
affected
not
only
by the dynamics of the main process but also by the dynamics of the measuring
sensor
and
final
Cohen
and
control
Coon
element.
observed
that
the
response
of
most
processing
units
to
an input change as the above had a sigmoidal shape (see Figure 16.12a) which
can
be
adequately
approximated
by
the
response
of
first-order
system
with
dead time (Figure 16.12b, i.e.
GpRC(s)
which
has
YmW
___
C(s)
three
-tds
Ke
,rs+l
parameters:
static gain K, dead time td and time constant
T.
From the response of Figure 16.12a
of
the
three
parameters.
(16.8)
it is easy to approximate the values
Thus,
Output (at steady state)

B
Input (at steady state) = x '
= B/S where S is the slope of the sigmoidal response at

the
td
Cohen
=
and
time
point
elapsed
Coon
used
of
until
the
inflexion
the
system
approximate
the values of the parameters K, td
model
and
and
various
one-quarter
minimum
offset,
minimum
integral
The
results
performance
decay
of
criteria
of
as
derived theoretical expressions for the "best"

changes
responded
eqn.
indicated
their
error
analysis
(ISE),
are
like:
etc.
summarized
and
above.
estimated
Then,
they
controller settings using load
ratio,
square
(16.8)
below.
...
whose
response
has
the
general
overdamped
shape
of
16,12a(seealsoFipures
10.4, ll.la
and 11.6). The
oscillatory
behavior
produced
underdamped
is
presence of feedback controllers.
mainly
Figure
by
the
Therefore, when we 'iopen"
the loop (Figure16.ll)and thus disconnect the controller,

the
response
takes
the
sigmoidal
shape
of
an
overdamped
system.
(3) From eqns. (16.9),
(16.1Oa)
and (16.11a)
of the proportional gain Kc
for
the
which give the value

three
controllers
we
notice that:
- The gain of the PI controller is lower than that of the
P controller.
control
mode
This is due to the fact that the integral

makes
the
system
more
sensitive
(may
even
lead
to instability) and thus the gain value needs to be more

conservative.
-
The
stabilizing
effect
of
the
derivative
control
mode
allows the use of higher gains in the PID controller

(higher than the gain for P or PI controllers).
Example
In
16.4
this
example
processes
(0
Tuning
influence
Processes
Feedback
- - - -Controllers
we
the
with
will
examine
tuning
results
very
shosrt
how
Through
the
dynamics
recommended
time
delay
Reaction
by
(dead
Curves
of
various
Cohen
and
Coon.
When
td
time).
typical
is very
small (almost zero) the process reaction curve (Figure 16.12a) reminds
the
response
settings
Kc
of
simple
dictate
an
extremely
(see eqns. (16.8),
first-order
large
system.
value
(16.9a) and (16.10a)).
The
for
the
Cohen
and
Coon
proportional
gain
In real practice we
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
i
will use the largest possible gain to reduce the offset if a proportional controller is employed.
the
(ii)
value
of
gain
Multicapacity
processes.
will
be
processes.
Consider
determined
These
two
If a PI controller is used, then

by
stability
constitute
first.-order
the
systems
requirements.
large
majority
in
series
valve
(final
of
real
with
P
s+l) (T
CT
s+l)
p2
Pl
Let
the
measuring
device
and
the
control
control
element)
have first-order dynamics, i.e.

G
Knl
=-cms+l
Then,
the
and
transfer
Gf
function
Kf
rfs+l
between
the
control
actuating
variable
C and the recorded measurement of the output y, is given by

(see
eqn.
(16.7)):
KKK
f pm
s+l)(-r
=GGG
=
PRC
(y+l) (T
f pm
P2
Pl
Equation
same
of
(16.8)
dynamic
four
Figure
indicates
characteristics
first-order
16.13
that
systems
shows
the
the
process
as
the
in
series,
process
(16.8)
s+l)(Tms+l>
reaction
response
i.e.
reaction
curve
has
composed
of
system
it
is
slgmoidal
curve
for
the
the
curve.
following
values:
K
Draw
1.0
TPl
the
tangent
at
Km
rP2
the
1.0
2
inflexion
,
,
Kf
Tf
point
1.0
and
0.00
and
find;
Tm
- S = slope at the inflexion point = 0.05

- B = ultimate response = 1.0
- -c = effective time constant = B/s = l.O/O.OS
= 20.
10.0
- t
d = dead time = 2.5
-K
= gain = B/A = l.O/l.O
Therefore,
response
the
of
the
approximate
that
reaction
following
curve
can
first-order
with
be
approximated
dead
time
by
the
system:
1.0 e-2*5s
2Os+l
GPRC
The
process
= 1.0.
the
response
approximation
is
also
is
shown
in
satisfactory
Figure
until
the
16.13.
We
response
notice
has
reached the 40% of its final value.
Using
the
Cohen-Coon
For proportional
suggested
controller:
= 7.2
KC
shows
and
the
Cohen
and
Coon
= 5.85
TI
closed-loop
set point (Figure 16.14a)

the
find:
controller:
For proportional-integral
16.14
we
= 8.0
KC
Figure
settings
responses
and
with
the
above
and load changes (Figure 16.14b).
settings
produce
underdamped
behavior
= 0.89
rD
settings
for
We notice that
with
rather
good
decay ratio.
Example
16.5
The
- Controller
methodology
particularly
appealing
sensor
poorly
are
the
values
the
effects
trol
element
process.
of
and
controller
if
the
the
Poorly
tuning
dynamics
Known
using
of
the
Processes
process
main
reaction
process
or
curves
the
is
measuring
i.e. we do not know exactly the order of dynamics or
parameters.
all
for
of
known,
the
of
Tuning
dynamic
provides
an
In
such
case
components,
the
i.e.
process
process,
experimental, approximate
reaction
sensor
model
for
curve
and
the
reveals
final
con-
overall
c--
Take
16.10.
as
example
the
temperture
control
._.,
system
,...
for
the
reactor
of
Figure
It is quite a complex system and we may not know with satisfactory
precision all or a few of the following:

-
the
reaction
kinetics,
- the heat of reaction,

-
the
mixing
the
heat
the
overall
the
effective
order
the
gain
time
the
characteristics
The
model
characteristics
capacity
heat
and
process
of
the
requiring
the
of
overall
the
the
of
the
steam
process
control
mixture,
between
thermocouple's
curve
knowledge
and
tank,
coefficient
constant
of
the
reacting
transfer
reaction
detailed
thermocouple
of
in
which
of
reacting
mixture,
thermocouple,
etc.
this
system
we
the
and
dynamics,
valve,
for
steam
can
use
dynamics
provides
to
for
tune
the
us
the
with
an
experimental
controller
reactor,
without
heating
jacket,
valve.
SLIMHARY AND CONCLUDING REWBKS

To
design
controller
(P,
PI,
for
selected
the
criteria
we
feedback
PID)
controller
and
(b)
controller.
can
use
to
it
to
choose
There
evaluate
means: (a) to select the type of the
are
the
two
values
main
alternative
of
the
adjusted
parameters
classes
of
dynamic
performance
controller
designs,
The first
includes simple isolated dynamic characteristics of a system's response

(overshoot,
criteria
decay
which
ratio,
are
based
rise
on
time,
the
settling
time
time), while
integrals
of
various
the
second
functions
of
includes
the
errors
(e.g. of the square of the errors, or of the absolute errors, or of the
product
of
time
with
the
absolute
errors).
The
first
class
of
criteria,
- are simpler to use,

-
can be used even with poorly known processes, but
lead
to
single
The
-
multiple
and
need
additional
integral
based
lead
of
to
produce
on
criteria,
the
mathematical
model
(transfer
- necessitate the solution of an optimization

-
specifications
solution.
time
are
solutions
to
unique
solutions, since
closed-loop
they
function)
of
process,
problem, and
depend
on
the
entire
dynamic
response
system.
In order to select the type of a feedback controller we can use the following
general heuristic rules:
-
Use
proportional
level,
-
Use
gas
PI
Use
system
PID
to
has
tuning
one-quarter
if
small
eliminate
offsets
undesirable
satisfactory
to
speed
systems, while
controller
the
only
can
be
tolerated,
e.g.
liquid
control.
controllers
open-loop
For
pressure
controllers
open-loop
-
control
up
the
maintaining
the
decay
speed,
most
ratio
e.g.
response
methods
if
flow
the
response
of
the
control.
of
satisfactory
common
rule,
offsets
sluggish
multicapacity
robustness.
employ,
or
- time integral criteria (ISE, IAE, ITAE)., or

-
the
Cohen
and
Coon
settings
based
on
the
process
reaction
curves.
The first and last can be used with poorly known processes, while the second
necessitates
mathematical
models
for
all
components
of
closed-loop.
In the next two chapters we will discuss a methodology for the design of
feedback
far.
the
controllers, which
is
quite
different
from
everything
we
have
seen
so
It is known as the Frequency Response Analysis and permits us to look at

same
design
problems
from
new
perspective.
THINGS
1.
TO
What
THINK
are
the
troller?
2.
What
3.
Discuss
is
meant
the
troller
Can
main
by
two
6.
arising
and
controller
classes
demonstrate
during
the
design
of
feedback
con-
tuning?
of
dynamic
how
performance
different
criteria
criteria.
lead
Give
to
physical
different
con-
designs.
you
design
simultaneously?
5.
questions
Discuss them on the basis of a physical example.
examples
4.
ABOUT
controller
which
minimizes
the
rise
and
settling
times,
Explain.
Can you design a controller which minimizes the overshoot and settling
time, simultaneously?
Explain.
What
advantages
are
the
relative
and
disadvantages
of
the
three time-
integral criteria, i.e. ISE, IAE and ITAE? How would you select the
most appropriate for a particular application?
7.
Why
do
simple
one-quarter
criteria
decay
like
ratio,
minimum
overshoot,
minimum
settling
time,
etc. lead to multiple solutions? How do you
break the multiplicity and come up with a single solution?

a.
Why do the time-integral criteria lead to unique solutions?
9.
Discuss a set of simple heuristic rules you could use to select the
most
10.
type
of
feedback
controller
for
particular
system.
Discuss the philosophy of the methodology that leads to the Cohen and
Coon
11.
appropriate
settings
for
feedback
controllers.
How do you understand the "opening" of the control loop shown in

Figure 16.11?
Explain in practical terms how one tunes a feedback
controller
an
for
existing
process
in
chemical
plant.
aa.
,.
12.
Why
do
shape?
most
of
Can
you
the
process
develop
reaction
physically
.1
. .
curves
have
meaningful
an
overdamped
system
which
has
sigmoidal
a
reaction curve with an underdamped, oscillatory shape?

the
Are
14.
What is the value of the proportional gain Kc for a pure dead-time

system
Cohen
according
and
to
Coon
the
settings
Cohen
and
reliable
Coon
for
all
settings?
processes?
Explain.
13.
Is
it
reasonable?
Explain.
15.
If the dynamics of the process or measuring sensor are not well known,
what
tuning
techniques
would
you
use?
Discuss your answer.
L4,
..-
,..
4 a.7
uNc~~TROLCED
RESPONSE
desired
1
i 6.
lyue
-.--__
1G.d
-_
level of operaLion
.r-- u
pc --:
I
I
IF ig u-e
46.8 1
Cls)=A/S
2jnJs)
-
G,
. .
/
slope =s
44
id
!b)
?/
1.0
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
-7
t
A
I . .
CHAPTER
THE
FEQUENCY
RESPONSE
17
ANALYSIS
OF
LINEAR
PROCESSES
In Chapters 17 and 18 we will study a new technique which is often used

in designing feedback controllers.
have
seen
so
When
response
far
linear
(after
characteristic,
the
how
and
it
is
called
system
is
subjected
long
time)
which
will
is
be
proved
Response
Analysis.
With
frequency
response
the
features
of
with
the
frequency
with
basic
premises
usage
for
controller
the
of
of
input
the
in
a
in
quite
different
Response
Section
we
input,
sinusoidal
17.2,
are
everything
we
Analysis.
sinusoidal
sustained
from
its
wave.
constitutes
primarily
ultimate
This
the
interested
In this chapter we will deal only
the
next
while
shift)
leaving
of
find
sinusoid.
analysis,
phase
to
wave
response
(amplitude,
basis
sinusoidal
frequency
design
to
analysis
output
the
is
Frequency
also
Frequency
the
It
change
its
chapter.
17.1 THE RESPOME OF A FIRST-ORDER SYSTEM TO A SINUSOIDAL INPUT

Consider
G(s)
Let
f(t)
be
f(t)
simple
=
first-order
Y(s)
~
Us)
system
with
the
transfer
function
KP
(17.1)
TPS+l
sinusoidal
input
with
amplitude
and
frequency
w,
i.e.
= A sinwt
Then
T(s) = Aw
s* + u*
Substitute
F(s)
(17.2)
from eqn. (17.2) into eqn. (17.1) and take:

K
Y(s)
Aw
s2 + cd2
Expand
into
partial
Y(s)
fractions
and
5
+ l,T
P
find
c2
s + jw
Compute the constants Cl, C2 and C3
c3
s - jw
(17.3)
and find the inverse Laplace
trans-
forms of the three terms in eqn. (17.3):

K Aw-r
-tl p
pe
= 2p2
y(t)
rPw
KpAo-r
-
+I
KA
T202 -I- 1 cos t + r2U2p + 1

P
P
sinwt
-t/-c
As
ta
the
'+O
and
the
first
term
disappears.
Thus, after a long
time the response of a first-order system to a sinusoidal input is given by:
Y,,W
KPAwr P
- ,2w2
+ 1 coswt
P
KPA
,2,2 + 1 sinwt
P
(17.4)
Use the following trigonometric identify;

a cosb
1
a2sinb
a3sin(b+$)
where
a3
and
I$
tan-'(al/a2)
Then, eqn. (17.4) yields:
Y,,(t)
sin(wt
(17.5)
+ $I)
OF
+1
P
where
4
From
-
eqns.
The
tan
(17.5)
ultimate
-1
and
(17.6)
(-o.rp)
(17.6)
response
(also
we
observe
referred
that;
as
steady
state)
of
first-order
system
to a sinusoidal input is also a sinusoidal wave with the same frequency W.
,,.I
..I
.
...
9/3
The
ratio
of
the
output
amplitude
to
the
input
amplitude
is
called
amplitude
ratio and is a function of the frequency, i.e.

P
AR = amplitude ratio =
(17.7)
P
- The output wave lags behind (phase lag) the input wave by an angle ]$I,
w (see eqn. (17.6)). Figure
which is also a function of the frequency

17.1
shows
input
The
above
three
to
generalization
the
Remarks:
ultimate
response
of
the
system
and
its
relationship
to
the
wave.
expandable
to
the
any
of
algebra
(1)
observations
order
the
of
do
not
linear
results
complex
numbers.
w =
complex
only
Before
system.
above
Consider
hold
let
we
first-order
proceed
with
systems
but
are
the
make the following remarks related
us
number
for
W defined by
a + jb
a = real part of W = Re(W) and b = imaginary part
where
Define
of W = Im(W).
the
following
terms:
- Modulus or absolute value or magnitude of W is represented by IW]
and
IWI = J[Re(W)12
defined
by
(17.8)
+ [Im(W)12
- Phase angle or argument of W is represented by $W

or arg(W)
+W
and defined by
Im(W)
tan-1 ~
L-Re(W) I
(17.9)
From Figure 17.2 it is clear that

a =
lwlcose
(WI ~0.~0
and
and
=
j[Wlsine
/WlsinO
Recall
also
cosa
that
ejfJ + e-je
and
sin8
Jo _ e-je
2j
Then
ejO + .-jO
w = /WI
ej 8 _ .--jO
+
j/WI
= lWleje
(17.10)
2j
(2) Put s = jw in eqn. (17.1) and take

-jw-iP+l
G(j > = jutp+l
P
= juFp+l
P
-jOrp+l
or
K
G(jw)
K WT
P P
T21112 + 1 - j T2U2 + 1
P
P
G(jw) is a complex number.

(1)
Therefore according to Remark
above,
Modulus of G(jw) = L=amplitude
ratio (see eqn. (17.7))
P
and
Argument of Gm =tan --I(- wrp)
The
last
two
relationships
and
phase
lag
for
system
of
its
are
equal
transfer
the
to
indicate
frequency
the
function
= phase lag (see eqn. (17.6))
modulus
when
that
response
and
the
of
amplitude
a
argument
ratio
first-order
respectively
s = jw.
This is an important result which we will generalize in the next section for
any
linear
system.
17.2 THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GENERAL LINEAR SYSTEM

Consider
general
linear
system
with
the
transfer
function
G(s) =
where
Q(s) and P(s) are polynomials of orders m and n respectively,
with m<n.
-
(17.11)
We
will
prove
that:
The ultimate response of this system to a sinusoidal input is also a

sinusoidal
wave.
- The ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is a function of

the frequency w
and it is given by the modulus of
G(s) if we put
s = ju, i.e.
AR = modulus of G(jw)
- The output wave is shifted with respect to the input wave by an angle 4
which
is
a
$
function
of
the
frequency
w given by
argument of G(jw)
PROOF
For a sinusoidal input f(t) = Asinwt we have
eqn.
(17.11)
yields:
Y(s)
G(s)
2Aw
Expand
the
y(s)
The
last
equation
into
cd2
partial
fractions:
a
b +
= G(s) Aw
+
s2 + w2=s + jw s - j w
5 + 52 + .
s-p1 s-p2
terms
c1
s-p
give
rise
f(s) = Am/s2 + w2) and
to
eplt
'
c2
s-p
exponential
, e
p2t
'
... ,
terms
pnt
, ... , e
%
s-p n
5-l
s - 'n
If the poles pl, p2,*=*,pn
have negative real parts, all the above terms
decay to zero as t-tco (see Section 9.4).

given
Therefore,
the
ultimate
response
is
by
Yss(s>
Compute constants a
a =
G(s)
Aw
=
s2 + cd2
as + +ju s
-b
jw
(17.12)
and b as discussed in Section 8.2 and find
AG(-jw)
-2j
b=h!t$+!d
and
Therefore, eqn. (17.12) gives
Y&4
y,,(t)
AG(-jw)
1
s + jw
zj
or
AG(-jw) .-jut
zj
AG(jw)
2j
ejwt
(17.13)
Use eqn. (17.10) to express the complex numbers G(-jw) and G(jw) in polar
form,
i.e.
G(-jw)
IG(-jw)
Ie-j' = IG(jw)
[e-j'
and
G(jd
= IG(jw)
Iej'
where 4 = argument of G(jw).

eqn.
Substitute the values of G(-jw) and G(jw) in
(17.13)
y
ss
ct) = - &k%ikAd e-j(at+4)

2j
I AIG(jw)
2j
ej Cut+@) _
e-j (cot+@)
= *IG(jw) 1
1 ej(wt+$)
2j
or
Y,,(t)
= AIG(jw)l
sin(wt+$)
The last equation proves what we set out to prove, i.e.;
- the ultimate response as t+=

-
the amplitude ratio is

AR
is sinusoidal with frequency w,
AIG(jo)l/A
(17.14a)
IG<jw)/
the output sinusoidal wave has been shifted by the angle

+
Example 17.1 The
(17.14b)
argument of G(jw)
The
Frequency
transfer
function
G(s)
!k
Response
of
Pure
Capacitive
Process
is
Put s = jw and take

G(jw)
Consequently,
-
for
K
'
jw
the
=
ultimate
response;
the amplitude ratio is

AR
IG(jw)l
(17.15)
Kp/"
- the phase shift is

4
i.e. the
tan-l(-02)
ultimate
sinuosidal
-90
response
(17.16)
of
the
system
lags
behind
the
input
wave
by 90".
Example 17.2 - The Frequency Response of N Non-Interacting Capacities in Series

The transfer function is (see eqn. (11.21), Section 11.3)
K
. . .
,*-,GN(s) = p1 . p2 s+l
' '
T s+l
rp2
p1
K
G(s) = G1(s)G2(s)
KpN
s+l
PN
Put s = jw and take

= Gl(jw)G2(ju)
G(jw)
But,
according
to
eqn.
(17.17)
,-'-,GN(j~)
(17.10)
j+,
Gl(jw)
where
= IGl(ju)
le
j+,
j+,
, G2(ja)
= IG2(ja) le
,***,GN(ju)
are the arguments of Gl(jw),
+1,42,***,4N
= bN(j") te
G2(jW),***,GN(jW).
Then,
eqn. (17.17) becomes
j(41+$2+,***,+4N)
G(jw) = 1 IGl(jW) llG2(ju)l - ,-*- ,- IGN(ju) II l e
Consequently,
-
amplitude
the
response
has
the
following
characteristics;
ratio,
AR
IG( jd I
IGl(ju) I*IG2(jw) 19--*9 IGN(jd
or
K
-K *,**-,-K
p1 p2
PN
(17.18a)
AR = ~--qyK~~,"~,
1
p2
-
phase
/L--q?
shift,
(17.19)
or
4 = tan-'(-wrpl)
)+,**a,+
+ tan-'(-UT
Since
Example
For
tan-'(-wr
P2
PN
+<O the response lags behind the input.
17.3
a
The
Frequency
second-order
system
K
G(s) =
r2s2+L+l
Response
the
of
transfer
Second-Order
function
is
System
(17.19a)
.
A/!
Put s = jo and take

K
G(jw) =
P
(-T2u2+1)+j2<Tu
P
(-T2u2+1)+j2cTu
22
. (-T w +l)-j25rw
(-.c2u2+1) -j 2y-rw
or
Kp(l--rLuL)
G(jw) =
(1-*2fA2)2+(257w)
Therefore,
-
the
amplitude
ultimate
ratio
AR
response
given
IG(jw)
Kp*2T-rlri
2 -9 (1-r202)2+(2r7U)
has
the
following
2
characteristics;
by
1
(17.20)
+ (25TW)
- phase shift is
+
argument of G(jo) = tan -I(-
25?W
(17.21)
1 - 92w2)
which is phase lag since 4~0.
Example 17.4 The
The Frequency Response of a Pure Dead Time Process
transfer
function
is
--T s
G(s) = e d
Put s = jw and take
-j Tdw
G(jw)
Clearly;
- amplitude ratio = IG(jo)l = 1
(17.22)
- phase shift = argument of G(jo) = -dew
(17.23)
i.e. a phase lag, since 4~0.
Example
Let
(i>
17.5
The
us
now
Frequency
shift
our
Response
attention
Proportional
Controller
The
function
transfer
Gc(s)
of
to
Feedback
the
various
Controllers
types
of
feedback
controllers.
is
KC
Therefore,
AR
(ii)
and $=O.
Kc
The
transfer
GcW
Controller
function
= Kc(l
is
+$-)
I
Therefore
AR
IGc(jw)l
Kc
m
(UT >
(17.24)
$I
(iii)
tan-l(-l/wrI)
Proportional-Derivative
Controller
The
argGc(jw)
transfer
function
<
(17.25)
is
= K,(l + -rDs)
GcW
Therefore,
AR =
IGc(jw)/
argGc(jw)
(17.26)
= Kc x + rkw2
tan
-1
(~Dw)
>
(17.27)
The positive phase shift is called phase lead and is the consequency
of
the
derivative
anticipatory
control
control
mode
nature.
and
another
manifestation
of
its
(iv>
The
transfer
GcW
function
= Kc(1
Controller
is
+-& + -rDS)
I
and it is easy to show that
AR
lGc(jw)
4 = tan-l(rDw
J (T D w - A)2 + 1
I
(17.28)
(17.29)
- +-)
I
Notice that;
- AR is always larger or equal to 1 and
- depending on the values of 'rD and TI and the frequency w
we may have $>O (phase lead) or 4~0 (phase lag).
17.3 BODE DIAGRAMS
The Bode diagrams (in honor of H. W.
represent
the
and (17.14b),
frequency
response
of
system.
plots
constitute
convenient
way
to
As we can see from eqns. (17.14a)
the amplitude ratio and the phase shift of the response of a
system are functions of the frequency w.

of
Bode)
The Bode diagrams consist of a pair
showing;
how
the
logarithm
how
the
phase
of
shift
the
amplitude
varies
with
ratio
varies
with
frequency
and
frequency.
In order to cover large range of frequencies we use a logarithmic scale for

the
frequencies.
Let
we
have
us
now
examine
encountered
in
the
the
Bode
diagrams
previous
of
chapters.
some
simple
dynamic
systems
that
A.
First-Order
For
System
first-order
system
we
have
seen
K
amplitude
ratio
that
(17.7)
I1 + r202
P
phase
lag
(17.6)
tan-'(-rw)
For simplification, let Kp = 1. Then, from eqn. (17.7) we find that,

1ogAR
(17.30)
- + log(1 + T;w2)
For convenience, since 'I

variable instead of w.
as the independent
is constant, regard -rpw
P
The plot of log(AR) vs.
- log(rpw) is shown in Figure
(solid line) and can be constructed from eqn. (17.30)
17.3a
of the frequency w.
plot
Instead
this
graph, we
can
asymptotic
behavior
as
frequency
asymptote).
- As w-t0 then -rp~+-O
give
w-t0
of
the
very
an
approximate
(low-frequency
Thus,
we
elaborate
sketch
numerical
by
asymptote)
for
various
work
considering
and
as
values
needed
to
its
o- (high-
have:
and from eqn. (17.30) logARM or AR-tl.
This is the low-frequency asymptote shown by a dotted line in Figure 17.3a.

It is a horizontal line passing through the point AR=l.
-As
w-, then -rpw-
This
is
the
Figure 17.3a.
AR=1
for
and from eqn. (17.30) 1ogAR = -log(-rpw)
high-frequency
asymptote
shown
also
by
dotted
line
in
It is a line with a slope of -1 passing through the point

-rpw=l.
The frequency w = l/-r
is known as the corner
frequency. At the corner frequency, as it can be seen from Figure 17.3a,

the deviation of the true value of
AR from the asymptotes is maximum.
The plot of phase shift=. ( rpu) is shown in Figure 17.3b.

constructed
istics
of
from
this
eqn.
plot:
(17.6).
We
can
easily
verify
the
following
It can be
character-
- As w-+0 then ++O

-As
then @tan-1(-m) = -90"
w-
frequency), $ = tan -l(q)
- At w = l/rp(corner
= -450
If Kp # 1 then as it can be seen from eqn. (17.7) the low fre-
Remark:
Equation
quency asymptote shifts vertically by the value logKp.

(17.6) shows that Kp
B.
Pure
For
Capacitive
such
AR
The
Bode
C.
Process
processes
=
we
are
Second-Order
know
that
(see
Example
17.1)
and 4 = -90"
Kp/w
plots
has no effect on the phase shift.
easily
constructed
and
shown
in
Figure
17.4.
System
In Example 17.3 we found that

K
AR=...-.--
-2??w
and I$ = tan -5
>
1 - T202
J(l-T2U2)2+(25Tw)2
The two plots are shown in Figure 17.5 for various values of
< when Kp = 1.
The two asymptotes for the plot AR vs. TW are determined as follows:
- As w-fo, then
-As
logAR+O
AI+1
or
(low-frequency
This is the high-frequency asymptote. It
w-, then logAR+-2log(rw).
is a straight line with a slope of -2

AR
From
Figure
=l,rw
17.5
we
amplitude
ratio
the
frequency
D.
low
Pure
From
Dead
can
Time
Example
Bode
plots
exceed
that
for
through
underdamped
significantly
asymptote
the
point
shifts
the
vertically
systems,
value
of
by
the
i.e.
.
value
5~1, the
When Kp # 1
1ogK .
P
System
17.4
for
passing
=l
notice
we
AR = 1
The
asymptote)
have
and
this
system
that,
$J
are
-TdW
easily
constructed
and
shown
in
Figure
17.6.
E.
Systems
in
Consider
Series
N systems in series with individual tranfer functions
Gl(s),G2(s),...,GN(s)
The
overall
transfer
G(s)
function
is,
Gl(s)G2(s),-,GN(s)
put s = jw and take

=
G(jw)
Gl(jw>G2(jw>,**o,GN(jw)
or
jw> le
G(ju) = IGl(ju)
j@,
or finally
j
($1++2+,**
,++,I
jG(jw) 1 ej' = IG,(jw>/ IG2(jw)l*l'**,*/GN(jo)le

The
last
equation
yields
IG(jw) 1
= IGl(ju) I* IG2(ju) 1
l ,***,-IGN(j~) I
(17.31)
and
@
From
(17.29)
$1 + $2 +,,+
we
AR =
(17.32)
$N
have
(AR)l*(AR)2*,~*~,*(AR)N
or
log(AR)
= ~o~(AR)~
(17.33)
+ l~g(AR)~+,---,+log(~~)~
where
(AR>,,(AR>2,***,(~>N
are
the
(17.31)
the
amplitude
and
(17.32)
construction
of
ratios
for
the
individual
are
very
important
the
Bode
diagrams:
and
systems
in
indicate
the
series.
Equations
following
rules
for
If the transfer function of a system can be factored into the product of

N transfer functions of simpler systems, then
(1) The logarithm of the overall amplitude ratio is equal to the sum of
the
logarithms
of
the
amplitude
ratios
of
the
individual
systems,
(2) The overall phase shift is equal to the sum of the phase shifts of the
individual
(3)
The
presence
of
entire
AR
phase
shift.
Example
Bode
the
GIW
overall
curve
17.6 -
Consider
The
systems,
in
the
vertically
by
Diagrams
following
=
for
overall
constant
Systems
systems
in
and
function
&
Two
two
&
transfer
G(s)
constant
transfer
amount.
in
function
will
move
the
It has no effect on the
Series
series;
G2W
&
is
6
5s+l
Then,
or
1ogAR
= log6
where (AR)l and (AR)2
+
are
when their gains are 1.
log(AR)l
the
Figure
systems as functions of w.
log6
w.
will
yield
the
amplitude
amplitude
17.7a
The
ratios
of
the
individual
systems,
shows the amplitude ratios of the two
addition
ratio
(17.34)
log(AR)2
of
of
the
these
two
curves
overall
system
The overall curve is also shown in Figure 17.7a.
From
plus
versus
this
the
the
curve
factor
frequency
we
..
notice three distinct frequency regions.
JCJe
slope of the asymptote in each
region is the algebraic sum of the slopes of the asymptotes for the two systems
in
the
corresponding
Region
(2)
1.
region.
Thus,
we
have:
From w =O to w = l/5
Slope of the overall asymptote = 0 + 0, i.e. horizontal, going through

the point AR = 6.
(ii)
Region
2.
Slope
From w = l/5 to w = l/2
of
the
overall
asymptote = 0 +(-1) = -1 going through the
point AR = 6 o = l/5
(iii) Region 3.
For
w > l/2
Slope of the overall asymptote = (-1) + (-1) = 02

Figure
17.7b
shows
the
phase
shift
for
the
overall
system
versus
the
frequency,
as the algebraic sum of the phase shifts of the two individual systems, i.e.
9
$1
$2
tan-l(-2w)
tan-'(-5w)
It is clear that;
- when w-to, @l-to,
42%)
- when w-, y-90,
F.
Feedback
The
structed
(i>
and
(p-t-180'
Controllers
diagrams
easily
using
Proportional
Bode
values K
(ii)
($J2+-900
Bode
The
and $+O
the
various
results
types
of
Example
and
are
feedback
controllers
can
be
con-
17.5.
0"
trivial.
The AR and 0
for
frequencies.
all
Proportiaonal-Integral
Controller
From
(17.25)
eqns.
of
Controller
plots
C
for
(17.24)
and
we
take;
stay
constant
at
the
and 0 = tan-l(-l/wrI)
Therefore:
-
Low
frequency
asymptote:
As ~0
,>jl
then log@)
(WTI) L
= -log(w~I)
RC
and the low frequency asymptote is a straight 1 ine with s lope -1.
-
High
frequency
w+-= 1- - +O
2
(UT I >
A s
The
asymptote:
high
frequency
and
log& = 0 ,
C
asumptote
is
AR
1 .
i.e. K =
C
horizontal
line
at
the
value
AR/Kc = 1.
The (AR/Kc) vs.
- (UT,) is shown in Figure 17.8a.
shift
we
the
p-90"
as w+-=
4-f 0"
ys-.
the
phase
following:
as w-to
The
(iii)
have
For
and
(wrI) is shown in Figure 17.8b.
Proportional-Derivative
The AR and $I
Controller
are given by eqns. (17.26) and (17.27). The Bode
plots can be easily constructed and are shown in Figures 17.9a
and
17.9b.
(iv)
The AR and 9
The
Bode
17.10a
plots
Controller
are given by eqns. (17.28) and (17.29),

are
and 17.10b.
easily
constructed
and
they
are
shown
respectively.
in
Figures
Example
loop
17.7 -
Bode
Plots
Consider
the
transfer
function
feedback
OL
for
is
an
Open-Loop
control
(see
system
System
shown
2 in
Remark
in
Figure
Section
The open-
17.11.
15.2)
Gc*Gf*Gp*Gm
or
G
with
product
+ -+)*
I
l
O.ls+l
(2s+&+1)
of
six
the
transfer
1
s+l '
following
functions,
1
0.5s+l
corner
'
-0.2s
1
0.5s-U' e
= 0.25 and Kc= 4. We notice that the GOL
1
2s+l '
with
= 100Kc*(l
OL
can be factored into a
i.e.
cl+&),
I
frequencies
(in
-0.2s
l
O.ls+1
the
'
same
e
order)
9 = l/2 = 0.5, w2 = l/l = 1, w3=1/0.5=2, w4=l/0.25=4, w5=1/0.1=10.

