PAPER-VII

ALGORITHMS
What is time and space complexity?
Ans:- Time complexity a function which
describes the amount of time an algorithm
takes in terms of the amount of i/p to the
algorithm.
Space complexity a function which
describes the amount of memory (space)
an algorithm takes in terms of the amount
of input to the algorithm.
Dijkstra's Algorithm:-The time required
by Dijkstra's algorithm is O(|V|2). It will
be reduced to O(|E|log|V|) if heap is used

to keep {v in V\Si : L(v) < infinity}.

Prim's Algorithm:-The time required by
Prim's algorithm is O(|V|2). It will be
reduced to O(|E|log|V|) if heap is used to
keep {v in V\Si : L(v) < infinity}.
Kruskal algorithm:- The time required
by Kruskal's algorithm is O(|E|log|V|).
Travelling Salesman Problem.:-It is a
traditional issue that has to do with
making the most efficient use of resources
while at the same time expending the least
amount of energy in that utilization. The
designation for this type of problem hails
back to the days of the travelingsalesman,
who often wished to arrange travel in a
manner that allowed for visiting the most

towns without having to double back and

cross into any given town more than once.
Poission process:-It is a collection
{N(t) : t 0} of random variables,
where N(t) is the number of events that
have occurred up to time t (starting from
time 0). The number of events between
time a and time b is given as N(b) N(a)
and
has
aPoisson
distribution.
Each realization of the process {N(t)} is
a non-negative integer-valued step
function that is non-decreasing, but for
intuitive purposes it is usually easier to
think of it as a point pattern on [0,) (the
points in time where an event occurs).
The Poisson process is a continuous-time
process. A Poisson process is a purebirth process, the simplest example of

a birth-death process.
Inclusion Principal:- The principle that,
if A and B are finite sets, the number of
elements in the union of A and B can be
obtained by adding the number of
elements in A to the number of elements
in B, and then subtracting from this sum
is the number of elements in the
intersection of A and B.

Propositional Satisfiability Problem:- A

propositional satisfiability problem,
briefly called SAT, consists of a
formula F 2 L(R), and is the problem to
decide whether F is satisfiable.

I SAT is a combinatorial decision

problem.
1. Decision
variant
yes/no
answer .
2. Search variant find a model if
F is satisfiable

BFS AND DFS

Breadth-first Search:The general idea behind

a breadth-first search beginning
at a starting vertex A is as
follows. First we process the

starting vertex A.Then

we process all the neighbors
of A.Then we process all
the neighbors of neighbors
of AAnd so on. Naturally we
need to keep track of the
neighbors of a
vertex, andwe need toguarantee
that no vertex is processed twice.
This is accomplished by using a
QUEUE to hold vertices that arc
waiting to he processed, and by
a field STATUS which tells us the
current status

of a vertex.The algorithm follows.

Algorithm (Breadth-first Search):
This algorithm executes a breadth-first
search on a graph G beginning with a
starling vertex A
Step 1. Initialize all vertices to the
ready state (STATUS = 1)
Step 2. Put the starting vertex A in
QUEUE and change the status of A to
the waiting state (STATUS =2).
Step3. Repeat Steps 4 and 5 until
QUEUE is empty.
Step 4. Remove the front vertex No of
QUEUE. Process N, and set STATUS (N)
= 3, the processed state.
Step 5. Examine each neighbor J of N

(a) If STATUS (J)= 1 (ready state), add J

to the rear of QUEUE and reset
STATUS (J) - 2 (waiting state).
(b) If STATUS (J) = 2 (waiting state) or
STATUS (J) = 3 (processed state), ignore
the vertex J.
[End of Step 3 loop.]
Step 6. Exit.
Again, the above algorithm will process
only those vertices which are connected
to the starting vertex A.that is,
the connected component
including A. Suppose
one wants to process all the vertices in
the graph G. Then the algorithm must be
modified so that it
begins again with another vertex (which
we callB) that is still in the ready state
(STATUS = 1).
This vertex Bain be obtained by

traversing through thelist of vertices.

EXAMPLE
Suppose the BFS Algorithm 8.1? B is
applied to the graph in Fig. 8-28. The
vertices are processed in the following
order:
A, D, C, B, F, E, G, H
Specifically, Figure (a)shows the
sequence of waiting lists in QUEUE and
the vertices being processedAgain,
each vertex, excluding A,comes from
an adjacency list and hence correspond; to an edge of thegraph. These
edges form a spanning tree of G which
is pictured in Figure (b).

