Winter Camp 2008

Inequalities

Yufei Zhao

Inequalities
Yufei Zhao
yufeiz@mit.edu

Classical Theorems

Theorem 1. (AM-GM) Let a1 , , an be positive real numbers. Then, we have

a1 + + an
n a1 an .
n
Theorem 2. (Cauchy-Schwarz) Let a1 , , an , b1 , , bn be real numbers. Then,
(a1 2 + + an 2 )(b1 2 + + bn 2 ) (a1 b1 + + an bn )2 .
Theorem 3. (Jensen) Let f : [a, b] R be a convex function. Then for any x1 , x2 , . . . , xn [a, b] and any
nonnegative reals 1 , 2 , . . . , n with 1 + 2 + + n = 1, we have
1 f (x1 ) + 2 f (x2 ) + + n f (xn ) f (1 x1 + 2 x2 + + n xn ).
If f is concave, then the inequality is flipped.
Theorem 4. (Weighted AM-GM) Let 1 , , n > 0 with 1 + + n = 1. For all x1 , , xn > 0,
we have
n
1 2
1 x1 + 2 x2 + + n xn x
1 x2 xn .
Theorem 5. (Schur) Let x, y, z be nonnegative real numbers. For any r > 0, we have
X
xr (x y)(x z) 0.
cyclic

Definition 1. (Majorization) Let x = (x1 , x2 , . . . xn ) and y = (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) be two sequences of real

numbers. Then x is said to majorize y (denoted x  y) if the following conditions are satisfied
x1 x2 x3 xn and y1 y2 y3 yn ; and
x1 + x2 + + xk y1 + y2 + + yk , for k = 1, 2, . . . , n 1; and
x1 + x2 + + xn = y1 + y2 + + yn .
Theorem 6. (Muirhead)1 Suppose that (a1 , . . . , an )  (b1 , . . . , bn ), and x1 , . . . xn are positive real numbers,
then
X
X
xa1 1 xa2 2 xann
xb11 xb22 xbnn .
sym

sym

where the symmetric sum is taken over all n! permutations of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn .

Theorem 7. (Karamatas Majorization inequality) Let f : [a, b] R be a convex function. Suppose
that (x1 , , xn )  (y1 , , yn ), where x1 , , xn , y1 , , yn [a, b]. Then, we have
f (x1 ) + + f (xn ) f (y1 ) + + f (yn ).
1 Practical notes about Muirhead: (1) dont try to apply Muirhead when there are more than 3 variables, since mostly likely
you wont succeed (and never, ever try to use Muirhead when the inequality is only cyclic but not symmetric, since it is incorrect
to use Muirhead there) (2) when writing up your solution, it is probably safer to just deduce the inequality using weighted
AM-GM by finding the appropriate weights, as this can always be done. The reason is that it is not always clear that Muirhead
will be accepted as a quoted theorem.

Winter Camp 2008

Inequalities

Yufei Zhao

Theorem 8. (Power Mean) Let x1 , , xn > 0. The power mean of order r is defined by
M(x1 , ,xn ) (0) =


x1 xn , M(x1 , ,xn ) (r) =

xr1 + + xn r
n

 r1
(r 6= 0).

Then, M(x1 , ,xn ) : R R is continuous and monotone increasing.

Theorem 9. (Bernoulli) For all r 1 and x 1, we have
(1 + x)r 1 + rx.
Definition 2. (Symmetric Means) For given arbitrary real numbers x1 , , xn , the coefficient of tni in
the polynomial (t + x1 ) (t + xn ) is called the i-th elementary symmetric function i . This means that
(t + x1 ) (t + xn ) = 0 tn + 1 tn1 + + n1 t + n .
For i {0, 1, , n}, the i-th elementary symmetric mean Si is defined by
i


n .

Si =

Theorem 10. Let x1 , . . . , xn > 0. For i {1, , n}, we have

(1) (Newton)

Si
Si+1

Si1
Si ,

1
i

(2) (Maclaurin) Si Si+1 i+1 .

Theorem 11. (Rearrangement) Let x1 xn and y1 yn be real numbers. For any
permutation of {1, . . . , n}, we have
n
X

xi yi

n
X

i=1

xi y(i)

i=1

n
X

xi yn+1i .

i=1

Theorem 12. (Chebyshev) Let x1 xn and y1 yn be real numbers. We have




x1 + + xn
y1 + + yn
x1 y1 + + xn yn

.
n
n
n
Theorem 13. (H
older)2 Let x1 , , xn , y1 , , yn be positive real numbers. Suppose that p > 1 and q > 1
satisfy p1 + 1q = 1. Then, we have
n
X

xi yi

i=1

n
X

! p1
xi

i=1

n
X

! q1
yi

i=1

More generally, let xij (i = 1, , m, j = 1, n) be positive real numbers. Suppose that 1 , , n are
positive real numbers satisfying 1 + + n = 1. Then, we have

!j
n
m
m
n
Y
X
X
Y

xij

xij j .
j=1

i=1

i=1

j=1

Theorem 14. (Minkowski)3 If x1 , , xn , y1 , , yn > 0 and p > 1, then

n
X
i=1
2 Think
3 Think

! p1
xi

n
X

! p1
yi

i=1

n
X

! p1
(xi + yi )

i=1

of this as generalized Cauchy, as you can use it for more than two sequences.
of this as generalized triangle inequality.