The
Bode
plots
of
the
individual
they are shown in Figures 17.12a

system
can
present
-
First;
be
constructed
transfer
functions
and 17.12b.
The
following
the
rules
following
six
regions
are
Bode
discussed
easily
plots
in
constructed
for
the
I
I
I
and
overall
paragraph E
of
the
section.
we
identify
the
on
the
frequency
scale:
0 2 w < ol, w2 ,( w c w2, w2 5 w < w3, w3 d o < w4, w4 I w < w5 and
w5 5 w < a.
- Second; for the AR vs. w diagram, the
slope
of
the
overall
asymptote
is equal to the algebraic sum of the slopes of the asymptotes of the

individual transfer functions (Table 17.1).
The
overall
asymptote
is
shown
in Figure 17.12a.
- Third; the overall phase shift is equal to the algebraic sum of the phase
shifts
for
each
individual
transfer
function
and
is
shown
in
Figure 17.12b.
I
I
I
I
-.
+Q Y
17.4 NYQUIST PLOTS
A
Nyquist
characteristics
Re[G(jw)]
plot
of
is
an
alternate
dynamic
as abscissa.
way
system.
to
represent
It uses the
the
frequency
Im[G(j,)]
response
as ordinate and
Figure 17.13 shows the form of a Nyquist plot.
A specific value of the frequency w
defines a point on this plot.

and
at the point 1 (Figure 17.13) the frequency has a value ml
we
Thus,
observe
the following:
- The distance of the point 1 from the origin (0,O) is the amplitude ratio
at the frequency wl, i.e.
distance = hRe[G(ju1)]12
- The angle $
II2 = IGkiw)( = AR
+ [Im[G(ju1)
with the real axis is the phase shift at the frequency wl,
i.e.
$I = tan-l[Im[G(jwl)]/Re[G(jwl)]]
= argument G(jw) = phase shift
Thus, as the frequency varies from 0 to ~0 we trace the whole length of the
Nyquist
and
phase
istic
for
The
for
plot
the
and
we
shift.
the
Nyquist
same
find
The
shape
particular
plot
system.
A.
systems
First-Order
The
(0
using
and
location
the
Therefore,
their
corresponding
values
of
for
the
Nyquist
amplitude
plot
are
ratio
character-
system.
contains
corresponding Bode plots.

typical
the
same
its
information
construction
as
is
the
pair
rather
of
easily
Bode
plots
given
the
Let us now construct the Nyquist plots of some

Bode
plots
developed
in
the
previous
section.
System
corresponding
Bode
plots
are
given
When w=O, then AR = 1 and $=O.
in
Figure
Therefore,
17.3.
the
We
observe
beginning
of
that:
the
Nyquist plot is on the real axis where $=O and at a distance from
the origin (0,O) equal to 1 (see point A in Figure 17.14a).
.
93 0
I
(ii)
When u-)co
then AR+0 and ++--90". Therefore, the end of the Nyquist
plot is at the origin where the distance from it is zero (point C in

Figure 17.14a).
(iii) Since for every intermediate frequency
0
<
AR
and
~1
'
-90"
<
c$
<
the Nyquist plot will be inside a unit circle and will never leave
the
first
quadrant.
Its
complete
shape
and
location
are
shown
in
Figure 17.14a.
B.
Second-Order
The
(i>
System
corresponding
Bode
plots
are
shown
in
then AR = 1 and Cp=O.
When w=O
Figure
Thus, the
17.5.
Notice that:
beginning
of
the
Nyquist
plot is on the real axis at a distance equal to 1 from the origin.

(ii)
When wxo
then AR-+0 and (p-+-180', i.e. the Nyquist plot will end
at the origin and will approach it from the second quadrant.

(iii)
When
~1
circle.
then AR51
When
frequencies.
5~1
and the Nyquist plot stays within a unit
then AR becomes larger than 1 for a range of
Thus, the Nyquist plot goes outside the unit circle
for a certain range of frequencies .
Figure 17.14b shows the Nyquist
plot for a second-order system.

C.
Third-Order
System
The transfer function is

G(s) =
1
$s+l) (3s+2) $s+U
+9,3
real and positive
It is easy to show that:

- When w=O, then AR = 1 and $=O.
- When w-tco,
Therefore,
then AR = 0 and +-+-270'.

the Nyquist plot starts from the real axis at a distance 1 from the
origin and endsatthe origin, going throughthethird quadrant (Figure 17.14~).
D.
Pure
Dead
From
the
Time
corresponding
AR = 1
Bode
plots
(Figure
17.6)
we
notice
that:
for every frequency
and
-T d w
$=
Therefore,
the Nyquist plot for this system is a circle of radius 1 and
encircles the origina

E.
Pure
Capacitive
From
the
an infinite number of times (Figure 17.14d).

Process
corresponding
Bode
plots
(Figure
17.4)
we
notice
that:
.- When w-to, AR*, while

- When w*, ARM).
The
phase
Nyquist
lag
plot
remains
coincides
constant
with
at
the
-90"
negative
for
every
part
of
frequency.
the
Therefore,
imaginary
axis
the
(Figure
17.14e).
F.
Feedback
Controllers
In a similar manner as above we can construct the Nyquist plots for P,

PI,
PD
and
PID
controllers.
They are shown in Figures 17.15a,
17.15b,
17.15~
of
linear
and 17.15d, respectively.

The
system
to
ultimate
a
response
sinusoidal
(also
input
called
has
the
sometimes
steady
state)
following
characteristics:
- Is a sinusoidal wave with the same frequency as the input.

- The ratio of the output amplitude to the input amplitude is a function of
the input frequency w
and equal to the modulus IG(jw) I.
- The phase of the sinusoidal response is shifted by an angle 4~ with respect

to the input.
phase shift 9
We have a phase lag when @O and phase lead when (p>O.

is equal to the argument of
G(jw) .
The
Frequency
linear
system
varies
with
are
used
response
subjected
the
to
analysis
to
frequency
represent
a
of
the
is
the
study
sustained
the
input
frequency
of
the
sinusoidal
input.
wave, Bode
response
ultimate
response
of
Since this response
diagrams
and
characteristics
Nyquist
of
plots
system.
The
Bode diagrams consist of a pair of plots showing how the amplitude ratio and
phase
shift
Re[G(jw)]
and
can
used
(transfer
with
and Im[g(jw)]
be
Frequency
be
vary
constructed
response
extensively
function)
to
of
the
frequency.
The Nyquist plot is a polar plot with
as coordinates.
from
each
analysis
Both
contain
the
same
information
other.
and
the
design
effective
unknown
systems.
Bode
diagrams
controllers
and
or
Nyquist
identify
plots
the
will
dynamics
4.38 ,
THINGS
1.
TO
THINK
What
are
ABOUT
the
characteristics
of
the
ultimate
response
of
linear
system
with a transfer function G(s) to a sustained sinusoidal input?

2.
Define the frequency response analysis.
3.
What
means
response
4.
Define
could
you
use
analysis
for
the
Bode
diagrams
to
represent
dynamic
and
the
results
The
system
with
G(s) =
is
usually
l-s
transfer
known
the
Nyquist
plots.
Do
you
have
6.
it
Construct
the
to
the
dead time, having
G(s) =
7.
Does the
familiar
diagram
Kp*e
personal
function
as - first-order
Bode
any
If yes, why?
lead
element.
Construct its Bode
diagram and try to rationalize the word lead in its name.

Contrast
frequency
system?
preference on one of them over the other?

5.
of
and
transfer
first-order
Nyquist
lag
plot
[Hint:
element].
of
first-order
system
with
function
-T s
d
ups+1
Nyquist
plot
have
meaning
for
the
frequencies
-0 5 w I O?
Show that the Nyquist plot for this range of frequencies is the mirror
image
8.
of
the
familiar
Construct
qualitatively
transfer
function
Nyquist
the
plot
Nyquist
for
plot
the
of
frequencies
a
sixth-order
G(s) =
where
'1?29
P
(Tls+l) (r2s+l) (T3S+l.) (TqS+l) (TgS+l)
(T6S+l)
are
positive.
T39 r49 T59 =6
all
real
and
o_<ws+,=.
system
with
9.
For a system like the one in item 8 above, we claim that the slope of
the overall asymptotes in the 1ogAR
vs. logw plot of its Bode diagram can

-
be given from the algebraic sum of the slopes of the asymptotes for the
individual
subsystems,
1
T 1 s+l
1
1
___
. . . ___
T 2s+l '
' rgs+l +
'
Explain why.
the
slopes
Nyquist
10.
of
plot
the
for
asymptotes
the
above
for
the
overall
system.
Draw a qualitative
system.
The Bode plots for a PI controller show that as w-t0

is
not
physically
= Kc(l
GC
represents
the
modify
the
of
actual
an
controller
Consult
11.
Alos, construct qualitatively the Bode diagram indicating
realizable.
above
of
transfer
PI
Ref.
This
the transfer function
+$-)
I
behavior
must
Therefore,
the AR-.
an
function
controller?
be
such
and
ideal
that
so
PI
controller.
that
The
transfer
as
W-+0
it
How
should
represents
function
of
then AR-+finite
the
the
we
behavior
actual
value.
PI
[Note:
1.
The Bode plots for a PD controller show that as w- the AR-.

is, again,
physically
unrealizable.
How
should
we
modify
function of a PD controller so that as w- the AR+finite

[Note:
Consult Ref.
and
to
develop
the
transfer
the
This
transfer
value?
function
of
an
actual PD controller.
12.
Based on the responses in Items 10 and 11 above, develop the transfer

function
of
an
actual
PID
controller,
which
characteristics:
as
and
as
w-4
AR -+ c1 = finite
w-
AR -f 8 = finite.
has
the
following
q35
- - - _
- - -_
AR
1 /Yjwe 178)
. .
I~
i
-3 ,
c
-41
.--
1
I
I
- , -,
I
I
-I,
I 1
@)
--_
c __- - ^ C>
I
-^ - _ *_-_
-3
49
-1 Iti
6
0
CHAPTER 18
DESIGN
In
its
OF
the
FEEDBACK
previous
application
to
CONTROL
chapter
various
we
SYSTEMS
USING
studied
the
dynamic
FREQUENCY
frequency
systems.
The
RESPONSE
response
question
that
TECHNIQUES
analysis
may
and
have
been
raised in the mind of the reader, i.e. what do we do with it, will find its
answer
in
this
The
frequency
controllers.
-
first, to
Bode
or
response
It
helps
study
the
Nyquist
second, to
of
chapter.
analysis
the
stability
the
useful
tool
for
designing
feedback
designer,
diagrams
select
is
of
most
characteristics
the
open-loop
appropriate
of
transfer
values
for
closed-loop
function,
the
using
the
and
adjusted
parameters
controller.
18.1 THE BODE STABILITY CRITERION

Consider
transfer
the
function
closed-loop
is
given
by
shown
(see
Section
in
Figure
15.2,
18.1.
Remark
The
open-loop
2)
K ,e-o.ls
y,(s)
GOL
system
Y,,(s)
(18.1)
= oc5s + 1
The Bode diagram for GOL(s) can be constructed easily (see Example 17.7) and
is shown in Figure 18.2.
when
w =
We
17.0
notice
that,
rad/min $ = -180"
The frequency where the phase lag is equal to 180'

quency and it is denoted by wco.
At
this
frequency
is called crossover frethe
amplitude
ratio
is
found from the Bode diagram to be
AR =
= 0.12
(18.2)
Consequently,
Now,
if
let
Kc = l/O.12 = 8.56 the amplitude ratio becomes equal to 1.
us
consider
"opened" loop shown in Figure 18.3a with Kc =
the
8.56. Here, the
measurement
signal
of
controller.
If the set point changes in a sinusoidal manner
the
feedback
then
the
ultimate
disconnected
from
the
comparator
sin(l7.0t)
open-loop
response,
= sin(l-/.Ot
y,(t)
been
and an amplitude equal to 1, i.e.
with frequency w = 17.0 rad/min,

Y$)
has
y,(t),
is
given
by
- 180") = -sin(l7.0t)
At some instant of time the set point yd is set to zero, while at the
same
time
we
Under these conditions the
"close" the loop (Figure 18.3b).
comparator inverts the sign of the y,, which
now
plays
the
same
role
played
by the set point in the "open" loop. Notice that the error E remains the
same.
with
the
Theoretically,
constant
amplitude,
response
of
the
system
will
continue
to
oscillate
AR = 1, despite the fact that both the load
since
and the set point do not change.

Let
a.
us
examine
the
following
If Kc > 8.56 then AR>1
cases:
when
Therefore,
-180".
the
sustained
oscillation of the "closed" loop of Figure 18.3b will exhibit an ever

increasing
b.
On
the
amplitude
contrary,
the
sequently,
18.3b
will
eventual
The
conclusion
if
drawn
out
from
to
an
unstable
system.
Kc < 8.56 then AR<1 when 4 = -180". Con-
oscillating
exhibit
dying
leading
a
of
response
continuously
the
the
of
the
"closed'!
decreasing
loop
amplitude
of
Figure
leading
oscillation.
above
observations
is
the
following:
"A feedback control system is unstable if the AR of.the

corresponding open-loop transfer function is larger than
1 at the crossover frequency."
to
an
This
is
known
as
the
Bode
Stability
Criterion.
Example
Using
(a)
First-Order
following
the
Open-Loop
dynamic
Process:
Bode
G
P
Criterion
Consider
Response.
control
system
with
the
components
K
-$&
P
Measuring sensor: Gm = Km
Controller: G
= Kc, i.e. proportional
Valve (final control element): Gf = Kf

The
We
open-loop
transfer
function
cGGGG
f p m
OL
know
(see
Section
criterion
over
the
above
K K K K
cfpm
rps+l
17.1)
is between 0' and 90".
is:
that
rPs+l
the
Therefore,
system
is
phase
according
always
stable
lag
for
to
since
the
first-order
Bode
there
is
system
stability
no
cross-
frequency.
(b) First-Order with Dead-Time Open-Loop Response. Consider again the

dynamic
components
of
the
loop
in
the
case
(a)
change.
G
.-Os5
Then, the open-loop transfer function becomes,

K .-0.5s
G
OL
'rps+l
The phase lag for this system is
above
with
the
following
$I
tan -1 GTpW)
(-0.5w)
The last equation shows that 0 I $ < m.

over
frequency
wco' where $ = -180"
there is a cross-
Consequently,
and
according
to
the
which
criterion the system may become unstable for a large Kc

to AR>1
This
at this frequency.
characteristic
for
the
stability
example
of
demonstrates
chemical
most
which
can
is
of
be
clear
the
chemical
approximated
that
the
becomes
case
Gm
(a)
above
for
very
important
an
system
effects
open-loop
with
dead-time,
closed-loop
instability
the
of
tuning
response
will
it
be,
the
feedback
con-
the
control
system
task.
Responses:
with
exhibit
first-order
Therefore,
crucial
(c) Higher Order Open-Loop

for
by
possibility
almost always, present.

troller
processes
leads
processes:
"Dead-time is a principal source of destabilizing

in chemical process control systems."
Since
Bode
the
Consider
following
again
changes:
Km
~
-rms+l
The open-loop transfer function becomes,

G
OL
K
(rps+l)(rms+l)
and the phase lag becomes -180' when
W=m .
Therefore,
according
to
Bode criterion such system is always stable since as w the AR-4.
then
If
we
consider
Gm
Km
___
r-,s+l
the
open-loop
and
transfer
Gf
function
Kf
rfs+l
becomes
the
GOL
K
(rpS+l)(rms+l)(rfS+1)
and the phase lag is 0" 2 C$ 5 -270".

frequency
wCo
where 4 = -180"
large enough Kc.

the
stability
This
of
leads
chemical
Therefore,
and
to
the
the
process
system
second
control
there
may
is
become
important
crossover
unstable
observation
for
about
systems:
"In the absence of dead-time a closed-loop system may become

unstable if its open-loop transfer function is of thirdorder or higher."
Remarks:
(1)
All
systems
in
Example
18.1
have
an
important
common
of the corresponding open-loop transfer
the AR and $J
functions decrease continuously as w increases.

is
also
true
systems.
For
for
the
such
large
systems
majority
the
tems
tool
of
for
the
interest
stability
to
of
Bode
Thus
leads to rigorous conclusions.

useful
feature;
stability
it
analysis
chemical
chemical
This
processing
criterion
constitutes
of
most
very
control
sys-
engineer.
(2) It is possible though that the AR or 4 of an open-loop

transfer
w.
function
may
not
be
decreasing
continuously
with
In Figure 18.4 we see the Bode plots of an open-loop
transfer function where AR and 4 increase in a certain

range of frequencies.
may
lead
Nyquist
to
criterion
Fortunately,
18.4
erroneous
are
which
For
such
conclusions
will
be
systems
the
and
need
we
discussed
in
Bode
the
Section
criterion
more
general
18.
systems with AR or 4 like those of Figure
very
few
and
consequently
be applicable in most of the cases.
the
Bode
criterion
will
(3) In order to use the Bode criterion, we need the Bode plots
for
the
These
can
the
open-loop
be
constructed
transfer
controller
transfer
functions
and
final
experimentally,
function
in
of
two
the
control
of
the
ways;
(a)
process,
element
controlled
numerically,
measuring
are
system.
known
if
device,
and
(b)
if all or some of the transfer functions are
unknown.
In the second case the system is disturbed with a
sinusoidal
input
and
lag
phase
at
of
various
the
frequencies,
open-loop
response
and
the
amplitude
are
recorded.
From
these data we can construct the Bode plots.

18.2 GAIN AND PHASE MARGINS
The
method
Bode
for
behavior
tuning
by
Consider
back
-
system
the
stability
the
the
the
feedback
closed-loop
Bode
(Figure
crossover
criterion
frequency
controllers
response
plots
18.5).
indicates
for
The
%o '
of
the
two
how
in
we
can
order
establish
to
avoid
rational
unstable
process.
open-loop
important
transfer
features
function
of
these
of
plots
feedare;
where Q! = -180" and
- the point where AR = 1.

Let M be the amplitude ratio at the corssover frequency (see Figure 18.5).
According
to
the
Bode
criterion
- if 14~1 the closed-loop system is stable and

- if M>l it is unstable.
Define,
Gain Margin = l/M
(18.3)
Then, for a stable system M<l and

Gain Margin > 1
We
can
make
the
following
observations
on
the
practical
significance
of
the
gain
margin:
- It constitutes a measure of how far the system is from the brink of

instability.
- The higher the gain margin is above the value of 1, the more robust the
closed-loop
behavior
controlled
process.
the
factor
safety
- Typically, a
margin
above
Let
us
Example
the
design
now
study
Consider
is
%o
we
than
the
use
and
thus
the
for
controller
designer
synthesizes
safer
the
operation
of
the
value
before
above
Margin
the
system
observations
and
closed-loop
= 17 rad/min, and
tuning.
feedback
system
with
gain
This means that the AR can increase 1.7 times
1.7.
the
- Gain
be
In other words the higher the gain margin the higher
control
larger
18.2
will
the
the
system
using
Tuning
of
amplitude
becomes
of
Figure
ratio
an
unstable.
example.
Controller
18.1.
at
this
The
crossover
frequency
is
frequency
(see
eqn.
(18.2))
C
AR =
= 0.12 K
2
.
&T&z
Therefore
the
gain
margin
is
equal
to
Gain Margin = o l12K

.
C
If we require a gain margin of 1.7 we find
1
0.12 K
= 1.7
Let us assume now that the dead-time for the process has not been estimated
accurately and that its "true" value is 0.15 instead of 0.1.
loop
transfer
function
is
given
by
Then, the open-
K e-0.15s
G
OL
(18.4)
0.5s+l
For
and not by the assumed eqn. (18.1).

eqn.
(18.4)
we
this
frequency
find
the
that
the
crossover
amplitude
ratio
the
open-loop
frequency
is
transfer
function
of
%o = 11.6 rad/min.
At
is
AR = d& = J,,.~.- = o.83
P
and the system is still stable despite the error by 50% we made in estimating
the
dead-time
of
the
Notice
process.
though
moved closer to the value 1, i.e. the

The
present
example
system
demonstrates
the
margin in tuning feedback controllers.

-
Since
process
parameters
almost
never
known
safety
factor
for
If
are
the
various
needed,
parameters
like
that
has
the
noved
practical
Two
dead-times,
amplitude
points
static
ratio
has
closer
to
instability.
significant
of
the
are
emphasizing:
worth
gains,
time
gain
constant
are
exactly, a gain margin larger than one, e.g. 1.7, is a

stable
operation.
parameters
are
known
very
well,
only
small
safety
factors
i.e. gain margins in the range 1.4-1.7. For systems with

poorly
known
the
safety
factor
must
increase
and
the
recommended
values for gain margins are in the range 1.7-3.0.
Besides
the
design
the
of
Figure 18.5.
The
phase
gain
margin
feedback
there
control
it
margin
is
another
system;
the
safety
phase
factor
margin.
which
is
Consider
used
for
again
Let $(,) be the phase lag at the frequency for which AR = 1.

is
defined
as
Phase Margin = 180'

i.e.
is
the
additional
phase
follows:
lag
91)
needed
to
destablize
the
system.
It is
clear
therefore
used
for
are
larger
Example
that
the
designing
than
.*.
the
phase
controller.
Typical
margin
the
phase
larger
margins
the
used
safety
by
the
factor
designers
30".
18.3 -
Consider
higher
,._
Phase Margin and the Tuning of a Controller

again
the
closed-loop
AR =
system
of
Figure
and 4 = tan-'(-0.5o)
18.1.
We
know
that
Then,
we
+ (-0.1~)
6-k
. w 2
Let us tune the controller using a phase margin equal to 30".
Kc
and
30"=180"
-tan-'(-0.5~)
From the second euation we find w = 12.5 rad/min.
Then, the
have
(-0.1~)
first
equations
gives Kc = 6.33.
(i>
Assume
now
that
"true"
value
the
is
dead-time
0.15.
has
been
estimated
wrong
and
that
its
Then, the phase lag at the frequency h) =
12.5, where AR = 1, is given by,
$ = tan-'(-0.5w)
+ (-0.1501) = tan-1(-0.5*12.5)+(-0.15~12.5)=188"
notice
system
We
of 30'
that
the
has
become
unstable,
i.e.
phase
margin
was not enough to provide a safety factor for a 50% error in
dead-time.
(ii)
The reader can easily show that a phase margin of 45" is enough to
tune
the
safety
of
the
controller
factor
for
in
absorbing
proportional
Kc = 5.05.
case
gain
(i)
a
Kc
50%
above
error
and
in
provide
the
the
necessary
dead-time.
The value
for a 45" phase margin is found to be
Assume that there is an error in the time constant which
has a "true" value of 0.25 instead of the assumed 0.5. Then, the
crossover
frequency
180"
is
found
tan-l(-0.25w)
and it is equal to
%o
the
equation
(-0.1~)
At this frequency
= 17.9.
5.05
AR =
from
= 1.1
J/(o.25*17.9)2+1
Therefore,
and we notice again that the system is unstable.

although
phase
of 45" was
margin
satisfactory
for
tuning
the
controller in the presence of a 50% error in dead-time, it is

not enough for absorbing an error of up to 50% in the time constant.
Larger
phase
margin
is
needed.
18.3 THE ZIEGLER-NICHOLS TUNING TECHNIQUE

In
Section
curve.
The
16.4
method
we
is
by
Ziegler
primarily
the system's response.

developed
discuss
In
and
this
Nichols
tuning
method
experimental
and
section
will
which
we
is
based
on
uses
based
the
real
process
process
discuss
an
on
frequency
the
reaction
data
alternate
from
method
response
analysis, discussed in earlier sections.

Unlike
the
loop
response
of
loop
procedure.
process
a
It
system,
goes
(i>
Bring
the
(ii)
Using
proportional
introduce
reaction
system
sinusoidal
curve
the
the
control
set
which
Ziegler-Nichols
through
to
method
the
only
point
tuning
following
desired
and
uses
technique
with
level
continuous
oscillation
is
the
is
the
with
(design
feedback
low
crossover
loop
amplitude
frequencies until the system oscillates continuously.

of
from
the opena closed-
steps:
operational
changes
data
frequency,
The
wCo.
condition).
closed,
and
varying
frequency
Let M
be the AR for the system's response at the crossover frequency.
I
I
(iii) Compute the following two quantities:

Ultimate Gain = Ku = l/M
Ultimate Period of Sustained Cycling = UP = 27i/wCO (min/cycle).
Ziegler and Nichols recommended
Using the values of Ku and Pu,
(iv>
the
following
settings
for
feedback
controllers:
rI(min.)
KC
-
Proportional (P)
KU/2
above
settings
reveal
Ku/2.2
Pull.2
(PID)
Ku/l.7
PJ2
of
Z-N
(PI)
The
~D(min.)
the
rationale
the
Pu/
methodology.
-For proportional control alone, use a gain margin equal to 2.

-For
PI
control
integral
(see
use
control
Figure
lower Kc
arguments
mode
17.8b)
maintains
were
used
lower
proportional
introduces
with
additional
destabilizing
approximately
in
the
gain
phase
effects
the
process
because
same
on
gain
reaction
the
presence
lag
in
all
the
system.
the
frequencies
The refore,
Similar
margin.
curve
of
tuning
technique
(see
Section 16.4).
-
The
strong
presence
of
the
stabilizing
derivative
effects
the proportional gain Kc

threatening
Example
18.4
the
stability
Controller
control
in
the
for
of
the
Tuning
mode
introduces
closed-loop
PID
response.
controller
can
be
phase
lead
with
Consequently,
increased
without
system.
by
the
Ziegler-Nichols
and
Cohen-Coon
Methods
Consider the multicapacity process in case (ii) of Example 16.4. We

have;
G =
(5s+&2s+l)
P
'
1
Gm = 10s + 1 and
Gf = 1.0
The
controller
settings
according
to
the
controller; Kc
8.0
process
reaction
curve
method
were
found to be:
-
For
proportional
- For PI controller; Kc = 7.2 and TI = 8.15

- For PID controller; Kc = 10.7, rI = 5.85 and -cD = 0.89
Let
us
now
find
the
Ziegler-Nichols
settings
and
compare
them
to
the
above.
Using proportional control only, the
from
the
yields
frequency
frequency
can
be
found
equation,
-180" = tan-'(-5wC0)
which
crossover
is
%o =
found
log(AR)
0.415
from
+ tan-'(-2wC0)
+ tan-l(-10wCC)
The
ratio
rad/min.
the
amplitude
following
at
the
crossover
equation,
= log
2
&l + log & + log &
Therefore
and it is equal to 0.055.

K
l/O.055
the
ultimate
gain
is
= 18.22
Also, the ultimate period is found to be

Pu
-z..?L=
Yzo
15.14
minutes/cycle
Then, the Ziegler-Nichols recommended settings are:

- For a proportional controller; Kc = 18.22/2
= 9.11
- For a PI controller; Kc = 18.22i2.2
= 8.28 and -cI = 15.1411.2
- For a PID controller; KC = 18.2211.7
= 10.72, rI = 15.1412 = 7.57 and
rD
= 15.14/8
= 12.62
= 1.89
Comparing the Z-N to the C-C settings we observe that;

-
the
proportional
gains
are
little
larger
for
the
Z-N
settings,
- the reset and rate time constants are also higher for the Z-N.
Figures 18.6a and 18.6b indicate the responses of the closed-loop system to
step
changes
with
Z-N
better
and
than
emphasized
relative
in
the
C-C
those
though,
superiority
set
point
settings.
with
that
of
We
the
no
and
notice
more
respectively,
that
the
conservative
general
one
load
method
conclusions
over
responses
C-C
PID
controller
with
Z-N
tuning
settings.
can
the
using
be
other.
drawn
The
are
It must be
as
only
to
the
conclusion
we
draw is that both methods provide very good first guesses for the values of
the
controllers' adjusted
parameters.
18.4 THE NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERION

As we pointed out in Section 18.1, the Bode stability
monotonically decreasing with w.
for systems with AR and $I

systems
with
open-loop
Nyquist
criterion
is
Bode
plots
employed.
like
those
of
of
the
this
chapter.
The
Nyquist
methodology
stability
of
Figure
18.4
the
the
For
reader
criterion
more
can
states
details
consult
on
Appendix
the
understand
the
Nyquist
the
concept
criterion,
let
of
us
valid
For
feedback
more
general
encirclement
study
the
and
theoretical
18.A
at
the
end
that:
"If the open-loop Nyquist plot of a feedback system

encircles the point (-1,0) as the frequency w takes
value from -00 to +", then the closed-loop response
unstable."
To
is
In this section we will present a simple out-
line of this criterion and its usage.

background
criterion
therefore
following
the
examples.
any
is
correct
usage
of
Example 18.5 -
The Stability Characteristics

of a
-~Nyquist Stability Criterion
Third-Order
System
Using
the
Consider the following open-loop transfer function:
Kc
G OL
(s+1)(2s+1)(4s+l)
Figure 18.7 shows the Nyquist plots for GOL when Kc = 1 (curve A) and
Kc = 50 (curve B).
range
For
each
Nyquist
plot
the
solid
line
covers
the
frequency
0 I w < -+ while the dotted part the frequencies from -a to 0. The
dotted segment of the Nyquist plot is the mirror image of the solid line
segment
with
respect
to
the
real
axis.
Figure 18.7 shows that curve A does not encircle the point (-l,O), while
curve B does.
with
Thus,
open-loop
Nyquist
according
plot
to
the
Example
18.6
Conditional
Nyquist
curve
an unstable closed-loop system.

system is stable while for K
the
A
is
criterion
stable,
the
while
feedback
curve
system
indicates
This in turn implies that for Kc = 1 the

= 50 is unstable.
Stability
and
the
Nyquist
Criterion
Consider the Nyquist plots shown in Figures 18.8a, 18.8b and 18.8~. All
correspond
to
the
same
open-loop
the proportional gain Kc.

encircle
the
Therefore,
point
the
(-1,0)
feedback
transfer
function
the
above
plots
it
while
systems
the
Nyquist
corresponding
is
clear
unstable for a range of values K

and
different
values
for
The plots in Figures 18.8a and 18.8~ do not

plot
of
to
the
plots have stable closed-loop responses, while

From
with
that
the
that
Figure 18.8b
first
of
closed-loop
the
and
does.
third
second
response
is
Nyquist
unstable.
becomes
such that the point (-1,0) is between A
B of the resulting Nyquist plot.
When point (-1,0) is to the left of A
(Figure 18.8~) or to the right of B (Figure 18.8a),
it is not encircled by
byquist
plot
Remark:
For
and
the
fast
(-1,0)
corresponding
conclusions
by
the
following
on
the
open-loop
practical
closed-loop
response
encirclement
Nyquist
plot,
or
the
is
not
stable.
of
reader
the
can
point
use
the
method:
"Place a pencil at the point (-1,O). Attach one end of a thread

at the pencil and with the other end trace the whole length of
the
Nyquist
If
plot.
the
thread
has
wrapped
around
the
pencil
then we can say that the point (-k,O) is encircled by the

Nyquist
plot."
The gain margin and phase margin of an open-loop response can be also
computed
plots
from
of
Nyquist
system
plot.
contain
This
exactly
must
the
be
expected
same
since
Bode
and
Nyquist
information.
Consider the Nyquist plot of Figure 18.9. At the frequency of the

point
the
Therefore,
Nyquist
plot
intersects
the
unit
circle
around
the
origin.
since the distance of point A from the origin is the
frequency, we conclude the angle $,M

Furthermore,
represents
the
phase
AR at this
margin.
at the frequency of point B the phase lag is equal to 180".
The amplitude ratio at this point is the distance between B and the origin,
i.e.
AR = M.
Consequently,
the gain margin is easily found as
l/M.

In
is
d
a
The
this
useful
chapter
tool
open-loop
closed-loop
we
for
Bode
response
have
demonstrated
designing
and
will
Nyquist
be
that
feedback
plots
stable
or
the
frequency
ocntrollers.
of
feedback
not.
In
systems
response
analysis
particular:
reveal
if
the
r
,1 .-:.
,
-
The gain and phase margins can be computed easily and constitute the
safety
factors
account
for
incorporated
uncertainties
static gains.
Tuning
larger than 30 is
in
in
with
the
the
in
the
values
values
of
gain
margins
larger
most
of
of
the
typical.
the size of the margins used, is

tainty
tuning
the
It
dictated
process
feedback
time
constants,
than
should
by
controllers
be
the
1.7
dead
and
times
phase
emphasized
magnitude
to
of
margins
though
the
and
that
uncer-
parameters.
- The Ziegler-Nichols settings stem from frequency response considerations

and
provide
closed-loop
tuning
methodology,
unlike
the
Cohen-Coon
settings.
Wtih this chapter we close Part IV which dealt with the analysis and
design
of
simple
feedback
systems.
In the following five chapters of Part V we will extend our attention

to
more
complex
control
chemical
plants.
Thus,
special
compensatory
configurations
we
will
control
which
are
encountered
quite
often
large
time
or
study;
far
processes
with
dead
inverse
response,
-
systems
feedforward
adaptive
Finally,
process
we
with
selective
and
ratio
control
loops,
control
configurations
and
control.
will
dynamics
discuss
and
the
present
need
some
in
for
the
techniques
experimental
used
for
identification
this
purpose.
of
(
1
t
THINGS
1.
2.
TO
THINK
Explain
ABOUT
in
your
controller
in
controller
in
own
words
"manual"
the
that
"opening" a feedback loop we place the
by
operation,
"automatic"
while
by
"closing"
it
we
place
the
mode.
What is the basis of the Bode criterion? Why it is not general-lY

rigorous?
3.
Do
you
think
that
the
following
is generally rigorous?
Explain.
modified
statement
of
the
Bode
criterion
"A feedback control system is unstable, if the AR of the

corresponding
at
4.
any
open-loop
crossover
transfer
function
is
larger
than
frequency."
Construct an open-loop transfer function whose AR or 4, or both,

Draw
are not continuously decreasing functions of the frequency w.

its
5.
6.
7.
and
Identify
the
Elaborate
on
Nyquist
two
these
plots.
major
sources
two
factors.
Using
the
Nyquist
first
and
second-order
stability
of
criterion
open-loop
instability
show
responses
in
that
are
closed-loop
feedback
always
responses.
systems
with
stable.
Define the phase and gain margins and show how you can compute them
from
8.
Bode
Bode
or
Nyquist
plots.
Explain in your own words what we mean when we say that phase and gain
margins
constitute
controller.
safety
margins
(safety
factors)
in
tuning
feedback
Why do we need a safety margin in tuning a feedback
controller?
9.
Describe
the
Ziegler-Nichols
tuning
methodology.
This
often called "continuous cycling" tuning method.
Why?
procedure
is
10.
The
Ziegler-Nichols
while
the
response
settings
Cohen-Coon
of
the
result
settings
control
are
system.
from
closed-loop
determined
Would
you
from
considerations,
the
choose
open-loop
one
over
the
other
because it uses open or closed-loop data? Explain.

11.
The experimental determination of the Ziegler-Nichols settings brings

the
chemical
process
operation.
12.
State
and
the
the
stability
threshold
between
this
an
in
criterion
control
industrial
and
systems,
stable
give
some
different
than
and
unstable
environment?
examples
those
of
in
stable
this
Explain the concept of encirclement of the point (-1,O) by
the
Larger
the
tolerate
feedback
Nyquist
Answer
you
Nyquist
unstable
chapter.
13.
Can
at
plot, which
following
is
so
central
questions
gain
margin
implies
gain
margin
makes
and
for
justify
smaller
or
the
Nyquist
your
criterion.
answers:
larger
allowable
controller
gain?
-
Larger
closed-loop
response
of
process
faster
or slower?
-
Larger
phase
margin
implies
faster
or
Larger
phase
margin
implies
smaller
slower
or
larger
closed-loop
response?
allowable
controller
gain?
14.
The
discussion
in
Section
18.2
and
Examples
18.2
and
18.3
have
indi-
cated that we could use very large phase and gain margins to guarantee
closed-loop
to
15.
use
Larger
stability
larger
uncertainty
constant, dead
based
margins
on
larger
in
time)
or
under
model
than
those
the
tuning
gain
Why would you try not
needed?
parameters
require
smaller
inaccuracies.
or
of
of
phase
model
the
(static
controller's
margin?
gain,
time
parameters
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
.!iF:
c.::
4 ,o
I
9
..
,,,
,
,
I
,
I
,
.c
-0
-2
REFERENCES
Chapter
more
There is a variety of references that the reader can consult for
13:
information
on
the
constructional
and
operational
details
of;
measuring
devices, feedback controllers, transmission lines, transducers, and final

control
elements.
The
following
are
some
typical
sources:
(1) Process Instruments and Controls Handbook, by D. M. Considine, McGrawHill Book Co., New York (1957).
(2) Handbook of Applied Instrumentation, by D. M. Considine and S. D. ROSS,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1964).
(3) Instrument Engineers Handbook: Vol. 1. Process
Liptak, Chilton Book Co., Philadelphia (1970).
Measurement,
by
B.
For measuring devices Chapter 7 of Ref. 4 can be found very useful.

