Journal of Materials Processing Technology 108 (2001) 384393

An overall review of the tube hydroforming (THF) technology

Muammer Koca,*, Taylan Altanb
a

Tower Automotive, Technical Center Advanced Technology Division, 3533N. 27th Street, Milwaukee, WI 53216, USA
b
ERC for Net Shape Manufacturing, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
Accepted 12 September 2000

Abstract
Increasing use of hydroforming in automotive applications requires intensive research and development on all aspects of this relatively
new technology to satisfy an ever-increasing demand by the industry. This paper summarizes a technological review of hydroforming
process from its early years to very recent dates on various topics such as material, tribology, equipment, tooling, etc., so that other
researcher at different parts of the world can use it for further investigations in this area. # 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Hydroforming; Tube; Lubrication; Friction; Formability; Pre-forming

1. Introduction
Tube Hydroforming (THF) has been called with many
other names depending on the time and country it was used
and investigated. Bulge forming of tubes (BFTs) and liquid
bulge forming (LBF) were two earlier terms, for instance.
Hydraulic (or hydrostatic) pressure forming (HPF) was
another form of name used for a while by some investigators.
Internal high pressure forming (IHPF) has been mostly used
within German manufacturers and researchers. In some
periods, it was even called as ``Unconventional Tee Forming''. Throughout this paper, THF will be used to describe
the metal forming process whereby tubes are formed into
complex shapes with a die cavity using internal pressure,
which is usually obtained by various means such as hydraulic, viscous medium, elastomers, polyurethane, etc., and
axial compressive forces simultaneously, Fig. 1.
Even though THF process has been in practical industrial
use only more than a decade, development of the techniques
and establishment of the theoretical background goes back
to 1940s. Manufacturing of seamless copper ttings with T
branches was investigated using internal pressure and axial
load by Grey et al. [1].
Davis tested tubes of medium carbon steel under internal
pressure and tensile axial load in order to determine their
yield and fracture characteristics [2]. Experimental and
numerical studies were conducted to nd the bursting pres-

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: 1-414-447-4504; fax: 1-414-447-4870.
E-mail address: koc.muammer@towerautomotive.com (M. Koc).

sure of thick-walled cylinders by Faupel, Crossland and

Dietmann during 1950s and 1960s [35]. In 1960s, experimental and theoretical investigations on instability of thinwalled cylinders were performed by many researchers at
different countries [68]. Fundamental investigations on
thin- and thick-walled cylinders helped theoretical improvements in LBF operations. Use of hydrostatic pressure in
metal forming processes, in particular, for bulging of tubular
parts was rst reported by Fuchs [9]. In this paper, he
reported experimental studies on expansion and anging
of copper tubes using hydraulic pressure.
Ogura and Ueda [10] presented their experimental results
on LBF of Tee shapes from low and medium carbon steel.
Different congurations and number of Tee protrusions were
formed using internal pressure and axial compressive loading. Proper forming zones were dened for Tee protrusions
using experimental results. Experimental results for forming
of ``differential cases'' were also disclosed in this paper. In
the same period, Al-Qureshi and his team [11] performed
bulging and piercing experiments of different materials
including copper, steel and aluminum using polyurethane
to provide internal pressure. They did not report use of axial
loading in their experiments.
In 1970s, research on different aspects of bulge forming
continued both experimentally and theoretically by various
authors. New shapes, materials, different tooling congurations and new machine concepts were introduced, whereas
the fundamentals remained the same. For instance, instead
of polyurethane, rubber and elastomer were used to provide
internal pressure [12]. He presented that greater circumferential expansion of thin-walled tubes was obtained using

0924-0136/01/$ see front matter # 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 8 3 0 - X

M. Koc, T. Altan / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 108 (2001) 384393

385

Fig. 1. Elements of a typical THF process. (Fa): Axial force, (Fq): counter force, (Pi): internal pressure, (Rc): corner radius, (Re): llet radius, (Do): initial
tube diameter, (Dp): protrusion diameter or bulge width, (Hp): protrusion or bulge height, (Lp): distance between tube edge and protrusion.

