Steel Plate Engineering Data-Volume 1

Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage

Revised Edition-1992

The material presented in this publication is for general information only and should
not be used without first securing competent advice with respect to its suitability for
any given application. The publication of the material contained herein is not intended
as a representation or warranty on the part of American Iron and Steel Institute-or of
any other person named herein-that this information is suitable for any general or
particular use or of freedom from infringement of any patents. Anyone making use ot this
information assumes all liability arising from such use.

Published by
AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE
In cooperation with and editorial collaboration by
STEEL PLATE FABRICATORS ASSOCIATION, INC.
Revised December 1992

Acknowledgements
or the preparation of the original version of this technical
publication on carbon steel plate materials and tanks for liquid
storage, the American Iron and Steel Institute retained Mr. I.E.
Boberg as author. For his skillful handling of the assignment, the Institute
gratefully acknowledges its appreciation. The American Iron and Steel
Institute established a Task Force to produce and supply a special section
on stainless steel tanks to this publication, and wishes to acknowledge its
appreciation to this group for a commendable effort.

The Institute also wishes to acknowledge the important and

valuable contribution made by members of the Steel Plate Fabricators
Association and representatives from the member steel producing
companies of American Iron and Steel Institute in reviewing, and later
revising and updating, the material for publication in this current edition.
Appreciation is expressed to the American Society for Testing and
Materials, the American Petroleum Institute and the American WaterWorks
Association for their constructive suggestions and review of this material.
Much of the illustrative material in this manual appears through their
courtesy.
American Iron and Steel Institute

It is suggested that inquiries for further information on designs of steel

tanks for liquid storage be directed to: Steel Plate Fabricators Association,
Inc., 3158 Des Plaines Avenue, Des Plaines, IL 60018.

AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE

1101 17th Street N.W., Suite 1300, Washington, D.C. 20036-4700

PRINTED IN USA 1992

ii

Introduction
he purpose of this publication is to provide a design reference for
the usual design of tanks for liquid storage. For unusual
applications, involving materials or liquids not covered within these
pages, nor referenced herein, designers should consult more complete
treatments of the subject material. For information related to design of bulk
storage vessels, refer to SPFA publication "USEFUL INFORMATION ON
THE DESIGN OF STEEL BINS AND SILOS" by John R. Buzek.

Part I contains general information pertaining to all types of carbon plate

steels. This section may seem elementary to the metallurgist or to one who
is thoroughly familiar with steel industry terminology, practice and
classification. For others, it should be helpful to an understanding of what
follows.
Part II deals with the particular carbon steels applicable to tanks for
liquid storage.
Part III covers the design of carbon steel tanks for liquid storage.
Part IV covers materials, design, and fabrication of stainless steel tanks
for liquid storage. It has been revised for this publication by the Committee
of Stainless Steel Producers of American Iron and Steel Institute.
Inquiries for further information on design of steel tanks should be
directed to Steel Plate Fabricators Association, Inc.

iii

Contents
Part
Part
Part
Part

I
II
III
IV

Materials-General ........................... 1
Materials-Carbon Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage. 7
Carbon Steel Tank Design .................... 9
Stainless Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage ........ 27

iv

Part I
Materials-General
Designation
OSt of the steel specifications referred to in
this manual are contained in the Book of
ASTM Standards, Part 4, which can be
obtained from the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM).
Each ASTM specification has a number such as
A283, and within each specification there may be
one or more grades or qualities. Thus an example of
a proper reference would be "ASTM designation
A283 grade C." In the interest of simplicity, such a
reference will be abbreviated to "A283-C."
ASTM standards are issued periodically to report
new specifications and changes to existing ones
having a suffix indicating the year of issue such as
"A283-C-79." Thus a summary such as is provided
here may gradually become incomplete, and it is
important that the designer of steel plate structures
have the latest edition of ASTM standards available
for reference.

Definitions
At least a nodding acquaintance with the terminology
of the steel industry is essential to an understanding
of steel specifications. This is especially true
because, in common with many other industries, a
number of shop and trade terms have become so
thoroughly implanted in the language that they are
used instead of more precise and descriptive
technical terms. The following discussions may be of
assistance.