(4)
Measurements and
Hougen, Cahners
Control Applications for

Books, Boston (1972).
For
the
some
(5)
While
book
dynamics
of
typical
sensors
"Process Dynamics. Part 2: Process

Engng., Aug. 24, p. 111 (1981).
for
by
the
dynamics
Techniques
New York
The
selection
thermocouples,
the
reader
Control
valves,
can
Loops,"
pumps,
Engineers..-by
consult
by
J.
piping,
the
L.
et
J.
0.
article,
Guy,
al.
Chem.
the
[Ref. 61 contains useful information
Guthrie
(6)
of
Practicing
of Process
(1964).
of
the
Control,
appropriate
by
P.
control
S.
Buckley,
valve
J.
Wiley
and
Sons,
is
discussed
in
Reference
(7)
Process Modeling, Simulation and Control for

W. L. Luyben, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York
Chemical
(1973).
Engineers,
The
distributed
in the book by Luyben [Ref. 71.
character
of
the
pneumatic
transmission
lines
dynamics
by
is
discussed in Ref. 6 and in the book by Weber, [Ref. 81.

(8)
An Introduction to Process Dynamics

Wiley and Sons, New York (1973).
and
Control,
by
T.
W.
Weber,
J.
and
II)
__~
Chapter
the
15:
,.
The
classic
mathematical
proof
the
. .
Routh-Hurwitz
tests
can
be
found
in
book,
(9) Dynamics of a System of Rigid Bodies, 3rd edition, by E. J. Routh,

McMillan, London (1877)
wuile
for
an
extensive
Theory
discussion
of
the
Stability
(1970) .
(11)
Mathematical Methods in Chemical Engineering,

Jeffreys, Academic Press, London (1963).
studying
alternative
Systems,
can
(10)
The books by Willelms
Dynamical
reader
by
consult,
J.
L.
by
V.
Willelms,
G.
Nelson,
Jenson,
and
G.
V.
[Ref. lo] and Douglas [Ref. 121 can also be used for
definitions
of
the
subject.
(12)
Process Dynamics and Control,

Englewood Cliffs (1972).
The
construction
rules
for
the
stability
and
Vol.
by
root
2.,
locus
of
more
J.
M.
advanced
treatment
Douglas,
Prentice-Hall,
closed-loop
system
can
on
be
found in the books by Douglas [Ref. 121, Luyben [Ref. 71 and in the following
two
classic
(13) Proces
Koppel,
(14)
texts:
Systems Analysis and Control, by D. R. Doughanowr and L. B.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1965).
Modern Control
Cliffs (1970).
Engineering,
by
K.
Ogata,
Prentice-Hall,
Englewood
There is a variety of references on the use of root locus for the design of
closed-loop
systems.
The texts by Luyben [Ref. 71, Douglas [Ref. 121,
Coughanowr and Koppel [Ref. 131 and Ogata [Ref. 141 offer an excellent
treatment
Chapter
of
the
subject
with
16:
Two
excellent
large
references
number
on
the
of
examples.
practical
design are the books by Buckley [Ref. 61 and Shinskey

(15)
Process Control Systems, 2nd

edition,
by
F.
G.
problems
of
controller
[Ref. 151
Shinskey,
McGraw-Hill
__ ..-. -___
In
__I,
these
two
texts
the
selecting
the
most
appropriate
application.
by
the
will
an
find
type
In addition, one
industrial
For
reader
..x_
of
--
useful
find
on
the
.)
practical
feedback
can
,....
guidelines
controller
alternate
for
tuning
in
particular
techniques
employed
practice.
extensive
discussion
various
types
of
performance
criteria,
their advantages and shortcomings in designing feedback controllers, the

reader
can
consult
the
following
reference,
(16) "Optimization of Closed-Loop Responses" by G. Stephanopoulos, Module

No. 12, in Process Dynamics and Control, an AIChE
publication.
In
Ref.
16,
the
reader
will
also
troller design problems, which

additional
reading
on
this
find
use
subject
various
time
the
techniques
integral
for
solving
performance
following
sources
are
also
(19)
Analytical Design of Linear Feedback Controls, by G. C. Newton, Jr.,

L. A. Gould and J. F. Kaiser, John Wiley and Sons, New York (1957).
For
additional
the
process
L.
reaction
Smith,
and C. H.
Digital Computer Process

New York (1972).
on
C.
recommended:
(18)
reading
by
conFor
criteria.
(17) Linear Control System Analysis and Design, by J. J. D'Azzo

Houpis, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1975).
Control,
the
curve
Intex Educ.
method
and
Publish.,
the
Coon settings, the reader can consult References 8, 12, 13 and 15.
Cohen
and
The
details on the development of the Cohen and Coon settings can be found in the
original
(20)
work
by
Cohen
and
Coon
"Theoretical Considerations of Retarded Control,"

G. A. Coon, Trans. ASME, 75, p. 827 (1953).
Chapters 17 and 18:
The books by Buckley [Ref. 61
by
G.
H.
Cohen
and
and Caldwell, Coon and Zoss
[Ref. 211 are two very good sources for an in depth study of the frequency
response
(21)
analysis
and
its
ramifications
in
controller
design.
Frequency Response for Process Control, by W. I. Caldwell,

and L. M. Zoss, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1959).
G.
A.
Coon
For
very
systems
hard
with
to
transfer
complete
functions
the
very
frequency
difficult
response
to
factor
and
analysis,
Luyben
[Ref.
71
dis-
included
computer
cusses various numerical solution techniques.

program
and
of
(22)
in
FORTRAN
Nyquist
the
plots
which
for
Ziegler-Nichols
uses
the
method
has
also
"stepping" technique
distillation
tuning
He
More
column.
can
be
found
"Optimum Settings for Automatic Controllers,"

Nichols, Trans. ASME, 64, p. 759 (1942).
to
develop
details
in
by
the
J.
on
the
the
original
G.
consequently
Ziegler
Bode
philosophy
work,
and
N.
B.
In References 6, 7, 13 and 15 the reader can find a large number of examples

demonstrating
feedback
the
application
controllers.
In
of
frequency
response
particular, References
arguments
and
15
in
the
analyze
design
the
of
frequency
response characteristics of flow, pressure, temperature, concentration, et al.

control
systems, and
control system.
draw
some
useful
general
inferences
according
to
the
APPENDIX
18.A.
COMPLEX
MAPPING
AND
THE
NYQUIST
CRITERION
FOR
STABILITY.
Consider the function G(s) = l/(s+l) of the complex variables.

Let A, B, C and D be four points in the complex plane with coordinates
as shown in Figure 18.A-la.
found
easily
as
The value of G(s) at the point A can be
follows:
G(s) = (~)
= (-2+jlo) + 1 =
-l+ j-0
If
we
consider
the
G-plane,
space
with
coordinates
Re[G(s)]
and
then, the value of G(s) at the point A is given by the point
Im[G(s)],
A' (Figure 18.A-lb).

through
i.e. a
the
We say that point A maps onto the point A'
function
In the same way we find the maps of points
G(s).
B, C, and D which are shown in Figure 18.A-lb

Let
us
proceed
step
further.
(points B', C', and D').
Consider the line S in the com-
plex plane (s-plane) given by (Figure 18.A-2a)

with
s: s=a+ j (?a)
OLCt
Curve S' is the map of line S in the space of Re[G(s)] and Im[G(s)]
(G-plane) and is shown in Figure 18.A-2b.
Curve S' is given by:
G(s) = A = [a+j (2:) ] +-=

1
for 0 Ia.
After
state
of
the
having
Cauchy's
Nyquist
introduced
Principle
criterion
the
of
for
concept
the
of
Argument,
stability.
complex
which
mapping
constitutes
let
the
us
now
basis
"Let G(s) be a function of the complex variable s.
Let also
C be a closed contour in the s-plane, on and within which

the G(s) is analytic.
Let
the
at which G(s) takes a value G

in
the
To
sider
G-plane
appreciate
the
encircles
the
closed-loop
1 + GPGmGcGf
contour
of
the
characteristic
points
times."
above
principle
let
is the open-loop transfer
Then the characteristic equation becomes:

(18.A-1)
Define a contour C (Figure 18.A-3a)

the
con-
= O
G(s) = -1
of
us
equation.
Recall that G(s) 3 Gp(s)~Gm(s)*Gc(s)~Gf(s)

function.
encircle
Then, the complex map of C
point Go
importance
complex
plane
which encloses all the right half
If there are k roots of equation
(s-plane).
(18.A-1) in the right half of the s-plane, then according to Cauchy's

principle
stated
above, the map of C in the G-plane encircles the
point G = -1, k times.

Let us see what is the map of C in the G-plane. Contour C is
composed
of
the
imaginary
axis
and
R -f 00.
For
the
imaginary
axis
we
have
s = j-w
with
semicircle
of
radius
R,
where
--m < w < +c=J
and its map in the G-plane will give us the Nyquist plot (see Section
17.4).
For
the
large
semicircle
we
have:
(18.A-2)
Rejw
Q,(s)
G(s) = p
n
where, Q,(s)
is an m-th order polynomial and P,(s)
with n > m.
Substittue s in G(s) by its equal from equation (18.A-2) and
is an n-th order one,
take:
G[RejW]
= Qm[RejW]/Pn[RejW]
Since the order of Pn is higher than that of Q,, then it is clear that
IGIRejW] 1 + 0
and the large semicircle maps in the origin of the G-plane.

dG[ReJW] takes all values from -90' to +90.
"the map of the contour C (Figure 18.A-3)

where
plot
G(s)
for
Consequently,
open-loop
transfer
function,
Thus
we
Also,
conclude
that;
in the G-plane,
is
the
criterion
for
Nyquist
G(s)."
we
can
state
the
following
the
stability
a closed-loop response.
"If
the
Nyquist
diagram
of
the
open-loop
transfer
function
G(s) encircles the point (-l,O), k times, then according to

Cauchy's
Principle
closed-loop
of
the
characteristic
Arguement,
equation
in
ther
the
are
roots
of
the
right
half
of
the
of
--.
,...
1
46
s-plane.
If k = 0 then the closed-loop response is stable,
and if k >
The
above
stability.
criterion
0 the closed-loop response is unstable."
is
known
as
the
Nyquist
Criterion
of
closed-loop
I,
b
-.
.
4
47f
PART V
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF ADVANCED CONTROL SYSTEMS
Although feedback control is the most commonly encountered in chemical
processes, it is not the only one.
There exist situations where feedback con-
trol action is insufficient to produce the desired response of a given process.

In such cases other control configurations are used like feedforward, ratio,
multivariable, cascade, override, split range, adaptive control, etc.
In the following four chapters of Part V we will study the static and
dynamic characteristics as well as methods for the design of the following
.
advanced control systems:
- Compensatory control for processes with large dead time or inverse response.
- Multiple loop control (cascade; selective; split range).
- Feedforward and ratio control.
- Adaptive and inferential control.
Finally, in Chapter 23 we will study the need for experimental modeling of
processing systems and will examine several techniques which are commonly
used in the chemical plants for this purpose.
CHAPTER 19
FEEDBACK CONTROL OF SYSTEMS WITH LARGE DEAD TIME
OR INVERSE RESPONSE
All the previous chapters of Part IV have been devoted to the analysis
and design of feedback control systems for rather simple processes.
In this
chpater we will be concerned with the feedback control of two special types
of systems; with large dead times and inverse responses.
We will see in the
subsequent paragraphs of this chapter that for such systems conventional P,

PI OR PID controllers may not be sufficient to yield the desired response.
19.1 PROCESSES WITH LARGE DEAD TIME
Consider the general feedback control system of Figure 14.1. All the
dynamic components of the loop may exhibit significant time delays in their
response.
Thus,
- the main process may involve transportation of fluids over long distances
or include phenomena with long incumbation
periods;
- the measuring device may require long periods of time for completing the
sampling and the analysis of the measured output (a gas chromatograph
is
such a device);
- the final control element may need some time to develop the actuating
signal;
- a human controller (decision maker) may need significant time to think and
take the proper control action.
In all of the above situations a conventional feedback controller would provide
quite unsatisfactory closed-loop response for the following reasons:
- A disturbance entering the process will not be detected until after a significant period of time.
- The control action which will be taken on the basis of the last measurement
will be inadequate because it attempts to regulate a situation (eliminate
an error) which was originated while back in time.
- The control action also will take some time to make its effect felt by
the process.
- As a result of all the above significant dead time is the main source of
instability
for
closed-loop
responses.
Example 19.1 - Dead Time as a Main Source of Closed-Loop Instability

Consider the following open-loop transfer function,
..
-ds
Kc-e
G
OL =
0.5s+l
(i>
If
td = 0.01 minutes, i.e. very small, then crossover frequency =
160 rad/min, and ultimate gain = 80.01.

(ii)
Suppose that the dead time increased to td = 0.1.

crossover frequency = 17 rad/min
Then, the
and ultimate gain = 8.56. We
notice that the increase of the dead time has introduced significant
additional phase lag which reduces the crossover frequency and the
maximum
allowable
gain.
In other words, the increase of dead time
has made the closed-loop response more sensitive to periodic disturbances and has brought the system closer to the brink of
instability.
(iii)
Further increase in dead time, i.e. td = 1.0 yields crossover

frequency
= 2.3 rad/min and ultimate gain = 1.52. And we see the
same trends as above.
The results of Example 19.1 lead to the following general statements:
"As the dead time of an open-loop transfer function increases, the following
two undesirable effects take place:
- The crossover frequency decreases.
This implies that the closed-loop
response will be sensitive even to lower frequency periodic disturbances

entering the system.
- The ultimate gain decreases.
Therefore,
in order to avoid the insta-
bilities of the closed-loop response, we must reduce the value of the

proportional gain Kc
which leads to sluggish response."
Figure 19.1 depicts graphically the above results.

The discussion above indicates that a control'system different than the
typical feedback loop is needed to compensate for dead time effects.
19.2 DEAD-TIME COMPENSATION
In the previous section we identified the critical need for more effective
control of processes with significant dead time.
In this section we will
discuss a modification of the classical feedback control system, which was

proposed by 0. J. M. Smith for the compensation of dead-time effects.
It is
known as Smith Predictor or Dead-Time Compensator.

To understand the nature of the dead-time compensation proposed by
Smith, consider the simple feedback loop with set point changes only shown
in Figure 19.2a.
We have assumed that all the dead time is caused by the
process, i.e.
= G(s)e
Gp(4
-tds
and that for simplicity, G,(s) = Gf(s) = 1.
The
feedback
measurement
signal
used by the control mechanism is equal to,
P(s)
-tas
Gc(s>
[G(s)
-e
1 Y,,(s)
(19.1)
i.e. it is delayed by td minutes.

In order to eliminate the undesired effects of a delayed information as
the
y(s), we would like to have a measurement signal which carries current
and not delayed information, like the

Y,(s)
(19.2)
Gc(s)*~(d*~,,(s)
This is possible if we add to the signal y(s) the following quantity

-tds
p'(s) = (1 - e
Kc(s) -G(s) l Y,,W
(19.3)
It is easy to verify that

Y(s)
Y'(s)
Y,(s)
The implication of adding y(s) to the signal f(s) is shown in Figure 19.2b.
There we notice that the signal y'(s) can be taken by a simple local loop
around the controller, which is called, dead-time compensator or Smith predictor.
The simplified loop of Figure 19.2c is completely equivalent to'
that of Figure 19.2b and indicates the real effect of the dead-time compensator, i.e.
"moving the effect of dead time outside the loop."
Remarks:
(1) In the block diagram of Figure 19.2c it is not correct to

think that we take a measurement signal after the block
G(s) because such signal is not measurable in a real process
with dead time.
The only measurable signals are the process
output, Y(s) , and the manipulated variable.
Therefore,
the
block diagram of Figure 19.2c is meant to give only a

schematic representation of what is the effect of the deadtime compensator and not to depict physical reality.
(2) The dead-time compensator predicts the delayed effect that
the manipulated variable will have on the process output.
This prediction lent the name to the term Smith Predictor

and it is possible only if we have a model for the
dynamics of the process (transfer function, dead time).
(3) In most of the process control problems the model of the
process is not perfectly known, i.e.
G(s) and td
are
only
approximately
known.
Therefore, if G(s) and td
represent the "true" characteristics of the process while

Gmodel(s)
td(model) represent
and
their
approximations
which we use for dead-time compensation then the control

system with the Smith predictor is shobm in Figure 19.3.
In this case we have:
7mw = y(s) + F'(s)
-tds
= &G e
-td(model)'s
+(l-e
jGc Gmodell*?'Sp(s)
or
-tds
Y,(S) = [GcGmodel+(G e
-Gmodel e
-td(model)'s
) 1 -Y,,W
(19.4)
The above equation indicates some important features of the

dead-time
compensators:
- Only for perfectly known ,processes

compensation, i.e. for G 2 Gmodel
we will have perfect

and td = td(model)'
- The larger the modeling error, i.e. the larger the differences (G - Gmodel) and (td - td(model)), the less
effective
is
the
compensation.
- The error is estimating the dead time is more detrimental

for effective dead-time compensation, i.e. (td - t
d(mode1))
is more crucial than (G - Gmodel), because of the

exponential
function.
(4) The dead time in a chemical process is usually caused by

material
flows.
Since the flowrate
is not normally constant
but shows variations during the operation of a plant, the

value of the dead-time changes.
Therefore,
if the dead-time
478
compensator is designed for a certain value of

when it takes a new value
td'
the compensation will not
be as effective.
Example 19.2 - Dead-Time Compensation and the Effect of Modeling Error

Consider the feedback loop shown in Figure 19.3a.
Let the controller
be simple proportional and the "true" transfer function of the process be

Gp(s)
-1s
OJs+l' e
It is easy to recognize that :
G(s) = &
.
and
.?
td = 1
(a) Suppose that we use simple feedback control.
For this system it was
found in Example 19.1 that the open-loop transfer function has

crossover
frequency:
%o = 2.3 radlmin
and ultimate gain: Kc = 1.52.
The fact that the ultimate gain is 1.52 forced us to use Kc = 1.5 <
1.52.
Nevertheless,
the system is very close to the brink of
instability and has a rather unacceptable offset (see Section 14.2)

1
1
= 1 + 1.1.5 = 0.4
l+KK
PC
Curve A (Figure 19.4) shows the response of the system to a unit
offset =
step-change in the set point.

:5>
Let us introduce "perfect" dead-time compensation.
This is possible
if the "true" transfer function of the process is known.
Then, the
control system is given by the block diagram of Figure 19.3b.

open-loop transfer function is (see eqn. (19.2))
7,w
i&(s)
GcG
Kc
0.5s+l
The
which has no crossover frequency.
Consequently,
we can use arbitrarily
large proportional gain to reduce the offset without endangering the

stability of the system.
Curve B (Figure 19.4) shows the response
of the closed-loop system with Kc = 50.
The offset has been greatly
reduced, i.e.
offset =
1
l+KK
PC
1
= 1 + 1a5o = 0.0196
(c) Suppose that the process gain and time constant are perfectly known
but not the dead time.
In such case, Gmoael = G = l/(O.Ss+l).
The
dead time of the process can only be approximated. Let ta(moael) =

0.8.
Let us examine a common error in the design of a process control system
which we must avoid.
Were we to consider the value 0.8 as the "true" value
of the process dead time, we coda design a dead-time compensator as in case

(b) above.
Since there would be no crossover frequency we could use an
arbitrarily large Kc
in order to reduce the offset. Let Kc = 100.

.
Since the "true" value of the process dead time is not 0.8 but 1.0, the
compensation is not perfect.
There is a dead time equal to 1.0 - 0.8 = 0.2
which has not been compensated by the dead-time compensator.
Thus
uncompensated
dead time gives rise to additional phase lag and leads eventually to a crossover
frequency.
If the ultimate gain is smaller than 100 then the system with
3c.'C = 100 is unstable.

is
Indeed, for the present example the crossover frequency
%o = 9 radlmin and the ultimate gain is 4.6. Therefore, if we are not
certain on the value of dead time we must be conservative in selecting the

value of
even with partial dead-time compensation.
------A,
19.3 CONTROL OF SYSTEMS WITH INVERSE RESPONSE

In Section 12.3 we analyzed the behavior of a special class of systems
with inverse response.
There we saw that the net result of two opposing
effects may produce an initial response which is in the opposite direction to

where it will eventually end up (see Figures 12.4b and 12.5b).
The most common case of a process with inverse response is that resulting
from the conflict of two first-order systems with opposing effects (Figure
12.5).
In this section we will limit our attention to the regulation of such
processes.
Extensions to more complex systems like those of Table 12.1 are
easy and straightforward.
!*'
Two are the most popular ways to control systems with inverse response;
the first uses PID feedback controller with Ziegler-Nichols tuning and the
second an inverse response compensator.
A.
Simple PID Control

From all types of feedback controllers only PID can be used effectively
for the following simple reason.
The derivative control mode by its nature
will anticipate the "wrong" direction of the system's response and will provide the proper corrective action to limit (never eliminate) the inverse
shoot.
Wailer and Nyg?irdas
[Ref. 261
have demonstrated numerically that the
Ziegler-Nichols classical tuning of a PID controller yields very good control

;uf
23 .
systems with inverse response.

Inverse
Response
Compensator
In Section 19.2 we discussed how we can develop a Smith predictor (deadtime compensator) which cancels the effect of dead time.
The same general
concept of the predictor (compensator) can be used to cope with the inverse
response of a process and was developed by Iinoya and Altpeter [Ref. 251.
7*
Consider the feedback system of Figure 19.5a.
The controlled process
exhibits inverse response when (see Example 12.4)

K
rp1
-> J&l
K
=p2
p2
The open-loop response of the system is:
-K
'I )s+(K
(K T
-K >
21 p2
p2 Pl
Pl
p2
Y(s) = Gc(s>*f,,(s)
(T s+l)(r s+l)
p2
Pl
(19.5)
and has a positive zero at the point (see also Example 19.4)
K
Z
Pl
KPlTP2
-Ki
p2
-K
T
: p2 p1
f
> '0
To eliminate the inverse response it is enough to eliminate the positive zero

of the above open-loop transfer function.
This is possible if in the open-
loop response y(s) we add the quantity y'(s) given by,
T(s)
ls+l -
= Gc(s>*k(
rp2
i+$ YspW
(19.6)
Tpl
Then, from eqns. (19.5) and (19.6) we can easily find that
[(K Pl T P2-KP2TPl)+k(~Pl-TP2)1S+(KPl-KP2)
Tm(s) = Y(s) +Y(s
>
Gc(s>
(T
s+l)(-r
Pl
.y
SP ,(s)
s+l)
p2
.and for
K 'c
-K
^c
p2 Pl
Pl p2
(19.7)
TP1 - =P2
we find that the zero of the resulting open-loop transfer function is nonpositive, i.e.
(K
z
-K
>
Pl
p2
- K
T
)+k(T
(K T
Pl p2
p2 Pl
Pl
)
p2
-T
'
Adding the signal Y'(S) to the main feedback signal y(s) it means the
creation of the local loop around the controller as it is shown in Figure
19.5b.
The system in this local loop is the modified Smith predictor and
the actual compensator of the inverse response.
Its transfer function as it
can be,seen from eqn. (19.6) is

(19.8)
where k must satisfy condition (19.7).

Remarks:
(1) The inverse response compensator predicts the inverse behavior

of the process and provides a corrective signal to eliminate
it.
The prediction is based on a model for the process.
The ideal prediction comes if the transfer function of the

process is completely known.
In such case the compensator
is given by
K
p2
GCOMPENSATOR (s) = T s+1
P?L
Therefore,
K
-
p2
s+1
TP,I
the compensator given by eqn. (19.8) is only an
approximation to the process' transfer function.

(2) Modeling inaccuracies in terms of
and
1
*p2
increased inverse shoots and slower responses.
~~
(3) For the controller, PI is the most common choice.
will cause
SUMMARY
Chemical processes with significant dead times or inverse response present

a special challenge to the control designer.
For the case of processes with
dead time there is the danger of instability even with low controller gains,
while for processes with inverse response the elimination or at least significant reduction of the inverse shoot is of paramount importance.
both problems can be solved with the introduction of the so-called Smith
predictor
or
feedback
compensation.
Thus, in the case of dead time we intro-
duce a local feedback loop around the controller which anticipates the time
delay of the measurement signal and makes the proper compensation.
If the
dead time is perfectly known the compensation is perfect and the control
feedback signal carries current not delayed process information.
If the dead
time is .~ not perfectly known (which is usually the case) or changing with time
(very common feature of chemical processes), the dead-time compensation is
only partial.
In the case of inverse response the added compensator modifies the
location of the zero of the open-loop transfer function, i.e. shifts it from
positive to nonpositive (negative or zero).
behavior.
gives
This eliminates the inverse
It should be noted that simple PID control of inverse responses
rather
satisfactory
results.
With this chapter we close the analysis and design of feedback control
-systems.
In Part V we will focus our attention to the analysis and design
of various other control configurations like feedforward, ratio, cascade,

split-range,
processes.
override,
multivariable, etc. which appear very often in chemical

1.
What is the effect of dead time in the response of simple feedback control loops?
2.
Explain in physical terms.
Why is the controller design of processes with dead time a particularly

sensitive and difficult problem?
3.
Demonstrate using a practical example.
Describe in physical terms the concept of dead-time compensation. Why

such a system is also called predictor?
4.
Show that the dead time and inverse response compensators are based on
the same logic.
5.
What
are
their
implementational
-
difficulties?
Consider the following feedback loop with load changes only.

a
dead-time
compensator
assuming
G(s) and
Construct
td perfectly known.
Is it
:
-- --_
the same as the dead-time compensator constructed for set point changes?
6.
What is the effect of model inaccuracies on the effectiveness of deadtime
7.
compensators?
Is the dead time of a process constant or it varies with time?
If it
varies, give three relevant physical examples. What is the effect

of changing dead time on the design of a dead-time compensator?
8.
What is our goal when designing a controller for a system with inverse
response?
10.
Describe what an inverse response compensator does.
Consider the system with inverse response described in Section 19.3.

Identify the transfer function of the compensator.
a function of the parameter
Notice that it is
k which must satisfy condition (19.7).
Do you have any ideas on how

trolled
response?
k would affect the quality of the con-
[see also numerical example in Ref. 251.
I
1
j,p I- - - --T---cc>
1.0
0.5
0.4
II---------_---------_-
----
_-
-_---__
CONTROLLER
MEOtANSti
-----------------,
CHAPTER 20
CONTROL SYSTEMS WITH MULTIPLE LOOPS
The feedback control configuration involves one measurement (output) and

one manipulated variable in a single loop.
There are though other simple
control configurations which may use,

- more than one measurement and one manipulation, or
- one measurement and more than one manipulated variables.
In such cases control systems with multiple loops may arise.
Typical
examples
of such configurations which we will study in the present chapter are the
following:
(a)
Cascade
control.
(b) Various types of selective control.

(c) Split range control.
Before proceeding we should emphasize that these control systems involve
loops which are not separate but share either the single manipulated, variable
or the only measurement.
In this respect the multiple loop control systems of
this chapter are generically different from those we will study in Chapter 22.
20.1 CASCADE CONTROL
In a cascade control configuration we have one manipulated variable and
snore than one measurement.
-mtrol only one output.
It is clear that with a single manipulation we can

Let us now examine the motivation behind the cascade
control and its typical characteristics using an example from the experience
in the chemical processes.
Example 20.1 - Cascade Control for a Jacketed CSTR

Consider the CSTR shown in Figure 1.7.
The reaction is exothermic and
the generated heat is removed by the coolant which flows in the jacket around
the tank.
The control objective is to keep the temperature of the reacting
mixture, T, constant at a desired value.

reactor are; the feed temperature Ti
The possible disturbances to the
and the coolant temperature
only manipulated variable is the coolant flowrate

Simple
Feedback
T C
The
Control
If we use simple feedback, we will take the control configuration shown

-.
in Figure 20.la, i.e. measure temperature T and manipulate coolant flowrate
Fc
It is clear that
changes in
T will respond much faster to changes in Ti than to
Therefore,
the simple feedback control of Figure 20.la will
be very effective in compensating for changes in Ti and less effective in

compensating for changes in
Cascade
T C
Control
We can improve the response of the simple feedback control to changes in

'the coolant temperature by measuring Tc
and taking control action before
its effect has been felt by the reacting mixture.

increase the flowrate
heat.
of the coolant in order to remove the same amount of
Decrease the coolant flowrate when Tc decreases.

We
notice,
therefore, that we can have two control loops using two dif-
f-erent measurements, T and Tc,

Fc'
Thus, if Tc goes up,
but sharing a common manipulated variable,
How these loops are related is shown in Figure 20.lb.
There we notice
that,
- the loop that measures T (controlled variable) is the dominant, or primary,
or master control loop and uses a set point supplied by the operator, while
- the loop that measures T C
uses the output of the primary controller as
its set point and it is called secondary or slave loop.

The control configuration with the above two loops is known as cascade control
and is very common in chemical processes.
Let us generalize the above discussion.
Consider a process consisting of
two parts as shown in Figure 20.2a; Process I and Process II.
Process I
(primary) has as its output the variable we want to control.
Process II
(secondary) has an output which we are not interested to control but which
affects the output we want to control.
For the CSTR system of Example 20.1,
Process I is the reaction in the tank and the controlled"output

perature T.
(reactor)
and
is the tem-
Process II is the jacket and its output Tc affects Process I

consequently
T.
Figure 20.2b shows the typical simple feedback control system, while
Figure 20.2~ indicates the general form of the cascade control.
The last
figure demonstrates very clearly the major benefit to be gained by cascade

control, i.e.
"disturbances arising within the secondary loop are corrected
by the secondary controller before they can affect the value
of the primary controlled output."
This important benefit has lead to an extensive usage of cascade control in
.&emical
processes.
Example 20.2 - Cascade Control for Various Processes

Let us describe the use of cascade control in various typical processing
systems.
(a)
Heat
exchangers.
The typical configuration is shown in Figure 20.3a.
The control objective is to keep the exit temperature of stream 2 at

The secondary loop is used to compensate for changes
a desired value.
in the flowrate
of stream 1.
(b) Distillation columns.
Cascade control is usually employed to regulate
the temperature (and consequently the concentration) at the top or

.
bottom of a distillation column. Figures 20.3b and 20.3~.show two such
typical cascade control systems.
used to compensate flowrate
(c) Furnaces.
In both cases the secondary loop is
changes.
Cascade control can be used to regulate the temperature of a
process stream (e.g. feed to a reactor) exiting from a furnace.

Figure 20.3d
shows the resulting cascade configuration.
secondary loop is used to compensate for flowrate
The reader should notice that in ali
Again,
the
changes (fuel flowrate).
the cascade configurations of
Example 20.2, the secondary loop is used to compensate for flowrate
changes.
This observation is quite common in chemical processes and someone could state
that;
"in chemical processes, flowrate control loops are almost
always cascaded with other control loops."
Let us now turn our attention to the closed-loop behavior of cascade
control
systems.
Consider the block diagram of a general cascade system
shown in Figure 20.4a.
To simplify the presentation we have assumed that the
transfer functions of the measuring devices are both equal to 1.

The closed-loop response of the primary loop is influenced by the dynamics
of the secondary loop, whose open-loop transfer function is equal to
GSECONDARY
= Gc,II
Gp,II
(20.1)
The stability of the secondary loop is determined by the roots of the

characteristic
equation,
l + Gc II
G p,II = 0
,
(20.2)
Figure 20.4b shows a simplified form of the general block diagram (Figure 20.4a),
where the secondary loop has been considered as a dynamic element.
For the primary loop the overall open-loop transfer function is
GPRIMARY
G c,II Gp,II
(
Gc,I l+ Gc II G
) Gp,I
,
P,II
(20.3)
and consequently the characteristic equation whose roots determine the

-_
stability of the primary loop is the following,
1
Remarks:
Gc
1
(
G
+;I
G
I1
) G
c,II Gp,II
P,I
(20.4) .
(1) The two controllers of a cascade control system are standard

feedback controller, i.e. P, PI,
PID..
Generally, proportional
controller is used for the'secondary loop although PI controller

with small integral action is not unusual.
Any offset caused
by P control in the secondary loop is not important since

we are not interested to control the output of the secondary
process.
(2) The dynamics of the secondary loop is much faster than that
of the primary loop.
Consequently, the phase lag of the
closed secondary loop will be less than that of the primary

loop.
This feature leads to the following important
result which constitutes the rationale behind the use of

cascade
control:
"The crossover frequency for the
secondary loop is higher than that for the primary loop.

This allows us to use higher gains in the secondary
controller in order to regulate faster the effect of a

disturbance occurring in the secondary loop without
endangering the stability of the system."
(3) The tuning of the two controllers of a cascade control
system proceeds in two steps:
- First, we determine the settings for the secondary controller using one of the methods we studied in Chapters
16 and 18, i.e. Cohen and Coon or Ziegler-Nichols or
others using time-integral criteria or phase and gain
margin
considerations;
The
open-loop
transfer
function
we can use for tuning is given by eqn. (20.1).

- Second, from the Bode plots of the overall system we
determine the crossover frequency using the settings
for the secondary loop we found above.
Then, using
the frequency response techniques we described in

Chapter 18, we choose the settings for the primary
controller.
The open-loop transfer function needed
for the construction of the Bode plots is given by

eqn. (20.3).
,JXxample
20.3 - Dynamic Characteristics of a Cascade Control System
Consider a process with the following transfer functions for its primary
.and
secondary elements,
G
P,T
(5s+1~010s+1)
and
P,TT
1
0.5s+l
The secondary process is faster than the primary as can be seen from the
corresponding
time
constants.
Were we to use simple feedback control, the
open-loop
transfer
function
with PI control would be,

G
c,I'Gp,II'Gp,I
, (1 +$*
KcI
100
(O.sls+l)
(5s+l)(los+l)
The crossover frequency can be found from the equation that sets the total
phase lag equal to -180", i.e.
tan-'(-l/wCO) + tan-l(-0.5wCO)
+ tan-l(-5wCO)+tan-l(-10wCO)
~-180"
and it is equal to
%o
= 4.9 -rad/min
Also, the overall amplitude ratio is given by,
The ultimate value of the gain Kc I can be found from the condition
,
AR
=l
at
w =
%Ci
Thus,
and we find
K
merefore,
c,I
= 32.25
when the disturbance dII (of the secondary process) changes, the
simple feedback controller can use a gain up to 32.25 before the system becomes
unstable.
Also, given the fact that the overall provess is 3rd order, we
expect that the closed-loop response of y(t) to changes in

rather slow.
dII
will be
Consider now a cascade control system similar to that of Figure 20.4a.

