(180___ Heat and Mass Transfer 0 Fig. 3.1 (al Cooling of a smallillet pi = Internal conductive resistance _ LIK _ hk Extemal convective resistance Uh where / is the average heat transfer coefficient, L is a characteristic dimension obtained by dividing the volume of the body by its surface area and & is the thermal conductivity of the solid body. For Bi < 0.1, i.c. when the internal resistance is less than 10% of the external resistance, the internal resistance can be ignored, and there is only one temperature at a certain instant that stands for the system as a whole, independent of space coordinates x, y and =. Let us consider the cooling of a small billet or metal casting in a quenching bath or air after it is removed from a hot furnace (Fig. 3.1(a)). Neglecting any temperature gradient within the solid, an energy balance for the billet over a small time interval dr gives ‘Change in internal energy of = Net heat flow from the billet to the billet during time dr the bath or air during time dr ~ pVe aT = hA(T -T..) dt Bn where p= density of billet, kg/m; V= volume of billet, m'; c= specific heat of billet, I0kg K: T = average temperature of billet. K: 7. = surrounding fluid temperature, K: ft = average heat transfer coefficient. Wim? K: A = surface area of billet, m? and dT"= temperature change, K, during time interval dt, s. The minus sign indicates that the internal energy and hence temperature decrease with time, From Eq. (3.1) ar _d-T.) __ ha en T-T. T-T. pev Let the initial temperature of the billet be 7; when ¢ = 0. After time ¢ has elapsed, the temperature of the billet falls to 7. On integrating Eq, (3.2) between these limits or G3) Let Bi = hL/k and Fo = Fourier number = a where « = thermal diffusivity (m/s). The productFig. 3.1 () Temperaturetime history of the homogencous billet Rate of heat transfer at any time ¢ or instantaneous heat transfer rate can be obtained from Eq. (3.1) Lat hb kot _ ht KP k pee pel = AAL where L = VIA BiFo= If excess temperature @ = T - T_. then Eq. (3.3) can be written as Ga) Fora aphitve, pote ft er 3 3 For a cylinder, potot Darl 2 é ‘ Pood ‘or a cube of side f, inf wt oF 6 ‘The time-temperature history of the billet is shown in Fig. 3.1(b). The characteristic dimensionless numbers of transient heat conduction are the Fourier number, which may be called dimensionless time, and the Biot number.aT ss hA hat Q=-pev T= - pve, -T.) (- ah )exe 84] = HAG, exp (-Bi Fo) kW Total amount of heat transfer during a time interval (0, 1) is the change in internal energy of the body. Av= Jou = j hA (T-T)dt = Jorac, = Tie PFO. ay cin =H, fe PY a= hag (1 — eB) _ Bi-Fo = AAG (1 — eB P)LAY hAt = pcV9,(1—e FF) Ky G5) An electrical network analogous to the thermal network fora lumped-single- capacity system is shown in Fig. 3.2. The capacitor in this network is initially charged to the potential 7; by closing the switch 5. When the switch is opened, the energy stored in the capacitance is discharged through the resistance /hA, ‘The analogy between the thermal system and the electrical system is apparent. The thermal resistance is R= I/hA, and the thermal capacitance is C = peV, while R, and C, are the electrical resistance and capacitance respectively. To construct an electrical system that would behave exactly like the thermal system, the ratio hA/peV is just to be made equal to V/R,C,. In the thermal system internal energy is stored, whereas in the electrical system electric charge is stored. The flow of energy in the thermal system is heat, and the flow of charge is electric current. The quantity peVihA is called the time constant of the system, since it has the dimension of time. 7 wees Tee “a Tat) + Gapev | C=opv or, | T, of E ni 7 = at Talo. givcnt (VOR ih ne . t= Owhen billet is immersed t= 0 when switch Sis opened in fluid and heat begins to and the condenser begins to tow. discharge.10 19 BE ° ae o i Thermal circuit Electrical sysiom Rate of heat flow q (js or W) Current flow t (A) ‘Thermal capacity Electrical capacity C, (farads) C= cpV(sK) Thermal resistance Electrical resistance A, (2) R= 1h, (KM) “ermal potota (T= 7) (K) Electrical potential (E~ E.)