Winter Camp 2008

Inequalities

Yufei Zhao

A motivating example

In this section we discuss several common techniques in inequalities through following famous problem from
IMO 2001 by Hojoo Lee:
Prove that

b
c
a
+
+
1
2
2
+ 8bc
b + 8ca
c + 8ab
for all positive real numbers a, b and c.

a2

The official solution is short and mysterious:

Official solution: First we prove that
4

or equivalently, that

a
a3
4
4
4 ,
2
a + 8bc
a3 + b3 + c3
4

(a 3 + b 3 + c 3 )2 a 3 (a2 + 8bc).
Indeed, this follows from applying AM-GM as follows:
4

(a 3 +b 3 +c 3 )2 = (a 3 )2 +(b 3 +c 3 )(a 3 +a 3 +b 3 +c 3 ) (a 3 )2 +2b 3 c 3 4a 3 b 3 c 3 = a 3 +8a 3 bc = a 3 (a2 +8bc).

We have similar inequalities for the other two terms, and so
4

b
c
a3
b3
c3
a

+
+
4
4
4 +
4
4
4 +
4
4
4 = 1.
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
a + 8bc
b + 8ca
c + 8ab
a +b +c
a +b +c
a + b3 + c3

While the solution looks nice and short, it leaves us wonder how in the world could anyone come up with
it. In particular, where did the exponent 34 come from? Here we provide some motivation.
Isolated fudging.

It is not unusual to compare individual terms of an inequality to expressions such as

ar
ar + br + cr

because if the comparison turns out to be successful, we can finish off the problem right away. (Techniques of
this form are sometimes called isolated fudging, meaning that the effort is focused on manipulating individual
terms, as opposed to the inequality as a whole.) So, suppose we guess that it is possible to have an inequality
of the form
ar
a

r
.
a + br + cr
a2 + 8bc
Now how can we pick the candidates for r? Blind guess and check will probably get us nowhere. Luckily,
there is a method that will give you the unique candidate for r (though with no promise that this r will
work). Be prepared, this method will require some calculus.
Suppose that some r works. Let us consider the function
f (a, b, c) =

ar
a
r
.
a2 + 8bc a + br + cr

What do we know about f (a, b, c)? Because of the inequality that we want, we need f (a, b, c) 0 for all
a, b, c > 0. Also, by considering the point of equality, we see that (1, 1, 1) must be a local minimum of f . So
consider the partial derivative of f with respect to a (denoted f /a), meaning that we differentiate f with
respect to a while treating the other variables as if they were constants. Since (1, 1, 1) is a local minimum,
this partial derivative when evaluated at (1, 1, 1) must give zero. So lets do this computation. (If you know
some multivariable calculus, it may be instructive to think in terms of f = 0 at (1, 1, 1).)
3

Winter Camp 2008

Inequalities

We have

f
=
a

a2 + 8bc
a2

2
a
a2 +8bc

+ 8bc

Yufei Zhao

rar1 (ar + br + cr ) ar rar1

.
(ar + br + cr )2
3 1

Evaluating at (a, b, c) = (1, 1, 1) and setting the value to zero, we get 9 3 3rr
= 0, which gives r = 43 .
9
Aha! Now we found the candidate for r, we can now go through the steps of the official solution (which
were easy, given we know what r is).

Note that while we used calculus to motivate our solution, we do not need to include any
calculus in the solution! In fact, calculus is best avoided in olympiad solutions as it is generally viewed
unfavorably. However, since we are not required to provide the motivation to our proof, we do not need to
worry about this issue. Amazing, isnt it?
Turning the table around. Seeing that the inequality is homogeneous (meaning that the transformation
(a, b, c) 7 (ka, kb, kc) does not change anything), it is natural to impose a constraint on it. So let us assume
without the loss of generality that abc = 18 , so that we need to prove
a
q
2
a +

1
a

+q

b
b2

1
b

+q

c
c2

1.
+

1
c

This does not seem any easier. Now, let us turn the table around and switch the roles of the constraint and
the inequality.
Let
a
b
c
x= q
, y=q
, z=q
.
a2 + a1
b2 + 1b
c2 + 1c
Note that

a
1
a2 + a

q 1
1+ a13

, so we can write a, b, c in terms of x, y, z:

a3 =

x2
,
1 x2

b3 =

y2
,
1 y2

c3 =

z2
.
1 z2

So, the inequality that we wish to prove is x+y +z 1 assuming abc = 81 . By considering the contrapositive,
it suffices to prove that abc < 18 assuming x + y + z < 1. That is, we need to prove that
x2 y 2 z 2
1
< 3
(1 x2 )(1 y 2 )(1 z 2 )
8
given x + y + z < 1. The square roots are now gone! The new inequality turns out to be extremely easy, as
it is merely a straightforward application of AM-GM. Indeed, we have
1

1 x2 > (x + y + z)2 x2 = y 2 + z 2 + xy + xy + yz + yz + xz + xz 8x 2 y 4 z 4
and similarly for 1 y 2 and 1 z 2 . Setting this back into about inequality gives the desired result.