The open-loop transfer function for the secondary loop is given by eqn. (20.1)
and assuming simple proportional controller we find
G
c,II Gp,II
1
= Kc,11 0.5s+1
There is no crossover frequency for the secondary control loop.

can use large values for the gain
c,II'
Therefore
we
which produce a very fast closed-
loop response to compensate for any changes in the disturbance dII, arisingwithin the secondary process.
Once we have selected the value of -Kc II for the secondary loop, we
,
.I
i
can find the crossover frequency for t!he overall open-loop transfer function
given by eqn. (20.3).
controller,
using
the
Thenj we can select the value of Kc I for the primary

,
Ziegler-Nichols methodology. Quite often we will not
select arbitrarily a very large Kc II

,
values of
20.2
but in coordination with the resulting
K c,I'
SELECTIVE
CONTROL
SYSTEMS
These are control systems which involve one manipulated variable and
several
controlled
outputs.
Since with one manipulated variable we can con-
trol only one output, the selective control systems transfer control action
from one controlled output to another according to the need. There are
.exral
types of selective control systems and in this section we will discuss
only the following two:

(a) Override control for the protection of process equipment.
(b) Auctioneering control.
-.
A.
Override
Control
During the normal operation of a plant or during its start-up or shut-down

it is possible that dangerous situations may arise, which may lead to destruction
of equipment and operating personnel.
In such cases it is necessary to change
from the normal control action and attempt to prevent a process variable from
exceeding an allowable upper or lower limit.
the use of special types of switches.
This can be achieved through
The high selector switch (HSS) is used
whenever a variable should not exceed an upper limit, while the low selector
switch (LSS) is employed to prevent a process variable to exceed a lower limit.
Example 20.4 - Examples of Override Control

(a) Protection of a boiler system. Usually, the steam pressure in a boiler
is controlled through the use of a pressure control loop on the discharge line.
At the same time the water level in the boiler should
not fall below a lower limit wkich is necessary to keep the heating
coil immersed in water and thus prevent its burning out.
Figure 20.5
shows the override control system using a low switch selector (LSS).
According to this system, whenever the liquid level falls below the
allowable
limit, the LSS switches control action from pressure control
to level control and closes the valve on the discharge line.

Protection of a compressor system.
The discharge of a compressor is
controlled with a flow control system.
To prevent the discharge
pressure from exceeding an upper limit, an override control with a

high switch selector (HSS) is introduced.
It transfers control
action from the flow control to the pressure control loop whenever
the discharge pressure exceeds the upper limit (Figure 20.6).
Notice that flow control or pressure control is actually cascaded
to the speed control of the compressor's motor.

(c) Protection of a steam distribution system.
In any chemical process there
is a network distributing steam at various pressure levels to the processing units.
High pressure steam is "let-down" to lower pressure
levels at the let-down stations.
The amount of steam "let-down" at
such stations is controlled by the demand on the low pressure steam

line (Loop 1 in Figure 20.7):
excessive
To protect the high pressure line from
pressures, we can install an override control system with a
HSS, which transfers control action from Loop 1 to Loop 2 when the
pressure in the high pressure line exceeds an upper limit.
B.
Auctioneering
Control
Systems
Such control configurations select among several similar measurements

the one with the highest value and feed it to the controller.
Thus, it is a
selective controller with several measured outputs and one manipulated input.
Example 20.5 - Examples of Auctioneering Control

(a)
Catalytic
tubular
reactors
with
highly
exothermic
reactions.
Several
highly exothermic reactions take place in tubular reactors filled with

a catalyst bed.
Typical examples are the hydrocarbon oxidation
reactions like the oxidation of o-xylene or naphthalene to produce

phthalic
anhydride.
Figure 20.8 shows the temperature profile along
the length of the tubular reactor.

hot spot.
The highest temperature is called
The location of the hot spot moves along the length of the
reactor depending on the feed conditions (temperature, concentration,

flowrate) and the catalyst activity (Figure 20.8). The value of the
hot spot temperature depends also on the above factors and the temperature and flowrate
of the coolant.
The control of such systems
is a real challenge for a chemical engineer.

The primary control objective is to keep the hot spot temperature
below an upper limit. Therefore, we need a control system that can
identify the location of the hot spot and provide the proper control
action.
This can be achieved through;
- the placement of several thermocouples along the length of the

reactor and
- the use of an auctioneering system to select the highest temperature,
which will be used to control the lflowrate
(b)
Regeneration
of
catalytic
reactors.
of the coolant (Figure 20.9).
The catalyst in catalytic reactors
undergoes deactivation as the reaction proceeds, due to carbonaceous

deposits on it.
It can be regenerated by burning off these deposits
with air or oxygen.
To avoid destruction of the catalyst, due to
excessive temperatures during the combustion of the deposits, we can

use an auctioneering system which;
- takes the temperature measurements from various thermocouples along
the length of the reactor,
- selects the highest which corresponds to the combustion front as
it moves through the bed, and
- controls appropriately the amount of air.
23-3 SPLIT-RANGE CONTROL

Unlike the cascade and selective control schemes examined in Sections
20.1 and 20.2, the split range control configuration has one measurement only
(controlled output) and more than one manipulated variables.

Since there is only one controlled output, we need only one control
signal which is thus split into several parts, each affecting one of the
available
manipulations.
In other words, we can control a single.process
output by coordinating the actions of several manipulated variables, all of

which have the same effect on the controlled output.
Such systems are not
very common in chemical processes but provide added safety and optimality
operational whenever necessary as the following examples demonstrate.
Example 20.6 - Split-Range Control of a Chemical Reactor

Consider the reactor shown in Figure 20.10a where a gas phase reaction
takes place.
reaction
Two control valves manipulate the flow fo the feed and the
product.
It is clear that in order to control the pressure in the
reactor the two valves cannot act independently but should be coordinated.
Thus, when valve Vl opens, valve V2 closes and vice versa.
Figure 20.10b
indicates the coordination of the two valves' actions as a function of the

controller's output signal (see also Table 20.1).
Let the controller's output signal, corresponding to the desired
operation of the reactor by 6 psig.
From Figure 20.10b we see that valve V2
is partly open while valve Vl is completely open.
When for.various
tie pressure in the reactor increases the controller's.output

too.
reasons
signal increases
Then, it is split into two parts and affects the two valves simul-
taneously.
Thus:
-As the controller output increases from 6 psig to 9 psig, valve V2 opens
continuously while Vl
remains completely open.
Both actions lead to a
reduction in the pressure.

- For large increases in the reactor's pressure, the control output may
exceed 9 psig.
In such case, as we can see from Figure 20.10b, the valve
V2 is completely open while Vl starts closing.
Both actions again lead
to a reduction in pressure until the reactor has returned to the desired

operation.
Example 20.7 - Split-Range Control of the Pressure in a Steam Header

Let us consider another example of split-range control, which is
encountered very often in chemical plants.
Several
paraller
boilers
discharge
steam in a common steam header and from there to the process needs (Figure
20.11).
The control objective is to maintain constant pressure in the steam

.f
header when the steam demand at the various processing units changes. There
are several manipulated variables (steam flow from every boiler) which can be
used
simultaneously.
control system.
Figure 20.11 shows also the structure of the resulting
It should be noted that instead of controlling the steam flow
from each boiler, we could control the firing rate and thus the steam production rate at each boiler.
Similar structures can be developed for the pressure control of a common
discharge
or
suction
header
for
paraller
compressors.
Table 20.1
Controller's
output
Signal
Valve Vl
Stem
Position
Valve V2
Stem
Position
3 psig
Open
Closed
Open
Open
Closed
Open
psig
15 psig

Control systems with multiple loops arise when we have one manipulated
variable
and
several
available
measurements.
Among them cascade and
selective control systems are the most often encountered in chemical

processes.
Cascade control is used to compensate for the effects of disturbances
which arise within the secondary part of a process.
The response, when com-
pared to simple feedback, is much faster and quite robust.
It should be
emphasized that cascade control is possible only if we can measure the output
of the secondary process.
Cascade control is very popular in chemical pro-
cesses and almost always flow control systems will be cascaded with other
control loops.
Selective control systems are used whenever we want to be able to select
the measured output that we will connect to the single manipulated variable.
Override and auctioneering control are two typical examples of selective
control.
The first is used to protect the operating personnel and process
equipment from excessive excursions of process variables beyond the acceptable

operating
limits.
The second is used whenever we need to identify the highest
value among similar measurements and use it for control purposes.
Other types
of selective control systems are the variable structuring control and the use
,~E;redundant
measurements, but will not be discussed in this text.
Split-range is a control configuration that uses a single measurement,

.produces
a single control action which in turn is "Split" to activate more
than one manipulated variables, whose actions should be coordinated.

1.
Consider a process with one manipulated input and two measured outputs.
Can you keep both outputs at the desired values, using only the single
manipulated
2.
variable?
If not, explain why.
Starting from the premise that tht answer to item 1 (above) is negative,
explain how is it possible to have,
- a cascade control system or
- a selective control system
both of which have a single manipulation and two measured outputs.
3.
Discuss the rationale of a' cascade control system and demonstrate why
it provides better response than simple feedback.
4.
In Section 20.1 we assumed that the secondary process (PROCESS II,

Figure 20.2) in a cascade control system is faster than the primary
process (PROCESS I, Figure 20.2).
Is this necessary to justify the
use of a cascade control configuration?
In other words; would you
still recommend cascade control for a process (like that of Figure

20.2a) with a secondary process much slower than the primary?
5.
What are the main advantages and disadvantages of cascade control?

For what kind of processes can you employ cascade control?
6.
In chemical processes, flowrate

caded with other control loops.
control loops are almost always casWhy does this happen?
into account the following two facts:
(a) The flowrate
[Note: Take
itself is
subject to changes and is regulated by the flow control loop, and

(b) flowrates are the most common manipulated variables in chemical
processes].
7.
What types of controllers would you use for the two controllers of a
cascade
system?
How would you tune them?
Discuss a methodology to
select the adjusted parameters of the two controllers.

8.
Are the stability characteristics of the closed-loop response of a

cascade system better than those of a simple feedback?
Elaborate
on
your answer.
9.
What is meant by selective control systems? How many different types

of selective control systems are available?
10.
Discuss
their
characteristics.
Discuss the sationale\,behind an override control system. Why is it very

useful, and what situations is called upon to control?
11.
Describe 2-3 situations (different than those discussed in Example 20.4)

where you should use override control systems. *:
12.
What is an auctioneering control system, and where would you use it?
Describe a situation (different than those of Example 20.5) where you
could use auctioneering control.
13.
Consid%er
a process with one controlled output and two active manipulated
variables.
Under what conditions could you use both manipulated
variables to control the single output?

14.
What is split-range control?

split-range
control.
In Example 20.6 we have a situation with
To control the pressure in the reactor we could
use valve Vl or valve V2 with simple control configurations or both

valves in a split-range control configuration.
better? Why?
Which of the three is
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CHAPTER 21
FEEDFORWARD AND RATIO CONTROL
Feedback control loops can never achieve perfect control of a chemical

process, i.e. keep the output of the process continuously at the desired
set point value in the presence of load or set point changes.
The reason is
simple, a feedback controller reacts only after it has detected a deviation

in the value of the output from the desired set point.
Unlike the feedback systems, a
feedforward
control
configuration
measures the disturbance (load) directly and takes control action to

I
eliminate its impact on the process output.
Therefore,
feedforward
controllers
have the theoretical potential for perfect control.

In this section we will study the characteristics of feedforward control
systems and describe the techniques which are used for their design.
In the
last section we will examine a' special case of feedforward control, the
ratio control.
21.1 THE LOGIC OF FEEDFORWARD CONTROL
Consider the stirred tank heater shown in Figure 21.la.
The control
objective is to keep the temperature of the liquid in the tank at a desired

value (set point) despite any changes in the temperature of the inlet
stream.
Figure 21.lb shows the conventional feedback loop which measures the
llrsperature
in the tank and after comparing it with the desired value
increases or decreases the steam pressure, thus providing more or less heat
-5nto the liquid.
msures
A feedforward control system uses a different approach. It
the temperature of the inlet stream (disturbance) and adjusts
appropriately
the
steam
pressure
(manipulated
variable).
Thus, it increases
the steam pressure if the inlet temperature decreases and decreases the steam
pressure when the inlet temperature goes up.

forward
control
Figure 21.1~ shows the feed-
configuration.
In Figure 21.2a we can see the general form of a feedforward control

system.
It measures the disturbances directly and then it anticipates the
effect that it will have on the process output.
Subsequently,
it changes the
manipulated variables by such amount as to eliminate completely the impact of

the disturbances on the process output (controlled variable). Control action
j
starts immediately after a change in the disturbance(s) has been detected.
In Figure 21.2b we have repeated the schematic of a typical feedback loop so
that the reader can contrast directly:the
two control systems.
It is clear
that feedback acts after the fact in a compensatory manner while feedforward
acts beforehand in an anticipatory manner.
Let us now look at some common feedforward control systems used in
chemical
processes.
Example 21.1 - Feedforward Control of Various Processing Units

(a) Feedforward control of a heat exchanger, shown in Figure 21.3a. The
objective is to keep the exit temperature of the liquid constant by
manipulating
the
steam
pressure.
Two are the main disturbances
(loads) measured for feedforward control, liquid flowrate

inlet
and liquid
temperature.
,cb) Feedforward control of a drum boiler, shown in Figure 21.3b. Here,

the objective is to keep the liquid level in the drum constant.
The
two disturbances are the steam flow from the boiler which is dictated
by varying demand elsewhere in the plant and the flow of the feedwater.
The last is also the main manipulation.
(c) Feedforward control of a distillation column, shown in Figure 21.3~.

The two disturbances here are the feed flowrate
(F) and composition (C).
The available manipulated variables are the steam pressure in the reboiler,
and the reflux ratio.
The composition of overhead or bottom product
is the control objective.
Feedforward
control
is
particularly
useful
for a distillation column, because its response time can be measured

--
in hours leading to large amounts of off-spec products.
(d) Feedforward control of a CSTR, shown in Figure 20.3d. Inlet concentration

and temperature are the two disturbances while the product withdrawal
flow-rate and,'the coolant flowrate are the two manipulations. The control objectives are two, maintain
constant
temperature
and
composition
within the CSTR.
Remarks:
(1) As the examples above have indicated, feedforward control

systems can be developed for more than one disturbance.
The controller acts according to which disturbance changed
value.
Therefore, the schematic of Figure 21.2a with
several disturbances represents the general case of feedforward control with a single controlled variable.
(2) The feedforward control of a CSTR, in Example 21.1, indicates that the extension to systems with multiple controlled
variables
should
be
rather
straightforward.
(3) With the exception of the controller, all the other hardware elements in a feedforward loop are the same as for
a feedback loop (sensors, transducers, transmitters, final
control
elements).
21.2
THE
PROBLEM
OF
DESIGNING
FEEDFORWARD
CONTROLLERS
How do we design feedforward controllers?
The question that arises is:
The reader may have suspected already that conventional P, PI or PID controllers will not be appropriate.
Let us start with an example; the design
of feedforward controllers for a stirred tank heater.
Example 21.2 - Designing Feedforward Controllers for a Stirred Tank Heater

In Example 4.4 we developed the dynamic mass and energy balances for
the stirred tank heater of Figure 21.la.
'/
i
(4.5b).'
A
dh
dt
Ah =
dt
_ - F
= Fi(Ti
Assume that Fi
They are given by eqns. (4.4a) and
- T)
Q/PC,
(4.5b)
does not change and that Fi = F. Then dh/dt = 0 and we
have only the heat balance, eqn. (4.5b). The inlet temperature Ti is the
disturbance and the amount of heat supplied by steam, Q, is the manipulated
variable.
The control objective is to keep the liquid temperature, T, at the
desired set point value, TSP.

(a)
Steady-state
feedforward
controller.
The simplest form of feedforward
controller can be developed if we consider the steady state heat

balance, i.e.
+ Q/PC,
Fi(Ti -
Ti++
i Ocp
T)
or
(21.1)
From eqn. (21.1) we find that in order to keep T = TSp, the manipulated
variable Q
should change according to the equation
= Fi pc (T
- Ti>
P SP
Equation
(21.2)
controller.
(21.2)
is the design equation for the steady state feedforward
It shows how Q
should change in the presence of dis-
turbance or set point changes.
Figure 21.4a depicts the resulting
control system.
The steady state feedforward
controller
desired steady state performance

steady state.
will always achieve the
of the heater, i.e. T = T SP
at
This will not be true, in general, during the tran.,
sient.
(b) Dynamic
feedforward
controller.
:To improve the response
transient we will design a feedforward

heat balance
and not its equivalent
controller using the dynamic
steady state, as above. Equation
(4.5b)
can be written
where
Fi
Fi
FT=TT~+&d
V = ah = liquid volume in the tank.
form with deviation

dT'
dt
Fi
VT'
as follows:
variables
and take:
Fi
?T;
+ Q'
vpc
P
during the
Take the Laplace transforms
(21.3)
Put eqn. (21.3) into a
(21.3a)
of eqn. (21.3a):
T;(s)
T(s)
where
T = V/Fi = retention
controller
changes
eqn.
PC
time of liquid in the tank.
The feedforward
should make sure that T'(s) = T;,(s) = set point, despite any
in the disturbance
(21.4) we find that Q
S(s)
(21.4)
1
Fi
T!I' or set point
THPS
Therefore,
from
should be given by,
Fi p~~[(rs+l)T;~(s)
- T;(s)]
(21.5)
Equation (21.5) is the design equation for the dynamic feedforward

controller and Figure 21.4b depicts the resulting control mechanism.
As it can be seen from Figures 21.4a and 21.4b, the only difference
between the steady state and dynamic feedforward controllers for the
tank heater is the transfer function (rs+l) multiplying the set
point.
Therefore, we expect that for load (disturbance) changes the
two controllers will be equivalent.
On the contrary, dynamic feed-
forward control will be better for set point changes. Figures 21.5a
and 21.5b verify this point.
Example 21.2 has pointed out a very essential characteristic in feedforward

control:
"The design of a feedforward controller comes out directly from the
model of a process."
Thus, the steady state design came out from the steady state heat balance,
and the dynamic controller from the dynamic heat balance.
It is obvious
that,
"the better a model represents the behavior of a process, the better
the resulting feedforward controller will be."
Let us now generalize the design procedure outlined in Example 21.2.
Consider the block diagram of an uncontrolled process (Figure 21.6a).
Zbc process output is given by,
Y(s)
Gp(s)iii(s)
(21.6)
Gd(s)&s)
Let y,,(s) be the desired set point for the process output. Then, eqn. (21.6)
fm y(s) = B,,(s) yields:
7+)
= Gp(s)iii(s)
Gd(S);i(S)
We can solve eqn. (21.7) with respect to
(21.7)
G(s) and find the value that the
manipulated variable should have in order to keep y(s) = y,,(s),

presence of disturbance or set point changes.
E(s)
in the
Then, we take;
(21.8)
Equation (21.8) determines the form that the feedforward control system should
have and which is shown in Figure 21.6b.
It also determines the two transfer
functions, G, and GSP, which complete the design of the control mechanism,
i.e.
Gc(s)=Gd(s)/Go(s)
-transfer
function
ofthemain
feedforward
controller
(21.9)
GSp(4
Remarks:
l/Gd(s) f transfer function of the set point element
(21.10)
(1) From Figure 21.6a we notice that the feedforward loop retains
all the external characteristics of a feedback loop.
Thus,
it has a main measurement which is compared to a set point

signal and the result of the comparison is the actuating
signal for the main controller.
In substance though, the
two control systems differ significantly as it was pointed

out in Section 21.1.
(2) From the design eqns. (21.9) and (21.10) it is clear that
a feedforward controller cannot be a conventional feedback

controller (P, PI, PID).
Instead, it should be viewed as
a special purpose computation machine.
This is the reason
that sometimes it is referred to as feedforward computer.

(3) The design eqns. (21.9) and (21.10) demonstrate again that
feedforward control depends heavily on the good knowledge
of the process model (G p, Gd>*
perfect knowledge of G
and
Perfect
Gd,
control
necessitates
which is not practically
possible.
This is the main drawback of feedforward con-
trol.
(4) In the control system of Figure 21.6b we left out the sensor which measures the disturbance and the final control
element.
The inclusion of these two elements alters the
design of the transfer functions, Gc(s) and GSP(s).

Consider the more general feedforward control system of
Figure 21.6c, including the measuring sensor and the final
control
element.
TX
We can easily show that,
GpGVGcGs;~~SP
$ [Gd
- GpGvGcGm]i
(21.11)
The design transfer functions Gc and GSP can now be

identified by the following two requirements:
(c) Disturbance rejection.
The controller should be capable to eliminate
completely the impact of a disturbance change on the process output.

This implies that the coefficient of 8 in eqn. (21.11) should be
zero, i.e.
Gd
- G pG v Gc G
m
=O
or
GC
(21.12)
Gd/GpGvGm
(d) Set-point tracking. The control mechanism should be capable to make

the process output track exactly any changes in the set point, i.e.
keep 7 = ysP.
This implies that the coefficient of y,P in eqn.
(21.11) should be equal to 1, i.e.

GGGG
pvcSP=
GpGv(Gd/GpGvGm)Gsp
5-17
and finally,
GSP
(21.13)
Gm/Gd
Equations (21.12) and (21.13) are more general than (21.9) and (21.10),
with the latter resulting from the former for Gm = Gv = 1.
21.3 PRACTICAL ASPECTS ON THE DESIGN OF FEEDFORWARD CONTROLLERS

The design eqns. (21.9) and (21.10) or their more general counterparts
(21.12) and (21.13) indicate that the feedforward controller will be a special
purpose
computational
machine.
Its practical implementation is rather easy if
we use a digital computer as the controller (see Part VII), but for analog
i
controllers it is rather difficult and expensive to build these special purpose
machines.
In this section we will examine some simplifications which lead to
practical implementations of the feedforward control concept.

To simplify the presentation, let us first assume that Gm = Gv = 1.
Then, eqns. (21.9) and (21.10) will be the basis of the controller design.
Each of the two process transfer functions, Gp(s) and Gd(s), ahs two elements;
(i) the static element whit corresponds to the static gain and (ii) the
purely dynamic element which is a function of s.
=
GpW
Kp*G;(s)
and
G&d
Thus,
=
Kd*G;(s)
For instance, in Example 21.2, for the stirred tank heater we can easily
.identify
the static and dynamic parts of the process transfer functions
(see
"sp. (21. 4) ) ;
GpW
,c
i
Gd(d = &
1
Gi
1
indicates that K =
Fi PC
P
P
indicates
that
Kd = 1
and
and G;(s) = -&Ts+l
G;(s) = & .
A.
Design of Steady State Feedforward Controllers

The simplest feedforward controller and the easiest to implement is the
steady state.
As it was demonstrated in Example 21.2, we use simple steady
state balances for design.
How does this modify the design eqns, (21.9) and
(21.10)?
At steady state, we retain only the static elements of the process
transfer functions, since Gl;(s=O.)
G
= K
= Gi(s=O) = 0 (see Section
and
Gd
1.
Thus,
Kd
Then, the design transfer functions, Gc -and GSp, are given by,
GC
(21.14a)
Kd/KP
and
GSP
l/Kd
(21.14b)
i.e. they are simple constant.
Therefore,
the elements Gc
and
GSP
can be
constructed easily in the same way as a proportional controller, which has

only the proportional gain.
This the reason that the design elements given
by eqns. ((21.14a) and (21.14b)) are called gain-only elements.

B,
Design of Simple Dynamic Feedforward Controllers

Instead of using the exact transfer functions, Gp(s) and Gd(s), it is
possible to use approximations to them and still obtain very good results.
athough they are approximations, they are expected to give improved results
:uv.er
the steady state feedforward controller.

Consider that Gp(s) and Gd(s) are approximated by first-order lags.
Then,
GcW
Gd(d
GpW
1
as+1
1
Bs+l
Bs+l
as+1
(21.15a)
and
GSp(s)
1
Go
as
(21.15b)
The controller given by eqn. (21.15a) is called lag-lead element because

(Bs+l) intorduces phase lead and the l/as+1 adds phase lag. a
adjustable parameters for the controller.
and
are
For the set point element GSP(s)
eqn. (21.15b) indicates that we should use a lead element.

The lag-lead element is the most commonly used in dynamic feedforward
control.
It is quite versatile because the two adjustable parameters a,B
allow it to be used as lead element, whena

when B is very small.
is very small, or lag element
Finally, lag-lead elements can be bought easily and
they are not expensive like special purpose analog computational devices.
Example 21.3 - Designing Feedforward Controller for a CSTR

Consider the CSTR system described in Example 4.10.
In Example 9.2 we
developed the transfer functions for the linearized model of the system;
Z$s) =
bl(s+a22)
P(s)
a12bl
a12b2
cd, (s) - p(s> q(s) - p(s> T;(s)
(9.15a)
-,
b2(s+all)
bl(s+all)
T (s) = a21bl
p(s> 'Ai +
q(s) +
Tp)
P(s)
P(s)
(9.15b)
..where
P(s) z s2 + (a 11 + a22)S + (alla22 - a12a21)
For the definition of the constant parameters; all, a12, a21, a22 and bl, b2,
see Example 9.2.
Let
US
feedforward
All variables are in deviation form.
examine two different control problems and develop the necessary

control
systems:
Problem 1.
inlet
Control the concentration
concentration
and
temperature.
the manipulated variable.

feedforward
controllers.
CA
in the presence of changes in the
The temperature of the coolant, Tc, is
Since we have two disturbances, we need two distinct

To develop the design equations for the two con-
trollers put in eqn. (9.15a) Ei(s) = 0. Then, we take:
bl
P(s) = -
(s + a22)Eii(s)
bl
(21.16)
- 5 Tf(s)
a12b2
Equation (21.16) indicates that the first controller is a lead element while
the second is a gain-only element.
in Figure 21.7a.
Problem 2.
The resulting feedforward system is shown

4
8
Control the temperature T considering
disturbances, and Tc
the manipulated variable.
CA
SettiZg
and T i
as the two
T'(s) = 0, eqn.
(9.15b) yields
a21bl
1
' bl
F(s) = . (s) *- F T;(s)
C'
s+all Ai
b2
2
(21.17)
Equation (21.17) shows that the first controller is a lag element while the
second is a gain-only element.
The resulting feedforward system is shown in
Figure 21.7b.
21.4
FEEDFORWARD-FEEDBACK
CONTROL
Feedforward control has the potential for perfect control but it also
suffers from several inherent weaknesses.
In particular;
--it requires the identification of all possible disturbances and their direct
-%easurement,
something which may not be possible for many processes;
- any changes in the parameters of a process (e.g. deactivation of a catalyst

with time, reduction of a heat transfer coefficient due to fouling, etc.)
cannot be compensated by a feedforward controller because their impact
cannot be detected;
- feedforward control requires a very good model for the process which for
many systems in chemical industry is not possible.
On the other hand, feedback control is rather insensitive to all three of the
above drawbacks but it has poor performance for a number of systems (multicapacity, dead time, tee.), and raises questions of closed-loop stability.
Table 21.1 summarizes the relative advantages and disadvantages of the two
control
systems.
We would expect that a combined feedforward-feedback control system will

retain the superior performance of the first and the insensitivity of the
second to uncertainties and inaccuraci'es
measurement
parameter
in disturbance identification and
changes, and exactness in the process model.
Indeed,
any deviations caused by the various weaknesses of the feedforward control

will be corrected by the feedback controller.
This is possible because a
feedback control loop monitors directly the behavior of the controlled process (measures process output).
combined
feedforward-feedback
Figure 21.8 shows the configuration of a
control
system.
Let us now develop an equation for the closed-loop response of feedforward-feedback system of Figure 21.8.
dropped the argument s
7 =
First of all recall that (we have
to simplify the presentation)

(21.6)
iii + Gda
,Zhe value of the manipulated variable is given by

iii
cvc
Cv(E1
E2)
- G j?>
Cv Gc (7
1 sp
ml
Cv
Gc
+ Cv Gc 2 (G SP
CvGc 2 =2
- G
ii>
'SP m2
(21.18)
Replace iii in eqn. (21.6) by its equal given from eqn. (21.18) and after
algebraic
rearrangements
take:
5.22
GpGV(G
ji
+G
G )
c2 SP
c1
l+GGG G
%P
P v cl ml
Gd - G PG vG c2 Gm2
+
l+GGG G
P v cl ml
ii
(21.19)
A close examination of eqn. (21.19), which yields the closed-loop process output
under
control, reveals
the
following
characteristics:
(1) The stability of the closed-loop response is determined by the roots of

the
characteristic
equation
l+GGGG =
P v cl ml
which depends on the transfer functions of the feedback loop only.

Therefore,
"the stability characteristics of a feedback system will not
change with the addition of a feedforward loop."
(2) The transfer functions of the feedforward loop, G
and G sp, will

c2
be given by the design eqns. (21.12) and (21.13), i.e.
G
c2
If G
P' Gd'
G/GGG
d
pvm2
Go'
Gm2
and
GSP
G /Gd
m2
'
are known exactly, then the feedforward loop
compensates completely for disturbance or set point changes and the

feedback action remains idel since El = 0.
(3) If any of the Gp, Gd, Gv, G,
Gd
G G G
v c2 m2
#O
is known only approximately, then

and/or
GpGvGc2GSP
In such case the feedforward loop does not provide perfect control,
i.e.
offers
'i + Ysp.
the
Then, El # 0
necessary
and the feedback loop is activated and
compensation.
Example 21.4 - Feedforward-Feedback Control of the Tank Heater

Consider again the tank heater of Example 21.2.
Under
trol only we have the configuration shown in Figure 21.4b.
feedforward
The design
con-
transfer functions are:
Gc
Fipc
and
G sp
-rs+l
Assume that the density p or the heat capacity c
are not known exactly.

P
Then, the feedforward loop does not provide for perfect control. Figure 21.9a
shows the temperature in the tank after a step change in the inlet temperature.
Notice the remaining deviation.
Introduce now in the system a feedback loop with PI controller (Figure
21.9b).
In Figure 21.9a we have plotted again the temperature of the liquid
in the tank, for the same step change in the inlet temperature.
deviation
has
Notice the
disappeared.
21.5 RATIO CONTROL

Ratio control is a special type of feedforward control where two disturbances (loads) are measured and held in a constant ratio to each other. It
is mostly used to control the ratio of flowrates of two streams.
rates are measured but only one can be controlled.
Both flow-
The stream whose flowrate
is not under control is usually referred to as "wild" stream.

Figures 21.10a and 21.10b
for two streams,
show two different ratio control configurations
Stream A is the wild" stream.
- ;En configuration 1 (Figure 21.10a) we measure both flowrates and take

their ratio.
This ratio is compared to the desired ratio (set point) and
the deviation (error) between the measured and desired ratios constitutes
the actuating signal for the ratio controller.
- In configuration 2 (Figure 21.10b) we measure the flowrate
stream A and multiply it by the desired ratio.
of the "wild"
The result is the flow-
rate that the stream B should have and constitutes the set point value
which is compared to the measured flowrate
of stream B.
The
deviation
constitutes the actuating signal for the controller, which adjusts

appropriately the flow of B.
Ratio control is used extensively in chemical processes with the following as the most commonly encountered examples:
(1) Keeping a constant ratio between the feed flowrate
and the steam in the
reboiler of a distillation column (Figure 21.11a).

(2) Holding constant the reflux ratio in a distillation column (Figure 21.11b).
(3) Controlling the ratio of two reactants, entering a reactor, at a desired
level
(Figure
21.11~).
(4) Holding the ratio of two blended streams constant, in order to maintain
the composition of theblend at the desired value.
(5) Holding the ratio of a purge stream to the recycle stream constant
(Figure 21.11d).
(6) Keeping the ratio of fuel/air in a burner at its optimum value (most
efficient
combustion).
(7) Maintaining the ratio of the liquid flowrate to vapor
flowrate
in an
absorber constant, in order to achieve the desired composition in the

exit vapor stream.
Figure 21.11e shows such a ratio control system in
a more reliable cascade control configuration.
The secondary loop of
the cascade improves the response of the system by regulating better

the flow of the liquid feed.
,SuMMARY
A feedforward control system measures the value of a disturbance and

aicipates
what its effect will be on the controlled output of a process.
Then, the controller changes the manipulated variable by such amount as to
'
eliminate the impact that the disturbance would have on the output.
Such an
approach is substantially different from that of a feedback system.
Its major
advantage is the ability to act beforehand, while its most serious drawback is
its heavy dependence on the process model, which is almost always incompletely
known.
Additional
weaknesses
are;
(i) th e requirement to know and measure all
possible disturbances and (ii) the inability to cope with changing process
parameters.
For all these reasons feedforward control is used with simple and
well known processes and almost always with feedback compensation.
Processes
which benefit the most from feedforward control are those with very slow
- - ._.
response (usually multicapacity) and/or significant dead time.
Feedforward control, when appended with a feedback loop, offers significant
improvements, the response and robustness over pure feedforward or
feedback
control.
The combination of the two will be encountered quite often
in chemical processes.
Ratio control is a special purpose f.eedforward
control system.
Primarily,
it is used to control the ratio of the flowrate of a "wild" stream to the

floarate of a controllable stream.
processes.
It is extensively used in chemical

1.
Define the concept of feedforward control on physical grounds.
2.
Is driving a car mostly feedforward or feedback control? What about

riding a bicycle?
3.
Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of feedforward and

feedback
control
systems.
Why the addition of feedback control

~. .::I :
improves the performance of a feedforward system?

4.
What kinds of processes stand to benefit the most from feedforward

.:
control? Why?
5.
Do the stability characteristics of-a process change.with

control, as they do with feedback?
6.
feedforward
Elaborate on your answer.
In Section 21.4 it was claimed that the stability characteristics of a

feedforward-feedback control system are affected only by the feedback
loop.
7.
Explain why.
Draw three different feedforward control configurations for the mixing

process of Example 4.11.
8.
Under what conditions a steady state feedforward control system will

yield the same performance as a dynamic feedforward controller in
rejecting the effect of a disturbance?
9.
What is a +ag-lead
component
18,
for
element and why is it considered to be a versatile
feedforward
control?
Consider the feedforward control of a distillation column? What kind

of dynamic feedforward element will be needed: lag-lead, lag only,
lead only, gain only?
114
Give a rather qualitative explanation.
What is ratio control and why is it useful in process control? Give

three specific examples.
.i ._..
12.
How do you select the desired value of the ratio in a ratio control
system?
13.
Draw the feedforward and feedback control systems which regulate the
flow through a pipe.
Do you expect one of them to be significantly
better than the other in maintaining the desired flow or not?

