ABSTRACT

This document encompasses the creation of a line

tracking robot which can run on black lines with a type
of feedback mechanism.

Supervised by

Mr. Adnan Jafar

LINE TRACKING
ROBOT

Members

Mahboob-ul-Hassan
Muhammad Muneeb Shakoor
Muhammad Usama Rasool
Muhammad Waseem Sajjad

2014156
2014237
2014261
2014268

EE-221

Project Report

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Preface:
What is a line follower? Line follower is a machine that can follow a path. The path can be
visible like a black line on a white surface (or vice-versa) or it can be invisible like a magnetic
field. Why build a line follower? Sensing a line and maneuvering the robot to stay on course,
while constantly correcting wrong moves using feedback mechanism forms a simple yet
effective closed loop system. As a designer you get an opportunity to teach the robot how to
follow the line thus giving it a human-like property of responding to stimuli. Practical
applications of a line follower: Automated cars running on roads with embedded magnets;
guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop floor etc. Prerequisites: Knowledge of
basic digital and analog electronics.

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Acknowledge
It is our privilege to express our sincerest regards to our project coordinator, Sir Adnan Jafar for
their valuable inputs, able guidance, encouragement, whole-hearted cooperation and constructive
criticism throughout the duration of our project. We also express our sincere thanks for
encouraging and allowing us to present the project on the topic Line Follower Robot at our
department premises for the partial fulfillment of the requirements leading to the award of
degree. We take this opportunity to thank all our lecturers who have directly or indirectly helped
our project, Specially Sir Dr. Arbab Raheem. We pay our respects and love to our parents and all
other family members and friends for their love and encouragement throughout our career. Last
but not the least we express our thanks to our friends for their cooperation and support.

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Table of Contents
2

Objective............................................................................................................................................... 4

Components ......................................................................................................................................... 4
3.1.1

LM324Quadruple Operational Amplifier ............................................................................ 4

3.1.2

LM7805 Voltage Regulator.................................................................................................. 4

3.1.3

L239D Motor Driver IC ......................................................................................................... 4

3.1.4

LDR........................................................................................................................................ 4

3.1.5

Printed Circuit Board/Vero Board ........................................................................................ 4

3.1.6

2 DC Motors .......................................................................................................................... 4

3.1.7

Battery .................................................................................................................................. 4

3.1.8

OR Gate 7432 IC .................................................................................................................... 4

3.1.9

Variable Resistors ................................................................................................................. 4

Function of the Circuit ......................................................................................................................... 4

Design Methodology ........................................................................................................................... 4

Schematics of the ICs used: ................................................................................................................. 7

6.1
6.1.1

LM324 Quadruple Operational Amplifier.................................................................................... 7

............................................................................................................................................... 8

6.2

LM7805 Voltage Regulator.......................................................................................................... 9

6.3

L239D Motor Driver ................................................................................................................... 10

6.3.1

............................................................................................................................................. 10

Description of Simulation ................................................................................................................... 12

Issues ................................................................................................................................................... 13

8.1

Sensitivity .................................................................................................................................... 13

8.2

Soldering ..................................................................................................................................... 13

8.3

Short-circuiting ............................................................................................................................ 13

References. ......................................................................................................................................... 15

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Objective
To create a line tracking robot which can run on black lines and to make the line follower
robot move on the line with a type of feedback mechanism.

Components
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.1.6
1.1.7
1.1.8
1.1.9

LM324Quadruple Operational Amplifier

LM7805 Voltage Regulator
L239D Motor Driver IC
LDR
Printed Circuit Board/Vero Board
2 DC Motors
Battery
OR Gate 7432 IC
Variable Resistors

Function of the Circuit

The function of the circuit is to make the robot pursue the dark line on the ground, by
lighting the LEDs and then detecting the increased resistance of the LDR. Where the black line is
present on a specific side, that resistance would be higher, and this would trigger the opposite
motor to engage and bring over the robot towards the black line. Similarly, when that side moves
away, the opposite side comes in, its resistance gets low, and correspondingly, the other motors
come into action, and bring the robot back towards the line.

Robot movement is automatic

It is used for long distance applications
Simplicity of building
Fit and forget system
Used in home, industrial automations etc.

Design Methodology
Block diagram of line follower robot is shown:

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Figure 1: Line Following Robot Block Diagram.

This Line Follower Robot basically uses a Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) photocell sensor also
known as Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) and the high intensity blue Light Emitting Diode
(LED) to illuminate the area under the photocell sensor to sense the black track line and the DC
motor speed control technique to navigate the black line track as shown on this following
picture:

Fig. 2: Line Tracking Navigation Principle

The easy method to navigate the black track line is to turn ON and OFF the left or the right
DC motor according to the sensor reading (for black area turn OFF and for white area turn ON),
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but using this method will make the line-following robot to move in zigzag way. By
proportionally controlling both left and right DC motor speed according to the light intensity
level received by the photocell sensor (reflected back by the black track line),it will be able to
make the robot easily navigate the track by using a pulse signal known as the Pulse Width
Modulation or PWM for short.