rubber forming methods than using hydraulic forming technique. Effect of friction between rubber and inner side of the
tubes was also mentioned. Limb and his team [13] performed BFTs of different materials with changing wall
thickness. They reported that increasing the internal pressure
gradually during the application of axial load gives the best
results on thinning and complete lling. Thickening of
tube wall at feeding zone was also mentioned due to the
friction between tube and die surface. In addition, experimentation of different lubricants such as PTFE lm, colloidal graphite and Rocol RTD spray were carried out. In case
of insufcient lubrication, low Tee protrusion heights were
obtained as well as a bulged protrusion area resulted instead
of a fully formed and at area. With proper lubrication, it
was reported that a atter bulging of the Tee protrusion was
obtained.
Woo [14] reported experimental and analytical results for
tubes bulged under internal pressure and axial compressive
loading. He carried out a numerical study assuming that the
entire length of the bulged tube was in tension, and thus, free
bulging took place. Comparison of experimental and theoretical results indicated good agreement when stressstrain
properties of tubes obtained from bi-axial tests were used in
calculations. Use of upper-bound technique to calculate
internal pressure as function of material properties and
geometry was presented by Powel and Avitzur [15]. They
tried forming of 90o elbows with sharp radius from straight
tubes using hydraulic pressure and a special tooling developed for this purpose.
Limb et al. [16] used oil as pressurizing medium in their
experiments to investigate the forming of copper, aluminum,
low carbon steel and brass Tee-shaped tubular parts. Results
of lubricant and material evaluations were reported in terms
of protrusion height attainable. Sauer et al. [17] presented
their theoretical and experimental work on necking criterion
of bulged tubes. Assuming a constant ratio of hoop and
longitudinal stresses in tube wall during expansion, numerical and experimental results were found to be in agreement.

Effective strain at necking was also explained in terms of

pre-strain, strain-hardening exponent and stress ratio. Woo
and Lua [18,19] described their experimental tooling for
BFTs, and presented a theoretical analysis of stresses and
strains taking into account the anisotropy effect of the sheet
metals in two separate papers. They utilized Hill's theory of
plastic anisotropy in their work.
Starting from 1980s, researchers in Japan concentrated on
determining the material properties and their effects on tube
bulging operations. Manabe and Nishimura [20] investigated inuence of the strain-hardening exponent and anisotropy on forming of tubes in hydraulic bulging and nosing
processes. They briey presented the maximum internal
pressure as a function of tube radius, thickness, strainhardening exponent, and strength coefcient assuming that
there was no axial loading. Manabe et al. [21] published their
work on examination of deformation behavior and limits of
forming for aluminum tubes under both internal pressure
and axial force. Axial cylinders and internal pressure were
controlled by a computer-control-system to obtain predened stress ratio during their experiments. They utilized
fundamental analysis of thin-walled cylinders in their predictions for internal pressure and axial force.
Fuchizawa [22] analyzed bulge forming of nite-length,
thin-walled cylinders under internal pressure using incremental plasticity theory. He presented the inuence of
strain-hardening exponent on limits of bulge height. Similar
to Manabe et al., he utilized the fundamental plasticity and
membrane theories in his predictions. Internal pressure and
maximum expansion radius were expressed in terms of
length, diameter, strength coefcient (K) and strain-hardening exponent (n). Later, Fuchizawa [23] extended his
studies to explore the inuence of plastic anisotropy on
deformation behavior of thin-walled tubes under only internal pressure. He based his analysis on deformation theory
and Hill's theory of plastic anisotropy. Longitudinal anisotropy was found to be effective on the critical expansion
limit while anisotropy in hoop direction was affecting the