14.
In Figures 21.10a and 21.10b we see two different ratio control

configurations.
Which one would you prefer and why?
(Hint:
Examine
the static gain of the control loop in Figure 21.10a and consult
Reference
for details).
Table 21.1.
Relative Advantages and Disadvantages

of Feedforward and Feedback Control
FEEDFORWARD
Advantages
1.
2.
Acts before the effect of a
Disadvantages
Requires
identification
disturbance has been felt by
possible
disturbances
the system.
direct
measurement.
Is good for slow systems
1.
2.
(multicapacity) or with significant dead time.

3.
of
and
all
their
Cannot cope with unmeasured

disturbances.
/;
;
It does not introduce instability
3.
in the closed-loop response.
4.
Insensitive
to
process
parameter
variations.
Requires good knowledge of the
process model.
FEEDBACK
Advantages
1.
2.
h..3 .
Disadvantages
It does not require identifi-
It waits until the effect of the
cation and measurement of any
disturbances has been felt by the
disturbance.
system, before control action is
It is insensitive to modeling
taken.
errors.
It is unsatisfactory for slow
It is insensitive to parameter
processes or with significant
changes.
dead time.
It may create instability in the
closed-loop
response.
cc>
FEEDFO2WARD
CcNTRCLLEI:
IF.yure
21.3
53/
_ Ti,
-- _----- - ---7
FL
i
I
5302
FE~DFxwA~zD
CGNWOL
MEC~AN~SN\
----,
.- - - - - - - - - I
I
I
I SET- P O I N T
7
d
t
,
t
I ___-
----
----
Cb)
-
----1
.- __- _-_- -_--
533
Wi Id .streu7ll
Ay$--Y
i
Des1 i-d
FT : Fhu: Sense r-
Rat; u
*-- -__-______
Q
-,
CHAPTER 22
ADAPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL CONTROL SYSTEW
In this chapter we will examine two additional types of control systems;
(a) adaptive, and (b) inferential.
Although their basic objectives and
functions can be easily described in a qualitative manner, their practical

implementation
is
rather
complicated, involves extensive computations, and it
is accomplished through the use of digital computers.
For this reason we will
postpone and quantitative discussion on these two control systems for Part VII,
where we will study the use of digital computers for process control.
There-
fore, in this chapter we will only make a qualitative presentation of each

control system, discussing its basic logic and giving examples of its practical
application.
22.1 ADAPTIVE CONTROL
Adaptive is called a control system,, which can adjust its parameters
automatically in such a way as to compensate for variations in the characteristics of the process it controls.
The various types of adaptive control
systems differ only in the way the parameters of the controller are adjusted.
But, why are adaptive controllers needed in chemical processes? Two are
the main reasons:
- Most of the chemical processes are nonlinear.
*-:-~.;dels
Therefore,
their
linearized
which are used to design linear controllers depend on the particular
steady state (around which the process is linearized).
It is clear then
that as the desired steady state operation of a process changes, the "best"
values of the controller's parameters change.
controller
adaptation.
This implies the need for
Example 10.5 demonstrates how the time constant
and process gain of a simple liquid storage tank depend on the value of
the steady state liquid level.
536
- Most of the chemical processes are nonstationary, i.e. their characteristics
change with time.
Typical examples are; the decay of the catalyst activity
in a reactor and the decrease of the overall heat transfer coefficient in a

heat exchanger, due to fouling (Example 10.6).
This change leads again to
a deterioration of the linear controller, which was designed using some

nominal values for the process parameters, thus, requiring adaptation of
the
controller
parameters.
What is the objective'of the adaptation procedure?
Clearly,
it is not to
keep the controlled variable at the specified set-point. This will be

accomplished by the control loop, however badly.
criterion,
We need an additional
an objective function which will guide the adaptation mechanism to
the "best" adjustment of the controller parameters.
To phrase it differently,
we need a criterion to guide the adaptive tuning of the controller.
Any of
the performance criteria we discussed in Chapters 16 and 18 could be used,

i.e.
- one-quarter decay ratio,
- integral of the square error,
- gain or phase margins, etc.
There are two different mechanisms for the adaptation of the controller
parameters.
A.
Programmed
or
Scheduled
Adaptive
Control
Suppose that the process is well known and that an adequate mathematical
model for it is available.
If there is an auxiliary process variable which
correlates well with the changes in process dynamics, then we can relate ahead
of time the "best" values of the controller parameters to the value of the
auxiliary
process
variable.
Consequently, by measuring the value of the
auxiliary variable we can schedule or program the adaptation of the controller
Figure 22.1 shows the block diagram of a programmed
parameters.
control system.
We notice that it is composed of two loops.
is an ordinary feedback control loop.
adaptive
The inner loop
The outer loop includes the parameter
adjustment (adaptation) mechanism and it is comparable to feedforward compensation, with no feedback to compensate for incorrect adaptation.
A typical
example is the so-called gain scheduling adaptive control.
Example 22.1 - Gain Scheduling Adaptive Control

In a normal feedback control loop (Figure 22.2a) the control valve or
6.. _
...i
._.
. i.
.'. .L _ _ q
.::.
another of its components may exhibit?a nonlinear character. In such case
the gain of the nonlinear component will depend on the current steady state.
Suppose that we want to keep the total gain of the overall system constant.
From Figure 22.2a we find easily that the overall system gain is given by
=
KOVERALL
K pmcf
K K K
= constant
.
It is clear then that as the gain Kf
of the nonlinear valve changes, the
gain of the controller, Kc, should change as follows

KC
constant/(KpKmKf)
We assume that the gains K
and Km
(22.1)
are known exactly.
Furthermore,
if
the characteristics of the control valve are known well, then, its gain, Kf,
*can be calculated from the stem position.
Therefore, by measuring the stem
;etion (auxiliary measurement) we can compute the Kf. Then, eqn. (22.1)
yields the adaptation mechanism of this simple gain scheduling adaptive
controller.
Remark:
Figure 22.2b shows the resulting control structure.
Notice that the gain scheduling is comparable to feedforward compensation.
There is no feedback to compensate for incorrect
adaptation.
Example 22.2 - Programmed Adapative Control of a Combustion System

Consider a burner where the fuel/air ratio is kept at its optimal value
to achieve the highest efficiency of combustion.
reduce the efficiency.
The optimal fuel/air ratio is maintained through a
ratio control mechanism (section 21.5).

.
Excess of fuel or air will
The control system is shown in
Figure 22.3a.
The otpimal value of the fuel/air ratio which maximizes the combustion
efficiency depends on the conditions prevailing within the process, e.g.
temperature of air.
as the temperature of air changes, so does

-.
the optimal value of the fuel/air ratio.
Consequently,
From previous experimental data we know how the optimal fuel/air ratio
changes with air temperature for maximum efficiency.
Therefore, in order to
maintain the ratio continuously at its optimal value despite any changes in
the air temperature, we can use a programmed adaptive control system.
a system is shown in Figure 22.3b.
Such
It measures the temperature of the air
(auxiliary measurement) and adjusts the value of the fuel/air ratio.
Notice
again that the ratio adjustment mechanism is like feedforward compensation.
B.
Self-Adaptive
Control
If the process is not known well, we need to evaluate the objective

:finction
on-line (while the process is operating) using the values of the
nntrolled output.
Then, the adaptation mechanism will change the controller
parameters in such a way as to optimize (maximize or minimize) the value of

ttie
objective
function
(criterion).
In the following two examples we will
examine the logic of two special self-adaptive control systems; model

reference adaptive control (MRAC) and self-tuning regulator (STR).
Example 22.3 -
Model-Reference
Adaptive
Control (MRAC)
Figure 22.4 illustrates a different way to adjust the parameters of the

controller.
We postulate a reference-model which tells us how the controlled
process output ideally should respond to the command signal (set-point).

model output is compared to the actual process output.
The
The difference (error,
Ed) between the two outputs is used through a computer to adjust the parameters
of the controller in such a way as to minimize,the
integral square error, i.e.
Minimize ISE =
I
0
[em( dt
i
./, 4
The model chosen by the control designer for reference purposes is to a certain
extent
arbitrary.
Most often a rather simple linear model is used.
We notice that the model-reference adaptive control is composed of two

loops.
The inner loop is an ordinary feedback control loop. The outer loop
includes the adaptation mechanism and looks like a feedback loop too.
The
model output plays the role of the set-point while the process output is the
actual
measurement.
There is a comparator whose output (error, cm) is the
input of the adjustment mechanism.
The key problem is to design the adaptation
mechanism in such a way as to provide a stable system, i.e. bring the error
Elll to zero.
This is not a trivial problem and we will be concerned with it
in Chapter 32, i.e. after we have studied the use of digital computers for
fdTp->cess
control.
Example 22.4 - Self-Tuning
Regulator
(STR)
Consider the block diagram of Figure 22.5.
It represents the structure
of a self-tuning regulator, which constitutes another way for adjusting the

parameters of a controller.
The STR is composed, again, of two loops.
The inner loop consists of the
process and an ordinary linear feedback controller.
The outer loop is used to
adjust the parameters of the feedback controller and is composed of, (a) a
recursive
troller
parameter estimator and (b) an adjustment mechanism for the conparameters.
The parameter estimator assumes a simple linear model for the process,
e.g.
-tds
KpeTs+l
Then, using measured values for the manipulated variable, m, and the controlled
output, Y, it estimates the values of the parameters
estimation
technique.
K, T and td, employing
least-squares
Once the values of the process parameters
and b are known, the adjustment mechanism can find the "best" values for
the controller parameters using various design criteria like,

- phase or gain margins,
- integral of the squared error, etc.
Both the parameter estimator and the adjustment mechanism require
involved
computations.
For this reason the STR can be implemented only
through the use of digital computers.
Adaptive control systems have been applied in chemical processes.
The
range of their applicability has expanded with the introduction of digital

computers for process control.
Several
theoretical
and
experimental
studies
have appeared in the chemical engineering literature, while the number of

industrial
adaptive
control
mechanisms
increases
continuously.
Most of the
adaptive control systems require extensive computations for parameter estimation and optimal adjustment of controller parameters which can be performed
on-line only by digital computers.
Therefore, we will delay any discussion on
the quantitative design of such systems until Chapter 32, i.e. after we have
studied the use of digital computers for control.
22.2 INFERENTIAL CONTROL
Quite often, the controlled output of a processing unit cannot be
measured
directly.
Consequently,
we cannot use feedback control or any other
configuration which necessitates the direct measurement of the controlled

variable.
If the disturbances which create the control problems can be
measured and an adequate process model is available, then we could use feedforward control to keep the unmeasured output at its desired value (see
Chapter 21).
What happens though if the disturbances cannot be measured? None of the
control configurations studied so far can be used to control an unmeasured
process output in the presence of unmeasured disturbances.
This is the type
of control problems where inferential control is the only solution.
Let us
now examine the structure of an inferential control system.

Consider the block diagram of the process shown in Figure 22.6a, with
one unmeasured controlled output (y) and one secondary measured output (2).
The manipulated variable m and the disturbance d affect both outputs. The
Wurbance
is considered to be unmeasured. The transfer functions in the
&ock diagram indicate the relationships between the various inputs and outputs, and they are considered to be perfectly known.
From Figure 22.6a we can easily derive the following input-output
reliationships;
7
-iii + Gd l d
G
p1
G
p2
(22.2)
fi + Gd l ii
2
(22.3)
From eqn. (22.3) we can solve with respect to d and find the following
estimate of the unmeasured disturbance,
(22.4)
Substitute the above estimate into eqn. (22.2) and find the following
relationship,
:y
-f.
7
..__
bpl-2GpJ;
., .- Gd
-ii.-.
:: ,:
i:,l;
(22.5)
<;
Equation (22.5) provides the needed estimator which relates the unmeasured
controlled output to measured quantities like m and z.
Figure 22.6b
shows the structure of the resulting inferential control system.
Notice that
the estimated value of the unmeasured output plays the same role as a regular
measured output, i.e. it is compared to the desired set-point and the difference is the actuating signal for the controller. Figure 22.7 shows a
simplified diagram of a typical inferential control system.
Remarks:
(1) It is important to notice that the success of an inferential

control scheme depends heavily on the availability of a
good
estimator, which in turn depends on how well we know
the process.
Thus, if the process transfer functions, G

p1'
and
are perfectly known, then a perfect

' Gd
Gd2
p2
1
estimator can be constructed and consequently we will have
perfect
control.
When the process transfer functions are only
approximately known (which is usually the case), then the

inferential scheme provides control of varying quality
depending on how well the process is known.
(2) In chemical process control the variable which is most commonly inferred from secondary measurements is composition.
This is due to the lack of reliable, rapid and economical
measuring devices for a wide spectrum of chemical systems.
Thus, inferential control may be used for the control of
chemical reactors, distillation columns and other mass
transfer operations like driers, absorbers, etc.
Temperature
is the most common secondary measurement, used to infer the

unmeasured
composition.
.-
.,
,;
-.
,.
Example 22.5 - Inferential Control of a Distillation Column

Consider a distillation column with 16 trays, which separates a mixture
of propane-butane into two products.
The feed composition is the unmeasured
disturbance and the control objective is to maintain the overhead product

molar composition 95% in propane.
The reflux ratio is the manipulated
variable.
Since the feed and overhead compositions are considered unmeasured, we
can only use inferential control.
The secondary measurement employed to
infer the overhead composition is the temperature at the top tray.
Let us
now examine how we can develop and design the inferential control mechanism.
The process as defined above has two inputs and the two putputs, i.e.
- inputs; feed composition (disturbance), reflux ratio (manipulation),
- outputs; overhead
propane
composition
(unmeasured
controlled
output)
and
temperature of top tray (secondary measurement).

How can we identify the four process transfer functions? In Example 4.13 we
saw that a rigorous approach leads to an overwhelming mathematical model.
The process reaction curve method, which was ciscussed
in Section 16.4, is a
simpler approach and yields the transfer functions between the various inputs
and outputs.
Following
this
methodology, we
developed
the
input-output
relationships (see also Figure 22.8a):

y(s)
0.90*e-2S
70s + 1
,;ics) + 1.20.e-lS
30s + 1
Z(s)
=-
0.20 eB2 ;i.

60s + 1
...(s)
Having developed the four process transfer functions it is easy to design

the inferential control system (Figure 22.8b).
Remarks:
(1) The temperature of the top tray was selected arbitrarily to

be the secondary measurement. But why did we not select
the temperature of the second or third, etc. tray from the
top?
The answer is rather complex and will be given in
Chapter 32.
(2) Were we to control the purity of the bottoms product, a
different temperature would be needed. Most likely would be
close to the bottom of the column.
(3) Recall that the effectiveness of an inferential control
scheme depends heavily on the goodness of the estimator,
which in turn depends on the model which is available for
the process.
measured
Assume that the overhead composition can be
intermittently,
either
by
taking
samples
manually
and analyzing them or even better using on-line a gas

chromatograph.
From the composition measurements we can
take the useful information needed to judge how effective

has been the inferential control. Thus, if the measured
steady state value of the overhead composition deviates
significantly from the desired set-point value, we can use

the deviation (error) through an adaptive mechanism to
correct the estimator.
Figure 22.3.
The resulting system in shown in

.-

Adaptive and inferential control schemes are gaining importance and wider
acceptability in the chemical process industry.
Both depend on good process
models and for their implementation require extensive computations which are
possible only through the use of modern digital computers.
Therefore,
in
Chapter 32 we will return to these two schemes for further design developments.
Adaptive control is dictated by the nonlinearity and nonstationarity of
chemical
processes.
Its objective is to adjust the controller parameters in
such a way as to compensate for variations in the process itself.
Depending
on how the controller parameters are adjusted we may have programmed or selfadaptive
mechanisms.
The former is used in processes which are known well,
while the latter for processes which are poorly known. Gain scheduling is
the most characteristic example of the programmed adaptive control, while
model-reference adaptive control and self-tuning regulators are the most
tppical
configurations of self-adaptive control schemes. With the use of
digital
computers the range for adaptive control applications has expanded.
Inferential control is the only course of action if we want to regulate

.an unmeasured output in the presence of unmeasured disturbances.
A secondary
process output is measured and from it the value of the unmeasured controlled
output is inferred.
The effectiveness of inferential control depends very
heavily on the availability of good process models.
If the "unmeasured"
controlled output can be measured intermittently, then an adapative scheme can

be constructed which corrects the estimator of the inferential loop. Composition is the most commonly inferred process variable and temperature the
usual
secondary
measurement.
With this chapter we close the series of advanced control systems of

Part V.
It should be noted that all control configurations studied in the
last four chapters possess a single manipulation for the regulation of a

single
controlled
systems.
output.
Thus, we have single-input, single-output (SISO)
But, most of the processing units in a chemical plant have more than
one controlledoutputs,requiring more than one manipulated variables.
This
leads to systems with multiple-inputs and multiple-outputs (MIMO). How do we

design control systems for such processes?
This will be the subject of the
chapters in Part VI.

1.
What is adaptive control and why is it needed in chemical process control?
2.
Give two examples of adaptive control for processing units, different

than those described in Section 22.1.
Describe
qualitatively
the
functions of the adaptive control schemes you proposed.

3.
What is programmed adaptive and what is self-adaptive control? Give

one example of each, different than those in Section 22.1. When would
you recommend the programmed and when the self-adaptive scheme?
4.
What is gain scheduling control and why can you use it in chemical
process
control?
feedforward
It was claimed in Example 22.1 that it resembles to
compensation.
Explain
why.
What are its advantages and
disadvantages?
5.
Discuss the logic of model-reference adapative control and self-tuning

regulator.
Find the similarities and differences between the two
configurations.
547
6.
Show qualitatively that the structure of a self-tuning regulator can be

derived from that of a model-reference adapative control, if the
parameter estimation is done by updating the reference model.
7.
The outer loops in the MRAC and STR configurations, are they of feedforward or feedback nature?
8.
Consider the neutralization with a caustic of an acidic effluent waste

from a chemical plant.
The titration curve of the waste being neu-
-'tralized is nonlinear and changes with time due to unmeasured

disturbances.
-.
_.
Develop a qualitative self-adaptive control scheme and
describe the functions of its components.

.:
(You can consult Reference
.>
9.
As it was discussed in Section 22.1, the purpose of an adaptive controller is not to keep the controlled output at its desired set point.
This is accomplished by the regular feedback loop. What is then the
criterion or the objective function ,that guides the parameter
adjustment of an adaptation mechanism?
How is this objective evaluated
by the programmed or self-adaptive schemes.

10.
As it was discussed in Chapter 21, the effectiveness of a feedforward

control loop depends heavily on the quality of the model which is
available for the process.
Develop an adaptive control mechanism for
a feedforward controller which will compensate for any process

variations.
11.
Discuss the logic of an inferential control scheme,
Why is this control
scheme needed? Describe two examples of inferential control different

than those of Section 22.2.
12,
What do we mean when we say that a process variable is "unmeasured"?
13.
Consider two processes; one (process A) slow with time constant 5 hours
and another (process B) faster with
time
constant 1 hour.
The compo-
sition of the output streams from the two processes is measured every
2-3 hours.
Which of the two process outputs can be controlled by con-
ventional feedback and which one will require inferential control?

14.
Show that the inferential control employed for process A or B in item

12 (above) can be improved through an adaptive mechanism which uses the
direct composition measurement every 2-3 hours.
15.
Develop an inferential control scheme which can be used to control the

drying of solids with warm air.
Discuss how would you develop the
estimator of the inferential structure.

drying with air and Reference
16.
(Consult Example 22.5.)
(Consult a reference on solids
.)
If, in addition to the unmeasured disturbance there are measured disturbances in a system, we can develop a combined inferential-feedforward
configuration.
Develop such a configuration for a system of your choice.
1
ME,+SVRlNG
(4
SENSoR
550
\I
Unmeasured
Disfurbanfl
_- ---7
!
YI
Gd,
c5
Gd, i)
rzI
i- _ - _ _ __ - _ - - - - - - _a**
0a
d
- - - - - - -I r
----
J/
I
;
I
!
--
I
ii
,/
,
I
PART VI
DESIGN OF CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR MDLTIVARIABLE
PROCESSES.
INTRODUCTION TO PLANT CONTROL.
The control configurations we have examined so far were confined to processes with a single controlled output, requiring a single manipulated input.
Such single-input, single-output (SISO) systems are very simple and not the
typical processing units encountered by a chemical engineer.
Chemical
pro-
cesses usually have two-or more controlled outputs, requiring two or more
.
manipulated
variables.
The design of control systems for such multiple-input,
multiple-output (MIMO) processes will be the subject of the three chapters in

Part VI of this text. In particular;
- Chapter 23 will discuss the new questions which must be answered for the
controller design of MIMO systems.
It will also present a methodology
for the development of alternative control configurations for such systems,

based on their degrees of freedom.
- In Chapter 24 we will examine the selection of the appropriate measurements
rind manipulations in order to "close the loops".
Furthermore, we will
study the design of "decoupled loops" for MIMO systems.

- Finally, in Chapter 25 we will present an introduction to the design of
control systems for complete plants, which constitute the most complex MIMO
systems to be encountered by a chemical engineer.
CHAPTER 23
SYNTHESIS
FOR
OF
ALTERNATIVE
MULTIPLE-INPUT,
CONTROL
CONFIGURATIONS
MULTIPLE-OUTPUT
PROCESSES
The presence of multiple controlled outputs and multiple manipulated

inputs creates a situation which we have not confronted so far, namely; there
are more than one possible control configurations for a MIMO process.
In this
chapter we will develop a concise methodology for the development of all

feasible control systems for a single processing unit or processes composed
of more than one interacting unit.
23.1 DESIGN QUESTIONS FOR MIMO CONTROL SYSTEMS

Consider a general process with several inputs and outputs (Figure 2.1).
There are several questions which must be answered before we attempt the design
of a control system for such a process.
(a) What are the control objectives? In other words, how many and which
ones of all possible variables should be controlled at desired values?
This seemingly simple question is quite critical for the design of
efficient
control
systems.
(b) What outputs should be measured?
Once the control objectives have been
identified we need to select the necessary measurements in order to

monitor the operation of the process.
We can classify the measured
outputs into two categories:

-
Primary
measurements; these are the controlled outputs through which
we can determine directly if the control objectives are satisfied

or not.
-
Secondary
measurements; these are not used to monitor directly the
control objectives but are auxiliary measurements employed for
cascade, adaptive or inferential control (see Figures 20.2,

22.1, 22.7).
(c). What inputs can be measured?
We assume that all of the manipulated
variables are measurable and therefore can be employed for adaptive

(model-reference
or
self-tuning
(see Figures 22.5, 22.7).
regulator)
and
inferential
control
With respect to the disturbances only a
few can be measured easily, rapidly and reliably.
These
measurable
disturbances can,be
used to construct feedforward (Figure 21.3),
(Figure
21.8)
and
ratio
control
configurations
(Figure 21.10).
(d) What manipulated variables should be used? A multiple input,
multiple-output
system
possesses
several
manipulated
can be used for the design of a control system.
variables
which
The selection of
the most appropriate manipulations is a very critical problem and

should be approached with care.
Some manipulations have a direct,
fast and strong effect on the controlled outputs, some others do not.
Furthermore,
some variables are easy to manipulate in real life
(e.g. liquid flows), some others are not (e.g. flow of solids,
slurries,
etc.).
(e) What is the configuration of the control loops? Once all the possible
measurements and manipulations have been identified, we need to decide
how they are going to be interconnected through the control loops. In
other words, what measurement will actuate a given manipulated variable
or what manipulation will be used to regulate a given controlled output
at its desired value?
For MIMO systems there is a large number of alternative control configurations.
The selection of the most appropriate is the central and critical question to
be resolved.
Let us now examine the above design questions in more detail and develop
systematic approaches to answer them.
23.2 DEGREES OF FREEDOM AND THE NUMBER OF CONTROLLED AND MANIPULATED VARIABLES
We have defined the degrees of freedom for a given process (see Section
5.2) as the independent variables which must be specified in order to define
the process completely.
The number of degrees of freedom was also found to be
given by the following equation,

f
(23.1)
where V = number of independent variables describing a process and

E = number of independent equations physically relating the V
variables.
It is clear that in order to have a completely determined process the
number of its degrees of freedom should be zero.
There are two sources which
provide the additional equations needed to reduce the number of degrees of

freedom to zero.
(a) The external world which specifies the values of certain input variables.
As external world we mean everything outside the process like;
- the general surroundings influencing the operating conditions, or
- a previous unit which feed the process, or
- a following unit when the outflow of the process is a manipulated inflow
.~dor the following unit.
(b) The control system which imposes certain relationships between the controlled outputs and the manipulated inputs (feedback) or between the measured
disturbances and the manipulated inputs (feedforward). Thus, we can state
easily that,
"the maximum number of independent controlled variables in a
processing system is equal to the number of degrees of freedom
minus the externally specified variables," i.e.
(number of control objectives) = f -(number of externally specified inputs)

(23.2)
This relationship was used in Examples 5.7 and 5.8 in order to determine the
number of controlled outputs in a binary distillation and a mixing process,
respectively.
Having determined the number of independent controlled outputs, the
following
question
arises:
How many independent manipulated inputs do we need
in order to keep the controlled outputs at their desired values (set points)?
To answer this question, let us consider a process with the following
specifications:
- N controlled outputs (yl,y2,***,yN),
- M independent manipulations (ml,m2,***,mM)
with MzN, and
- L disturbances externally specified (dl,d2,***,dL).

Let the following N equations represent the relationships between the controlled
outputs, the
y1
y2
manipulations
and
disturbances,
flbl,m2,***,y,+ dl,d2,***,dL)
f2bl,m29**9~;
dl,d29***,dL)
(23.3)
---------me--
YN
fN(ml~m299mM;
dl,d2,*-,dL)
As the values of the disturbances change (specified by the external world),

the values of the controlled outputs must remain the same. This is possible
S N of the M manipulated variables are free to change so as to satisfy
the system of eqns. (23.3). Therefore',
"for the design of a control system the number of the required
independent manipulated variables is equal to the number of
independent controlled variables," i.e.
(number
=
of
f
independent
manipulated
variables) = (number of controlled variables)
- (number of externally specified inputs)
(23.4)
Remarks:
(1) Let
k be the number of controlled variables given by

Then, if the actually controlled variables
eqn. (23.2).
are fewer than k, say Il<k, then there are (k-k) process
variables which change "wildly" in an uncontrolled manner
and may cause problems to the operation of the process.
But, if the effects of these "uncontrolled" variables on
the operation of the process are acceptable, then it is
perfectly legitimate to have fewer controlled variables
than the number dictated by eqn. (23.2).
(2) It is impossible to design a control system which can
i
regulate more controlled variables than the number
given
by eqn. (23.2).
(3) The degrees of freedom of a process at dynamic state are
equal in number of more than those at steady state.
This
is due to the fact that the, dynamic balance equations

contain the accumulation terms, while for steady state
balances the accumulation is zero. An incorrect estimate
of the number of degrees of freedom can have a profound
effect on the design of the appropriate controller.
Con-
sider the simple, liquid holding tank of Example 10.1.

The dynamic mass balance yields
A
dh
dt
Here we have three independent variables (h, Fi, Fo) and

one equation.
The cross-sectional area, A, is a parameter
with given value.

freedom. Since F,
Therefore, we have two degrees of

is specified by the external world,
This
we can have only one controlled variable.
suggests
the conventional feedback loop between h and Fo.

we examined the steady state balance, where
would
have
concluded
(erroneously)
Had
dh/dt = 0, we
that there is only one
degree of freedom and consequently no controlled output.

(4) Recall Examples 20.6 and 20.7 on split-range control.
Notice
that the number of manipulated variables used for control

is larger than the number of controlled outputs.
Therefore,
eqn. (23.4) determined the minimum number of required

manipulations.
'!
1
Example 23.1 - Determining the Number of Controlled and Manipulated Variables

for a Flash Drum
Consider the flash drum shown in Figure 23.la.
N
components
with
molar
fractions
"flashed" from the high pressure pf
The feed is composed of
'i9 2 = 1,2,***,N.
As the liquid feed is
to the lower pressure p of the drum,
vapor is produced and reaches equilibrium with the remaining liquid.
Steam
flowing through a coil supplies'the necessary heat for maintaining the desired
temperature in the drum, despite any variations in the operating conditions.
For this process we would like to identify, (a) the controlled variables,
ib) the manipulated inputs and (c) generate all feasible loop configurations.
Let us first determine the degrees of freedom for the flash drum.
modeling
equations
The
are:
- Total mass balance (assuming constant molar density and insignificant vapor
-boldup)
dh
41 dt = Ff - (FV + FL>
- Component balances
d (hxi)
Ap
dt
Ffzi
- (FvYi + FLXi)
i = 1,2,***,N-1
- Heat balance
A --d(W=
cP,L
-
Vapor-liquid
yi
dt
Consistency
N
ii1
cp,fFfTf
equilibrium
=
- (cp,VFVT - c~,~F~T) + UAS(TS Y T)
relationships
Ki(T,p)exi
.- i = 1;2,i .a ,N >
constraints
xi
and
All the above relationships constiute

4N + 14 variables.
y
3
f
i=l yi
a system of 2N+3 equations with
and KI(T,p) for i = 1,2,***,N

P,f' cP,v' cP,L
Externally specified (N+l);
Tf, TE and zi for i = 1,2,***,N-1
Unspecified (2N+7); Ff, Fv, FL, p, T, h, kg and
xiY Yi
for i = 1,2,***,N
the number of controlled variables is equal to

(2N+7)
- (2N+3)
= 4
But, which four of the (2N+7)

trolled
These variables are classified as follows:
Constants (N+6); A, AS, zd, c
Therefore,
outputs?
unspecified variables will be selected as con-
The operating requirements dictate that T and p should
be kept constant in order to achieve the desired separation. Furthermore,

%nr constant production the flowrate
of the liquid feed should be maintained
* ST fie desired value. Finally, the liquid level should remain within certain
bounds.
Thus, T, P, Ff
and h are the controlled variables. All four con-
XGoiled variables can be measured directly, using simple and reliable sensors
(thermocouples, differential pressure cells, etc.) with fast responses.
Therefore,
the measured variables for the control system are; T, p, Ff
and h.
From the set of (2N+7)

manipulated
23.3
variables.
GENERATION
OF
unspecified variables we can select the required four

Clearly these are; Ff, FV' FL and WS.
ALTERNATIVE
LOOP
CONFIGURATIONS
After the identification of the controlled and manipulated variables we

need to determine the control configuration, i.e. specify the manipulated
variable which will control a given controlled variable.
In other words,
determine the configuration of the control loops.

For a system with N controlled and N manipulated variables there are
N!
different
loop
configurations.
Figure 23.2 shows the two possible loop
configurations for a process with 2 manipulations and 2 controlled outputs.

As the number N increases, the number of different loop configurations
increases very rapidly, e.g.
for N=3
there are 3! = 6
different
configurations
for N=4
there are 4! = 24
different
configurations
for N=5
there are 5! = 120
different
configurations
etc.
The selection of the "best" among all possible loop configurations is a
difficult
problem.
Various criteria can be used to couple every controlled
triable
with the "best" manipulation, like;
- choose
the manipulation which has a direct and fast effect on a controlled
variable;
- choose the couplings so that there is a small dead time between every
manipulation
and
the
corresponding
controlled
variable;
- select the couplings so that the interaction of the control loops is

minimal, etc.
In subsequent chapters we will develop more precise quantitative criteria for

the selection of the loops.
Example 23.2 - Alternative Loop Configurations for the Flash Drum

In Example 23.1 we identified the controlled and manipulated variables
for the flash drum.
loops?
But, how are these interconnected to form the control
Table 23.1 shows the
24(=4!)
possible
loop
configurations
resulting
from all possible combinations among the controlled and manipulated variables.
,._
The "best" among the 24 can be found using the following qualitative
arguments:
- The effects of Ff, FV and FL on the temperature T are indirect and

rather slow, while that of WS
is direct and faster.
Therefore,
from
the 24 loop configurations of Table 23.1, only the No. 1, 3, 7, 9, 14 and

18 look promising for efficient temperature control.
- The effects of W8 and FL
slow.
Therefore, Ff and FV
trolling p
on the pressure p are also indirect and

are better manipulated variables for con-
and from the previously selected loop configurations only the
NO. 3, 7, 9 and 14 remain valid candidates.

- Among the No. 3, 7, 9 and 14, the loop configuration No. 3 seems to be the
best because it uses FL
Yf directly.
Remarks:
to achieve fast level control and manipulates
This loop configuration is shown in Figure 23.lb.
(1) To select the most promising control configuration for the

flash drum we employed qualitative arguments.
In
subsequent
sections we will study quantitative techniques for selecting

the optimal coupling between controlled and manipulated
variables.
(2) It should be emphasized that the four loops of the control

configuration in Figure 23.lb interact with each other.
Thus, increasing the steam flow-rate to control the temperature will affect and thus decontrol the pressure. The
interaction among the control loops is an important design
consideration.
In Chapter 24 we will examine the relative
gain array method which determines how the manipulated

variables should be coupled with the controlled variables
in such a way as to minimize the interaction among the
resulting
loops.
23.4 EXTENSIONS TO SYSTEMS WITH INTERACTING UNITS

In Sections 23.2 and 23.3 we studied the determination of the necessary
controlled
feasible
and
loop
manipulated
variables, as well as the generation of all
configuration, for single processing units.
In the present
section we will extend these results to systems composed of several interacting
processing
units, since such are the systems encountered in a chemical
plant.
Consider a process composed of
through material or energy flows.
N units which interact with each other

To determine all feasible control con-
figurations for the overall process, we can adopt the following systematic
procedure:
Step 1.
Divide the process into separate blocks.
Every block may contain a
single processing unit or a small number of processing units with an

inherent,
common
operational
goal.
For example, the block containing
a distillation column should also contain the condenser and reboiler

attached to the column; two neighboring heat exchangers in series or
in parallel should be contained in the same block; a reactor and its

feed preheater could be in the same block, etc.
Step 2.
Determine the degrees of freedom and the number of controlled and
manipulated variables for each block.
To do this, follow the procedure
described in Section 23.2.

Step 3.
Determine all feasible loop configurations for each block.
Having
specified the controlled and manipulated variables for each block, it

is easy to generate all possible configuration, following the approach
described in Section 23.3.
arguments,
Using
qualitative
or
quantitative
retain a small number of the "best" loop configurations
for each block.