Steelmaking Processes
Practically all steel is made by the open hearth
furnace process, the electric furnace process or the
basic oxygen process. ASTM specifications for the
different steels specify which processes are
permissible in each case.

Steelmaking Practice
The steels with which we are concerned are either
strand cast, or cast into ingots which may be hot
rolled to convenient size for further processing or
alternatively ingots may be hot rolled directly into
plates. In most steelmaking processes, the principal

chemical reaction is the combination of carbon and

oxygen to form a gas. If the oxygen available for this
reaction is not removed, the gaseous products
continue to evolve during solidification in the ingot.
Cooling and solidification progress from the outer rim
of the ingot to the center, and during the
solidification of the rim, the concentration of certain
elements increases in the liquid portion of the ingot.
The resulting product, known as RIMMED STEEL;
has marked differences in characteristics across the
section and from top to bottom of the ingot.
Control of the amount of gas evolved during
solidification is accomplished by the addition of a
deoxidizing agent, silicon being the most commonly
used. If practically no gas evolved, the result is
KILLED STEEL, so called because it lies quietly in
the ingot. Killed steel is characterized by more
uniform chemical composition and properties than
other types. Although killed steel is a quality item,
the end result is often not so specified by name, but
rather by chemical analYSis. Other deoxidizing
elements are used, but in general, a specified
minimum silicon content of 0.10% on heat analysis
indicates that a steel is "fully killed."
The term SEMIKILLED designates an intermediate
type of steel in which a smaller amount of deoxidizer
is added. Gas evolution is sufficiently reduced to
prevent rimming action, but not sufficiently reduced
to obtain the same degree of uniformity as attained
in fully killed steels. This controlled evolution of gas
during solidification tends to offset shrinkage,
resulting in a higher yield of usable material from the
ingot. As a practical matter, therefore, plates
originating from ingots are usually furnished as
semikilled steel unless a minimum silicon content of
0.10 0/0 on heat analysis is specified.

Chemical Requirements
A discussion of the effects of the many elements
added to steels would involve a metallurgical treatise
far beyond the scope of this work. However, certain
elements are common to all steels, and it may be of
help to briefly outline the effects of carbon,
manganese, phosphorus, and sulfur on the
properties of steel.
CARBON is the principal hardening element in
steel, and as carbon increases, hardness increases.

High Strength Low Alloy Steels

Tensile strength increases, and ductility, notch .

toughness and weldability generally decrease wIth
increasing carbon content.
MANGANESE contributes to strength and
hardness, but to a. lesser degree than carbon.
Increasing the mf;mganese content generally
decreases ductilirv and weldability, but to a lesser
degree than carbon. Because of the more moderate
effects of manoanese, carbon steels, which attain
part of their strength through the addition of
manganese, exhibit greater ductility and improved
toughness than steels of similar strength achieved
through the use of carbon alone.
PHOSPHORUS. Phosphorus can result in
noticeably hlgher yield strength and decreases in
ductility, toughness, and weldability. In the steels
under discussion here, it is generally kept below a
limit of 0.04 0/0 on heat analysis.
SULFUR decreases ductility, toughness, and
weldability, and is generally kept below a limit of
0.05 0/0 on heat analysis.
HEAT ANALYSIS is the term applied to the
chemical analysis representative of a heat of steel
and is the analysis reported to the purchaser. It is
usually determined by analyzing, for such elements
as have been specified, a test ingot sample obtained
from the front or middle part of the heat during the
pouring of the steel from the ladle.
PRODUCT ANALYSIS is a supplementary
chf2tmical analysis of the steel in the semifinished or
fi mshed product form. It is not, as the term might
imply, a duplicate determination to confirm a
previous result.

These steels, generally with specified yield point of

50 ksi or higher and containing small amounts of
alloying elements, are often employed where high
strength or light weight is desired.