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M. Koc, T. Altan / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 108 (2001) 384393

maximum internal pressure required. With increasing anisotropy in longitudinal axis, thinning is reduced while
obtainable expansion gets larger with less internal pressure
requirement. Experimental results were eventually compared with theoretical ndings [24]. Different materials
including aluminum, brass and copper were tested in their
tooling, which only utilized internal pressure in a closed
cavity. Assuming that the tube materials obey power law of
strain hardening, experimental and calculated results were
found to be in good agreement. Studies of Manabe and
Fuchizawa on anisotropy effects were mostly found useful in
THF applications involving aluminum products.
Hydraulic bulging of tubes was later used in determining
the stressstrain characteristics of tubular materials by
Fuchizawa et al. [25]. Annealed aluminum, copper, brass
and titanium tubes were tested under only internal pressure.
With the instrumentation and control systems available, tube
thickness, radius of curvature in both longitudinal and hoop
directions, and internal pressure measured and recorded
during formation of the bulge. Using analytical methods
by membrane and plasticity theories, stressstrain relations
were derived. These ndings were also compared with those
obtained from tensile tests. Stressstrain relations for aluminum, copper and brass were found to be similar by two
tests, whereas that for titanium were different. Since they did
not use axial compressive load during bulging, stressstrain
relation obtained was limited to low strain values up to 0.7.
Thiruvarudchelvan [26] and his team have worked on
experimental and theoretical aspects of tube bulging process
using both polyurethane and liquid as pressurizing medium.
They used computers to control the process parameters and
for data acquisition in their experimental systems. Optimum
values for axial forces were dened to obtain large bulge
heights of tubes without any fracture [27,28]. Ueda [29,30]
presented forming of differential gear casings with hydroforming techniques after a series of experimentations in
1980s. Hashimi and his team [3133] investigated the bulge
forming of axisymmetric and asymmetric components via
experiments, analytical techniques and FEA. Tonghai et al.
[34] presented their experimental and analytical work for
forming of Tee protrusions using polyurethane. Upperbound technique was used to predict total forming load.
As a major contribution, use of counter force and its effect
on attainable Tee protrusion height were investigated and
discussed. Use of upper-bound technique in calculation of
maximum internal pressure and axial force was also presented in another work [35]. Free bulging of aluminum tubes
was conducted, and results were compared with theoretical
solutions. Stress ratios between 1 and 0 were found to be
the optimum range for bi-axial forming of tubes. However,
practical difculty to maintain the stress ratio in this zone
was also reported.
Finally, Dohmann and many of his students have been
working on various issues related to THF technology since
early 1980s [36]. Their work was mostly based on the
previous theoretical studies along with real and new indus-

trial applications of this technology [37]. They also utilized

the capabilities of continuously developing FEA and computer controls in their experimental and analytical works
[38,39]. They have established formability diagrams for
different materials under certain circumstances in order to
speed up the practical use of the technology [40].
Controlling of process parameters and investigation of
possible part types were investigated by Schmoeckel and his
students in Darmstadt, Germany [41]. Forming of crankshaft-like parts using thick-walled tubes were performed
under experimental conditions [42,43]. They have also used
principle theories for prediction of process parameters, and
applied them into practical industrial use. Their work has
been heavily based on experiments for different aspects of
the technology including formability and producibility of
certain automotive parts, and tribological issues like lubrication, die surface nish and wear [44]. THF parts were rst
classied by Engel and Dick [43] as part of his dissertation
on development of fuzzy control systems for hydroforming
process. He grouped parts with respect to: (a) their variation
along longitudinal axis, (b) variation of the feature position
relative to the longitudinal axis and (c) variation of the crosssection. Categorization of parts depending on their shape
complexity was also conducted. However, this classication
was limited with only parts in exhaust systems excluding
structural frame parts, whereas Koc and Altan [45] considered structural parts such as frame rails, axles, cradles, etc. in
their classication along with exhaust components. Their
classication was based on: (a) spline geometry, (b) common feature types, (c) cross-section of tubes and (d) ratio of
length to diameter (L/D).
Use of FEA for THF process simulations is now a
standard development tool after investigations and validations conducted by many researchers since early 1990s.
Application of current commercial FEA software, such as
LS-DYNA, PAM-STAMP, ABAQUS, MARC, AUTOFORM, DEFORM, etc., for stamping and forging processes
into THF was performed and presented successfully [45
47]. Consequent and seamless simulation of bending, preforming and hydroforming, and sometimes annealing,
results in accurate predictions in terms of producibility,
formability and thinning of the desired part as well as points
out necessary changes in tool design. In order to shorten the
development time and efforts for THF process, supplemental
codes and techniques are being developed. Adaptive simulation technique, for instance, iterates between appropriate
internal pressure and axial feeding inputs to ensure a part
without any fracture and wrinkles [48,49].
Various authors have presented their application and
practical oriented studies in numerous occasions since the
beginning of 1990s. The following issues were common
topics of these presentations [5057]:
 industrial applications of THF technology,
 production of structural frame components,
 product development and design procedures,

