SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY OF NANOMATERIALS

Nanoscience is the study of atoms and molecules whose physical size at least in
one dimension is between 1-100 nm
Nanotechnology
nanostructures.

is

the

design

and

fabrication

of

devices

using

such

Nanoparticles are constituted by bonded atoms roughly in the range 10 to 104.

Hence they cannot be simply treated as free atoms. When the size is so small
particles gain wave character hence the particle behavior, the energy response
etc will be modified (Gold Yellow at bulk size Red at Nanosize).
The physical and chemical properties of materials at the nanoscale are
determined by quantum mechanics. The properties are also affected by
dimensionality. A bulk solid has three dimensions. If only one dimension is
reduced to the nanorange while the other two dimensions remain unchanged the
nanostructure is known as a one dimensional quantum well.
If two dimensions are reduced to nanorange the structure is termed as a
quantum wire or two dimensional quantum well. A quantum dot or a three
dimensional quantum well refers to the case when all the three dimensions are
in the nanoscale range.

Bulk

Thin Film

Nanowire

Quantum Dot

Thus one can conclude that particles size in nanomaterials is about 1nm with
these small sized particles one can get the different electronic, optical, electrical,
magnetic, chemical and mechanical properties which are different from the bulk
materials.

NANO FABRICATION
(PREPARATION OF NANOMATERIALS)
There are two approaches to the fabrication of nanostructures
1. Top down approach and 2. Bottom-up approach.
In the bottom up approach atoms, molecules and even nanoparticles are used as
building blocks for the creation of complex structures.
In the top down the starting material is in a bulk form. Nanostructures are
obtained through careful and controlled removal or division of the bulk material.

Top down approach

1. Milling 2. Lithography

MILLING
High energy ball milling is of major industrial importance. Coarse grained
materials usually metals, but also many ceramics and polymers in the form of
powers are crushed mechanically in rotating drums by hard steel and tungsten
carbide balls. During the milling processes heat is generated and there is a
possibility of unwanted chemical reactions or oxidation taking place.
This is usually prevented by using controlled atmospheric conditions. The severe
plastic deformation that occurs during the milling process results in
nanostructure of the material.

Hard Steel
Refne ment
Of Grain size

Nano particles

LITHOGRAPHY
The word lithography derived its meaning from sculpturing figures from big
stones. The basic principle of the process is similar for both the nanostructures
and the well known microchips but for selection of suitable agents. It makes use
of radiation passing through a template and shining a surface of the material to
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be fabricated. The material is coated with a radiation sensitive resist and is

seated on a substrate. The desired pattern is impressed on the surface which is
then masked. The rest of the material and the excess resist are etched out by
chemical processing. Finally the mask is removed to obtain the nanostructure of
the desired size and shape. In the case of nanofabrication electron beam is used
instead of light. A typical resist is the polymer poly ethylene methacrylate
(C5O2H8)n. An example for the material fabricated by the process is GaAs.

FABRICATION PROCESS BOTTOM UP APPROACH

Bottom up process encompass chemical synthesis and highly controlled
deposition and growth of materials. Chemical synthesis may be carried out in
solid, liquid or gaseous state. The general technique can be classified as either
physical vapour deposition (PVD) or Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD).

PHYSICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION

The basic steps involved in the process are (a) generation of vapour by boiling or
subliming a source material (b) transportation of the vapor from the source to
the substrate and (3) condensation of vapour on the cool substrate.
In the simplest case the apparatus consists of an evacuation chamber. The
chamber is evacuated by an oil diffusion pump equipped with liquid nitrogen
trap (to remove water vapor and hydrocarbon contaminates) starting material
usually in the form of a solid powder is placed in boat made usually from a
refractory metal (e.g Mo or Ta). The boat is resistively heated in the case of solid
charges having melting point < 10000C.
The ensuing vapour resulting from the evaporation of the molten solid strikes
the substrate positioned above the boat vapours condense on the cool substrate
and from a thin crystalline film.

Wafers
Vacuum
Chamber
Charge

X
X

Vent Gas

Values
Cold trap
Diffusion pump
To Back
Pumping

Roughing
pump

CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION

CVD is the process where by vapour phase molecular species react, either
homogeneously in the gas phase or heterogeneously at the solid gas interface
at the substrate. This produces a composition different from that of the starting
materials, the precursor molecules can be made to decompose by means of heat
(Pyrolysis) absorption of light (photolysis) or in electric plasma formed in the gas.
Vapour deposition is some times also enhanced by laser.
SiH4 (gas)
Si(Solid) + H2 (gas)
SiH4 + 2O2
SiO2 + 2H2 O.
200-5000C using an N2 carrier gas
Reaction chamber
RR
Gas
Exhaust

Gas inlet

Filament Heater

Hot Holder

PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF NANOMATERIALS

GEOMETRIC STRUCTURE
1. Crystal structure of large nanoparticles is same as bulk structure with
different lattice parameters.
2. There is a deviation in structure for clusters of nanoparticles
3. A different structure results in a change in properties.

ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE

1. The electronic structure changes when particles are of Nanosize the

number of energy levels in a given energy level the density of states in the
conduction band changes when a metal having bulk properties is reduced
in size to be a few atoms.
2. The conduction band now becomes a set of discrete energy levels if the
spacing between tow energy levels is more than KBT.
3. Clusters of different sizes can have different colour.
FLUCTUATIONS

All atoms are at the surface for nanoparticles. The surface atoms can vibrate
with less restriction compared to interior atoms, This leads to changes in
structure of the particles.
MECHANICAL
Nano particles are inferior with respect to elastic strength, but the plastic
behavior is increased.
The colour, stability, magnetic behavior and reactivity depend on particle size.

CARBON NANOTUBES

Carbon
Nanotube
Drain
electrode

Source
electrode

Gate

Carbon nanotubes are large tube like structures made up of carbon

nanoparticles. They have unique mechanical and electrical properties very much
different from those of the normal objects of the same carbon. We are already
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familiar how carbon solids appear in different ways like char coal graphite and
diamond depending on how they were formed. The nanotubes are the latest
variety.
Carbon is a tetravalent element. Its atoms can form strong covalent bonds with
neighboring atoms. It can have different structures and properties depending on
the nature of its molecular bonds. The diamond (sp3 tetrahedral) and graphite
(sp2 hexagonal bonds) are such solids called allotropic forms. Many more forms
of carbon clusters are also found. Recently carbon molecules with 60 and more
are discovered C60 molecule with 60 carbon atoms is named as fullerene after
Buckminster fuller who worked on the possible structure of the molecule. Thus
carbon is a amenable and a good choice for non fabrication.

C60 STRUCTURE
The carbon nanotubes can be fabricated by many techniques like laser
evaporation chemical vapour deposition and carbon are method. They are
prepared in different types like single walled nanotubes and multi- walled
nanotubes. They are also made in different structures.
Their diameter range (1-20) nm and length is in micro meter or millimeter range.
The structure is something like the one obtained by rolling graphite sheet.

Some of the most interesting properties of the carbon nanotubes

These are very strong about 20 times stronger than high-strength steel hence do
not break easily very stiff, almost 10 times stiffer than steel wire of same
thickness as the youngs modulus is more very resilient i.e. when bent they can
be straightened back without any damages. These better qualities are due to
very less crystal defects.
They have the most interesting electrical properties. They may be metallic or
semi conducting depending on the diameter and how they are rolled. It is
estimated that the metallic carbon nanotubes have 1000 times more electrical
conductivity than copper their thermal conductivity is also higher. The possible
reason could be again absence of more defects. At low temperatures they show
magneto resistance, and effect of change in resistance due to application of a DC
magnetic field.

APPLICATIONS
In general, the small size, large specific surface area, high strength and stiffness,
size controllability of mechanical, thermal optical electrical and magnetic
properties make the nanoparticale applicable for a variety of functions.
 Carbon nanotubes can be used in battery electrodes, electronic devices,
reinforcing fibers, super memory computers, field emission and shielding
devices, fuel cells, chemical sensors, catalysis agents etc.
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 Gold and silver nanoparticles have been used as colorful decorating

objects
 Aero gels are three dimensional continuous networked nanoparticles with
air trapped in their interstices. They are porous, extremely light and
strong. Thus they can be used as insulation equipment in offices homes
etc. They are also used as smart windows which automatically adjust their
transparency according to the intensity of the incident light.
 Some are used in textile industry cloths which are comfortable in both
summer and winter and which do not get wet in rain can be knitted. Some
cloths dont allow dust to settle on them.
 Some nanomaterials due to their high chemical reactivity can be used as
catalyst to react with toxic gases like co, and nitrogen oxide n automobile
engines thus they help to prevent pollution.
 Some are used in adhesives paints etc because of their high surface
activity.
 Some are used in many electronic devices because of their size controllable
electrical and magnetic properties.
 Since the nanoparticles are very light and at the same time very strong
they can be used in aircrafts and space vehicles. Another advantage is that
they can with stand large temperature range.
 Many nanoparticles are used in medical implants now a days artificial
heart valves make up of titanium, silicon carbide etc are being used
because they are small light and bio compatible.
 Large number of drugs are synthesized by nanoparticles of different
composition which can work directly at the site of infected organs of the
body
 Besides these large number of industrial applications the nano science is
very important in basic sciences as it may help to understand and discover
may more quantum mechanical principles.

MS.SURESHN
Sr.Grade Asst.professor
Gudlavalleru Engineering College
Dept. of Basic Sciences & Humanities
Gudlavalleru
Y