Mechanical Requirements
Mechanical testing of steel plates includes tension,
hardness, and toughness tests. The test specimens
and the tests are described in ASTM specifications
A6, A20, A370, and A673.
From the tension tests are determined the
TENSILE STRENGTH and YIELD POINT or YIELD
STRENGTH, both of which are factors in selecting
an allowable design stress, and the elongation over
either a 2" or 8" gage length. Elongation is a
measure of ductility and workability.
Toughness is a measure of ability to resist brittle
fracture. Toughness tests are generally not required
unless specified, and then usually because of a low
service temperature and/or a relatively high design
stress. Conditions under which impact tests are
required or suggested will be discussed in
connection with specific structures.
A number of tests have been developed to
demonstrate toughness, and each has its ardent
proponents. The test most generally accepted
currently, however, is the test using the Charpy V
Notch specimen. Details of this specimen and
method of testing can be found in ASTM-A370,
"Mechanical Testing of Steel Products," and in A20
and A673. Briefly described, an impact test is a
dynamic test in which a machined, notched
specimen is struck and broken by a single blow in a
specially designed testing machine . .The energy
expressed in foot-pounds required to break the
specimen is a measure of toughness. Toughness
decreases at lower temperatures. Hence, when
impact tests are required, they are usually performed
near temperatures anticipated in service.

Carbon Steel
Steel is usually considered to be carbon steel when:
1. No minimum content is specified or required for
chromium, cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel,
titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium, or any other
element added to obtain desired alloying effect;
2. When the maximum content specified for any of
the following elements does not exceed the
percentages noted: manganese 1.65, copper 0.60,
silicon 0.60;
3. When the specified minimum for copper does
not exceed 0.40 0/0.
There are some exceptions to these rules in High
Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) steels.

Grain Size
Grain size is affected by both rolling practice and
deoxidizing practice. For example, the use of
aluminum as a deoxidizer tends to produce finer
grains. Unless included in the ASTM specification, or
unless otherwise specified, steels may be furnished
to either coarse grain or fine grain practice at the
producer's option. Fine grain steel is considered to
have greater toughness than coarse grain steels.
Heat-treated fine grain steels will have greater
toughness than as-rolled fine grain steels. The
designer is concerned only with the question of
under what conditions is it justifiable to pay the extra
cost of specifying fine grain practice with or without
heat treatment in order to obtain improved
toughness. Guidelines will be discussed in later
sections.

Alloy Steel
Steel is usually considered to be alloy when either:
1. A definite range or definite minimum quantity is
required for any of the elements listed above in (1)
under carbon steels, or
2. The maximum of the range for alloying elements
exceeds .one or more of the limits listed in (2) under
carbon steels.
Again, the HSLA steels demonstrate some
exceptions to these general rules.

Heat Treatment
POST-WELD HEAT TREATMENT consists of heating
the steel to a temperature between 1100F and

and special requirements for which are outlined

under separate specification numbers such as A36,
A283, A514, etc.
Similarly, ASTM designation A20, General
Requirements for Steel Plates for Pressure Vessels,
covers a group of common requirements and
tolerances which apply to a list of about 35 steels,
the chemical composition and special requirements
for which are outlined under separate ASTM
specification numbers.
Both A6 and A20 define tolerances for thickness,
width, length, and flatness, but for the designer the
important difference is in the quality of the finished
product as influenced by the difference in the extent
of testing. A general comparison of the two qualities
follows:
1. Chemical Analysis - The requirements for
phosphorus and sulfur are more stringent for
pressure vessel quality than for structural quality.
Both A6 and A20 require one analysis per heat plus
the option of product analysis. Product analysis
tolerances for structural steels are given in A6.
2. Testing for mechanical properties.
a) In general, all specifications for structural
quality require two tension tests per heat, size
bracket and strength gradation. A6 specifies the
general location of the specimens.
b) In general all specifications for pressure
vessel quality require either one or two
transverse tension tests, depending on heat
treatment, from each plate as rolled, * (and as
heat-treated, if any). This affords a check on
uniformity within a heat. Specification A20 also
specifies the location from which the specimens
are to be taken.
3. Repair of surface imperfections and the
limitations on repair of surface imperfections are
more restrictive in A20 than A6.