M. Koc, T. Altan / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 108 (2001) 384393

 evaluation of hydroformed parts in comparison to

stampings,
 incorporation of piercing into hydroforming tooling,
 assembly and welding issues,
 weight savings, etc.

387

2.1. Presses or clamping devices

presses or clamping devices for closing the dies,

tooling,
pressure system; intensifier,
hydraulic cylinders and punches; for sealing the tube and
move the material,
 process control systems; computers, data acquisition,
transducers, etc.

In contrast to other forming operations, in THF process,

presses are used to open and close the die and to provide
enough clamping load during forming period to prevent
elastic deections and die separation. Necessary tonnage of
the press (or clamping device) is dependent on the required
closing force. It is, in turn, a function of the maximum
internal pressure takes place during forming, part size (i.e.
diameter, length and thickness), and material. Large components with thick walls (i.e. chassis components) and
intricate regions (i.e. small corner radii) need high closing
forces up to 70008000 t [60]. At present, presses up to
10 000 t capacity are in operation at several plants in the
world. Existing hydraulic presses with appropriate closing
forces and bed sizes can be utilized for THF process [55,60
64] with some necessary additions and changes in the
system.
Clamping devices, other than regular hydraulic press
systems, are being designed and tested for hydroforming
purposes [65]. The purpose of developing special clamping
devices is to increase capabilities on process control, obtain
better dimensional accuracy via high clamping load, access
larger bed size, reduce cycle time, increase exibility for
different parts and reduce investments, etc. In such a design,
the ram with the upper die half is actuated up and down
through a small cylinder, which would provide rapid motion
and cost less. As the ram closes the dies at its bottom
position, two opposite and horizontally positioned cylinders
are actuated to lock the ram at its required location. Moreover, several other small and short-stroke cylinders at the
bottom of the press bed are moved up to further increase the
clamping load capability. Such a design would not only be
cost effective in terms of initial capital investment, but also
would provide rapid stroking, which consequently contribute reducing the production cost. In principal, a THF press
or machine must have the following features:

Fig. 2 illustrates examples of THF parts for automotive

applications. There are also a number of candidate parts in
development, such as camshaft, crankshafts, differential
casings and space frames [58].

 appropriate die closing force;

 appropriate bed size to hold the dies;
 adjustable/movable axial punches with computer controlled positioning;

2. THF parts, technology, presses, hydraulic and

control systems
Various parts for automotive, appliance and plumbing are
produced by THF technology as listed below:
 Exhaust system parts; usually made of stainless steel for
obtaining required structural, thermal and corrosion properties: Exhaust parts, engine tubes, catalytic converters,
pressure tubes, tail pipes, connectors and manifolds.
 Chassis parts; common material is low to medium carbon
steels and aluminum for structural and cost related reasons: Frame rails, engine sub-frames (cradles), roof rails
and bows, instrument panels, rear axle frames and radiator
frames.
 Engine and power train components: Suspension cross
members, hollow camshafts, drive shafts and gear shafts.
 Body and safety parts: Windshield headers, A/B/C pillars,
space frame components, seat frames and shock absorber
housings.
Design of the THF system is of special importance since
high hydraulic pressures and complex shaped parts involved.
The system needed for THF consists of the followings:





Fig. 2. Examples of structural frame parts for automobile applications. In (a) roof headers (A), instrument panels (B), radiator frame (C), engine cradle and
rear axle (D), roof rails (E) and lower rail frames (F) can be manufactured by THF [56], (b) exhaust part [59], (c) space frame.