How to use Jensen. Since the inequality is homogeneous, we can assume that a + b + c = 1. Note that
the function x 7 1x is convex. So we can use Jensens inequality as follows:
a

a2

1
1
1
1
+b
+c
p
2
2
2
2
+ 8bc
b + 8ca
c + 8ab
a(a + 8bc) + b(b + 8ca) + c(c2 + 8ab)
1
.
=
a3 + b3 + c3 + 24abc

So it remains to prove that

a3

b3

1
1
+ c3 + 24abc
4

Winter Camp 2008

Inequalities

Yufei Zhao

or equivalently,
a3 + b3 + c3 + 24abc (a + b + c)3 .
This is again extremely easy, as AM-GM gives
(a + b + c)3 a3 b3 c3 = 3(a2 b + b2 a + b2 c + c2 b + c2 a + a2 c) + 6abc 24abc.


Problems

The following problems are selected from a packet written by Thomas Mildorf, which can be found at
http://web.mit.edu/tmildorf/www/Inequalities.pdf. Solutions can also be found there.
1. Show that for positive reals a, b, c




a2 b + b2 c + c2 a ab2 + bc2 + ca2 9a2 b2 c2 .
2. Let a, b, c be positive reals such that abc = 1. Prove that
a + b + c a2 + b2 + c2 .
3. Let P (x) be a polynomial with positive coefficients. Prove that if
 
1
1

P
x
P (x)
holds for x = 1, then it holds for all x > 0.
4. Show that for all positive reals a, b, c, d,
1 1 4 16
64
+ + +

.
a b
c
d
a+b+c+d
5. (USAMO 1980/5) Show that for all non-negative reals a, b, c 1,
a
b
c
+
+
+ (1 a)(1 b)(1 c) 1.
b+c+1 c+a+1 a+b+1
6. (USAMO 1977/5) If a, b, c, d, e are positive reals bounded by p and q with 0 < p q, prove that


r
r 2
1 1 1 1 1
p
q
(a + b + c + d + e)
+ + + +
25 + 6

a b
c d e
q
p
and determine when equality holds.
7. Let a, b, c, be non-negative reals such that a + b + c = 1. Prove that
a3 + b3 + c3 + 6abc

1
.
4

8. (IMO 1995/2) a, b, c are positive reals with abc = 1. Prove that

1
1
1
3
+
+
.
a3 (b + c) b3 (c + a) c3 (a + b)
2
9. Let a, b, c be positive reals such that abc = 1. Show that
(a +

2
2
2
+
+
1.
2
2
2
2
+ b + 1 (b + 1) + c + 1 (c + 1) + a2 + 1

1)2

Winter Camp 2008

Inequalities

Yufei Zhao

10. (USAMO 1998/3) Let a0 , . . . , an be real numbers in the interval (0, 2 ) such that






tan a0
+ tan a1
+ + tan an
n 1.
4
4
4
Prove that
tan(a0 ) tan(a1 ) tan(an ) nn+1 .
11. (Romanian TST) Let a, b, x, y, z be positive reals. Show that
y
z
3
x
+
+

.
ay + bz
az + bx ax + by
a+b
12. The numbers x1 , x2 , . . . , xn obey 1 x1 , x2 , . . . , xn 1 and x13 + x23 + + xn3 = 0. Prove that
x1 + x2 + + xn

n
.
3

13. (Turkey) Let n 2 be an integer, and x1 , x2 , . . . , xn positive reals such that x21 + x22 + + x2n = 1.
Determine the smallest possible value of
x51
x52
x5n
+
+ +
.
x2 + x3 + + xn
x3 + + xn + x1
x1 + + xn1
14. (Poland 1995) Let n be a positive integer. Compute the minimum value of the sum
x1 +

x3
xn
x22
+ 3 + + n,
2
3
n

where x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are positive reals such that

1
1
1
+
+ +
= n.
x1
x2
xn
15. Prove that for all positive reals a, b, c, d,
a4 b + b4 c + c4 d + d4 a abcd(a + b + c + d).
16. (Vietnam 1998) Let x1 , . . . , xn be positive reals such that
1
1
1
1
+
+ +
=
x1 + 1998 x2 + 1998
xn + 1998
1998
Prove that

x1 x2 xn
1998.
n1

17. (MOP 2002) Let a, b, c be positive reals. Prove that



2a
b+c

 23


+

2b
c+a

 23


+

2c
a+b

 32
3

18. (Iran 1996) Show that for all positive real numbers a, b, c,


1
1
1
9
(ab + bc + ca)
+
+

(a + b)2
(b + c)2
(c + a)2
4