1250F, furnace cooling until the temperature has

reduced to about 600F and then cooling in air.
Residual stresses will be reduced by this procedure.
NORMALIZING consists of heating the steel to
between 1600F and 1700F, holding for a sufficient
time to allow transformation, and cooling in air,
primarily to effect grain refinement.
QUENCHING consists of rapid cooling in a
suitable medium from the normalizing temperature. This treatment hardens and strengthens the steel
and is normally followed by tempering.
TEMPERING consists of reheating the steel to a
relatively low temperature (which varies with the
particular steel and the properties desired). This
temperature normally lies between 1000F and 1250F.
Through the quenching and tempering treatment,
many steels can attain excellent toughness, and at
the same time high strength and good ductility.
To illustrate the effect of heat treatment on
toughness and strength, refer to Figure 1-1. The
numerical values shown apply only to the specific
steel described. For other steels, other values would
apply, but the trends would be similar.
Referring to Figure 1-1, if the designer has
selected a Charpy V Notch value of "x" ft.-Ibs, as
desirable under special service conditions, it will be
noted that the steel illustrated would not be
acceptable at temperatures lower than about + 35F
in the as-rolled condition. In the normalized
condition, the same steel would be acceptable down
to about - 55F, and if quenched and tempered, to
about - 80F together with an increase in carbon,
manganese, or other hardening elements. Note,
however, that heat treatment adds to the cost and is
indicated only when service conditions indicate the
necessity for increased toughness and/or increased
strength.

Classification of Steel Plates

Welding

Plate steels are defined or classified in two ways.

The first claSSification, which has already been
discussed, is based on differences in chemical
. composition between CARBON STEELS, ALLOY
STEELS and HIGH STRENGTH LOW ALLOY
STEELS. The second classification is based primarily
on the differences in extent of testing between
STRUCTURAL QUALITY STEELS and PRESSURE
VESSEL QUALITY STEELS. * It should not be
construed that these terms limit the use of a
particular steel. Pressure vessel steels are often
used in structures other than pressure vessels. The
distinction between structural and pressure vessel
qualities is best understood by a comparison of the
governing ASTM speCifications.
ASTM designation A6, General Requirements for
Rolled Steel Plates for Structural Use, covers a
group of common requirements and tolerances for
the steels listed therein, the chemical composition

Inasmuch as practically all plate structures are

fabricated by welding, a brief discussion of welding
processes follows.
Welding consists of joining two pieces of metal by
establishing a metallurgical bond between them.
There are many different types of welding, but we
are concerned only with arc welding. Arc welding is
a fusion process in which the bond between the
metals is produced by reducing the surfaces to be
joined to a liquid state and then allowing the liquid to
solidify. The heat required to reduce the metal to
liquid state is produced by an electric arc. The arc is
formed between the work to be welded and a metal
wire which is called the electrode. The electrode may
be consumable and add metal to the molten pool, or
it may be nonconsumable and of a relatively inert
metal, in which case no metal is added to the
workpiece.

* Pressure vessel quality steels were previously known as FLANGE

and FIRE-BOX qualities, historically inherited terms used to define

differences in the extent of testing, but which have no presentday significance insofar as the end use of the steel is concerned.

*The term "Plate as rolled" refers to the unit plate rolled from a
slab or directly from an ingot in relation to the number and
location of specimens, not to its condition.

Electrogas or Electroslag Welding

In the welding of steel plate structures, we are

concerned principally with five variations of arc
welding:
1. Shielded metal arc process (SMAW)
2. Gas metal arc process (GMAW)
3. Flux-cored arc process (FCAW)
4. Electrogas or Electroslag welding
5. Submerged arc process (SAW)

This process is a method of gas metal-arc welding or

flux-cored-arc welding wherein molding shoes confine
the molten weld metal for vertical position welding.

Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged arc welding is essentially an automatic
process, although .semi-automatic applications have
been used.
The arc between a bare electrode and the work is
covered and shielded by a blanket of granular,
fusible material deposited on the work ahead of the
electrode as it moves relative to the work. Filler
metal is obtained either from the electrode or a
supplementary welding rod. The fusible shielding
material is known as melt or flux.
In submerged arc welding, there is no visible
evidence of the arc. The tip of the electrode and the
molten weld pool are completely covered by the flux
throughout the actual welding operation. High
welding speeds are achieved.
It will be obvious that the necessity of depositing a
granular flux ahead of the electrode lends itself best
to welding on work in the down flat pOSition.
Nevertheless, ingenious devices have been
developed for keeping flux in place, so that the
process has been applied to almost all positions
except overhead welding.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

In the early days of arc welding, the consumable
electrode consisted of a bare wire. The pool of
molten metal was exposed to and adversely affected
by the gases in the atmosphere. It beca~~ obvious
that to produce welds with adequate ductility, the
molten metal must be protected or shielded from the
atmosphere.
This led to the development of the shielded metal
arc process, in which the electrode is coated ~ith
materials that produce a gas as the electrode IS
consumed which shields the arc from the
atmosphere. The coating also performs other
functions, including the possible adding of all~ying
elements as well as slag-forming materials which
float to the top and protect the metal during
solidification and cooling.
In practice, the process is limited primarily to
manual manipulation of the electrode. Not too many
years ago, this process was almost universally used
for practically all welding. It is still widely ,used for
position welding, i.e., welding other than In the down
flat pOSition. For the down flat position some of the
later processes described below are much faster and
hence less costly.

Weldability
It will be observed from the above that all arc
welding processes result in rapid heating of the
parent metal near the joint to a very high
temperature followed by chilling as the relatively
large mass of parent plate conducts heat away from
the heat-affected zone. This rapid cooling of the weld
metal and heat-affected zone causes local shrinkage
relative to the parent plate and resultant residual
stresses.
Depending on the chemical composition of the
steel, plate thickness and external conditions, special
welding precautions may be indicated. In very cold
weather, or in the case of a highly hardenable
material, pre-heating a band on either side of the
joint will slow down the cooling rate. In some cases
post-heat or stress relief as described earlier in this
section is employed to reduce residual stresses to a
level approaching the yield strength of the material at
the post heat temperature.
With respect to chemical composition, carbon is
the single most important element because of its
contribution to hardness, with other elements
contributing to hardness but to lesser degrees.
It is beyond our scope to provide a definitive
discussion on when special welding precautions are
indicated. In general, the necessity is dictated on the
basis of practical experience or test programs.

Gas Metal Arc Welding

In the gas-shielded arc welding process, the mOI.ten
pool of metal is protected by an externally supplied
gas, or gas mixture, fed through the electrode holder
rather than by decompOSition of the electrode
coating. The electrode is a continuous filler-~etal
(consumable) bare wire and the gases used Include
helium, argon, and carbon dioxide. In some cases, a
tubular electrode is used to facilitate the addition of
fluxes or addition of alloys and slag-forming
materials. Some methods of this process are called
MIG and C02 welding.
The gas-shielded process lends itself to high rates
of deposition and high weldin.g speeds. It can ~e
used manually, semi-automatically, or automatically.

Flux-Cored-Arc Welding
This is an arc-welding process wherein coalescence
is produced by heating with an arc between a
continuous filler-material (consumable) electrode and
the work. Shielding is obtained from a flux contained
within the electrode. Additional shielding mayor may
not be obtained from an externally supplied gas or
gas mixture.

Figure 1-1

Typical Effect of Heat Treatment on Notch Toughness

of a Fine-Grained C-Mn-Si Steel (1 Inch Thickness)

z
2

Ouenched and Tempered

I0..

a:

a
en

Q)

<t

>t.:)
a:

zw
=

I-

a
z

::>
>-

0..

cr:
~

:r

Mn

SI

AI

0.171.260.270.04

Tensile Strength

-100

-76

-60

As Rolled

77 .400 psi

62.300 psi

Normalized

76,600 psi

54.800 psi

Ouenched & Tempd.