388

M. Koc, T. Altan / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 108 (2001) 384393

 adjustable/movable rams for counter forces with free and

position control;
 optional: automatic work-piece handling;
 high pressure (20005000 bar) and fluid pumping capability with tight control.
2.2. Tooling
Hydroforming tooling consists of die holders, dies,
inserts, punches, sealing systems and sometimes counter
punches or movable inserts. Due to the high-pressure values
involved in THF process, strong tooling systems are required
to minimize die deection and part tolerance deviations.
Hence, tool steel such as D2 are used for inserts, whereas
1045 steel is used for the dies. Inserts are usually hardened
and polished to achieve smooth surface nish to reduce
friction and die wear. Design of part positioning and parting
lines requires full attention since through which not only
necessary closing force can be reduced but also formability
of the part can be guaranteed. For structural parts, diagonal
positioning is one way of balancing the die deection
between vertical and horizontal directions of the part.
Because of condentiality issues in this high demanding
technology, limited information regarding tooling design is
released to the public as it goes with other aspects of the
technology. Hence, common guidelines known for forging
and stamping technologies are applied in combination after
necessary improvements and trials.
In general, the followings are main requirements for THF
tooling [55,6668]:
 high strength against stresses due to large internal pressure and axial loading;
 good surface finish to minimize friction and increase
formability;
 flexibility by interchangeable inserts;
 good guiding systems;
 balanced design to minimize the closing force requirements.
2.3. Pressure system
The pressure system (pump, intensier and control
valves) should be designed and selected, so as to provide
the required pressure levels for a wide range of parts to
obtain exibility in the system invested. The applied pressure should have a range from 2000 bar (30 ksi) up to
10 000 bar (150 ksi) depending on the parts in consideration
[69]. In many current industrial applications using pressures
up to 3000 bar (45 ksi) are sufcient. The ow rate can reach
up to 50 l/min in order to allow short cycle times. In order to
increase the production rate, multiple intensiers are used to
shorten the pressurizing period and compensate time losses
in case of rapid pressure increases when required by any part
and process design.

2.4. Hydraulic cylinders and punches

The axial punches are necessary to: (a) seal the end of the
tube to avoid pressure losses and (b) feed material into
expansion regions. They should feed the material into the
deformation zone in a controlled way, and in synchronization with internal pressure, i.e. pressure versus time and axial
force versus time should be controlled and coordinated.
Counter punches are sometimes used on bulged or protrusion sections to avoid premature fracture by providing a
controlled material ow. Axial cylinders are expected to
generate forces of up to 7000 kN (700 t) while counter
cylinder limits extend up to 2000 kN (200 t). The smaller
size also allows close control of the punch position. Various
punch tip designs for effective sealing during hydroforming
have been developed. More information can be found in [67].
3. Materials and formability in THF
The overall success of hydroforming product heavily
depends on the incoming tubular material properties. Material properties such as composition, weld type, yield and
tensile strength, ductility, anisotropy must be determined for
tubes. Monitoring and controlling of tube rolling, welding
and annealing processes should be conducted carefully to
produce tubes with desired properties. Followings are the
required characteristics of tubular materials for quality THF
applications:









high and uniform elongation;

high strain-hardening exponent;
low anisotropy;
close mechanical and surface properties of weld line to
the base material;
good surface quality, free of scratches;
close dimensional tolerances (thickness, diameter and
shape);
burr free ends; should be brushed;
tube edges perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.