(V) Fig. 3.2 Network andschematic of transienthumped-capacity system Let us consider a plane wall (Fig. 3.3), which is initially at a uniform temperature 7, and experiences convection cooling when it is immersed in a fluid at 7_< 7, Weare interested in the temperature variation with position and time T = T(x, ). This variation is a strong function of Biot number (Fig. 3.3). ForBi cc I, the temperature gradient in the solid is small and T(x, 1) = Tl), and the solid temperature remains nearly uniform. For Bi >> 1, the temperature difference across the solid is very large. i i te Te, O)= TH i sty ek hex “eet “Bet T-TO Pero THT 9 Fig. 3.3. Transient temperature distribution for different Biot numbersin a plane wall cooled by convection ‘The inherent simplicity renders the lumped capacitance method the preferred method for solving transient conduction problems. The very first thing one should do is to calculate the Biot number. If Bi << 0.1, the error associated with the lumped capacitance method is small. This idealized assumption is possible if (a) the physical size of the body is very small, (b) k of the material is very large, and (c) h is very small.3.1.1 Response Time of a Thermocouple An important application of the lumped heat-capacity analysis is the measurement of temperature by a thermocouple or thermometer. A thermocouple should rapidly reach the temperature of the system which it is measuring, i.. it should come into thermal equilibrium with the system rapidly. The response time of a thermocouple is the time taken by it to reach thermal equilibrium. For a rapid response of the thermocouple, the term hAt/peV should be as large as possible, so that the exponential term reaches zero faster (when T = T..). This can be achieved by decreasing the wire diameter (i.e. WA), density and specific heat, or by increasing h. Hence, a thin wire should be used in a thermocouple for rapid response to reach thermal equilibrium quickly, particularly for measuring transient temperatures. The quantity pcVihA, having the dimension of time, is often called the time constant of a thermocouple, 1. ‘When 3.6) Thus at the end of the time period equal to 1", the temperature difference between the body and the ambient is 0.368 of the initial temperature difference. In other words, the temperature difference would be reduced by 63.2%. The time required by a thermocouple to reach 63.2% of the initial temperature difference is called the sensitivity of the thermocouple. The lower the value of the time constant, the better the response of the thermocouple. For all practical purposes a reading of the thermocouple should be taken after a period of 41°. ‘Thermocouple materials have nearly the same pand cy. Thus the response time essentially is a function of the wire diameter. The value of time constant varies between 0.045 and 2.5 s for the thermocouples used in practice. 3.2 PLANE WALL WITH CONVECTION Exact analytical solutions to transient conduction problems have been obtained for many simplified geometries and boundary conditions and are well documented in the literature (1-4). 3.2.1 Infinite Plate with no External Thermal Resistance (h = ) Let us consider a class of problems of heating and cooling of objects which have an appreciable internal thermal resistance. In these problems we shall simply assign a temperature for the surface of the object as 7, for ¢ > 0. This is to imply that in the practical situation either 7 is known from actual measurement or the surface thermal resistance is negligible (I/hA, = 0 or h = ©) so that 7, is actually the ambient temperature T_. Let us consider the heating or cooling of a large plate (Fig. 3.4) of uniform thickness L = 26), where 5, = semi-thickness. Heat conduction equation in one dimension iser_iar Sow B72 Fig. 3.4 Infinite solid plate with no extemal resistance The temperature distribution in the plate T(x, 1) is initially (r = 0) some arbitrary function of x, as 7 (x, 0) = 7; (x). Then both surfaces x= 0 and x= L are suddenly changed to, and maintained at, a uniform temperature T, for all 1> 0. The problem now is to find out the temperature distribution after a certain time and the quantity of heat conducted during that time. Let @=7—T.,, where T., is constant.The temperature distribution in the plate Tix, 1) is initially (¢ = 0) some arbitrary function of x, as T (x, 0) = T; (x). Then both surfaces x = O/and x = L are