Again,the numbersindicate theorder the edg

are added to the tree.
Observe that this spanning tree is
different than the one in
Figure (b) which came from a depth-first
search

Depth-first Search:The general

idea behind a depth-first search
beginning at a starting
vertex A is as fellows First we
process the starting
vertex A. Then we process each
vertex N along with a

path P which begins at A;that is,

we process a neighbor of A, then
a neighbor of a neighbor
of A, and so on. After coming to
a "dead end", that is, to a vertex
with no unprocessed neighbor,
we backtrack on the path P until
we can continue along another
path P. And so on. The
backtracking is accomplished by
using a STACK to hold the initial
vertices of future possible
paths. We also need a field
STATUS which tells us the

current status of any vertex so

that no vertex is processed more
than once. The algorithm
follows.
Algorithm 1.12A (Depth-first Search):
This algorithm executes a depth-first
search on a graph G beginning with a
starting vertex A.
Step 1.
Initialize all vertices to the
ready state (STATUS = I)
Step 2.
Push the starting
vertex A onto STACK and change the
status of A to the waiting state (STATUS
= 2).
Step 3.
Repeat Steps 4 and 5 until
STACK is empty.
Step 4.

Pop the top vertex N of

STACK. Process N, and set STATUS (N)

= 3; the processed state
Step 5.
Examine
each neighbor J of N.
(a) If STATUS (J)= 1 (ready slate),
push Jonto STACK and reset
STATUS (J) = 2 (waiting state).
(b) If STATUS (J)= 2 (waiting state),
delete the previous J from the STACK
and push the current J onto STACK
(c) If STATUS (J)= 3 (processed state),
ignore the vertex J.
[End of Step 3 loop.]
Step 6. Exit.
The above algorithm will process only
those vertices which are
connected tothe starting vertex
A, thatis. the connected component

including A. Suppose one wants to

process all the vertices in the
graph G.Then the algorithm must be
modified so that it begins
again withanother vertex (which we
call B) that isstill in the ready state
(STATE - 1). This vertex B can be
obtained by traversing through the list of
vertices.
EXAMPLE
Suppose the DFS Algorithm
1.12A isapplied to the graph in fig 1-28.
The vertices are processed in the
following order:
A, B, E, F, C, G, H, D
Specifically, Fig. (a) shows thesequence
of waiting lists in STACK and the
vertices being processed. We have used
the slash to indicate that a vertex
is deleted from the waiting list. Each
vertex, excludingA, comes from
an adjacency list and hence
corresponds to an edge

of thegraph. Theseedges formaspanning tree

of G which is pictured in Fig. (A). The
numbers indicate the order
that the edges arcadded to the
tree, and the dashed lines indicate
backtracking.

SATELLITE
COMMUNICATION

A Geosynchronous Earth
Orbit
(GEO):This
satellite has an orbital
period that synchronizes
with the Earths speed of
rotation. So, for an
observer at a fixed location
on Earth, a GEO satellite
will always return to the
same place in the sky at
exactly the same time each
day.

It is also used in the GeoStationary

Earth
Orbit (GSO) satellite, it is
a special type of GEO, in
which the satellite is placed
in orbit directly above the
Earths equator at a precise
height, so that it maintains
the same position relative to
the Earths surface.
Middle Earth Orbit (MEO):-This
satellites have orbits ranging from a few

hundred miles to a few thousand miles

above the earth's surface, with orbital
periods ranging from around two to 12
hours. MEO is used mainly for satellite
navigation systems such as GPS, Galileo,
Glonass and Beidu.
LOW EARTH ORBIT(LEO):-LEO
systems fly about 500 to 1,500 kilometers
above the Earth. A
typical LEO satellite takes less than two
hours to orbit the Earth,
and are only visible for 15 to 20 minutes
each pass.Low earth orbiting satellites
are less expensive to launch into orbit as
distance from the earth is less, don't
require as high signal strength and give

less time delay.

Meaning of DPCM Differential
Pulse Code Modulation- It is a
modulation technique invented by the
British Alec Reeves in 1937. It is a
digital representation of an analog signal
where the magnitude of the signal is
sampled regularly at uniform intervals.
Every sample is quantized to a series of
symbols in a digital code, which is
usually a binary code. PCM is used in
digital telephone systems. It is also the
standard form for digital audio in
computers and various compact disc
formats. DPCM allows this to be
achieved by describing only the changes
between the samples.

ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF OSI MODEL
Advantages:-1) It provides a standard to
design networking devices by different
vendors.
2) The protocols in OSI are much hidden
than TCP/IP and can be replaced
relatively easily as the technology
changes.
3) OSI supports both connectionless and
connection-oriented communication in the
network layer
Disadvantages:-1) Due to the complexity
of the system poor performance is

obtained, especially in some real time

applications.
2) Direct substitution of layers is not
always possible e.g. if a LAN with
broadcast capability is inserted below a
network protocol that did not support this
facility, then this service would be lost to
the upper layers.
3) Although protecting equipment from
becoming obsolete it simultaneously
hinders technological advancement.
DATA TRANSMISSION
The transmission mode refers to the
number of elementary units of information
(bits) that can be simultaneously
translated by the communications channel

PARALLEL
CONNECTION:Parallel
connection
means
simultaneous
transmission of N bits. These bits are sent
simultaneously overN different channels.
SERIAL
CONNECTION: -In a
serial connection, the data
are sent one bit at a time
over the transmission channel. However,
since most processors process data in
parallel, the transmitter needs to
transform incoming parallel data into
serial data and the receiver needs to do
the opposite.
Asynchronous data transmission mode:-

In this mode, each character is sent at

irregular intervals in time. So, for
example, imagine that a single bit is
transmitted during a long period of
silence... the receiver will not be able to
know
if
this
is
00010000,10000000,00000100 . To
remedy this problem, each character is
preceded by some information indicating
the start of character transmission (the
transmission start information is called
a START bit) and ends by sending end-oftransmission information (called STOP
bit, there may even be several STOP
bits).
ADVANTAGES: - 1) It is faster means of
connecting 2) It is Simple. 3) Doesn't
require
synchronization
of
both

communication sides. 4) H/W cost is very

cheap.
DISADVANTAGES:-1) It is less reliable
2) Large relative overhead. 3) a high
proportion of the transmitted bits are
uniquely for control purposes and thus
carry no useful information.

Synchronous data transmission mode:In this mode, the transmitter and receiver
are paced by the same clock. The
receiver continuously receives (even
when no bits are transmitted) the
information at the same rate the
transmitter send it. This is why the
transmitter and receiver are paced at the
same speed

ADVANTAGES:1)
supplementary
information is inserted to guarantee that
there are no errors during transmission.
2) It is highly efficient. 3) Lower
overhead and thus, greater throughput 4)
It is more reliable.
5) It is possible to have both sides try to
synchronize the connection at the same
time.
DISDVANTAGES:- 1)The
main
disadvantage of synchronous transmission
is recognising the data at the receiver.
2)It is slower than asynchronous
transmission mode. 3) Hardware is more
expensive 4) Slightly more complex.

ALOHA
ALOHA is a medium access protocol that
was originally designed for ground based
radio broadcasting however it is
applicable to any system in which
uncoordinated users are competing for the
use of a shared channel. Pure ALOHA
and slotted ALOHA are the two versions
of ALOHA.
Pure ALOHA:- Pure ALOHA uses a
very simple idea that is to let users
transmit whenever they have data to send.
Pure ALOHA is featured with the
feedback property that enables it to listen
to the channel and finds out whether the
frame was destroyed. Feedback is

immediate in LANs but there is a delay of

270 milli sec in the satellite transmission.
It requires acknowledgment if listening to
the channel is not possible due to some
reason. It can provide a channel
utilization of 18 percent that is not
appealing but it gives the advantage of
transmitting any time.
SLOTTED ALOHA:- It divides time
into discrete intervals and each interval
corresponds to a frame of data. It requires
users to agree on slot boundaries. It does
not allow a system to transmit any time.
Instead the system has to wait for the
beginning if the next slot
Differnce b/w narrowband and
broadband communication

channel:- Narrowband is associated with

dial up accounts with your ISP usually up
to speeds of 54kps but can be faster if you
use ISDN connections.
Broadband on the other hand is faster
connections up to 8mb ps and is always
online ie connected to the Internet even
when your PC is switched off

PAPER IX

OPERATING SYSTEM
Internal fragmentation:- It occurs
when storage is allocated without
intention to use it. This space is
wasted. While this seems foolish, it is
often accepted in return for increased
efficiency or simplicity. The term
"internal" refers to the fact that the
unusable storage is inside the
allocated region but is not being used.
It is difficult to reclaim; usually the
best way to remove it is with a design
change.
External fragmentation:- It is the
phenomenon in which free storage
becomes divided into many small
pieces over time. It is a weakness of

certain storage allocation algorithms,

occurring when an application
allocates and deallocates regions of
storage of varying sizes, the
allocation algorithm responds by
leaving the allocated and deallocated
regions interspersed.. The term
"external" refers to the fact that the
unusable storage is outside the
allocated regions.
Effects:-1)The most common side
effect of fragmentation is slowdown.
Fragmentation causes slowdown. 2)
A rather more serious side effect is
what file fragmentation is. File
fragmentation is a direct result of
external fragmentation,occurs during
the process of data removal and

expansion, another program. 3)