According to the requirements above, all alloys that are

used in deep drawing or extrusion are suitable for THF.
Table 1 tabulates some of the tubular materials used in THF
process. In addition, available tube types can be listed as
follows:






seamless drawn circular tubes;

seamless drawn tubular profiles;
longitudinally seam welded circular tubes;
longitudinally seam welded tubular profiles;
tailored tubes; round seam welded or longitudinally seam
welded.

Different testing methods have been used to determine the

quality of tubing for purposes other than THF process [70].
These tests can be listed as follows: (a) tensile test, (b)
expansion test (c) cone test and (d) bulge test.

M. Koc, T. Altan / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 108 (2001) 384393

389

Table 1
Common materials for THF
Material

US designation

German designation

Material No. DIN

Steels

AISI 1015
AISI 1020
AISI 1035
AISI 1045
AISI 1015
AISI 1020
ASTM A572-575

C 15
C 22
C 35
C 45
St 37
St 42
St 50

DIN
DIN
DIN
DIN
DIN
DIN
DIN

Alloyed steels

AISI
AISI
AISI
AISI

21 MnCr 5
X 20 Cr 13

DIN 17007, 1.2162

DIN 17007, 1.4021

Aluminum alloys

AA
AA
AA
AA
AA
AA
AA
AA
AA
AA

Al
Al
Al
Al
Al

DIN
DIN
DIN
DIN
DIN

5120
420
304
409

1050A
5005A
5056A
5086
7075
5052
5754
6260 T4
6061 T4
6063 T4

Investigation of formability limits, failure or necking

criterion and ow stress characteristics of tubular materials
started with establishment of instability points in sheet metal
forming processes [6,7].
Fuchizawa et al. [25] conducted experimental and theoretical studies to determine the stressstrain relations of
tubular materials. They developed a bi-axial testing method
for tubular materials. This test uses internal hydraulic pressure to bulge tubing, which is supported between two dies.
The ends of the tube are restrained by a set of dies, which are
separated by a predetermined length of tubing. One of the
supporting dies is restricted in movement, while the other is
free to move in the axial direction, thus reducing axial
stretching during the test. The internal pressure, thickness,
diameter and meridonial curvatures are measured continuously, as the test is executed. From the recorded data, a
stressstrain relationship is analytically determined.
This bulge testing was used for analysis of aluminum,
copper, brass and titanium alloys. Results were compared
with those of tensile testing. While the values for the
aluminum, copper and brass showed little distinction
between the two testing methods, the titanium showed great
difference between the properties determined by the tensile
and bulge testing methods. For this reason, it was concluded
that a bi-axial hydrostatic testing method should be used for
testing materials to be used with THF processes.
The effects of the strain-hardening exponent and plastic
anisotropy were thoroughly discussed through theoretical
analyses in his other presentations [22] and [23], respectively. The strain-hardening exponent (n-value) study
showed that as the n-value increased, the internal pressure
required to form a certain bulge height is decreased, thick-

99.5
Mg 1
Mg 5
Mg 4 Mn
Zn Mg Cu 1.5

17007,
17007,
17007,
17007,
17007,
17007,
17007,

1712
1725
1725
1725
1725

1.0401
1.0402
1.0501
1.0503
1.0100
1.0130
1.0530

(part
(part
(part
(part
(part

3)
1)
1)
1)
1)

ness distribution became more uniform, and greater expansion was realized. Similar results were also presented in a
paper by Manabe and Nishimura [20]. Results of the plastic
anisotropy study showed that the r-value in hoop direction
affected the internal pressure requirement, while r-value in
longitudinal direction affected the maximum expansion of
the tube.
Sokolowski et al. utilized an approach similar to that of
Fuchizawa in order to determine the ow stress curves of
low carbon and stainless steel tubes, Fig. 3. They introduced
the use of FEA as additional tool to the analytical and
experimental techniques [70,71]. Both studies were limited
with bulging with only internal pressure. Thus, working
strains were in the range 0.10.7.
4. Friction in THF process and evaluation of lubricants
Structural frame parts with particularly long and with
varying cross-sections require substantial axial feeding in
order to form into die cavities without much expense of
excessive thinning. Substantial cross-sectional changes from
round-like to rectangular shapes demand minimum resistance against corner forming and material movement. Friction issues for such cases become very critical. Selection of
an appropriate lubricant and die coating is essential to
overcome sliding friction, prevent sticking and galling to
reduce tool wear, axial forces and excessive thinning.
Until recent years, there was not any reported testing
methods or equipment development to measure or evaluate
friction in THF process. However, effect of friction and
different lubricants on formability and extend of protrusion