suddenly changed to, and maintained at, a uniform temperature 7, for all 1 > 0. The problem now is to find out the temperature distribution after a certain time and the quantity of heat conducted during that time. Let @=T ~T.., where T., is constant. #o_ or ar ‘Therefore, Eq. (3.7) becomes Fo _1 a0 ax a a 1=0, Ax) =Ty(x)-T; for 00 x=L,0=0fort>0 To solve the partial differential equation (3.8), we will use the method of separation of variables. Let 0= 0x,1) which we can write as = Xix), Yi) (3.8) rer. where X(x) is a function of x only, and ¥ is a function of ¢ only. Therefore, Eq, (3.8) can be written as y2X yl ax? ao or 19x _ iar 2, the separation constant Xo aya (since each side is a function of only a single variable). The negative sign of 7 is given to ensure a negative exponential solution in time. Let us take first the equation 1 4¥ 2 jay ay dt -#adt InY=-a@7't YQ) =A, eu InA, The characteristic equation is meh m=sid XQ) =A, 2 4A, 2 (Cos Ax + i sin Ax) + Ay (cos Ax ~ i sin 2x) (Ap + Aq) cos Ax + (ip ~ Ay) sin Ar B, cos Ax + Bz sin Ar. = Xia) He) = (B, cos Ax + By sin Ax) A, e* or Oz (C, cos Ax + Cy sin Ax) eo * (3.9) At x=0, fort>0, @=0 o=cee* Since e+ 0, % c=0 Atx=L, forall 1>0, 8=0 =C,sinaALe™ Since C, #0, sin AL =0AL=nr or anu where n= 1, 2,3) <= (n #0, since if n = 0, A= 0, = 0, no solution) ‘The temperature distribution, Eq. (3.9), becomes 6= > eC, sin = x 3.10) a To satisfy the initial condition, at = 0, a aw=> C,sin ad G11) 1 ‘This is a Fourier sine-series expansion of arbitrary function 8 (x). L 2 (ak C= i Q(x) sin vee ‘The complete solution is L 22H Ht0M Fh gin int ide sintt sJevcosin Trae G.12) This expression gives the temperature distribution in the slab as a function of time and depends on the specified initial temperature distribution. Let us consider the special case in which a uniform initial temperature distribution, 7,(x) = T;, exists throughout the thickness of the slab. The slab is initially heated to a uniform temperature 7; and then dropped to a certain fluid medium with its temperature at x = 0 and x= L kept fixed at 7. 4()=7,-7, (3.13) ‘The instantaneous rate at which heat is conducted wn o--m etka L a-™E el a Es Q_4ke eo {Je ong tea e 1-0 d J nelt) cos (3.14) 3.2.2 Infinite Solid Plate with Both Internal and External Resistances Let us now consider the cases of heating and cooling of solids in which both the internal and surface resistances are present, e.g. the quenching of a heated solid ina liquid bath, Here the temperature of the surrounding fluid is suddenly changed to, and maintained at, some temperature different from the initial solid temperature. The convective heating or cooling of a large plate of uniform thickness 2 (Fig. 3.5) is considered. The plate is initially at a uniform temperature 7, at 0. The plate is suddenly exposed to, or immersed in, a large mass of fluid at for all r> 0, with T,, and A remaining uniform throughout the heating or cool period. t Fig. 3.5 Infinite slid plate: Temperature profile In an effort to simplify the problem, we select the origin of the x-axis at the centre of the plate and thereby take advantage of the temperature symmetry about x = 0. The temperature-time history must then satisfy the equation T = T(x, #) given by ar _ iar SF 3.19) ae a or oeLet = T- T_, where T- is constant. Eq. (3.15) can be written as 2, ae _ 100 3.16) To solve this equation, we will use the method of separation of variables. We can write = X(x) H(t) @.17) where X(x) is a function of x only, and ¥(1) is a function of 1 only. Then 6 y 2X yyy 2 _y ae a 2 2 On substitution in Eq. (3.8), 2 haase a2 # (say) (3.18) Since each side of Eq. (3.18) is a function of only one variable, each side will be equal toa constnt, called separation constant, 2°. The negative sign has been given to get negative exponential solution in time. Taking each equation or (3.19) where A, is a constat 1€X__ Aenite ae #X . 2x20 ax ‘The characteristic equation, m? + 2 = 0, or, m = tid. XG) = A,e™ + Ase = Az (cos Ax + i sin Ax) + Ay (cos Ax ~ i sin Ax) = 008 Ax (Az + Ay) + Sin AXA) ~ fy) = By, cos Ax + By sin ar (3.20) Therefore, @= Xx) M0)1 8" (B cos Ax +B, sin Ax) "(Cy cos Ax + C2 sin Ax) 8=(C, cos Ax + Cy sin Ax) oO" G21) Here the constants 2, Cy and C; are to be evaluated from the initial and boundary conditions. (a) Atr=0, @= @=7,-T., ae (b) Atx=0, 5 =0 (no heat transfer across the midplane) x (©) Atr=h7 ) =h(T,-T.)