Step 4.
Recombine the blocks with their loop configurations.
It is clear
that the number of the generated loop configurations for the overall
process is equal to the product of the retained configurations for all
blocks.
Step 5.
Eliminate conflicts among the control systems of the various blocks.
The control configurations resulting in Step 4 usually lead to an overspecification of the overall controlled process.
as follows:
23.3a).
This can be explained
Consider two units connected by a common flow (Figure
When we design the loops for each unit separately, it is
possible to select the interconnecting flow as a controlled variable

for both units but in different loops (Figure 23.3b). Also, it is
possible to have the corm-non interconnecting flow as the manipulated
variable in two different control loops (Figure 23.3~).
Both
situations
correspond to overspecified systems and lead to conflicts among the

control
systems.
Such conflicts must be erased before we can have a
feasible control configuration for the overall process.
Let us now demonstrate the above procedure on two specific processing

systems composed of several interacting units.
Example 23.3 - Generate the Control Loop Configuration for a Simple Chemical
Process
The heart of the process shown in Figure 23.4 is the continuous stirred
tank reactor (CSTR) where the simple, exothermic reaction, A-tB,
takes place.
The reactor feed is preheated, first by the hot reactor effluent and then by
steam.
Coolant, flowing through a jacket around the reactor, removes the
heat generated by the reaction,lin
order to maintain the temperature of the
reacting mixture at the maximum allowable (for highest conversion). The

:;
coolant is provided with two branches one of which is cooled while the other
is heated.
The rates of cooling and heating, i.e. Qc and Q, are constant.
With this configuration we can fine tune the temperature of the coolant
(increase or decrease it) before it enters the jacket of CSTR.
The reactor
effluent is first cooled by the feed in the feed-effluent heat exchanger and
subsequently it is "flashed" in a flash drum.
There it is separated into two
streams, a vapor and a liquid, which are further processed in separate units.
Cooling water is provided to regulate the temperature in the drum. We would
like to develop alternative loop configurations for this process which satisfy
.&he
-.=
following
&zp
operating
objectives;
the conversion in the reactor at its highest permissible value,
- maintain a constant production rate and

- achieve constant composition in the liquid product of the flash drum.
1
l.32p
Divide the process into four blocks (Figure 23.4); coolant system,
feeti
preheating,
reactor, and flash drum with its feed cooler.
Steps 2 and 3.
Determine the degrees of freedom as well as the controlled
and manipulated variables for each blocl.
Also, generate all possible loop
configurations for each block and retain the "best".

Coolant System (Figure 23.5a)
Table 23.2 summarizes all the characteristics of the coolant system.
are two controlled variables requiring two manipulations.
requirements we can easily determine that:
There
From the operating
__.
- Fc and TCO
are the two controlled variables.
- Fc and TCO
are also the two measured variables.
- The two manipulated variables, can be selected from the set,

I.
Fc'
Fcl'
Fc2, Fcl
F Y
Fcl'Fc2
Table 23.2 also indicates a few of the possible loop configurations.
Con-
figuration No. 1 seems to be the simplest and is selected for the control of
the coolant system (Figure 23.5a).
Feed Preheating System (Figure 23.5d)
This block requires one controlled variable (see Table 23.3) which is the temperature Ti.
The only available manipulated variable is the steam flowrate
Ws, thus yielding only one loop configuration (Figure 23.5b)

Reactor (Figure 23.5~)
Table 23.4 shows that there should be two controlled variables for the
'reactor which are easily identified as the temperature, T
r' and
Q9 of the reactor effluent stream.
Fi
Tco
(01:
Available
manipulations
concentration,
are,
Fc>
Table 23.4 shows the three possible loop configurations.
The No. 3 corresponds
to cascade temperature control and, as we have seen in Section 20.1 and Example
20.1, it provides fast compensation.
the reactor.
Thus, configuration No. 3 is selected for
543
Flash Drum (Figure 23.5d)

This is similar to the flash drum system analyzed in Examples 23.1 and 23.2
with one difference; instead of the steam heating (see Figure 23.la) there is
a water cooling system (Figure 23.5d).
Therefore, following the same pro-
cedure as in Example 23.1 we conclude that there should be,

- four controlled variables [Fi, pf, Tf,
h], and
- four manipulated variables [Fi, FV, FL, FW].

We can generate 24 possible loop configurations, similar to those tabulated in
Table 23.1.
The configuration shown in Figure 23.5d is selected as the "best"
because it provides direct and fast regulation of all controlled variables.

i
4Step . Recombine the four blocks with their control configurations. Con,"
sidering that the four blocks (coolant system, feed preheating, reactor,
flash drum) possess 6, 1, 2 and 24 possible loop configuration, we can
generate in principle 288 (=6xlx2~24)
overall
process.
control configurations for the
Not all of them need to be examined for consistency
because some are obviously bad.
Figure 23.6a shows the resulting con-
trol system if the "best" loop configurations are selected for each
block.
5Step
Eliminate confliects
among the control loops of the various blocks.
Consider the control system for the overall process shown in Figure
23.6a.
We notice quickly two overspecifications which create conflicts
among the control loops.

(a) The coolant flowrate
different
is used as manipulated variable by two
loops; the temperature cascade loop of the reactor
and the feedforward flow control loop of the coolant system.

(b) The flowrate Fi (feed to the reactor, and reactor effluent) is
controlled by two different loops; the feedback concentration
control loop in the reactor and the feedforward flow control

loop in the flash drum.
To eliminate conflict (a) we can delete the feedforward flow control
loop in the coolant system.
To erase conflict (b) we delete the flow
control loop in the flash drum.
Thus, the
final
for the overall process is shown in Figure 23.6b.
control
configuration
It has no conflicts
among the loops and the process is exactly specified.
Example 23.4 - Generate the Control Loop Configuration for an Integrated

Chemical Plant :
i'
:
Consider the process shown in Figure 23.7. An exothermic reaction
:;
A+B+C
takes place in the gas phase. The product C is taken from the
top of a distillation column.
The unreacted raw materials A and B are
both recycled to the reactor from the flash drum and the bottom of the disstillation
column,
respectively.
Compressors (C-l, C-2) are used to increase
the pressure of the feed and recycled gas A.

a series of two heat exchanger (E-l, E-2).
The liquid B is vaporized in
The reactor is a tubes-and shell
heat exchanger with the reaction taking place in the tubes and the coolant
flowing in the shell around the tubes.
The basic control objective is; maintain the desired steady state prodllirtion rate and quality of product C for a long period.
$?%Pi?*
Divide the processinto seven blocks as shown in Figure 23.7:
(a) Compressor for the fresh feed gas A,

(b) Compressor for gas
A recycled from the flash drum,
(c) .Mixing drum for the fresh feed
B and the recycled from the-
bottom of the distillation column,

(d) Feed vaporizing and preheating,
(e) Reactor,
(f) Flash drum with its feed cooler, and
(g) Distillation column with its condenser and reboiler.
Steps 2 and 3.
To simplify the presentation of this example, we have omitted
the details of modeling, accounting
for
variables,
controlled and manipulated variables, etc.
determination
of
Figure 23.8a through 23.88
show the selected "best" loop configurations for each block.

4Step .
Figure 23.9 presents the control structure for the overall plant,
resulting from the particular loop configurations shown in Figure 23.8.

D
Step 5.
Close observation of the control-configuration in Figure 23.9 reveals
the following conflicts among the various control loops:

(i>
The flowrate
of the recycles stream B from the bottom of the
distillation column is controlled by two loops; the feedback

level control at the bottom of the distillation column (stream
22) and the feedforward flow,control
(stream 3).
in the mixing drum
To erase this conflict eliminate the feedforward
loop in the mixing drum because the level controller is

absolutely necessary for the good operation of the distillation
column.
(ii)
The flowrate
of the reactor feed is controlled by three loops;
the flow control loop in the mixing drum (stream 6), the flow
control loop in the feed preheating block (stream 8) and the
flow control loop in the reactor block (stream 9).
Eliminate
the conflict by retaining the flow control on stream 6 only.

(iii) Delete the flow control on the feed of the flash drum (stream
11) because its flow is determined by the flow of stream 6.
(iv>
The flow-rate of the feed to the distillation column is controlled

by two loops; the level control of the flash drum (stream 15)
and the flow control on stream 16.
Retain only the second loop
and eliminate the first.

6Step .
Improve the control configuration generated in Step 5. After the
elmination of the four conflicts among the control loops, which we described above, we can make two additional modifications which improve
the quality of the resulting control.
(CL)
The pressure control of both gaseous streams 1 and 13 may be

excessive.
Since the pressure of stream 5 is the one of prac-
tical importance, we can replace the two pressure control loops

by one, which measures the pressure of stream 5 and manipulates
the bypass flow around compressor C-l.
(B) For the pressure control in the flash drum we use the flowrate
of the vapor (stream 13) as the manipulated.
But, the variations
in stream 13 are fed back to the main process and may cause
additional disruptions in the operation.
For better pressure
control introduce a purge stream (stream 23) and manipulate its

flowrate.
Figure 23.10 shows the final configuration of the
control loops after eliminating any conflicts (Step 5) and making

the two modifications described in Step 6.
"SUMMARY
The typical processes in a chemical plant involve more than one inputs
and outputs and necessitate the design of multivariable control systems.
Several questions need to be answered for either single MIMO units or processes with several interacting units; (a) how many and which ones are the
controlled variables, (b) h ow many measurements and manipulated variables

are needed, (c) what is the configuration of the control loops, etc.
The notion of degrees of freedom in a system dictates that:
- the number of controlled variables is equal to the total number of degrees
of freedom minus the number of externally specified variables, also,
- the number of required manipulations is at least equal to the number of
controlled
variables.
But, besides knowing the necessary number of controlled and manipulated

variables, how does one select them among several process variables? One can
_
use the following general guidelines:
- Identify as controlled the variables which are directly dictated by the

operating objectives for a process.
Any remaining freedom should be used
to control hold-ups or flows (in a feedforward manner).

- Consider that all controlled variables are measurable and constitute the
set of required measurements.
If any controlled variable is unmeasurable,
examine the possibility for inferential control.

- Select the necessary number of controlled variables among all those
available so that they provide direct, easy, and fast regulation of the
controlled
variables.
For a process with N controlled and N manipulated variables there are N!

possible
control
3.~: -ihe best?
configurations,
composed
of
single
loops.
Which
configuration
In this chapter we have not addressed directly this question,
and all evaluations were made at a qualitative level.

For complex processes composed of several interacting units we can use
the following generalized procedure for the synthesis of feasible control
configurations:
573
- Divide the process into blocks and generate alternative loop configurations
for each block.
- Recombine the blocks with their loop configurations and eliminate any
overspecification which creates conflicts among the loops.
This chapter has been concerned with the generation of feasible control configurations and not their precise evaluation.
Some general and fallible
qualitative arguments were used to select the "best" loop configuration. In

Chapter 24 we will study the most popular method for the quantitative
evaluation of alternative loop configuration, i.e. the relative-gain array.
-..
This method indicates what manipulations should be coupled. with every controlled variable, so that the interaction among the control loops is minimal.
Furthermore, we will study the design of special decoupling control systems
in case that strong interaction among loops persists.
THINGS TO THINK &OUT
1.
What is a MIMO process and in what sense is the design of a control system for a MIMO process different than that for a SISO process?
2.
Discuss the design questions related to a MIMO control system.
3,
Why do we assume that all manipulated variables are measurable? Is

this
assumption
correct?
How would you use the values of manipulated
variables in a control system?

-4.
Why do we claim that there is a large number of control configurations

for a MIMO process?
Find the number of alternative loop configurations
for a process with N controlled variables and M manipulations, where

M>N.
5.
"Prove" equations (23.2) and (23.3) which determine the number of

necessary
controlled
and
manipulated
variables.
6.
Construct a physical example where we can have fewer controlled variables

than dictated by equation (23.2) and the operation of the process is
acceptable.
7.
Equation (23.3) determines the minimum number of required manipulations

for a process.
Why is it minimum?
Could you use more manipulations and
how? Construct a physical example with more manipulations than dictated

by equation (23.3).
8.
Is it sufficient to control the temperature and pressure in a flash

drum in order to have vapor and liquid products of desired composition?
Elaborate on your answer and explain why yes or no.
9.
Consider the stirred tank heater example.

tinct
loop
configurations.
One of them is unacceptable because it
renders an uncontrollable system.

why is it unacceptable?
Show that there are two dis-
(Hint:
Which one is this configuration and

Consider the effects of manipulations
on the controlled variables.)

10.
Extend the observation made for the uncontrollability of the stirred

tank heater to other systems.
loop
11.
configurations
leading
to
State qualitatively a test for rejecting

uncontrollable
systems.
Assuming that all variables can be measured, how many measurements do

you need for the design of a control system with N controlled
variables?
':12 *
Consider the process examined in Example 23.3. Are there more degrees
of freedom when the processing units are considered together in an
integrated whole, or when the various units are considered separately
detached from each other? Explain why.
13..
Why is the overall process overspecified when the various blocks with
their corresponding loop configuration are recombined to yield the
control configuration for the overall process (see Steps 4 and 5 in

Section 23.4)?
How does the overspecification manifest itself in the
configuration of the control loops?
Discuss how you can eliminate
it.
14.
Determine the number of controlled and manipulated variables for the

flash drum (Example 23.1) assuming steady state operation. Why are the
results different than those of Example 23.1?
State the danger involved
when we consider steady state models to design a MIMO control system.

15.
What are the controlled variables which remain unidentified when we

use steady state models to'determine controlled and manipulated
;
variables?
How can you overcome this drawback and still use steady
state models?
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CHAPTER 24
INTERACTION AND DECOUPLING OF CONTROL LOOPS
From the discussion in Chapter 23, two characteristics should be clear
concerning the design of control systems for processes with multiple inputs
and multiple outputs:
- First; a control system is composed of several interacting control loops.
- Second; there is a large number of feasible, alternative
configurations
of control loops.
For example, to control the operation of a flash drum we need a configuration
of four loops, which must be selected from 24 possible such loop configurations
(Example 23.2).
These two characteristics dictate the content of this chapter.
In par-
ticular we will study;

- the interaction among the control loops of a MI130 process,
- the relative-gain array method which determines how the controlled and
manipulated variables should be coupled to yield control loops with minimal
interaction,
and
finally
- the design of special control systems with non-interacting loops.

24.1
INTERACTION
OF
CONTROL
LOOPS
Consider a process with two controlled outputs and two manipulated inputs
@Zgzzre 24.la).
Huts),
The input-output relationships are given by
Y,(S)
Hll(d
iiil(s)
H12(~) fii2W
(24.1)
Y2W
H21W
=l(s>
H2+4
(24.2)
H12W,
i5,W
H21(s) and H22(~) are the four transfer functions relating
the two outputs to the two inputs (see Section 9.2).
Equations (24.1) and
(24.2) indicate that a change in ml or m2 will affect both controlled

outputs.
Let
US
form two control loops by coupling ml with yl and m2 with
y2 as shown in Figure 24.lb.
To simplify the presentation, we have assumed
that the transfer functions of the measuring devices and final control
elements in both loops are equal to 1.
If Gel(s) and Gc2(s) are the trans-
fer functions of the two controllers, then the values of the manipulations are
given by
y(s)
= Gcl[~l,SpW - Y1l
q4
Gc2[Y2,sp(S)
(24.3)
T21
(24.4)
To understand the nature of interaction between two control loops and how it
arises, we will study the affects of input changes on the outputs when; (a)
one loop is closed and the other open and (b) both loops are closed.
(a) One Loop Closed.
24.2a).
Assume that Loop 1 is closed and Loop 2 is open (Figure
Assume also that m2 = constnat, i.e. E,(s), and make a change in the
set point yl,SPm
After substituting eqn. (24.3) into eqns. (24.1) and
(24.2) we take:
Tl
HllGcl
1 + HllGcl 7 l,SP
(24.5)
(24.6)
1,SP
Lt is clear then that any change in the set point yl,sp
k& behavior of the controlled output yl,
3.
will not only affect
but also the uncontrolled output
The dotted lines in Figure 24.2a indicate schematically the routes
through which yl sp
,
affects the two outputs.
if we consider Loop 1 open and Loop 2 closed.

complex when both loops are closed.
Similar conclusions are drawn

The situation becomes more
(b) Both Loops Closed (Figure 24.2b).
Initially the process is at steady
state with both outputs at their desired values.

set point yl,SP
7 2,SP = O.
Consider a change in the
only and keep the set point of Loop 2 the same, i.e.
Then, the following things happen:
- The controller of Loop 1 will change the value of ml in such a way as to

bring the output yl
effect of m1
on
Yl
to the new set-point value.
This is the direct
through Loop 1, and is shown schematically by the
dashed line in Figure 24.2b.

- The control action of ml
will not only attempt to bring yl
set point, but will also disturb y2,
to the new
from its steady state value.
Then,
the controller of Loop 2 attempts to compensate for the variations in y2

by changing appropriately-the value of the manipulated variable m2.
change in m2
ml
on
affects in turn output yl.
But a
This is an indirect effect of
yly through Loop 2, and is shown schematically by the dotted line
of Figure 24.2b.
It constitutes the essence of interaction between two
control loops.
Analogous conslusion
change
on the loop interaction will be drawn if we consider a
in y2,Sp, while keeping yl,Sp the same.
In summary, we can make
the following statement which described the interaction between two control
loops:
"The regulatory action of a control loop deregulates the output of another loop (in the same process), which in turn
takes control action to compensate for the variations in its
controlled output, disturbing at the same time the output of
the first loop."
Having completed a qualitative presentation, let us now examine the
quantitative ramifications of the interaction between two control loops.
stitute eqns. (24.3) and (24.4) into eqns. (24.1) and (24.2) respectively
and take:
Sub-
(1
+ HllGcl)Yl+
(H12Gc2)~2=H11Gcl*~l
(H21Gcl)71 + (1 +
, SP+H12Gc2?2 , sp
H22Gc2)~2=H21Gcl~l,~~
H22Gc2*55,~~
(24.7)
(24.8)
Solve eqns. (24.7) and (24.8) with respect to the controlled outputs yl
y2
and
take
the
following
closed-loop
input-output
and
relationships,
Pll(S)
Qsp +
p12w
Y2,sp
(24.9)
y2
p21w
iysp
p&s)
72,sp
(24.10)
where
Pll(S)
{HllGcl + GclGc2(HllH22
-yH12H21)~/Q(s)
p&d
H12Gc2/Q(s>
p21w
H21Gc2/Q(s>
p&J
(H22Gc2 + GclGc2(HllH22
- H12H21))/Q(d
and
Q(s)
Remarks:
(l + HllGcl)(l
(24.11)
+ H22Gc2) - %2H21GclGc2
(1) Equations (24.9) and (24.11) describe the response of outputs

and y2 when both loops are closed, i.e. they have
y1
accounted for the interaction between the two loops.

(2) When
= 0, there is no interaction between the

H12 = H21
two control loops.
The closed-loop outputs are given by
the following equations,

HllGcl
Tl = 1 + HllGcl 7 l,SP
H22Gc2
7, = 1 + H22Gc2 '2,SP
The closed-loop stability of the two noninteracting loops

depends on the roots of their characteristic equations.
Thus, if the roots of the following two equations
1 + HllGcl = 0
1 + H22Gc2 = 0
(24.12)
have negative real parts, the two noninteracting loops are

stable.
(3) The stability of the closed-loop outputs of two interacting loops is determined by the roots of the characteristic
equation
Q(s) 5 (1+H11Gcl(l+H22Gc2)
-H12H21GclGc2
= 0
(24.13)
Thus, if the roots of eqn. (24.13) have negative real

parts, the two interacting loops are stable.
(4) Suppose that the two feedback controllers Gel and Gc2
-..
are tuned separat'ely, ite. keeping the loop under tuning
closed and the other open.
Then, we cannot guarantee
stability for the overall control system, where both loops

are closed.
The reason is simple: Tuning each loop
separately we force the roots of the characteristic eqns.

(24.12) for the individual'loops to acquire negative real
parts.
But the roots of these equations are different
from the roots of the characteristic eqn. (24.13) which

determines the stability of the overall system with both
loops closed.
(5) Normally, we tune the two controllers in such a way that
the roots of all eqns. (24.12) and (24.13) have negative
real parts.
Such tuning guarantees stability when both
loops are closed (roots of eqn. (24.13)), or only one is

closed while the other is open due to a hardware failure
(roots of eqns. (24.12)).
(6) The previous discussion indicates that the interaction
between control loops is a significant factor and affects
in a very profound manner the "goodness" of a control

system.
For this reason, a control designer attempts to
couple the manipulated variables with the controlled

outputs in such a way as to minimize the interaction
of the resulting control loops.
If strong interactions
persist for any possible pairing, then he will design a

sp,ecial,control
system which eliminates the interaction
(decoupling the loops).
Example 24.1 - Interaction of Contro14Loops

: Consider once more the.stirred
ins Stirred Tank Heater
tank heater (Example 4.4). Figure 24.3
shows the two control loops; Loop 1 controls the liquid level by manipulating
the effluent flowrate, and Loop 2 regulates the temperature by manipulating
the steam flowrate.
Let us see how the two loops interact:
- When the inlet flowrate
(load) or the desired value of liquid level
(set point) change, Loop 1 attempts to compensate for the changes by

manipulating the value of the effluent flowrate.
This in turn will dis-
turb the temperature of the liquid in tank and Loop 2 will compensate by
adjusting appropriately the value of steam flowrate.
- If on the other hand, the temperature of the inlet stream (load) or the
%!
.-
&sired value of the temperature (set point) change, Loop 2 will adjust
,-be steam flowrate
liquid
.1y.
5;.rz;-zs9
to compensate for the changes.
This will leave the
level undisturbed.
we notice that Loop 1 affects Loop 2 but not vice versa.
thsinteraction
is in a single direction.
In other words,
Example 24.2 - Interaction of Control Loops in a Stirred Tank Reactor

In the CSTR of Figure 24.4, the temperature is controlled by the flow of
coolant in the jacket while the effluent concentration is controlled by the
inlet flowrate.
Assume that initially both effluent concentration and tem-
perature are at their desired values.

.
- Consider a change in the inlet concentration (load) or the desired effluent

concentration
(set
point).
Loop 1 will compensate for these changes by
manipulating the feed flowrate.
However,
this change in the feed rate also
disturbs the reactor temperature away from the desired value. The, Loop 2
attempts to compensate for the change in temperature by varying the coolant
flowrate, which in turn affects the effluent concentration.
- On the other hand, when to compensate for changes in feed temperature (load)
or the desired set point of reactor temperature, it also causes the effluent
concentration to vary.
Then, Loop 1 attempts to compensate for the change
in effluent concentration by varying the feed rate, which in turn disturbs

the
reactor
temperature.
It is clear from the above that Loop 1 interacts with Loop 2 in both directions
(unlike the loops of the stirred tank heater which interac in a single
direction).
&ample 24.3 - Tuning the Controllers of Two Interacting LOOPS

Assume that the input-output relationships of a process with two controlled
outputs and two manipulated variables are given by,
7,
1
O.ls+l %
5
O.ls+l m2
Y2
1
ml
0.5s+l
2
0.5s+l :2
Form two loops by coupling ml with yl and
m2 with y2.
The closed-
loop input-output relationships are given by eqns. (24.9) and (24.10) where
1
Hll = O.ls+l
5
H12 = O.ls+l
1
H21 = 0.5s+l
Let the two controllers be simple proportional

G cl
and
Kcl
G c2
(a) Tuning each loop separately:
2
H22 = 0.5s+l
controllers
with
Kc2
The charactewristic
equation of Loop 1
when Loop 2 is open is given by,

1
Hll~cl
K C-l
o.ls+l=O
and yields the closed-loop pole

s
-lO(l
+ Kcl) < 0
Therefore, when Loop 2 is open, Loop 1 is stable for any value of gain
Similarly,
&Cl.
the closed-loop pole for Loop 2 when Loop 1 is open
is given by
S
-2(1 + Kc2) < 0
and consequently, Loop 2 is stable for any value of Ka2, when Loop 1
is open.
(b) Tuning with both loops closed:
When both loops are closed, the charac-
teristic equation is given by eqn. (24.13) and for this example takes
the following form:
(1 + oK;;+l)(l +.2Kc2, - O.ls+1

5
1
0.5s+l'K,1'Kc2 = O
+(0.6+0.5Kcl+0.1Kc2)s+(1+KclfKc2-9KclKc2) = 0
(24.14)
According to the first test of the Routh-Hurwitz criterion for stability (see
Section 15.3), eqn. (24.14) has at least one root with positive real part if
any of its coefficients is negative.
Thus, the closed-loop behavior of the
process is unstable if the following inequality is satisfied,

1
Kc1
Kc2 -
9KclKc2
<
Cl
(24.15)
Inequality (24.15) places restrictions on the values that Kc1 and Kc2 can
take, to render a stable performance when both loops are closed.
This is in
direct contrast to our earlier result (see (a) above), whereby all values of
K
Cl
and K c2
were acceptable if each loop were tuned separately.
allowable range of values for n-Kcl--:and
K
--..g
[Note: The
which render stable responses
when both loops are closed can be found by applying the second test of the
Routh-Hurwitz
criterion.]
24.2 THE RELATIVE-GAIN ARRAY AND THE SELECTION OF LOOPS

In the previous chapter we recognized that for a process with N controlled outputs and N manipulated variables there are N!
to form the control loops.
Which one is the best?
different
ways
One way to answer this
question is to consider the interactions among the loops for all N!

configurations and select the one where the interactions are minimal.
loop
The
.-
Relative-Gain Array is exactly such methodology whereby we select pairs of

input and output variables in order to minimize the amount of interaction
- among the resulting loops.
It was first proposed by Bristol and today is a
very popular tool for the selection of control loops. Let us now study the
logic of the mehtod and present some examples describing its usage.
A.
Definitions
Consider a process with two outputs and two inputs (Figure 24.la). Then,
do the following two experiments:
(a) Assume that
m2
remains constant (Figure 24.5a).
change in the input ml
of magnitude Am1
state value of output yl.

steady state.
in
Introduce a step
and record the new steady
Let Ayl be the change from the previous
It is clear that it has been caused only by the change
The open-loop static gain between yl and ml when m2 is
ml'
kept constant is given by (see Section 10.4 and eqn. (10.20))

(AyllAml)m
2
(b) In addition to the static gain computed above, there is another open-loop
gain
between
yl
and
ml,
when
m2varies by a feedback loop con-
trolling the other output, y2 (Figure 24.5b).

change Am1
yl*Ayl
we record a change Ayl
Thus, introducing
a-step
in the steady state value of
will be, in general, different than Ayl for the following
reason:
The input change Am1
does not only affect yl but also y2.
Then, the control loop attempts to keep y2 constant by varying m2,

Therefore,
which in turn affects the steady state value of yl.

is the compound result of the effects from
open-loop
gain
between
Yl
and
ml
when
ml
y2
and
m2'
Ay;
Let the new
is kept constant by the
control loop, be given by
(AYi/AmlIy
The ratio of the two open-loop gains computed above defines the relative gain,
k, between output yl and input ml, i.e.
.^
(Ayl/Aml)m
x11
(Ayljoml)y2
2
The relative gain provides a useful measure of interaction,
(24.16)
In particular:
- If Xl1 = 0, then yl
to control
Yl'
- If Xl1 = 1, then ~2
and
Yl
does not respond to ml and ml should not be used
does not affect yl
and the control loop between
ml does not interact with the loop of y2 and m2.
In this case
we have completely decoupled loops.

- If 0 < Xl1 < 1, then an interaction exists and as m2
the steady state value of yl.
the
interaction
The smaller the value of
xl1'
the larger
becomes.
- If Xl1 < 0, then m2
causes a strong effect on yl
direction than that caused by ml.

very
varies it affects
and in the opposite
In this case, the interaction effect is
dangerous.
In a similar manner as above we can define the following three remaining

relative gains between the 2 inputs and 2 outputs of the process we have been
considering,
i.e.
52 = (Ayl/Am2)m /(Ayl/Am2)y
1
2
x21
= (Ay2/Aml)m
x22 = (Ay2/Am2)m
/(Ay2/Aml)y
2
: relative gain between yl and m2

: relative gain between Y2 and ml
1
: relative gain between
/(Ay,/Am,)
1
y2 and m2
Yl
The values of these gians can also be used as measured of interaction for the
corresponding cases in a similar way as it was done above for
B.
xll*
Selection of Loops
For a process .with two inputs and two outputs there are two different
..loop
configurations, shown in Figure 23.2. Let us see how we can use the
relative gains to select the configuration with minimum interaction between

thf! loops.
Arrange the four relative gains, All, Xl2, X21 and X22 into a matrix
form, which is known as the relative-gain array, i.e.
=A
ml
m2
Xl1
x12
1x21
x22-1 y2
y1
It can be shown that the sum of the relative gians in any row or column of the
array is equal to 1.
Thus,
x11
Xl2
x21
x22
and
x11
%2
_.
/.,
A21
x22
= '1 I
:;* .- (2$*1!)
Therefore, we need to know only one of the four relative gains while the other
three can be easily computed.
For example, if All = 0.75 then Xl2 = A21 =
0.25 and X22 = 0.75.

Depending on the value of
ferent
Xll,
we can distinguish the following dif-
situations:
- All = 1.
Then, the relative-gain array is,
and it is obvious that we can have two noninteracting loops formed by; ml
coupled with yl and m2
-31 = O.
coupled with y2 (Figure 23.2a).
The, the relative-gain array is given by,
a =
71
11
0I
.Ihe 1 in the off-diagonal elements indicate that we can form two noninteracting control loops by coupling
(Figure 23.2b).
ml
with
y2
and
m2
with
yl
- 51
= 0.5. Then,
3.5
0.5
L0.5
0.5I
and the amount of interaction between the two loops is the same in both
In other words, it does not matter how we
configurations of Figure 23.2.

.
couple inputs and outputs.

Al1 = 0.25. Then,
- 0 < Al1 < 0.5, say
The two larger number, i.e. 0.75, indicate the recommended coupling with
the samller amount of interaction.
Thus, we couple ml with y2 and m2
with yl (Figure 23.2b).

- 0.5 -C xl1 < 1, say Xl1 = 0.8. Then,
and the recommended coupling is the opposite of the previous case, i.e.
Couple
ml
- All> 1.
with
yl
and m2
with y2 (Figure 23.2a).
Then, A22 = Xl1 > 1 and Al2 = h21 = 1 - Xl1 < 0. Situations
with relative gains outside the range 0 to 1 create difficult control

voblems.
51)
Let us see why.
Suppose that you couple yl with ml and y2 with m2. The

corresponding
relative
gains, X 11
and
x22'
are larger than 1.
Then, from the definition of the relative gains we conclude that,
> (~yl/A~l~y2
(Ayl/Aml>
m2
In other words
and
(Ay2/Am2)
ml
> (Ay2/Am >

2 y1
the response of the outputs is held back by the
interaction from the other loop and the larger the values of the
relative gains above unity, the larger the "holding back" effect
will be.
Thus, we need larger values for the controller gains.
(2) If you couple yl with m2 and y2 with ml, the corresponding

gains Xl2 and A21 are negative. In this case, the interaction
will take the controlled outputs in the opposite direction than
that desired by the control effort and control will be lost
altogether.
Therefore,
never form loops by coupling inputs to
outputs with negative relative gains.

We can summarize all the above observations with the following rule for
selecting the control loops:
"Select the control loops by pairing the controlled outputs
Yi with the manipulated variables m.J in such a way that
the relative gains Aij are positive and as close as
possible to unity."
Remarks:
(1) The relative gains provide a measure of interaction based on

steady
state
considerations.
Therefore,
the rule given above
for the selection of loops does not guarantee that the dynamic
interaction between the loops will be also minimal.
(2) The relative-gain array is a square matrix, which implies
that the number of manipulated variables is equal to the
number of controlled outputs.
Now, suppose that we have a
process with two outputs and three possible manipulations,

ml' m2
and m 3'
There are three possible pairs of mani-
pulated variables; (ml,m,), (m,,m,) and (m3,ml).

we can form three different relative-gain arrays,
Therefore,
ml
m2
m2
m3
m3
ml
and we need to examine all of them before we can select the

set of two loops with minimal interaction.
[Note: In
general, hil # All, xi2 # A12, etc.1

(3) There are two ways of obtaining the relative gains of a
process; a computational approach using a steady state input.
output model for the process and an experimental approach.
2When a steady state model is available, then we can obtain
the numerator and denominator of the relative gain (see eqn.
(24.16)) by simple differentiation. This way we can express
the relative gains in terms of the controlled and manipulated
variables
.
themselves, which enables us to evaluate the
interaction across a range of operating conditions.
(4) For an existing process we can evaluate the relative gains

experimentally, by performing the following two experiments:
Experiment 1 (all loops open).
Keeping all loops open make
a small step change Am1 in ml, keeping m2 constant.