390

M. Koc, T. Altan / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 108 (2001) 384393

Fig. 3. Flow stress for 304 stainless steel, determined with analytical and simulation means [70].

height was mentioned at many occasions starting 1970s [13].

In the same source, thickening of tube wall at feeding zone
was reported due to the friction between tube and die
surface. In addition, experimentation of different lubricant
such as PTFE lm, colloidal graphite and Rocol RTD spray
were carried out. In case of insufcient lubrication, bulging
effect of the dome of Tee protrusion was found to be more
pronounced. With proper lubrication, it was reported that a
atter bulging of the Tee protrusion was obtained. As
reported by Ahmed and Hashimi [72], Hutchinson carried
out experimental studies to investigate the effect of different
lubricants on bulging of tubes. The inuence of the following parameters on tribological conditions in hydroforming
should be examined in detail to improve forming of a
complex part:






lubricants;
die coatings;
surface pressure;
sliding velocity;
work piece and die materials;

 their surface conditions of work piece and inserts;

 effect of the parting line (in transversal and longitudinal
direction) on the forming process.
Schmoeckel et al. [73] identied different friction zones
on a typical THF process depending on the effects of axial
force, feeding and geometrical aspects. The surface pressure, sliding velocity and state of stress and strain were
identied to be different in these zones as follows (Fig. 4):
(a) guide zone, (b) transition zone and (c) expansion zone. In
these three zones, the following conditions prevail:
 Guide zone. Medium surface pressure, high sliding velocity, high axial pressure, little expansion of the surface.
 Transition zone. Surface expansion or reduction, sliding
velocity smaller than that of the guide zone, but still
appreciable, stresses are somewhere between axial pressure and tensile hoop stress, tensile stresses in the tube are
in hoop direction.
 Expansion zone. Tensile stresses are prevalent (axial and
hoop direction), sliding velocity is small, surface enlargement is large.

Fig. 4. Schematic of a basic tooling design for friction testing, and various friction zones during a typical hydroforming process.

M. Koc, T. Altan / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 108 (2001) 384393

In order to investigate the inuence of the above parameters in different zones of friction, Schmoeckel et al.
[73,74] used an experimental setup where a straight tube
is expanded under internal pressure and pushed to investigate the friction conditions in only guide zone. Simultaneously, Dohmann [75] developed another tooling, which
would permit investigation of friction in all zones. Other
researchers conducted pin-on-disk or twist tests to rank the
performance of different lubricants suggested for hydroforming applications [76]. As a result, all parameters affecting friction conditions should be improved for an overall
success in hydroforming. For instance, a good hydroforming
lubricant should be selected based on the following criteria:
 lubricity to reduce sliding friction between tooling and
tube surface;
 durability under high pressure values up to 615 ksi at the
tube-to-tooling interface to prevent sticking and galling;
 minimum abrasivity to reduce tool wear;
 compatibility with pressurizing medium and environmental requirements;
 ease of application and removal (washable);
 cost.
Investigations on hydroforming lubricants have been
conducted at all levels not only to determine friction coefcients but also to rank possible lubricants for specic
hydroforming applications. Depending on the composition
of the lubricant, they can be listed as follows: (a) dry
lubricants (solid lubricants), (b) wet lubricants (solutions
and emulsions as well as synthetics) and (c) pastes, soaps
and waxes. Each group has their own advantages and
disadvantages in terms of performance, application,
removal, compatibility and cost.
Dry lubricants are usually found to be more effective in
terms of performance to reduce friction and increase tool
life. Their application is easy and consistent with proper
instrumentation. Their compatibility with pressurizing uid
is very good when they are dried appropriately. However,
their removal requires special washing uids. They are
found to be more expensive than wet lubricants when drying
time, application and removal process and their original
costs are added. On the other hand, wet lubricants are cost
effective, easy to remove, most of the time are compatible
with pressure uids, but do not perform well as dry lubricant
do. Hence, a compromise must be made depending on the
part complexity and quality requirements.
5. Pre-forming of tubes for hydroforming process
Many THF operations require a pre-formed tube in order
to: (a) t the tube into the hydroforming die cavity and (b)
reach the desired shape at the end of the process. Preforming of tubes usually includes bending and crushing
operations. Furthermore, annealing may be necessary after
bending or crushing to remove residual stresses.

