Vehicle

Dynamics for
BAJA

Thomas D. Gillespie, Ph.D.

Mechanical Simulation Corporation

A
Approach
h

Review the mechanics influencing vehicle dynamic behavior

Suggest areas where simulation can help development of Baja race
cars

Topics

Weight distribution
Acceleration/powertrain
Braking
Turning
Ride
Suspensions

Agenda

Weight
g Distribution

Static Loads

c
W fs = W
L
b
Wrs = W
L

Dynamic Loads

M gc

c
Wr

Wf

Grades ( )

h
W f = W fs W
L

Accelerating

h ax
W f = W fs W
L gc

h
Wr = Wrs + W
L

Wr = Wrs + W

h ax
L gc

Simple
p Acceleration Model
Fx = M ax =

W
ax
gc

and P = Fx V
g P gc
ax = Fx c =
W VW
ax 1 P
=
gc V W

.30

10% Passenger
C 40 lb/h
Car,
lb/hp

.25
.20
ax
g .15
.10

Typical Heavy Truck,

250 lb/hp

.05
0

10

20

30

40

Acceleration is:
Speed
(km/hr)
Speed (mph)
Proportional to power-to-weight ratio
Inversely
I
l proportional
ti
l tto speed
d
Efficiency in utilizing available power depends on

50

60

Minimmizing friction losses and

Ability
Abilit tto kkeep engine
i att peak
k power

Powertrain

Mobility
y
Powertrain is key to good mobility performance
Vehicle launch
Off-road mobility
Operation on slippery terrain

Off-road Hill Climbing.exe

Powertrain

Typical Braking System

Rear
Brake

Vacuum
Assist
Rea
r

Brake
Pedal
bra
k

Master
Cylinder

e lin
es

Parking Brake

Combination
Valve

B k Proportioning
Brake
P
ti i
Design a system
(brakes and pressure delivery)
Utilize available tire friction
Despite variations in vehicle loading
and dynamic load transfer

Brake System Mechanics

s
t line
n
o
Fr rake
Front
b
Brake

Maximum Brake Force

Front Lockup Boundary:
Fxf pW f
hW
p [W fs +
Dx ]
L gc
h W Fxf + Fxr
p [W fs +
]
L gc
M
h
p [W fs + ( Fxf + Fxr )]
L
h
h
Fxf p Fxf p [W fs + Fxr ]
L
L

Fxf max

h
Fxr ]
L
h
1 p
L

p [W fs +

Rear Lockup Boundary:

Fxr max

h
Fxf ]
L
h
1+ p
L

p [Wrs

Intersection Points:
h
h
Fxfi = p [W fs + pW ]
Fxri = p [Wrs pW ]
L
L

Brake System Analysis

Performance Triangles
g
Fxf max

h
Fxr ]
L
h
1 p
L

p [W fs +

pW fs
1 p

Slope =

h
L

p h L
1 p h

Fro
ont Brake F
Force

2000

Slope =

p h

L
h
1+ p
L

1500
Proportioning
Range
1000

500

pWrs

Fxr max

h
1+ p
L

0
0

500

1000

1500

h
Fxf ]
L
h
1+ p
L

p [Wrs

2000

Rear Brake Force

Brake Proportioning

Cornering
g Behavior
Low-speed
p
Emphasis on steering system design

High speed
Stability (understeer/oversteer)
Tire cornering properties
Suspension properties

Low-speed
p
o

L =
L
o= tan-1

R+t/2
/2 R+t/2
L =
L
i = tan-1
R-t/2
R-t/2
g radii, R >> t/2
For large
L
Ack =
R

t/2

Inboard off-tracking
2
L

2R

Cornering

Turn
Center

10

Steering
g Geometry
y
Straight ahead

Right turn

Left turn

There is no actual Ackerman Geometry

B t
Between-wheels
h l lilinkages
k
approximate
i t A
Ackerman
k
Illustrated with trapezoidal linkage of truck system
Rule of thumb that tie-rod arms should point to rear axle

Ackerman

11

High
g Speed
p
Tires must develop lateral forces
They do so by developing a slip angle
They no longer travel in direction they are pointed
F
y