Another effect of fragmentation is the
program to malfunction, i.e function
slowly or do not function at all.
Solution:- The only viable solution to
fragmentation is defragmentation.
Defragmentation
runs
a
comprehensive scan on the hard drive
and all the files inside of it, and
determines the optimal way to store
your data. Although defragmentation
cannot solve internal fragmentation, it
will completely solve external
fragmentation.
Defragmentation is a process that
reduces
the
amount
of fragmentation in file systems. It does

this by physically organizing the contents

of themass storage device to store files in
a contiguous region if possible, or in the
smallest possible number of regions
(fragments) if not. It also attempts to
create larger regions of free space using
compaction to impede the return of
fragmentation.
Q) Why paging is used?
Ans:- Paging is used for faster access
to data. When a program needs a
page, it is available in the main
memory as the OS copies a certain
number of pages from your storage
device to main memory. Paging
allows the physical address space of

a process to be noncontiguous.
Advantages of Paging:-1) Easy to
allocate physical memory 2) Easy to
allocate a frame, just remove it from
its free list 3) complication for
kernel contiguous physical memory
allocation 4) Easy to page out
chunks of programs
Disadvantages of paging:1)
Wastage of memory space.
2)
Memory reference overhead 3)
Memory required to hold page tables
that can be large
Complete Cocomo Model:- The main
shortcoming of basic and intermediate
COCOMO model is that they consider a

software product as a single

homogeneous entity. The system is made
up of sub-systems which have their own
characteristics. Sub-systems may have
different inherent development
complexity, reliability requirements may
be high, development team experience.
The complete COCOMO model considers
these differences in characteristics of the
subsystems and estimates the effort and
development time as the sum of the
estimates for the individual subsystems.
Q) What do you mean by S/W quality
assurance?
Ans:- Software Quality Assurance
involves the entire software development
PROCESS - monitoring and improving
the process, making sure that any agreed-

upon standards and procedures are

followed, and ensuring that problems are
found and dealt with. It is oriented to
'prevention'.

TESTING
I) Bottom-up Testing Strategy
1) The subsystem in the lowest layer of
the call hierarchy are tested individually
2) Then the next subsystems are tested
that call the previously tested subsystems
3)This is done repeatedly until all
subsystems are included in the testing
Special program needed to do the testing,
II) Top-down Testing Strategy
1) Test the top layer or the controlling
subsystem first 2) Then combine all the

subsystems that are called by the tested

subsystems and test the resulting
collection of subsystems 3) Do this until
all subsystems are marked into the test
4) Special program is needed to do the
testing,
Test stub : A program or a method that
simulates the activity of a missing
subsystem by answering to the calling
sequence of the calling subsystem and
returning back fake data.
III) Sandwich Testing Strategy
1) It Combines top-down strategy with
bottom-up strategy 2) The system is view
as having three layers A target layer in the
middle 3) A layer above the target 4) A
layer below the target 5) Testing

converges at the target layer

IV)
Modified
Strategy

Sandwich

Testing

1) Middle layer with drivers and stubs 2)

Top layer with stubs 3) Bottom layer
with drivers 4) Top layer accessing
middle layer (top layer replaces drivers)
5) Bottom accessed by middle layer
V) Big-Bang Strategy:Big-Bang approach is very simple in its
philosophy where basically all the
modules or builds are constructed and
tested independently of each other and
when they are finished, they are all put
together at the same time.
Advantage of this approach is that it is
very quick as no drivers or stubs are
needed, thus cutting down on the

development time.
Disadvantage:- 1) the least effective. 2)
it is very demanding on the resources 3)
There is really nothing to demonstrate
until all the modules have been built and
integrated.

Cpu Scheduling( round robin)

Process CPU
Burst
P1
20
P2
5
P3
6

Remainder
CPU time
16
1
2

Remainder
CPU time
12
0
0

Quantum = Q = 4

P1

P2 P3 P1 P2 P3 P1

0
4

8 12 16 17 19 31

Average waiting time: Waiting Time =

(Final Start Time - Previous Time in
CPU - Arrival Time)
[(19-8-0)+(16-4)+(17-4)]/3=
(11+12+13)/3=12
Every one gets about the same amount of
waiting time.
S/W ENG.
SSADM:- SSADM (Structured Systems
Analysis & Design Method) is a widelyused computer application development

method in the UK, where its use is often

specified as a requirement for government
computing projects. It is increasingly
being adopted by the public sector in
Europe.
SSADM's objectives are to:
Improve project management &
control
Make more effective use of
experienced and inexperienced
developmentstaff
Develop better quality systems
Make projects resilient to the
loss of staff
Enable projects to be supported
by computer-based tools such as
computer-aided software

engineering systems
Establish a framework for good
communications between
participants in a project
SSADM STEPS:SSADM sets out a cascade or waterfall
view of systems development, in which
there are a series of steps, each of
which leads to the next step,
SSADM's steps, or stages, are:
Feasibility
Investigation of the current
environment
Business systems options
Definition of requirements
Technical system options
Logical design

Physical design