Record the changes in the steady state values of yl and
y2,
i.e. Ayl and Ay2.
(AYl/Aml)m
Then, compute
(Ay2/Aml)m
and
2
Return the system to the initial steady state and repeat the
same experiment by varying
Ayl
and
Ay2
and compute,
m2
by
Am2.
Record the changes
(AYl/Am2)m
and
(Ay2/Am2>
"1
Experiment 2 (one loop closed).
Make a small change Am1
in m 1, while keeping y2
m2'
Record the change Ayl
constant by feedback control using

in the steady state of yl
and
compute the gain
(aYl/Aml~y
Repeat the same experiment, but now keep yl constant

through a control loop with m2.
.
and compute the gain
Record the change Ay2
(Ay2/Amlly
1
Similarly, we can compute the following two gains,
and
(Ayl/Am2>
(Ay2/Am2)
y2
Taking
y1
the ratios of the corresponding gains in Experiments
1 and 2, we can compute the relative gains Xll, X12, X21,

[Note:
-
x22*
relative
Remember that you do not need to compute all
gains, since they are related by eqns. (24.17)].
(5) The definition of the relative gains and their use in

selecting the control loops are not limited to systems with
two inputs and two outputs.
cesses
is straightforward.
an output y.
1
x ij
The
subscript
The extension to general proThus, the relative gain between
and a manipulation m.
J
is defined by
(Ayi/Amj)m/(Ayi/Amj)y
m denotes constant values for all manipula-
tions except m., i.e. all loops open, while subscript y

J
indicates all outputs except yi
are kept constant by the
control loops, i.e. all loops closed.
Similarly,
the
relative-gain array is given by

ml
=A
m2
'12
'22
'1N
'1
'2N
y2
The entries of a satisfy the following two properties;

ill ' ij =. 1 .for j=1,2,***,N
summation by columns
N
j&l
ij
= 1 for: i=1,2,***,N
summation by rows
The loop selection rule remains the same.
Example 24.4 - Select the Loops Using the Relative-Gain Array

Consider a process with the following input-output relationships:
Yl
l-iTi ml
1
+ O.ls+l
Y2
-0.2 0.5s+l ml +
%2
(24.18)
0.8
s+1 m2
(24.19)
Let us compute the relative gains:

-Bake a unit step change in ml, i.e. iii1 = l/s, while keeping m2 constant,
3.e.
iii
= 0.
Then, from eqn. (24.18) we take,
Recall the final-value theorem (Section 7.5) and find the resulting new
steady state in yl, i.e.
Yl,ss
= lim [s y,(s)]
S-to
lim [l/(s+l)]
S-4
= 1
Therefore,
(Ayl/Aml)m
= l/l = 1.
2
constant under control by varying rn2'
- Keep y2
ml'
Since y2
must remain constant, i.e.
us by how much m2
ii)
Intorduce a unit step in
7 2 = 0, eqn. (24.19) will tell
should change;
0.2
s+l
ti? \
0.8 0. Ss+l
Substitute this value in eqn. (24.18) and find
71
s+l1 ml+
.-.
0.2
s+l
O.ls+l
0.8
0.5s+l
Then, the resulting new steady state
yl SS=lim
,
S-+O
Therefore,
for y1
is given by,
1 1
1
0.2
1
s+l
[s Yl]=lim s* -as+l s + O.ls+1'0.8' 0.5s+l'S
s+o Ilr
(Ayl/Am )
IL Y2
1.2511
Using eqns..(24.17)
we find
= 1.25
1.25 and
x11 = (Ayl/Am,)m2/(Ayl~~ml)y2
l/l.25
0.8
A12 = x21 = 0.2 and X22 = 0.8. It is easy now
to conclude that we should pair ml with yl

1~op.s
ii
with minimum interaction.
and
m2
with
y2
to form two
It should be noted that had we selected the
loops differently, i.e. couple ml with y2 and m2 with yl, the interaction
of the loops would have been four times larger (i.e. 0.8/0.2 = 4).
Example 24.5 - Selecting the Loops in a Mixing Process

Two streams with flowrates Fl and F2
and compositions (moles per cent)
"1 = 80% and x2 = 20% in a chemical A, are mixed in a vessel (Figure 24.6a).
We would like to form two control loops to regulate the product composition, x,
and flowrate, F.
while Fl E ml
Let F z yl and x z y2
and F2 Z m2
be the two controlled outputs,
are the two available manipulated variables. Two
are the possible control configurations with different pairings between the
inputs and outputs, and they are shown in Figures 24.6b and 24.6~.
Which
one
should we prefer?
The steady state mass balances yield:
F
Fx =
[Note:
F1
(24.20)
F2
FIXl
(24.21)
F2X2
We have neglected the energy balance because the temperature of the
product stream is not in our operating reqyirements.]
The desired steady
state for operational purposes is,

F
= 200 moles/hr
and
60% (by moles)
With these values we find the following steady state solution of eqns. (24.20)
and (24.21)
= 133.4
Fl
and
= 66.6
F2
To compute the relative gain between F and Fl, do the following:

- Change
same.
Fl by one unit, i.e. F1 = 134.4, while holding F2 = 66.6 the

Solve eqns. (24.20) and (24.21) for
F and x and find the
following new steady states

F
201
= 0.6012
Therefore,
(AF/AFl)F
= l/l = 1
(Ax/AF~)~
= 0.6012/1 = 0.6012
2
- Change Fl by one unit, i.e. F1 = 134.4, while holding x = 60% constant.

Solve eqns. (24.20) and (24.21) and find:
F =
201.67
F2
= 67.27
Therefore,
(AF/AFl)x
Consequently,
= 1.6711 = 1.67
the relative gain between F and F1 is:
x11
(AF/AFl),2/(AF/AFl)x
l/l.67
0.6
It follows easily that the complete relative-gain array is

F1
A
I
F2
-0.6
0.4 F
10.4
0.6I x
Two are the main conclusions we can draw:

the two loops with minimum interaction are formed when we couple F
First;
with
F1
and x
with
F2 (Figure 24.6b).
Second; although the interaction between the two selected groups is smaller
than that of the other alternative configuration (Figure 24.6c), it is still
significant.
Thus, any control action to regulate F will seriously disturb
x and vice versa.
24.3
DESIGN
OF
NONINTERACTING
CONTROL
LOOPS
The relative-gain array indicates how the inputs should be coupled with
the outputs to form loops with the smaller amount of interaction.
But, the
persisting interaction, although it is the smaller possible, may not be small

enough.
Example 24.5 demonstrated this aspect clearly.
In such case, the two
control loops still affect each other's operation very seriously, and the
overall
control
system
is
characterized
unacceptable.
When the designer is confronted with two strongly interacting loops, he

introduces in the control system special new elements called decouplers.
The
purpose of the decouplers is to cancel the interaction effects between the

two loops and thus render two noninteracting control loops.
Let us now study
how we can design the decouplers for a process with two strongly interacting
loops.
667
consider
the process whose input-output relationships are given by eqns.
(24.1) and (24.2).

m2
Form two interacting loops by coupling ml with yl and
with y2 (see Figure 24.lb).

Assume that initially both outputs are at their desired set point values.
Suppose that a disturbance or a set point change cause the controller of

Loop 2 to vary the value of m2.
for Loop 1 and will cause yl
could
m2'
change
This will create an undesired disturbance
to deviate from its desired value.
However,
we
ml by such an amount as to cancel the interaction effect from
But, the question arises; how much should we change m2?

From eqn. (24.1) we find that in order to keep yl
% = 0, m2
constant,
i.e.
should change by the following amount,
{
1
=- H12(s) HllW m2
(24.22)
Equation (24.22) implies that we can introduce a dynamic element with a

transfer
function,
H12W
I+)
(24.23)
Hll(d
which uses the value of
m2
as input and provides as output the amount by
which we should change ml, in order to cancel the effect of
m2
on
yl'
This dynamic element is called decoupler and when is installed in the control
system (Figure 24.7a) it cancels any effect that Loop 2 might have on Loop 1
but not vice versa.
To eliminate the interaction from Loop 1 to Loop 2, we can follow the
same reasoning as above and we find that the transfer function of the second
decoupler is given by,
H21(d
D2(s)
H22(~)
(24.24)
The block diagram of the process with two feedback control loops and two
decouplers is given in Figure 24.7b.
From the block diagram of Figure 24.7b it is easy to develop the following
two
closed-loop
Yl
input-output
relationships:
Gcl[H1l - H12H21'H223
l + Gcl[Hll - H12H21'H221
Y2
(24.25)
-7 1,SP
Gc2[H22 - H12H21'H223
l + Gc2[H22 - H22H21'H211
(24.26)
Y2,SP
The last two equations demonstrate the complete decoupling of the two loops
since the controlled variable of each loop depends only on its own set point
and not on the set point of the other loop.
Figure 24.7~ shows the net block
diagram of the two noninteracting loops described by eqns. (24.25) and (24.26).
It is completely equivalent to that of Figure 24.7b.
Remarks:
(1) Two interacting control loops are perfectly decoupled only

when the process is perfectly known, because only in this
case the transfer functions
known
exactly.
Hll,
H12,
H21
and
H22 are
Since this requirement is rarely satisfied
in practice, the decouplers offer only partial decoupling

with some weak interaction still persisting between the
two loops.
(2) As we have mentioned repeatedly, chemical processes are mostly
nonlinear and nonstationary (i.e. the values of their
parameters
initially
change
the
change).
Therefore,
even if the decoupling is
perfect, as the desired operating conditions

decoupling
deteriorates.
One solution to this
problem is to use adaptive decouplers.
Thus, as the pro-
cess changes we estimate the new transfer functions
H1ly
H12'
H21
and
H22
and compute new decouplers.
How to
design adaptive decouplers is quite complex and goes

beyond the scope of the present text.
(3) Perfect or very good decoupling allows the independent
tuning of each controller without risking the stability
of the overall system.
(4) A close examination of Figure 24.7b reveals that for all
practical purposes the decouplers are essentially feedforward control elements. Thus, decoupler Dl measures
the changes in m2
and takes appropriate action to can-
cel the effect that m2
would have on
yl before it has
been felt by yl.

(5) If the decouplers are designed using steady state models
for the process, then we talk about steady state or static
decoupling.
Equations (24.23) and (24.24) provide the
design of dynamic decouplers. It should be emphasized

that for severely interacting loops static decoupling is
better than no decoupling at all.
(6) For a general process with two inputs and two outputs we
need
two
decouplers
to
produce
n&interacting
loops.
Whenever we use only one decoupler, despite the fact that

two are needed, we, talk about partial or one-way decoupling.
Such systems allow the interaction to travel in one
direction.
Figure 24.7a shows a partial decoupling of
the loops.
Thus, disturbances entering Loop 2 cannot
enter Loop 1 due to the decoupler
Dl'
On the other hand,
disturbances originating in Loop 1 may enter Loop 2 but

cannot be returned.
Example 24.7 - Partial Decoupling;

Let us return to the mixing process we studied in Example 24.5.
Suppose
that the operating requirements allow small variations in the product flowrate
F, while dictating very tight control on the concentration x of the product.
Then, we can use partial or one-way decoupling to cancel any effects that
interaction might have on
x, leaving the simple feedback loop to regulate
the value of the product flowrate, F.

Assuming that x
is kept at the desired value of 0.6, then eqn. (24.21)
yield
(Fl
+ F2)0.6
F2
= 0.8Fl
+ 0.2F2
or
Fl/2
The last equation describes the necessary steady state decoupler
which cancels
any effects that the flow control loop might have on the composition control
loop.
Example 24.8 - Physically Unrealizable

Decouplers
--Consider a process whose input-output relationships are given by
y1
Y2
0.5e-1'5S
s+l
2e-l.0s
0.5s+l
ml + e-Os5' _
2s+l m2
1
ml + s+l iii2
Form the two control loops by coupling yl with ml and y2 with m2.
the transfer functions of the two decouplers
(24.24), i.e.
Then,
are given by eqns. (24.23) and
Decoupler
hand
D2(s)
Dl
D2
makes
Dl(s)
is
D1
SUMMARY
R12(s)
Hll(s)
s+l
22s+l'
H21(S)
s+l
2 0.5s+l
H22(4
+1.0s
e
-1.0s
e
is physically unrealizable due to term e

realizable.
+1.0s .
On the other
The reader should elaborate more on the reason that
unrealizable.
AND
CONCLUDING
REMARKS
Interaction among the control loops creates several undesirable effects

on the operation of a process.
The loops disturb each other, i.e. load or
set point changes entering a control loop are propagated to other loops.
But
what is even more serious, the disturbances propagating from one loop to the
.I.
others return back to the original loop and may destabilize the process
altogether.
These hidden feedback actions deteriorate the performance of
the control system and constitute the main "headache" for the control
designer.
Bristol's relative-gain array provides a simple and useful tool to select
the couplings between the various inputs and outputs in such a way that the
interaction among the resulting loops is minimal.
The foundations of the
method are heuristic in nature and there have been instances where the
relative-gain
array
gave
the
wrong
recommendations.
But its simplicity and
practicality are two very attractive features which made it very popular.
Whenever severe interaction still persists even for the best configuration
of control loops, the addition of decouplers
recommended.
in the control system is
The main function of a decoupler
is to provide a control action
equal in size but of opposite sign to the propagating loop interaction.
Thus,
the interaction effect is cancelled and the loops behave as if they were
completely
independent.
It must be noted that perfect decoupling is possible
only if the process is completely known.

with
chemical
Since this is hardly ever the case
processes, the decoupling is only partial, but even so some
form of decoupling should be preferred over no decoupling at all.

There is still large body of material concerning the design of control
systems for processes with multiple inputs and multiple outputs.
two chapters we have only scratched the surface of the problem.
In the last
Several
theories and design techniques are available, either in the time or
s domain.
Due to their mathematical complexity, they are beyond the scope of this text.
The interested reacer
can find several relevant references on these methods at
the end of Part VI.

1.
Explain in your own words the interaction among the control loops of a
flash drum (Figure 23.lb).
Do the same for the loops of a distillation
column (Figure 5.6).

2.
Can you tune separately two interacting loops and retain the stability
of the overall process?
3.
Explain why yes or no.
Consider the process of Figure 24.la.

with
m 1, to form the two loops.
Develop
the
resulting
closed-loop
Couple
4.
equation
changed
or
with
m2
and
y2
Draw the corresponding block diagram.

input-output
to those given by eqns. (24.9) and (24.10).

characteristic
yl
Has
relationships,
the
similar
closed-loop
not?
Define the two open-loop gains used in the definition of the relative
gain
X12.
Give two different ways for computing X12. Why is Xl2 a
good measure of loop interaction? Can you compute All, A21 and X22
when you only know X12? If yes show how, if not explain why.
5.
Repeat item 4. for the relative gain. A.. of a general process with
1J
N inputs and N outputs.
6.
denote?
What do the subscripts i and j
Define the relative-gain array for a process with 2 inputs and 2 outputs.
Extend the d-finition to a process with N inputs and N
outputs.
7.
Consider a process with the following transfer functions; H12(s)

= 0 and Hll(s),
H21W
H22(~) # 0.
Show that the relative-gain array
is given by
I I
1
0
8.
1'
What are the properties of a relative-gain array? How many relative

gains do you need to compute in order to specify completely the relativegain array of a process with; (a) 3 inputs and 3 outputs, (b) PJ inputs
and N outputs?
9.
Explain how you can use the relative-gain array to select the loops
with
minimum
with
interaction.
manipulated
Why would you avoid coupling an output yi
variable
if h
< O? Does
ij
mj
that another relative gain is larger than 1 or not?
10.
imply
Explain.
In Example 24.5 let xl = 0.3 and x2 = 0.7 and select the control
loops.
physical
or
11.
X ij < 0
Have they remained the same or not? Explain your result on

grounds.
decreased?
Has the interaction between the two loops increased
Explain why.
Define an interaction index as follows,

(1 - Xij)/Xij
Consider
the
following
relative-gain
array
A=
and take the interaction index array (using the above definition)
1 1
-4
I
=
1/4
4-
1/4
Which of the two arrays i and f shows more clearly the amount of
relative
12.
interaction
between
the
corresponding
loops?
What do we mean by the term decoupling two control loops? Do the two
loops of the process in item 7 need decoupling? Why, yes or no?
13.
Consider the process of Figure 24.la.

y1
with
required
14.
m2
two
and
y2
with ml.
Form the two loops by coupling
Find the transfer functions of the
decouplers.
Find the steady state decouplers for the two control loops selected in
the process of Example 24.4.
15.
What is one-way decoupling of two control loops and why could it be

acceptable?
16.
Explain in your own words the feedforward control nature of a decoupler.

When do you have perfect decoupling and when not?
17.
After
introducing
the
necessary
decouplers, can you tune the controllers
of two loops separately so that the stability of the overall process is

guaranteed or not?
[Hint:
Examine'closely
the
closed-loop
character-
istic equations of two decoupled loops.]

18.
What do we mean when we say that a decoupler is physically unrealizable?

Explain why decoupler D1
in Example 24.8 is physically unrealizable.
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CHAPTER 25
DIGITAL COMPUTER CONTROL LOOPS
A typical control loop consists of the following components (Figure

26.1); (a) process, (b) measuring sensor and the accompanying transducer (if
necessary), (c) controller, (d) final control element with the associated
electropneumatic converter (if necessary) and (e) transmission lines for
either the process measurement or the control command signal.
As long as
the controller is an analog device (pneumatic or electronic) it can, (i) process continuously the analog signals generated by the sensors and/or the
corresponding
transducers, and (ii) produce continuous, analog command.
signals for the final control element.
It is obvious that in such case
all transmission lines carry continuous, analog signals.

The above picture has been the basis for all control systems we have
examined so far.
The introduction though of a digital computer in the place
of an analog controller creates the need for new hardware elements and new
control design problems.
Before we examine what they are, let us briefly
review the characteristics of a digital computer and how it is interfaced to

the external world.
26.1 THE DIGITAL COMPUTER
Despite the differences in capacity, speed, architecture, all digital
computers designed for process control have much the same functions.
Figure
26.2 indicates the basic components of such a typical digital computer and
the
associated
peripherals.
Let us briefly describe their basic features.
A.
Central
Processing
Unit
Usually it is designated and referred to as CPU for short.
CPU is the
*
heart of a computer system and maintains control over all its functions.
Thus, it is the CPU that,
- determined what is the next operation to be performed by the computer,
- executes the various arithmetic or logic operations,
- retrieves or stores information from or to the memory,
- directs various other operations.like data transfer between memory and
peripheral
devices.
The smallest unit of information that the computer uses for communication
or computations is the bit (from binary digir), which can assume values 0 or
1.
A specified number of bits together form a word.
In addition to the bit
and word, an intermediate unit called byte is also used to characterize information of 8-bit long (i.e. 1 byte - 8 bits).' The byte is a useful unit
because all alphabet letters, numbers, other typing characters, control
characters,
Code
etc. can be fully specified by one byte according to the ASCI
(industry
verifies
standards).
The CPU stores information in the memory or
information from it in terms of words.
The length of a word varies
among the various computers with 8-, 16-, or 32-bit words being the most
common.
Thus, consider the following 16-bit
word; 1001101110010110. A usual
16-bit word computer arranges the binary digits in an octal system (composed
of three binary digits); i.e.
1
001
101
110
010
110
The first digit is reserved for the sign (e.g. 0 = +, 1 = -> and the other 15
form five groups of three digits each and are used to represent an integer
number.
Thus, the above binary is equal to the following octal integer,
-156268 = -{l.84 + 5.83 + 6.82 + 2.8l + 6.81 E -705210
Therefore,
the range of integers in a l&bit word computer is,

from
111
111
111
111
111 = -777778 - 1 = 32,767lO
to
0 111 111 l-l 111 111 = +777778 = +32,76810
The CPU is equipped with a set of hardware instruction to perform some

very basic operations like;
- addition, subtraction and logical comparisons between integer numbers,
- storing data in and recalling data from the memory, and
- transferring data between CPU and the various peripheral devices.
More complicated operations can be performed using combinations of the above
basic
hardware
instructions.
'To expedite and facilitate operations, modern CPU's are equipped with
various
hardware
options.
Among all possible options the following are of
great value to process control computers.

(1)
Hardware
floating-point
Floating-Point
arithmetic
Processor.
operations
and
Performs with very high speed

expands
tremendously
the
computational
speed of the machine.

(2)
Real-Time
Clock.
have a real-time clock.
Every digital computer used for process control must

This is the device that keeps track of the real
world's time and allows the computer to schedule its functions at time
intervals,
in coordination with the various needs of the real world.
Thus,
it is the real-time clock that determines when the computer should take data
from measuring sensors or change the values of manipulated variables.
'(3)
Power
Fail-Safe/Automatic
Restart.
In the event that power to the com-
puter is lost, this option senses the power failure and executes a prespecified
set of instructions before the machine becomes inoperable.
These
instructions
may transfer the control of the process from the digital computer to another
back-up control system and/or save information necessary for an orderly and
automatic restart of the control programs, when electrical power has been
restored to the computer.
trolled
(4)
This option enhances the safety of computer con-
processes.
Watchdog
computers.
Timer.
This is another valuable option for process control
It allows the computer to determine if the control program is
being executed smoothly or if the program is "hung-up" in a never ending

loop.
In the second case an alarm alerts the operator that the computer has
lost control of the process, due to software problems.

B.
Memory
This is the place where the computer stores, (a) the instructions of
the program it executes and (b) the values of the initial data, intermediate
and final results from computations.
The smallest unit of storage is the bit,
but the memory is organized in terms of words.
Thus, 4K words memory is com-
posed of 4,000 16-bit words (for 16-bit word computers).
Each memory word is
characterized by a unique address and during the execution of a program the

CPU keeps track of the memory address which contains the data or the instruction
under
execution.
There are two general types of memory:
The Random Access Memory (RAM)
allows data and instructions to be "written" and "read" at any location

Jaddress)
in the memory. On the contrary, the Read Only Memory (ROM), as its
name implies, does not allow alterations of its content, i.e. a program can
"read" information from the locations of the ROM but cannot "write" in it.
The RAN is used for the storage of any size general purpose programs, while
ROM is employed for the execution of highly specific and small in size programs.
Most of the ROM is "programmed" in the factory and it is used to store
basic instructions for starting up the computer or basic input/output
commands, etc.
Recently
field-programmable
ROM's
have
been
introduced.
The cycle time of a computer is the time required by the CPU to read the
content of one word from memory and restore its content.
According to the
value of the cycle time, we can distinguish the following types of RAM:
- Core memory, with typical cycle time -1 us (slow) and low cost, it is constructed with ferrite rings which retain the stored information when power
fails.
- Metal-Oxide Silicon Nemory
(MOS), with typical cycle -500 ns, is faster and
cheaper than core memory and is based on simple semiconductor device.

- Bipolar Transistor Memory, with typical cycle -300 ns is still faster but
,
more expensive. It is constructed from complex integrated circuits.
The cycle time is not the only factor that determines how fast a computer
is.
Various
additional
determinants,
like the number and type of basic
instructions in CPU, the number of general purpose registers, etc., affect

the speed with which a computer executes a program.
C.
Mass
Storage
Devices
Are used to store large amounts of data and/or instructions. Various

types of mass storage devices are available with different, (a) capacity for
storage, (b) purchase cost and (c) speed for accessing and retrieving information.
The most common units are:
- Disks, with very large capacity for storage (1 f 100 million 16-bit
low access time (5 -:- 100 us) and high cost.
into fixed-head and moving head disks.
words),
The disks are distinguished
The first have capacities in the
range 1-10 million 16-bit words and access time -5 us, while the second
have longer access times (50 :- 75 US) but higher capacities (up to 100
million
words).
Floppy disks are low cost, small capacity devices and are
the most common mass storage facilities for microcomputers.
- Magnetic Tapes.
These are slow speed mass storage devices with significant
capacity (10 f 20 million words).
They are seldomly found on process con-
trol computers and they are used to store off-line large programs and large
amounts of data.
D.
Communication
Peripherals
These equipments are used for communication between the operator and the
computer and include; typewriter terminals, line printers, video display units,
storage scope graphics terminals, card readers, X-Y plotters, etc.
Uith such
devices the computer can display data describing the current state in the
operation of the process it controls, or inform the operator about the current
control actions taken by the computer.
Furthermore,
the
communication
peripherals allow the operator to intervene and change set points, gains and
other characteristic parameters of a control loop, or switch control from the
computer to manual or other back-up control systems.
The
communication
peripherals must be supported by easy to use, highly informative and well

organized
software.
If this is not the case, then the operator may become
frustrated or lose confidence in the computer control system, thus rendering

it useless.
E.
Input/Output
(I/O)
Interface
This is the device which allows the communication between the computer and
the process to be controlled.
In particular, the I/O performs the following
functions:
(a) It receives the signals from the measuring sensors and transducers
associated with the various measured process variables.
may be continuous, alalog
electrical
voltages
These signals
(thermocouple
output,
flow or pressure transducer signals), or simple digital information (onoff), e.g. various relays, on-off valves, etc.
(b) It sends out command signals to the various manipulated variables,

either in analog or digital form.
(c) It allows communication with other computers, which are used either as
process controllers or number "crunchers".
This feature permits the
use of several computers for the "distributed
digital
control
systems".
A digital computer without an input/output interface cannot function as a

process
controller.
But, what are the features of such interface, how does it
operate and how one selects the appropriate interface for a given process
control
application?
These questions are quite central in the design of a
computer based control system and will be covered in the next section with
some details.
Remark:
It is common practice to characterize the digital computers as large

or
maxi-computers, mini-computers
or
micro-computers.
The stan-
dards for such classification are often obscure. Generally though

a large computer has words of 32 or 64 bits, memory larger than
128,000 words and a large number of associated peripherals. It is
primarily used for scientific or business purposes and physically it
occupies a large number of cabinets (10 to 15).
Its cost is nor-
mally larger than $500,000. A minicomputer is a 12-, 16-, or 18-bit

machine (16-bit the most popular) with 4,000 up to 128,000 words of
memory.
It has several peripherals and its cost may go up to
$200,000, depending on the size of memory and associated peripherals.

Microcomputers
are
normally
characterized
words, although one may see 16-bit

micros.
machines
with
8-bit
processors characterized as
They possess from 1,000 up to 32,000 words of memory and
a few peripheral devices.
The cost of the basic CPU is less than
$1,000 and goes up depending on the memory size and peripherals.
1laxicomputers
are very costly for process control purposes and
are not used.
Minicomputers are well suited to control a large
number of control loops.
But, the future in process control
applications belongs to micros due to their low cost and

tremendous
26.2
COMPUTER-PROCESS
abilities.
INTERFACE
FOR
DATA
ACQUISITION
AND
CONTROL
Return to Figure 26.1, which shows all necessary hardware elements in a

loop with analog controller.
Replace the controller by a digital computer.
Then, the control functions (e.g. feedback P, PI, PID laws) will be performed
by an executable program (in BASIC, FORT&W, assembly language, etc.), which
resides in the memory of the computer.
It is obvious that such control
program requires as data (input) the values of the measured outputs and
produces as results (output) the values that the manipulated variables should
have in order to keep the controlled variables a't the desired set points.
For a digital computer both input (data) and output (results) are in digital
form and correspond to discrete-time values.
Here is where problems of
incompatibility arise and dictate the necessary hardware elements for an

input/output interface between a digital computer and the controlled process.
A.
Samplers
The process measurement data (flow rates pressures, liquid levels,
temperatures,
sensors
and
etc.) are provided continuously in time by the various measuring

transducers.
discreteltime
The computer though can handle information on a
basis, i.e. at given time instants for the following reason:
the time taken by the computer to "read" the measured value, calculate the
error, and make a control correction is finite.
measured
computer
value
If during this period the
changed, this is not recognized by the computer.
"reads" in effect at discrete time intervals.
Then, the
This is denoted
through the use of a sampler, which is simply a switch closing at specified

time intervals.
In other words, a sampler takes in values of a continuous
signal and produces a sequence of sampled values at particular time instants

(Figure 26.3a).
B.
Hold
Elements
On the ohter hand, most of the final elements (pneumatic valves in

particular) are actuated by continuous in time signals (e.g. compressed air).
Therefore,
the control commands produced by the computer program should be
converted from discrete time to continuous in time signals.

plished by the hold elements.
Figure 26.3b
This is accom-
shows schematically the conversion
of a sequen-e of discrete in time signals to a stair-step like continuous

signal.
Here, the hold element keeps the value of a discrete in time signal
constant for all the period until the next signal comes along.
C.
Analog to Digital Converters (ADC)

The measurement data are not only provided continuously in time, but they
are also analog electrical signals in nature.
They cannot be used directly by
the control program which requires data in a digital form (e.g. information
coded in l&bit words, for a 16-bit word machine).
Therefore, the input
interface should contain an analog to digital converter (ADC or A/D converter).

The analog signals coming from measuring devices and sensors are modified
so that they fall within a prespecified voltage range, e.g. 0-lOV, 0-5V, tlOV,
or +5V, etc.
The digital signal produced by an A/D converter is expressed by
an integer number in a binary form.
The resolution of the conversion depends
on the number of bits used by the converter to encode an analog value in

digital form.
The most common converters use 8-bit or 12-bit resolution, with
the second providing smaller error and being more costly.
Consider a voltage range 0-1V and an n-bit converter.
The n bits
integer numbers (including zero), which in turn define 2n-l
define 2n
voltage intervals between 0 and 1.
Thus, the accuracy of the conversion
expressed by the value of resolution is given by,
1
Resolution = 2"-1
(26.1)
For a 12-bit converter the resolution is about 0.05 per cent, i.e. when two
voltage values differ by more than 0.05% of the prespecified voltage range,
the converter will distinguish the two signals and assign two different
integers for them.
0.4%.
For an 8-bit converter the resolution is smaller, about
Usually, both 8-bit and 12-bit converter's are satisfactory for process
control
purposes.
Converters with more than 12 bits are used only when
extremely high precision is required and are quite costly.

The conversion speed is very high and typical A/'D converters used for
process control allow 20,000-lOO,O-0
conversions per second.
Higher
rates
can be achieved by high-performance converters and are useful only for very
special
problems.
To avoid the need for a large number of A/D converters handling the conversion of a large number of different analog signals, it is usual practice
to use a multiplexer.
This is an electronic switch with several ports, which
can serve sequentially several lines carrying analog signals (Figure 26.4).
D.
(DBC)
The control commands produced by the control program are in digital form,
but most of the final control elements, pneumatic valves in particular, are
actuated by analog signals (e.g. compressed air).
To erase this incompati-
bility, the output interface should include a ) (DAC

or D/A converter).
Thus,
D/A converters function in the reverse manner than A/D converters.

for a 12-bit converter we can have 2
12
= 4096 integer numbers defining 4095

.
intervals of the prespecified voltage range, say 0-10 volts. Then, the integer
number 516 causes an analog output of
$$lO
E.
Digital
= 1.26 volts.
I/O
A digital computer control system may be required to handle digital

inputs or outputs for a variety of reasons.
(a)
Information
l
Typical examples are:
concerning
the status of relays turning pumps, valves, lights and other devices
onoroff,
the status of multiplexers,
the settings of various switches,
a the status of communication peripherals and various digital logic

devices.
(b)
Control
l
commands
to
relays, switches, solenoids, digital logic devices,
0 stepping motors.
(c) Communication between
0 several computers
l
a computer and its peripherals, etc.
Therefore,
the I/O interface is not designed to receive analog digital input
and output signals.

The digital signals are fully compatible with a computer so that no
special converters are needed in the I/O interface.
The
transmission
(input
or output) of digital signals by the I/O interface can be done either in
parallel (two-way, in and out, simultaneous transmission) or in series (oneway, in or out transmission).
The length of a digital information transmitted
in or out is one word (i.e. 16 bits for a 16-bit
machine). The transmission
rates vary from very low to very high, and are expressed in terms of band rates,
where one band = lOx(number
Remark:
of bytes transmitted/second).
When the prespecified range of voltages involves negative and

positive values then the first bit of an A/D or D/A converter is
used to denote the sign.
Thus, consider the range k5V. For a
(12-1)
12-bit converter we have 2
= 2048 positive integer numbers
(including zero) to represent voltage values in the positive
range 0 5 volts 2 5.
Also, there are 2047 negative integer num-
bers (excluding zero) covering the range -5 5 volts < 0.

26.3
COMPUTER
CONTROL
LOOPS
In the previous two sections we gave a brief description of a digital

computer
and
its
characteristics, of the associated peripheral and of the
I/O interface required for data acquisition and control.
In this section we
will examine the various types of control loops, which result when a digital
computer is used as the main controller, as well as the necessary hardware
components.
A.
Single-Loop
Control
Figure 26.1 shows the hardware elements of a single-loop control system,

using an analog controller.
digital
When we replace the analog controller by a
computer, the following changes take place:
(a) The measurement signal from the sensor or transducer is sampled at

prespecified intervals of time, using a simple sampler.
converted from continuous to discrete-time signal.
Thus, it is
This in turn is
converted from analog to digital by an A/D converter and enters the

computer.
(b) The hardwired analog logic of an analog controller is replaced by the

software of the control program which resides in the memory and is
executed by the computer whenever it is called.
(c) The control commands produced by the control program are digital and
discrete-time
signals.
They are first converted to analog by a D/A
converter and then to continuous in time signals by simple hold elements

before they actuate the final control elements.
Figure 26.5 summarizes the above changes and indicates all hardware components
present in a single computer control loop.
We observe that both continuous
and discrete-time signals are present in the loop.

and d: respectively.
It should also,be
They are denoted by c:
noted that the set-point values,
as well as the values of the adjustable control parameters (e.g. gains, reset
- or rate time constants, etc.), are now introduced by the operator through a
typewriter
B.
terminal.
Multiple-Loop
Control
A digital computer can be used to control simultaneously several outputs

and not only one as discussed above.
We will still need an interface between
the computer and the process, but now is somewhat different. Thus:
- Instead of using one A/D converter for every measured variable, we employ a
single A/D converter which serves all measured variables sequentially
through a multiplexer.
- A multiplexer can also be used to obtain several outputs from a single D/A
converter.
- The control program is now composed of several subprograms, each one used
to control a different loop.
Furthermore,
the control program should be
able to coordinate the execution of the various subprograms so that each

loop
functions
properly.
Figure 26.6 shows the use of a single computer (CPU) to control two outputs.
When a digital computer has assumed all control actions of a conventional

controller, then we talk about direct digital control (DDC).
Both systems in
Figures 26.5 and 26.6 are examples of direct digital control.

C.
Supervisory
Control
Unlike the situation of direct digital control, we may use the computer
to change only the set points or the values of the adjustable control
parameters of the local controllers.
supervisory
control
The resulting system is known as
(Figure 26.7a).
The local controllers may be conventional, analog devices or digital

computers
implementing
direct
digital
control.
An I/O interface is needed to
inform the supervising computer about the state of the local control loops and
for the computer to provide the set point or other changes to the local controllers.
When the local controllers are digital computers, then the I/O
interface carries only digital signals, allowing the communication between the
supervising computer and the local DDC's.
Supervisory control has been applied extensively in chemical processes,
to optimize their operation (minimize operating cost, maximize efficiency in
energy or raw materials utilization, maximize
production
profit,
etc.).
Thus, one computer supervises and coordinates the operating of several control
loops, deciding what are the best set-point values for the various loops.
Figure 26.7b
shows schematically the architecture of a supervisory control
system for a chemical plant.