M
z

Pneumatic Trail, P

Direction of Heading
Slip Angle,
Directio
n

Slip Region

of Trave
l

Contact Patch

Cornering

12

Tire
e co
cornering
e g sstiffness
ess

La
ateral Forcce, Fy (lb)

A key tire property

Slope of the lateral force vs. slip angle curve

800

Direction
of Travel

600

Slip Angle (-)

F = C
y

400
200
0

F
y

C
0

C = 4

Slip Angle,

10

12

d Fy
d

=0

(deg)

C is positive

Cornering

13

Turning
u
g Equation
qua o

L/R

NSL for force and moment analysis

Geometryy for steer angle
g vs. radius

W V2
Fy + Ff + Fr = g R
c

cg

= Ff b + Fr c = 0

From tire properties

Ff
Wfs V 2
f =
=
C f Cf R gc
r =

Fr
W V
= rs
Cr C r R gc

W V2
gR

From Newtons Second Law

V2
Ff = Wfs
R gc
V2
Fr = Wrs
R gc
From the geometry:

Fr

L
+ f r
R
L Wfs V 2
Wrs V 2
= 57.3 +

R Cf R ggc C r R gc

= 57.3

Wfs Wrs V 2
L
= 57.3 + (

)
R Cf C r R gc
Understeer Gradient

High-speed Cornering

14

Understeer
U
de s ee G
Gradient
ad e
Wfs Wrs V 2
L
= 57.3 + (

)
R Cf C r R gc
Understeer Gradient

Positive understeer
Zero neutral steer
Negative oversteer
Has a critical speed
Vehicle is unstable
Oscillatory
Divergent

High-speed Cornering

15

Stability
S
ab y Limit ((with O
Oversteer)
e s ee )
L
= 57.3 + K ay
R
L g
= 57.3 2 ay + K ay
V

V2
ay
57.3L g
=
2
V
1+ K
57 3L g
57.3L

V2
ay =
R

Critical speed (Oversteer)

Vcrit = 57.3L g / K
= Stability Limit

Lateral Acceleration Gain

16

Stee
er Angle//Steering Ratio(deg
g)

Constant Radius Understeer Test

Limit Understeer

CONSTANT
RADIUS

Neutral Steer

Understeer

Oversteer

K (deg/g)
Limit
Oversteer

Lateral Acceleration (g)

Understeer Measurement

17

Roll
o Moment
o e Distribution
s bu o

Lateral load transfer on an axle (roll moment) causes a loss of

cornering force at a given slip angle
Total inside to outside load transfer is determined by ratio of
CG height to track width
Suspension design controls
the distribution of roll
moment of between front
and rear axles
Front load transfer is
understeer influence
Rear load transfer is
oversteer influence

500

Lateral Fo
orce (lb)

400
360
320

300
200

Slip Angle 3 deg

100
0
0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

Vertical Load (lb)

Understeer Mechanisms

18

 Tires produce a lateral force

(camber thrust) when inclined
Characterized by camber
stiffness, C
Camber arises from
Chassis roll
Suspension camber in jounce

Lateral Force (lb)

L

Tire
e Ca
Camber*
be
Fz = 1000 lb
Zero Slip Angle

200

150
100
50
0

C
0

Outward inclination on front

tires is understeer
Outward inclination on rear
tires is oversteer

Camber Angle (deg)

gi

bi

go

bo

* Inclination is tire angle relative to the road

Camber is tire angle relative to the vehicle
Positive camber tires lean outward
Negative camber tires lean inward
t/2

Understeer Mechanisms

19

Roll Steer
All suspensions steer with roll
Steer to the outside is:
Understeer on front
Oversteer on rear
Solid axle example:
Depends on trailing arm angle

Kroll steer = ( f - r)
ay

Inclination of
Suspension Roll Axis

Roll Center

Overstee
r

Neutral Steer
U nder

steer

Front of Vehicle

Understeer Mechanisms

20

Lateral Force Compliance Steer

All suspensions steer due to a lateral force

Minimize compliance steer

A = c /Fy

K lfcs = A f Wf - Ar Wr
Deflection Understeer

Deflection Oversteer
Turn

Cornering
Force

Turn

Cornering
Force

Understeer Mechanisms

Yaw center
21

Aligning
g g Torque

Always understeer in the linear range of tire forces

I.e., when pneumatic trail, p, is as shown
May change direction at high cornering levels
Effect on steering system is more significant

p C f + C r
Kat = W L
C C
f r

F
f

2
WV
gR

F
r

Understeer Mechanisms

22

Suspension Properties

Lateral Force Compliance Steer

Aligning Moment Steer

Roll Moment Control

Roll Steer
Camber Effects

Suspension Properties in CarSim

23

Steering
g System
y
Compliance
p
Steering systems have
compliance between hand
wheel and road wheel
Force and moment inputs at
the tires try to steer the
wheels
Lateral force acts to resist turning