83.100 psi

63,000 psi

-26

TEMPERATUR~OEGREESFAHRENHBT

I Yield Strength

26

50

75

Part II
Materials-Carbon Steel Tanks
forLiquidStornge~~~~~~~~~_
of inspection. These procedures are represented by
the AWWA Appendix C and API basic standards.
It will be obvious that inasmuch as the simplified
design provisions of both standards allow identical
design stresses for any of the permisSible steels,
economic considerations will lead to the selection of
the least expensive steel that will be satisfactory for
the intended service.
Steel selection is not so simple and straightforward
in the case of tanks built in accordance with either
the API or the AWWA refined design provisions.
Unstressed portions of such tanks, including bottoms
and roofs, will probably be furnished as A36 unless
the purchaser specifies otherwise. The selection of
material for shell demands further attention.
The refined design provisions of both API and
AWWA resulted from a desire to utilize newer and
improved steels and modern .welding and inspection
techniques to build tanks of higher quality. The use
of higher stresses demanded attention to other
properties of steel, primarily toughness. An
exhaustive discussion of toughness is beyond the
scope of this work, but it can be pointed out that as
the stress level increases and temperature
decreases, toughness becomes more important.
At the stress level existing in API and AWWA
simplified design criteria tanks, experience has
demonstrated that the steels used in combination
with the specific welding and inspection rules have
been adequate for the service temperatures involved.
Upon venturing into the field of higher stress levels,
steels having greater toughness have been
considered a necessary corollary. Thanks to research
in metals, such steels are available. A number of
factors enter into making a proper selection. For
example, for any given steel, toughness generally
decreases as thickness increases. The toughness of
carbon steels is improved if part of the hardness and
strength is obtained by a higher manganese content
and lower carbon at the same strength level. Finegrained steels exhibit greater toughness than coarsegrained steels; this can be accomplished in the
deoxidizing process, and in heat treatment.
Thus as thickness increases and service
temperature decreases, more stringent attention

Introduction
he intent of this publication is to provide
information that may be useful in the design of
flat-bottom, vertical cylindrical tanks for the
storage of liquids/ at essentially atmospheric
pressure. Considerable attention has been directed
to tanks storing oil or water, which constitute most of
the tanks built. However, suggestions have been
included for storage of liquids meriting special
attention, such as acid storage tanks.
There are two principal standards in general use:
American Petroleum Institute (API) Standard 650
covering "Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage," and
the American Water Works Association (AWWA)
Standard 0100 covering "Steel Tanks for Water
Storage." The abbreviations API and AWWA will be
used for the sake of convenience.
Both API and A WW A permit the use of a relatively
large number of different steel plate materials. In
addition, the basic API Standard 650 and AWWA
Standard 0100 Appendix C provide refined design
rules for tanks designed at higher stresses in which
the selection of steel is intimately related to stress
level, thickness and service temperature, as well as
the type and degree of inspection. As a result,
knowledge of available materials and their limitations
is equally as important as familiarity with design
principles.
.
Useful information concerning plate steel In
general has been covered in Part I. It is the purpose
of this section to assist in the selection of the proper
steel or steels in the construction of tanks for liquid
storage.

Factors Affecting Selection of Steel Plate

As you will learn in more detail in Part III of the
publication, both the AWWA ~nd the API offer
.
optional methods of shell deSign. The AWWA baSIC
and the API Appendix A procedures are based on
simplified rules which use the same conservative
allowable stress regardless of the plate grade used.
The other design methods are based on refined
procedures that take into account plate grade,
service temperature, thickness and higher standards