391

In order to take the effects of pre-forming into account and

to design parts, tooling and process parameters properly,
investigation of bending and crushing of tubes is essential. In
literature, investigations in this area have been dated to very
recent years, and in a limited manner [58,77]. These investigations are mainly experimental [51,52] or based on FEA
[46,78,79] of complex shaped parts. In addition, there is
enough background and experience in tube bending for other
purposes [80,81]. Thinning and thickening of tubes during
particularly in bending operation may greatly affect the
success of hydroforming process as thinned sections may
not be able to withstand internal pressure during expansion,
and consequently burst, whereas excessive thickening may
lead to wrinkles on the bent tube, and these may require high
pressure for straightening.
In order to analyze the entire THF process, it is necessary
to carry the results of bending and crushing analysis into
hydroforming stage. Use of FEA is so far the only way of
achieving this. Appropriately selected FEA software would
carry the strain history gained during pre-forming directly
into the hydroforming stage just as in actual forming of
complex parts. Along with FEA, theoretical analyses can be
also performed for simple cases [82] or two-dimensional
conditions like cross-section of a part.
6. Innovations and trend in hydroforming technology
Recent innovations are aimed to improve competitiveness
of hydroforming technology by reducing initial investment
cost, increasing production rate, and material utilization,
consolidating more parts into single parts, and nding ways
to eliminate draw backs such as excessive thinning.
As mentioned before, new press or clamping device concepts are under development and trial to reduce the amount
of initial capital investment as well as increase the productivity by having rapid strokes [64,65]. Even some hydroforming systems without a press or clamping device are
discussed and seem feasible only for low production rates.
In order to increase the material utilization and avoid
excessive thinning, following innovations are being tested
and used nowadays: (a) tapered (conical) tubes for long
structural parts having substantial expansion degrees
between two ends, (b) tailor-welded tubes for minimizing
thinning at high expansion zones which are usually at the
middle sections of a long part for which other innovations
cannot be utilized practically [83], (c) double tubing is used
to increase the strength of the nal part while minimizing the
weight. Particularly used for front rails where extra care has
to be taken for excellent crash properties, (d) multiple tubing
seems to be an innovative way of producing whole assemblies at once, which is an excellent way of consolidating
more parts into one. Tubes of different pre-formed shapes
are connected to each other, and placed into a hydroforming
die altogether. Upon completion of hydroforming, all parts
of an assembly are manufactured and assembled [84]. Use of

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M. Koc, T. Altan / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 108 (2001) 384393

aluminum alloys and high strength steel is seen as another

way of achieving lighter parts.
Companies and institutes are looking into every chance
and opportunity to make cost effective production with
lighter and stronger products. For instance, consolidation
of lubrication into tube making is considered one way of
increasing production rate. Application of various welding
types, such as gas metal arc welding, laser welding, electron
beam welding, is investigated to search better material
properties. Tube making (forming) cells are in consideration
instead of conventional tube rolling mills in some justiable
cases.
As a result, almost all aspects of hydroforming technology
require full attention of researchers for better understanding
of its details. Generally, trend in this technology seem to
follow the same development path of other metal forming
processes.
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