K ss

K ss

To steering wheel

Caster angle
g in steering
g system
y
Aligning moment

Result is an understeer mechanism

Fyr

r tan

Understeer Mechanisms

24

Constant Radius Understeer Test (Simulated)

(
)
Li it U
Limit
Understeer
d t

Understeer Gradient
at the steering wheel

Understeer Simulation in CarSim

25

Ride -- Bounce and Pitch Modes

Car has two modes of ride motion determined by motion centers

One inside and one outside of the wheelbase
One in front and one behind CG

c
b
M, Iy vehicle
Fig. 5.32 Pitch plane model for a motor
Kf

Kr

Predominant Modes
Bounce

Pitch

26

Pitch Plane Model

Next level of modeling includes pitch motion

Wheelbase selectively filters inputs for bounce and pitch motions
PITCH

BOUNCE

WB

2 WB

WB
2

2 WB
3
2 WB
5

WB
3

1
Gain

Gain

0
0

Spatial Frequency (Cycles/unit WB)

Sine Sweep Test.exe

27

Bump
p Response
p
Front wheels hit bump first
Front of vehicle pitches upward
Rears hit the bump
Vehicle pitches downward
Front/rear suspension balance determines landing attitude
A
Front Suspension
Rear Suspension

Amplitude

B
Time
t

Bump at 15 kph.exe

28

Suspension
p
Functions
Provide vertical compliance so the wheels can follow the uneven road
Isolates the chassis from roughness
Maintains tire contact for good friction coupling
Maintain the wheels in proper steer and camber attitudes
React the control forces produced by the tires
longitudinal (accelerating and braking)
lateral (cornering)
braking
driving torques

Resist
R i t rollll off th
the chassis
h
i

Suspensions

29

MacPherson Strut Suspension

Wheel is mounted rigidly to the strut
Strut experiences overturning moment from load offset
Limited camber gain in jounce (<1 deg/25 mm)
Front suspension
(MacPherson Strut)

30

Short-Long
g Arm Suspension
p
Very tunable has 6 geometry points to adjust
Good camber gain in jounce (>1 deg/25 mm)
Hard to package

Suspension Types

31

Semi-trailing Arm Suspension

Characteristics
Frame mounted differential
Trailing arms
Pivot axis skewed

Shortcomings
Tire steers in jounce
Tire cambers in jounce

Suspension Types

32

Swing Arm Suspension

Characteristics
Frame mounted differential
Swing arms
Pivot axis longitudinal

Shortcomings
Jacking forces
Tire cambers in jounce

Application:
VW Corvair
VW,
C
i

Suspension Types

33

Roll Axis of a Vehicle

Roll Center
Suspension
Roll Axis

Front Roll
Center

Roll
Center
H i ht
Height

Rear Roll
Center
xis
Vehicle Roll A

Suspensions

34

Roll Center - SLA Suspension

Roll center is point where lateral forces react on the chassis
Elevated roll center causes a jacking force lifting chassis
Try to keep roll center near the ground
cL

Reaction
Point

Roll
Center
See Animation

Suspensions

35

Roll Center - MacPherson Strut

cL

Roll
Center

Suspensions

36

Roll Center - Swing Arms

cL

Roll
Center

Suspensions

37

Concluding
g Thoughts
g

Tires are the most important component controlling cornering

behavior
Also, the last opportunity to tune
Outside tire does all the work in hard cornering
May carry 80% of the axle load
Must perform well when overloaded

Suspensions need negative camber in jounce

Keeps tire upright on road
Maximizes tire performance

Control suspension kinematics and compliances

Prevent unwanted steer in cornering
g

Tune suspension stiffness and damping

Keep the tires on the ground minimize load variations
Control pitch and bounce dynamics

The End Thank You!

38