Pulse Width Modulation basically is an ON and OFF pulse signal with a constant period or
frequency. The proportion of pulse ON time to the pulse period is called a duty cycle and it
expressed in percentage. For example if the proportion of pulse ON time is 50% to the total pulse
period than we say that the Pulse Width Modulation duty cycle is 50%. The Pulse Width
Modulation duty cycle percentage is corresponding to the average power produced by the pulse
signal; the lower percentage produces less power than the higher percentage.
Therefore by changing the Pulse Width Modulation duty cycles we could change the
average voltage across the DC motor terminals, this mean we could vary the DC motor speed
just by changing the Pulse Width Modulation duty cycle. Therefore to make the line-following
robot smoothly navigate the black track line, we have to adjust the Pulse Width Modulation duty
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cycle according to the photocell sensor reading. The brighter light intensity level received by
sensor (sensor is on the white surface) will result in higher Pulse Width Modulation duty cycle
percentage and the darker light intensity level (sensor is on the black line) received by photocell
sensor will result in lower Pulse Width Modulation duty cycle percentage.

By converting each of the photocell sensor light intensity level reading to the
corresponding voltage level we could achieve this objective by using what is known as the
Voltage Control Pulse Width Modulation principal.
Actually generating the Pulse Width Modulation signal is easier with microcontroller instead
of discrete components because in that scenario all we have to do is to program the
microcontroller Pulse Width Modulation peripheral to do the task. The robot will be built with
Voltage Control Pulse Width Modulation using the same working principal found in many
todays modern microcontroller but using just the analog electronic components.

Schematics of the ICs used:

1.2 LM324 Quadruple Operational Amplifier

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1.2.1

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1.3 LM7805 Voltage Regulator

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1.4 L239D Motor Driver

1.4.1

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Description of Simulation

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Tests Performed
To test if it works, we build one sensor on the bread-board. We took one black piece of paper,
and brought it above and away the LDR, and output was shown by LED. We used a variable
resistor with LDR. Height of paper was varied and sensitivity of LDR was changed accordingly
with variable resistor.

Issues
1.5 Sensitivity
It was particularly difficult to address the sensitivity issues of the LDRs used. These
problems were rectified by the introduction of a variable resistor.

1.6 Soldering
Soldering is a particularly difficult task requiring a lot of concentration and patience, even
for a seemingly trivial piece of work.

1.7 Short-circuiting
This is a major problem caused mainly by incorrectly or inexpertly soldered joints.
Actually, this is a defect caused by the soldering.

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How Project could be expanded

The robot made by us is a simple line tracking robot. It is unable to turn at sharp edges.
Robot should be capable of turning at sharp edges.
If the black line ends, it should not stop but return and there should be a remote to stop it.
If should be capable of knowing which turn to be taken, if there are more than one turns at the
same point.

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References
[1] S.E.M. Bajestani, A. Vosoughinia, 2010. Technical report of building a line follower robot,
IEEE.

[2] http://www.elprocus.com/line-follower-robot-basics-controlling/ accessed December 17,

2015.
[3] electronicprojectcircuits.blogspot.com/ accessed December 17, 2015

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Appendices:
LDR:
A photo resistor or light-dependent resistor (LDR) or photocell is a light-controlled variable resistor.
Vero-board:

Vero-board is a brand of strip-board, a pre-formed circuit board material of copper strips on an

insulating board which was originated and developed in the early 1960s by the Electronics
Department of Vero Precision Engineering Ltd (VPE).
LM 324:
The LM324 series are lowcost, quad operational amplifiers withtrue differential inputs. They
have several distinct advantages overstandard operational amplifier types in single supply
applications. Thequad amplifier can operate at supply voltages as low as 3.0 V or as high as 32
V.

LM 7805:
The LM78XX series of three-terminal positive regulators is available in the TO-220 package and
with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each
type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut-down, and safe operating area protection. If
adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1 A output current. Although designed
primarily as fixed- voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components for
adjustable voltages and currents.
LM 239d:

TheLMx39xandtheLM2901xxdevices
consistoffourindependentvoltagecomparatorsthataredesignedtooperatefromasinglep
owersupplyoverawiderangeofvoltages.Operationfromdualsuppliesalsoispossible,aslo
ngasthedifferencebetweenthetwosuppliesis2Vto36V,andVCCisatleast1.5Vmorepositiv
ethantheinputcommon-modevoltage.

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