Remarks:
(1) In some cases, the voltage signal produced by the measuring

sensor or transducer is very low and easily corrupted by
noise.
Typical example is the ou.tput of a thermocouple which
is of the order of milivolts.
Low voltage signals are
normally amplified to the prespecified voltage range for
A/D
conversion.
If several signals need amplification, then
we may use a multiplexer first, followed by a single common

amplifier.
(2) The computer is physically located at some distance from
the controlled process.
We can put the computer-process
I/O interface, (a) close to the computer or (b) close to

the controlled process.
In the first case we have analog signals transmitted over some distance
between the process and the interface.
This
approach
yields
satisfactory
results if the analog signals are transmitted over short distances, i.e. no
longer than 200-300 ft.
For longer distances there is significant deterio-
ration in the transmitted signal due to voltage losses and cable capacitance.
Furthermore,
external noise may seriously corrupt the transmitted analog
signal.
Alternative (b) is preferred when the transmission distance is long and
there are strong sources of external noise.
In such case the proximity
between process and interface allows conversion of "clean" and "strong"

analog signals to ditital, which can then be transmitted to the computer.
Digital signals are less susceptible to external noise and can be transmitted
over long distances by telephone lines.
(3) Microcomputers are normally used for local direct digital
control of several loops (5 to 10). Minicomputers are
usually employed as supervising computers in a supervisory
control
architecture.
26.4 NEW CONTROL DESIGN PROBLEMS

The introduction of a digital computer for process control raises some
new design questions, which were not covered by earlier chapters.
(a>
The digital computer uses and produces information in discrete-time

form.
Therefore,
the continuous process models which we have used for
the design of analog controllers are not appropriate.
We need to
develop a mechanism which will convert the differential equations

describing the process to difference equations, which are convenient
for
(b)
representation.
How fast should we sample a measured variable to produce its discretetime
(4
discrete-time
equivalent?
Does the sampling rate affect the quality of control?
How should we reconstruct a continuous signal from its discrete-time

equivalent,
so that we can actuate the final control elements?
How
does the type of reconstruction (i.e. type of hold element) affect

the quality of control?
Cd)
The Laplace
transforms allowed us to develop simple input-output
relationships for a process and provided the framework for easy

analysis and design of loops with continuous, analog controllers.
For discrete-time systems we need to introduce new analytical tools.
This will be provided by the z-transforms.
(e>
Does the design of a control loop change when we use digital computer
control?
loop?
What about the stability conditions and the tuning of a
(f) How can we use the tremendous computational power of a computer to

implement some advanced notions of process control like; feedforward,
adaptive,
inferential,
optimizing,
etc.?
In the following chapters we will address all the above and other questions
related to the design of computer control system.
Before closing this section, let us make a few remarks on the software
required to implement the control laws, and which constitutes a neiJ
control
design problem introduced by the use of digital computers.

There are two classes of software programs needed for computer process
control
applications; the computer system nrograms

- and the application
programs.
(1)
Computer
System
Programs.
Are supplied by the manufacturer of process
control computers or specialized software houses.
They include:
- Operating Systems, which deal with the real-time operation of the computer
control
system.
They supervise the execution of the control programs and
to this end organize the various operations of the hardware components in an

orderlymanner-
providingefficientuse
of
the
CPU,
memory,
communication
peripherals and I/O interface.

- Utility Programs, such as assemblers, editors, debuggers, compilers, etc.
which support the development of the application programs written by the
users.
(2)
Application
Programs.
These are written by the user and perform the
specific functions required by the control problem such as;

- monitoring the measured process variables at specified time intervals,
- executing the algorithms of the control laws,
- coordinating the control actions to the various final control elements,
- computing and changing set points,
- computing and changing the values of the adjustable controller parameters,

- calling alarms if process variables exceed preset limits, etc.
The application programs may be written in high level languages such as
FORTRAN or low level such as machine language.
High level languages are
easily understood by the programmer and allow an easy statement for the
solution
procedure.
They require though increased memory and slow down the
execution because the FORTRAN statements for example must be translated into
the machine language before they can be executed.
Normally,
one writes the
complex part of a control program'in a high level language because it is an

overwhelming task for machine language programming, which is only used to
encode those functions performed at high speeds and repeatedly (data
acquisition,
SLWMARY
implementation of control commands, etc.).
Digital computers in chemical process control are already a successful

reality and offer exciting possibilities for the future.
The high compu-
tational speed coupled with large capacities to store information make the
digital
computers
very
"intelligent"
process
controllers.
It must be noted
though that the advanced and continuously advancing technology of the microprocessors has not been fully exploited by the process control designer, and
that a tremendous potential exists.
chemical
This is the challenge for the new
engineers.
A computer control system is composed basically of (a) the central processing unit with the associated peripherals (memory, mass storage devices,
communication devices) and (b) the I/O interface between the computer and the
process it controls.
From all specific hardware features we should single out
the real-time clock which allows the computer operations to be synchronized
with the real-time needs of the controlled process.
It is not easy to have
computer control without a real-time clock.

A digital computer is a machine that handles information in digital and
discrete-time form, which is incompatible with the largely analog and continuous in time signals of a chemical process.
This
incompatibility
is
erased by the computer process I/O interface with its samplers, hold elements,
multiplexers, A/D and D/A converters.
Two are the main modes of computer control; the direct digital (DDC) and
the supervisory control.
The first is implemented by local microcomputers
which can handle from 5 to 10 loops each, thus replacing as many analog controllers.
The economics of DDC are favorable and their use expands continuously.
The second does not implement all control actions but it is limited to the
supervision of local controllers and the change of their set points and
adjustable
parameters.
Supervisory control is employed to optimize the
performance of a chemical plant by optimally adjusting the set points of the

local controllers, which may analog or digital.
The use of a digital computer as process controller creates a new set of
design questions such as; mathematical
tools
to
handle
discrete-time
signals
and process models, process analysis and controller design techniques for
discrete-time systems, how to use the computational power for advanced control
techniques,
etc.
These questions define also the scope of the chapters to
follow.
1.
What is a digital and what is an analog signal (information)? Identify

their differences and discuss how one can be converted to the other.
2.
Define the units of bit, tyte, word.

information in a digital system?
Why are all needed to encode
637
3.
Describe
the structure
the characteristics
4.
of a conventional
of each hardware
digital computer, and identify
component
in this structure.
What are the basic and what are the optional features of a central
processing unit?
Are all of them needed for a process control
computer?
5.
What is the real-time
clock needed for? How does it function?
it very difficult
to use a computer for process control without
real-time
Do you have any suggestions
clock?
time elapsed without a real-time

6.
Identify the functions
Why is
a
on how you can count
clock?
and hardware
components of a computer-process
I/O interface.
7.
Explain
in simple physical terms how you can convert a continuous
Why are these two operations
a discrete in time signal and vice versa.

necessary
8.
Describe
in a computer-process
I/O interface?
in physical terms the conversion
ditital and vice versa.
to
of a signal from analog to
Why are these conversions
needed in the I/O
interface?
9.
What
is easier and less costly to do; (a) multiplex
N analog signals
first and then use a common A/D converter
or (b) convert the N analog
signals to digital first and then multiplex
them to enter the computer
through a single, common word of storage?

10.
Repeat
question
9., but now use N digital signals, a multiplexer
D/A converters.
11.
For a prespecified
voltage range of +lOV, find the resolution
12-bit A/D converter.

voltages
volts?
of a
What are the integer numbers representing
of -2V and +5V? What is the possible
conversion
error in
and
12.
Find the voltages which are represented by the integer numbers -712 and
+1514, within a prespecified range +lOV.
What is the possible conversion
error in volts?
13.
Find the number of bits needed for a D/A converter to yield an error
less than 0.0001 volts, for a prespecified range of voltages 0 to 5V.
14.
Define the direct digital and supervisory control. Which one is used
for regulatory control actions and which for servo operations? In a
supervisory
control
mode, what are better as local controllers,
analog or digital devices?

15.
Discuss
relative
advantages
and
disadvantages.
What size computers would you use for DDC and supervisory control?
Why?, How do the local DDC's communicate with the supervising computer?
16.
Identify all components of a DDC system suing one microprocessor to

handle the four loops of a flash drum (see Example 23.2, Figure 23.lb).
17.
Describe supervisory control system for the plant of Example 23.4

(Figure 23.10) using as local controllers; (a) analog devices controlling one loop each, and (b) microcomputers which are capable of
handling four loops each.
How would you select the loops to be con-
trolled by each local microprocessor?

18.
What is high level and what a low level language for computer control
applications?
19.
Which one would you use and why?
Discuss the new design problems raised by the use of a digital computer
for process control.
TRAPJSDUCER
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CHAPTER 26
FROM CONTINUOUS TO DISCRETE-TIME SYSTEMS
r
When
we use.continuous,
continuous in time.
analog controllers, all signals in a loop are
Then, the dynamic behavior of each component in the loop
(process, measuring device, controller, final control element). as well as the

response of the overall control system can be effectively analyzed by continuous
models (differential equations in the time domain or transfer functions in the
Laplace
domain).
Theintroduction of a digital computer in a process control loop changes

the above picture because a computer can handle information on a discrete-time
basis only, i.e. at particular time instants.
As we can see from Figure 26.5,
in a computer control loop we have both continuous and discrete-time signals

present.
The implication of this feature is twofold:
(a) Continuous signals must be converted to discrete-time before they can

be "read" by the computer and the discrete-time control commands produced by the computer must be converted to continuous signals before
they can actuate the final control elements.
(b) The continuous models (e.g. differential equations in the time-domain,
or input-output models in the Laplace
domain) are not convenient to
analyze the dynamic behavior of loops with computer control and discretetime models are needed.
Therefore,
computer
before proceeding with the development of design techniques for

control
systems, we should study how to convert continuous signals
and models to discrete-time equivalents and vice versa.

of Chapter 27.
This is the subject
27.1
SAMPLING
CONTINUOUS
SIGNALS
Consider a line carrying a measurement signal y, which varies continuously in time as shown in Figure 27.la.
The line is interrupted by a
switch, called sampler, which closes every T

s
seconds and remains closed
for an infinitesimally short period of time (theoretically a time point).

The x's of Figure 27.lb show the value y,
of the line, when T S = 1 second.
of the signal at the other end
We notice that the resulting signal has
values only when the time is multiple of T5, i.e. at

t
nT
time
points
n=0,1,2,***
and it is zero for any other times.
The signal of Figure 27.lb is called
discrete-time or sampled representation of the continuous signal in Figure

27.la, with a sampling period of 1 second.
Figure 27.1~
shows another sampled
representation of the same continuous signal but with sampling period of

three seconds.
Two observations are easy to make:
- As the sampling period tends to zero, the sampled representation comes

closer to the continuous signal but requires an increasingly large number
of sampled values.
- On the other hand, as the sampling period increases, fewer sampled values
are required, but the sampled representation of a continuous signal
deteriorates,
and
the reconstruction of the original signal becomes poor
or impossible.
Thus, the obvious question arises:
"How does one select the best sampling period so that the
sampled representation of a continuous signal is satisfactory, without requiring excessively large number of
sampled values?"
There exists a mathematical answer to the above question whose development is
quite complex and goes beyond the scope of this text. We will try to give a
practical answer based on the typical dynamic responses encountered in

chemical
processes.
Example 27.1 - Sampling the Response of First-Order Systems

Consider a first-order linear system subject to an input step change.
Figure 10.4 shows the response of the system with time.
In Section 10.4 we
found that the response reaches the 63.2% of its final value when the time
elapsed is equal to one time constant
Also, when t = 2r
the response
P'
P
has reached 86.5% of the final value, at t = 3r
the 95%, etc. Therefore,
P
if the sampled represenntation of the response is going to be of any value,
the sampling period must be smaller than one time constant.
How much smaller?
Practical experience suggests that a sampling period between 0.1 and 0.2 of
one time constant yields satisfactory results.
Suppose that the first-order system possesses dead time.
response to a step input is given by Figure 12.3a.
If the dead time, td, is
of the same order of magnitude as the time constant, T

sampling period equal to 0.1 ~~ or 0.1
Then its
P'
then select the
whichever is smaller. If td
P'
is much smaller than
then neglect the dead time and take Ts = 0.1 T .
rP
P
The above rational can be extended.
Exam le 27.2 - Sam line

2
The rule developed in Example 27.1 for the sampling rate of a firstorder response can be extended to cover a large class of overdamped systems.
Figure 16.12a
shows the experimental response of an overdamped process to an
input step change.
The S-shaped response of Figure 16.12a
can be approximated
by the response of a first-order plus dead-time system, as described in
Section 16.5.
dead time td.
Thus, we can identify the dominant time constant r
and the
The sampling period should be 0.1 -cp or p.1 td, whichever
is smaller, or 0.1 T if
P
.
td
is much smaller than
rP'
Example 27.3 - Sampling the Oscillating Response of a System

Oscillatory behavior is exhibited by underdamped open or closed-loop
systems (see Chapter 11) and by the steady state response of linear systems
in general subject to periodic, sinusoidal input changes (Chapter 17).
To develop a good sampled representation of an oscillating signal follow
the rule:
"Sample an oscillating signal more than two times per cycle
of oscillation, otherwise it is impossible to reconstruct
the original signal from its sampled values."
To domonstrate the above rule consider the sinusoidal signal of Figure 27.2a
sampled once per cycle.
The sampled values are shown in Figure 27.2b and
Figure 27.2~ shows clearly that we cannot reconstruct uniquely the original
sinusoid because there exist several waves passing through the sampled
values.
Therefore,
sampling with a period equal to the period of oscillation
renders useless sampled values.

The example of Figure 27.3 demonstrates a serious error which can be
committed by an improper selection of the sampling period.
The sinusoid
of Figure 27.3a is sampled with a period equal to 314 of the period of

oscillation (i.e. 413 samples per period or better expressed 4 samples per 3
cycles of oscillation).
The sampled values are shown in Figure 27.3b. When
we attempt to reconstruct the sinusoid going through these sampled values, we

take the signal of Figure 27.3~ which is clearly different than the original.
Let us now develop a quantitative description for the sampling operation

and the resulting sampled values of a continuous signal.
The sampler is a physical switch which stays closed for a very small but
finite period of time, At, around the sampling instant.
During this time the
sampler output takes the value of the continuous signal and has the form
shown in Figure 27.4a, or approximately the pulse form of Figure 27.4b. To
develop a concise mathematical descripti.on we assume that the sampler acts
instantly, i.e.
At-@.
To retain the same area under the pulse as At+0 the
height of the pulse goes to infinity and at the limit we take an impulse of
infinite
magnitude, zero duration and an area ("strength") under the impulse
equal to the magnitude of the continuous signal at a sampling instant.

the impulse at the sampling point t = n Ts; n=0,1,2,***
Y* (nTs)
= y(nT,)*b(t
is given by
(27.1)
- nTs)
where &(t - nTs) is the. unit impulse or Dirac function at

Section 7.2 and Figure 7.3).
Thus,
t = nT, (see
A sampler with the idealized output given by
eqn. (27.1) is known as ideal impulse sampler.

We can extend eqn. (27.1) to apply for any time. Thus, the sequence of
impulses y*(t) coming out of an impulse sampler is expressed by the following
equation in the time-domain
y"(t) = y*(OTs) + y*(lT,) + y*(2Ts) +
. .
.
= y(0)6(t) + y(Ts)6(t - Ts) + y(2Ts)6(t
- 2Ts) +
*a
and finally,
y"(t) =
nzo y(nTs>S(t
- nTs)
(27.2)
Equation (27.2) is compatible with the idealized physical picture we have

considered,
i.e.
- at the sampling instants the "strength" of the impulses is equal to the

value of the continuous signal, and
- between the sampling instants the "strength" is zero, that is, no output
value.
Remark:
Take the Laplace
transforms of both sides of eqn. (27.2)

-nT
y*(s) = ngo y(nTs,dh - nT,)] = nY& Y(nTs) e
s c&s(t) 1
From the last equation we find an expression for the sequence of

impulses coming out of the impulse sampler in the Laplace
domain
(i.e. s-domain),
T(s)
nzo y(nTs)
-TS
27.2 RECONSTRUCTION OF CONTINUOUS SIGNALS FROM
(27.2a)
THEIR DISCRETE-TIXE
VALUES
The discrete-time nature of a digital computer implies that when a computer is used to control a process the control commands are given periodically
as impulses at particular time instants and not continuously in time.
Such
sequence of control impulses cannot maintain a final control element continuously in operation.
Thus, a valve opens when a control impulse from the
computer reaches the valve, but then it closes until the next control impulse
arrives at the valve.
Such control action is undesirable and the question is;
how can we construct a continuous signal from its discrete-time values?

Consider a control signal produced intermittently every T seconds by a
computer and expressed by a series of impulses (discrete-time values) shown
in Figure 27.5a,
m*(O) = m(O)d(t), m*(T) = m(T)G(t-T),
m*(2T) = m(2T)6(t-2T),**-
The simplest way to convert a sequence of discrete-time values into a continuous signal is to keep the discrete-time value of the signal at
t = nT,
n=0,1,2,***
constant, until the.next
one comes along.. Thus, if
m(t) is
the resulting continuous signal, we have,

m(t)
= m(nT)
for
nT L t s (n+l)T
and
n=0,1,2,***
'(27.3)
In particular;
- for
O<t<T
m(t) = m(O)
- for
T5t< 2T
m(t) = m(T)
- for 2T -< t < 3T
m(t) = m(2T), etc.
The resulting stair-step continuous signal is shown in Figure 27.5b. The

conversion represented by eqn. (27.3) is known as zero-order hold.
It does
not represent the only way to construct a continuous signal from its discretetime values.
Consider two successive discrete-time values, say m[(n-l)T] and m(nT).
We assume that for the next period
nT 5 t -< (n+l)T the continuous signal can
be given by a linear extrapolation of the'previous two values, i.e.
m(t)
m(nT)
m(nT) - m[(n-1)Tl .(t - nT)

T
for
nT I t < (n+l)T
and
n=2,3,4,***
Equation (27.4) yields the so-called first-order hold and the continuous
signal it produces is shown in Figure 27.5~.
Notice that the first-order hold
element needs at least two values to start the construction of the continuous
signal while the zero-order hbld need only one.
It is possible to develop second-, third-, or higher-order hold elements.
They need 3, 4, or more initial discrete-time values before they can start the
construction of a continuous.
As the order of a hold element increases, the
computational load increases and becomes more complex, with
marginal
improvements
in the quality of reconstructed signal.
Therefore,
for most of the process
control applications the zero-order hold element provides satisfactory results

with low computational load and it is normally used.
To improve the quality of
a reconstructed signal is better to decrease the period between two successive

discrete-time values, rather than increase the order of the hold element.
Example 27.4 - Comparing the Results of Zero- and First-Order Hold Elements
We will consider two distinct cases of discrete-time signals; (a) slowly
varying with time (Figure 27.6a) and (b) rapidly changing with time (Figure
27.7a):
- For the slowly varying signal the superviority of the first-order hold
is obvious (see Figures 27.6b and 27.6~). This is due to the almost
constant slope of the changing signal over large periods of time which
permits
successful
linear
extrapolation.
Nevertheless,
the
performance
of the zero-order hold is also considered satisfactory.

- For the rapidly changing signal both reconstructions are rather poor (see
Figures 27.7b and 27.7~).
This is mainly due to the long period of
occurrence of discrete-time values and any improvement should come from

shortening this period, i.e. have more discrete-time values of the signal
per unit of time. Nevertheless, Figures 27.7b and 27.7~ indicate some very
useful
l
features:
The zero-order hold element by this nature it never generates

"extreme"
values, outside the range of the discrete-time values. In
other words, the zero-order hold produces a "conservative" continuous

signal which is satisfactory during periods of slow change and unsatisfactory during periods of fast change in the values of the discrete-time
signal.
The first-order hold produces significant excursions beyond the range

of the discrete-time values.
This could produce undesirably large
control actions which may endanger the stability of the controlledprocess.
Remarks:
(1) The mathematical basis behind the construction of a hold

element, independently of its order, is the following.
Consider the continuous signal, m(t), which must be constructed
etc.
from
discrete-time
The Taylor series of
values
m(T), m(wT), m(3T),
m(t) around a sampled value
m(nT) is given by
m(t) = m(nT) + ($)t=nT(t-nT)++
2
(d)
dt2 t=nT(t-nT)2+***
If we retain only the zero-order terms (i.e. constant) we

take the zero-order hold element (eqn. (27.3)),
m(t) = m(nT)
nT < t < (n+l)T
(27.3)
If we retain the zero- and first-order terms we take,

m(t) = m(nT) + (g)t=nT(t-nT)
The derivative (dm/dt)t=nT
can be approximated by,
(chn) t=nT = m(nT) - ;[ (n-l)Tl

Thus, we take the first-order hold element (eqn. (27.4)),
m(t) = m(nT) + m(nU - m[(n-1)Tl
T
(t-nT)
(27.4)
Similarly, by retaining additional terms, 2nd,
3rd,
order we can develop higher-order hold elements.

necessary
derivatives
will
be
numerically
etc.
All
approximated
as above, but they will require an increasing number of

discrete-time
values.
(2) The output of a zero-order hold element is like pulse,

having a constant height equal to m(nT) and duration
T.
After recalling that the Laplace
transform of a unit
pulse is given by eqn. (7.12), then from eqn. (27.3) we

find that the Laplace
transform of a zero-order hold out-
put is given by
iids>
1 - emST
m(nT)
The last equation implies that the transfer function of a

zero-order
hold
element is given by
-ST
Ho(s)
= 1 - e
(27.5)
(3) In a similar manner we can find the transfer functions

of a first-order 'hold element
HIW
27.3
CONVERSION
OF
CONTINUOUS
1 + ST (1 - ewST 2
T
>
S
TO
DISCRETE-TIME
(27.6)
MODELS
We will start by recalling the typical computer loop for direct digital
control shown in Figure 26.5.
For presentational purposes only we simplify
the loop to that shown in Figure 27.8 by retaining its basic four components;
process, A/D converter with the associated sampler, digital controller, and
D/A converter with teh associated hold element. We notice that both continuous and discrete-time signals are *present
in the loop.
Pius:
- The process has continuous input and output signals and consequently it
can be described by continuous models (differential equations in the time
domain,
transfer functions in the Laplace
domain).
- The discrete-time output of the A/D converter can be modeled as a function

of the continuous input, by eqn. (27.2) in the time domain or by eqn.
(27.2a)
in the Laplace domain.
- The hold elements can be represented by the corresponding transfer

functions
(eqns. (27.5) and (27.6)).

time.
- The digital controller has both input and output signals discrete in
So far we have not studied any techniques to model such systems which from
now on we will call discrete.
Let us go a step further.
If the main controller were a continuous feed-
back PID device, the output of the controller would be given by eqn. (13.6) in
Section 13.2,
c(t)
= K$t)
KC
+T
c(t)dt
I i
+ Kc rD
g + cs
(13.6)
A continuous model for the control action such as that of eqn. (13.6) is
inconvenient for a digital controller which uses error values at particular .
time instants, i.e.
E(O), c(TS), E(2TS) ,*-*,E(nTS) ,***
and produces control commands at discrete
time
points, i.e.
c(T), c(2T),***,c(nT),***
But, how can we convert a continuous model to an equivalent discrete-time one?
This is the question to resolve in this section.
Example 27.5 - The Discrete-Time Model of a Digital PID Controller

Start with the continuous analog of a PID control action, given by eqn.
(13.6).
We will examine each term (proportiaonal, integral, derivative)
separately:
- Every sampling period a sampled value of the process output enters the
computer.
Let y(nTs) be the sampled value at the n-th sampling instant.

.
y(nTs) is compared to the set-point value at the same instant and yields
the value of the discrete-time error,
E(nT,)
ySp(nTs)
y(nTs)
Then, the discrete-time control action produced by the proportional mode

is,
Kc E(nTs)
- The control action produced by the integral mode is based on the integration of errors over a time period.
Since the values of the errors are
available on a discrete-time basis, the integral /s(t)dt can only be

approximated
by
numerical
integration.
evaluation of an integral, using
Figure 27.9a shows the numerical
rectangular
integration.
It is easy to
see that
c(t>dt
T s k;. 4kTs)
Therefore,
the integral model control action is given by
Kc Ts n
- $0 ENS)
3
- For the derivative mode action we need a numerical evaluation of the
derivative deldt.
Figure 27.9b shows a first-order difference approxi-
mation of the derivative.

K
Therefore,
rD
ds
c rD dt = Kc < {E(nTs) - c[(n-l)Tsl)
Consequently,
the control action of a digital PID controller is determined
by the follwoing discrete-time model,
KcTs
c(nTs) = K;E ,(nTs) + ~~ kz0
KCTD
dkTs) + -y- {s(nTs) - s[(n-l)Tsll+cs
S
(27.6)
which is nothing else but a numerical approximation of its continuous

counterpart.
Due to the use of finite differences for the approxi-
mation of integrals and derivatives, eqn. (27.6) is known as the

difference
equation.
Example (27.5) is very instructive on how to develop a discrete-time

model from its equivalent continuous one.
The procedure can be generalized
for any continuous dynamic model as follows:

(a) Start with the differential equations describing a continuous model in
the
(b)
time
domain.
Approximate the derivatives of any order by finite differences.
(c) Approximate any integral terms in the model by a scheme of numerical

integration.
(d) The values of any simple terms are equated to the corresponding
discrete-time
values
at
the
sampling
instants.
The
discrete-time
modeling equation(s) resulting from the above procedure is known

as the difference equation(s) in contrast to the term differential
equation(s) used for continuous model.
From courses in numerical analysis we know that there exists a variety
of techniques to approximate derivatives and integral terms.
A detailed
exposition of such methods goes beyond the scope of the present text and
the interested reader can consult the various references on numberical
analysis
cited in the References section at the end of Part VII.

Let us close this section with more examples on the time discretization
of continuous models.
Example 27.6 - Discrete-Time Model of a First-Order Process

A nonlinear first-order process is described by,
AY
dt
f(y,d
(27.7)
Approximate the derivative by first-order difference, i.e.

LiY
dt
yn+l - yn
T
Then, at a given time instant t = nT eqn. (27.7) yields,

Yn+l
yn
(27.8)
T-f(yn,mn>
Equation (27.8) is the discrete-time dynamic model of a first-order process

and shows what the output of the process will be at the next time instant,
using current values of the input, mn, and output, y,.
For a linear first-order system we have (see eqn. (10.2))
rP
ay
= + y = KPm
and using the above we can easily derive the difference equation which is the
discrete-time
model,
Yn+l
[Note:
= (1 --;T-)y, +
P
KPT
m
rP
n
(27.9)
In all the above expressions we have used the following simplifying
notation, y(nT) 5 Y,
successive
and m(nT) z mn.
discrete-time
T is the time period between two
values].
Example 27.7 - Discrete-Time Model of a Second-Order Process

A linear second-order system is described by eqn. (11.2),
p &
251 ay
dt
+ y = Kpm
(11.2)
dt2
We have already seen how to approximate the first-order derivative, i.e.
h57
4.Y
dt
Yn+1 - YIl
=
For the second-order derivative we have:
= $ (Y,+2 - 2Yn+1 + Y,)

Replace the derivatives in eqn. (11.2) by their approximations and take the
following
difference
equation,
+ 25 I (Y,+~ - Y,) + Y, = Kp mn
12 (Yn+2 - 2yni-l + Y,)

T2
or
2
2
=
2(1
5
+)Y~+~
(T
25
$
+
l)y,
+
Kp
G
m
Y n-i-2
n
T
T2
(27.10)
Equation (27.10) represents the discrete-time model of a second-order process.

Notice that in order to compute the next value (Y~+~)
previous two values (~,+~,y,).
For 3rd, 4th,
of y, we need its
and higher-order systems we will
need the previous 3, 4, and more values of y to approximate all derivatives.
Example
27.8 - Discrete-Time Model of a Multivariable Process
Consider the following process with two inputs and two outputs:
dyl
dt
allyl
a12Y2
bllml
b12m2
dy2
dt
a2gl
+.
a22Y2
b2pl
b22m2
With the first-order difference approximation fot the derivatives we take the
following difference equations which represent the discrete-time model of the
multivariable
process,
y1,*+1 - y1,n
T
allyl,n
a12y2,n
b11m1,n
b12m2,n
y2,n+l - y2,n
T
a21Yl,n
a22Y2,n
b21ml,n
b22m2,n
OK
yl,n+l = (l--Tall)yl,n
- Ta12y2,n + Ubllml,n + b12m2,J
y2,n+l = -T a21yl,n + (1 - Ta22)y2,n + T(b21ml,n + b22m2,n)
Remarks:
(27.11)
(27.12)
(1) Numerical differentiation of process measurement data can

cause serious problems when there is appreciable process
noise, i.e. random effects appearing during the operation
but not included in the assumed model. To overcome this
difficulty we can use digital filters which filter out any
' noise and yield "smooth"
measurement
data.
In a sub-
sequent chapter we will study the development of such

filters.
(2) The discretizationof continuous models with dead time is
rather
straightforward.
For example, consider a first-
order process with dead time, td, between the input, m(t),
and the output, y(t), i.e.
dv +
rp z
Let
= Kp m(t - td>
td = k T, i.e. the dead time is an integer multiple
of the period, T.
Then the discrete-time model is easily
found to be
Y n+l
= (1 -+-)y,
P
+ y m
p
(n-k'0
(27.13)
(3) The quality of an approximate discrete-time model improves

as the value of the discretization time interval, T,
decreases. Why?
(4) The conversion of a discrete to continuous model in the
time domain is possible but not simple.
In the next
chapter we will see that such conversions are more easily

done in the Laplace domain.
SUM?URY AND CONCLLDING REMARKS

D
The presence of a digital computer in a control loop implies the

coexistence of continuous and discrete-time signals and systems in the loop.
Therefore, we should have the mathematical facility for converting continuous
signals and systems to discrete-time ones and vice versa.
The assumption of an ideal impulse sampler
- - allows an easy quantification
of discrete-time signals produced from their continuous counterpoarts.
On
the other hand it is easy to construct and describe hold elements of various
orders, with the zero-order being the most popular.
Laplace
transforms for
both components (sampler, hold element) are possible and yield an analytical
description of the two conversions (continuous to discrete and discrete to
continuous).
The discrete nature of a digital computer imposes the need for a
discrete-time representation of the various components in the loop.
Such
discrete models for the process, controllers, etc. can be easily derived by
numerical
various
approximation
forms
integrals,
for
of
the
corresponding
continuous
models.
There exist
approximating numerically derivatives of any order,
etc., with
varying
complexity
and
computational
preferred approximation depends on the charactewristics

model and the desired quality of the discrete model.
requirements.
of the continuous
The
In the present chapter all conversions have been confined in the time
domain.
With the introduction of z-transforms in the next chapter, we will
develop the mathematical framework which allows easy analyses of discretetime process dynamic and design of discrete-time computer control systems.
1.
Explain in your own words why we need to convert continuous signals to

discrete-time ones and vice versa.
Give a physical example for this
need using as reference the computer control of a stirred tank heater.

2.
Using the same computer control system as in 1. above, explain why we

need to convert continuous to discrete-time models and vice versa.
3.
What is a sampled signal?

its
4.
continuous
Sketch one and indicate how it is related to
counterpart.
Define the ideal impulse sampler. How does it differ from a real
sampler?
Draw two sketches indicating the outputs of an ideal impulse
and a real sampler.

5.
Develop two mathematical expressions describing the output of an ideal

impulse
smapler; one in the time domain and the other in the Laplace
domain.
6.
How would you select the sampling rate for, (a) the response of a general
underdamped open-loop system and (b) the oscillating response of a
closed-loop
7.
system?
Is it satisfactory sampling rate to take three samples every two

cycles of an oscillating sinusoidal signal?
Demonstrate
graphically
why yes or no.

8.
Discuss the mathematical basis for the construction of various orders of

hold elements.
Develop the time domain expressions for zero- and
first-order
hold
elements.
Describe their functions in physical terms.
Can you construct simple electrical circuits which function as zero.

and first-order hold elements?
9.
Consider the discrete-time signals shown by the two sequences of

impulses in Figures 27.Q-la
and 27.Q-lb. What type of hold element
would you select to construct the corresponding continuous signals?

Elaborate on your answer.
10.
Describe the different ways which can be used to improve the quality
of a reconstructed continuous signal from its discrete-time values.
Outline relative advantages and disadvantages of the two methods.
11.
Describe the general procedure for converting a continuous model to a

discrete-time
12.
one.
Why is a discrete-time model an approximation of its continuous counterpart?
13.
Discretize in time the continuous mode& of a stirred tank heater.
14.
Consider
0.01
the
$f
following
+
two
m
first-order
systems
and
With a discretization time interval T=l second, which one of the

two systems will have a better discrete-time representation?
Why.
Also, show how you can improve the quality of the other (worst)
discrete-time
15.
Explain
model.
How many sampled output values do you need to construct the discretetime model for a third-order process?
Explain why.
Ii-
-iqc;tre
(ai
27.3
::
x
,
,
(a)
ii
FIRST- ORDER
HOLD
>
(b)
m k)
T
I Fi j ure
.2T.6 I
I Stt--Po;nt
---- ----- _____ (

\
.
r ----.---- -----------I
yL!Lt)oLD i-&z. ; :jp=&p&q

-_----- ___-_--1.
L- iv-----------! , fL ------ _------------I 4 -7
I
,
I

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

THE CONTROL OF A CHEMICAL PROCESS: ITS CHARACTERISTICS AND THE

1.1 Suppress the Influence of External Disturbances

1.3 Optimize the Performance of a Chemical Process . . ,. . . . .

DESIGN ASPECTS OF A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . .

2.1 Classification of the Variables in a Chemical Process . . .

HARDWARE FOR A PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1 Hardware Elements of a Control System . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2 The Use of Digital Computers in Process Control . . . . . .

SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS ON PART I . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . .

MODELING THE DYNAMIC AND STATIC BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES .

THE DEVELOPMENT OF A MATHEMATICAL MODEL . . . . . . . . . .

4.1 Why Do We Need Mathematical Modelign for Process Control? .

4.2 State Variables and State Equations for a Chemical Process .

4.3 Additional Elements of the Mathematical Models . . . . . . .

4.5 Additional Examples of Mathematical Modeling . . . . . . .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.1 The Input-Output Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ANALYSIS OF THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES . . .

COMPUTER SIMULATION AND THE LINEARIZATION OF NONLINEAR

6.1 Computer Simulation of Process Dynamics . . . . . . . . .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . .

7.1 Definition of the Laplace

Transforms of Some Basic Functions . . . . . .

7.5 The Final-Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SOLUTION OF LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS USING LAPLACE

8.1 A Characteristic Example and the Solution Procedure . . .

Transforms. Heaviside Expansion . . .

8.3 Examples on the Soiution of Linear Differentiation

The General Solution of an n-th Order

The Solution of a General System of Linear

AND THE INPUT-OUTPUT MODELS . . . . . '.

9.1 The Transfer Function of a Process with a Single Output .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF FIRST-ORDER SYSTEMS

10.1 What is a First-Order System?

10.3 The Dynamic Response of a Pure Capacitive Process . . . .

THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF SECOND-ORDER SYSTEMS

11.1 What is a Second-Order System?

11.2 The Dynamic Response of a Second-Order System . . . . . .

Processes as Second-Order Systems . . . . .

11.5 Second-Order Systems Caused by the Presence of

Examples of Physical Systems with Inherent

THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF HIGHER-ORDER SYSTEMS

12.1 N Capacities in Series

12.2 Dynamic Systems with Dead Time

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS . . . . . . .

13.1 The Concept of Feedback Control . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.2 Types of Feedback Controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

THE DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLED PROCESSES . .

14.1 Block Diagram and the Closed-Loop Response . . . . . . .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15.1 The Notion of Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

THINGS TO THINK ABOUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Rules for the Construction of Root-Locus

DESIGN OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLERS . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16.1 Outline of the Design Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

THE FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS OF LINEAR PROCESSES . . .

17.1 The Response of a First-Order System to a.Sinusoidal

17.2 The Frequency Response Characteristics of a General