=hQ ent EY h (2). “44 Using the condition (b), (¥) =e CAC, sin Ax + AC, cos Ax), = 0 = Ox, AC, cos Ax =0 or AC,=0, ie. C)=0 ‘The solution of Eq. (3.21) reduces to 0=C, cos Ax (3.22) Using the condition (c), (32) Ox), =~ C8 a sin Al == 2 Cpe cos al CoP Asin Al = - $ 4 Asin At=® cos al cot A= a 3.23) or (3.24) ‘The points of intersection of the curves ¥= cot Al and ¥ = AU/Bi will give the values of 4/ (Fig. 3.6). For a given |, we can determine Ay, Ay, Ay, «=. The ‘equation cot A! = AU/Bi is satisfied for an infinite succession of values of the parameter AU, so that for a given A, the equation defines the values of 4. This succession of values of A, called eigen values, will be denoted by 2., which depend on the Biot number.Fig. 3.6 Graphic solution of the transcendental equation cot aL. = 2 The temperature distribution, Eq. (3.22), thus becomes o= Soe G25) where 4, inthe nth root of the transcendeatal equation cittw Ad or Aftan A-Bi=0 6.26) The value of C, for each value of A, is next to be determined. Using the condition (a), at t= 0, 8= 8 = 5 c,c0s Ax 8.27) mel If Ay’s were simple integers 1, 2, 3, --, then 4= > C,cos Ax a would have been a Fourier cosine series expansion. @=C, cost + C, cos 2x + Cy cos 3x +++ +0, cos nxt and C, would have been o-2] 8.008 Ayx ds, Aga 1.2.3, 1 ° But A,'s are not integers, and are the roots of the trigonometric equation (gd) tan (A) ~ Bi = So some other method has to be found out to determine C,'s Let us multiply both sides of Eq. (3.27) by cos 4,,x dx, where m # n.\ - | @ J cos ay dx = ¥ Cy f cos ax cos Ax de (3.28) ° ml 5 Integrand 1 of LHS. = f cos Aye dx ° Integrand 1 of RS. = 3f [0S (gt + Aya) + 605 (Aya ~ Ay] dt Asmat Ade shana x] ~ OL an tay (Ay + Ag) sing X 605 Ay X~ COS Appt sin Ay] 2 1 [i =A, isin Ag x COSA,x + COSA qx Sin, x] il *2 ZF Aw sin Aad 08 Ayl— dy £08 Ayl sin Aylh 3.29) = Ag) tan Ag! Now, (Aji) tan Al = sind sin Ag! 4a onal” cos An +. Ay sin Ay! cos Al = Ay sin Al cos Ayl Therefore, the integrand of R-H.S., Eq. (3.29), will be zero, unless m = n. Putting Ay, = Ay, Eq. (3.28) becomes f fitcos24,x C, J cos? apr dr=C, eS a 0 ° mo (14 sin2aal =6, (Sota!) (3.30) 14 2sindgl cosagl tA, 5 (Al + sin Al cos 2,31) bale i +sin A, Te08 Ag J For convenience, let d= Ay, then (A,D tan (AD = 6, tan 6, = Bi ‘Therefore, =F Ce B cos Age al or os x ‘The temperature distribution is thus given by 8 _Fsire __2sind, ont i = Be” sind, cond, * am) -7-h Fan, ‘Cumulative heat loss from the infinite slab is obtained from the Fourier heat conduction equation dQ=-tA ( 2) ar (6.33) Ox )ey Differentiating Eq. (3.32) with respect to x and putting the limit x =, 20) og Spar sind, Ba (_ Sy (32) -24 we Find, cond a sary a 0, spo 5, sin? 5, The 5, +sind, cosd, Substituting in Eq, (3.33) and integrating 38. 6, sin? 5, etire __§ sin? 5, 28. Se 5, + sind, cos, AS ‘ont Q _ 2k6, 6, sin’ 6, £. —n Sin” Oy _ A 1 4 8, +sind, cos, PL eME) potty ae\' 3G34) In order to make Eq. (3.34) dimensionless, we note that cpiT, represents initial internal energy per unit area of the slab. If we denote cpl(T, - T.) by Q/ A, we get Q_ 2a sin? 8, -%y O . 2k16_ 1- Q~ acple, 2 +5, sind, sd, “~* " a int or Bs St ey 3.35) QQ at ‘The temperature distribution in the slab T(x, t) is given by Eq. (3.32). nt On ind, cosd, 9 2 F etre sins _ og Sn, a 6, +sind, cosd, I Atx= 0, the centre-line temperature T.(f) varying with time is given by F gtr sind, 3.36) FO 6, +sind, £056, a Atx=1, the surface temperature 7, (1) varying with time is given by Le G37) The results using Eqs. (3.36), (3.37) and (3.35) have been calculated for different cases and plotted in the form of charts for rapid use, by Gréber and Erk, Gurney-Luric, Shack, Adams-Williamson, Heisler and others (1~ 4).Heisler’s charts for 8/4, are given in Fig. 3.7(a). ‘The temperature at any distance x from the mid-plane can be obtained from position-correction chart drawn with 8, versus 1/Bi for various values of x/I or & so that from which temperature T at any distance x from the midplane can be estimated (Fig. 3.7(b)). It is shown in an expanded scale in Fig. 3.7 (d).The cumulative heat losses Q/Q, for different values of Biot number are given in Fig. 3.7(c).