behind technical progress. The extensive research

facilities of individual steel producers and American
Iron and Steel Institute are constantly searching for
ways to better serve the needs of our modern
economy. But before any construction standard such
as those of API and AWWA can accept and permit a
new material, it must have been established that it is
suitable for the structure in which it will be used.
Usually, but not always, acceptance by API and
AWWA implies prior acceptance by ASTM. Primarily
this is because ASTM specifications clearly delineate
the materials to be furnished, whereas any departure
from ASTM requires that the standards involved spell
out the requirements in corresponding detail. New
ASTM steels mayor may not eventually find their
way into the construction standards, depending on
economics and the proven properties of the
materials.
It should be left to those who have acquired the
necessary experience in tank design and
construction to pioneer in the use of materials not
approved by API or AWWA. The designer, the user,
and the fabricator assume added responsibilities in
working outside of recognized industry standards. On
the other hand, such pioneering by qualified
organizations in the past led to the progress
represented by the refined procedures of Appendix C
of AWWA D100 and API-650.
As in the case of steels already approved by API
and AWWA, time and experience will eventually lead
to recognition of the steel or combination of steels
that will yield the highest quality tank at least cost.

must be paid to toughness from the standpoint of

materials selection and fabrication.
The steels permitted by API and AWWA Appendix
C for use at these higher stress levels have
statistically demonstrated that they do have adequate
toughness for the thickness and temperature ranges
shown. The API standard includes an Impact
Exemption chart which establishes requirements for
impact testing, based on thickness, temperature and
type of material.
In the final analysis the goal is to design the least
expensive but acceptable tank for a given set of
conditions. API and AWWA rules permitting higher
design stresses afford a fairly wide selection of
steels and stress levels to choose from, but they do
present a problem of selection.
A definitive treatment of economics is beyond the
scope of this work. Basically, the factors involved
are:
1. Cost of material
2. Weight of material as it affects freight and handling
3. Fabrication, erection and welding costs
4. Inspection costs
None of these factors is necessarily conclusive in
itself. In any given case, the lightest weight or lowest
material cost mayor may not be the least expensive
overall depending on the relative importance of the
factors listed above. The tank fabricator is usually in
the best position to judge which steel or combination
of steels will permit construction of the most
economical, safe tank.
It is generally unwise to specify a more expensive
steel than can be justified by the application.
There are material costs not associated with
quality. The cost of plates will vary according to both
width and thickness, and from this consideration tank
shell plate approximately 8' wide will generally be
used. Particular situations may dictate the use of
wider or narrower plates for all or part of a tank
shell.
Although both the API and AWWA Standard permit
the ordering of plates for certain parts of the tank on
a weight rather than thickness basis, there is no
longer any economic advantage in doing so.

The Future
To this point, only those steels specifically permitted
by API or AWWA have been discussed. Other steels
have been used to a minor extent by those
thoroughly familiar with the problems involved.
Among these are the materials referred to in Part I
as high strength low alloy steels, manufactured either
as proprietary, trade named steels, or to ASTM
specifications. Some of these steels offer the
additional attraction of improved atmospheric
corrosion resistance, thus eliminating the necessity
for painting outside surfaces.
As is the case with all high strength materials, the
designer and user must assure themselves that
factors other than strength (toughness for example)
are properly allowed for in design and construction.
For obvious reasons, all construction codes Jag

Part III
Carbon Steel Tank Design
Introduction

water or oil the designer should consider which

philosophy best fits his circumstances. In either case
the design standards provide minimum requirements
for safe construction and should not be construed as
a design manual covering all possible service
conditions.

art III will consider the design of flat bottom,

vertical, cylindrical, carbon steel tanks for the
storage of liquids at essentially atmospheric
pressure and near ambient temperatures. Practically
aI/ tanks in the United States within the scope of this
part are constructed in accordance with API 650
covering welded steel tanks for oil storage or AWWA
D100 covering welded steel tanks for water storage.
Tanks of other shapes and subject to gas pressure
in addition to liquid head; and tanks subject to
extreme low or high temperatures present radically
different problems. Consult ASME Section VIII, API
650 APPENDICES F & M, and API 620 for further
information.
API 650 and AWWA D100 contain detailed
minimum requirements covering inspection. Any
attempt to summarize the inspection requirements of
either standard would be voluminous and
dangerously misleading. It will be the purpose of Part
III to discuss only those portions necessary to
understand the various design bases. Anyone
concerned with fabrication, erection, or inspection
must obtain copies of the complete standards.
There are basic differences between the standards
of API and AWWA. API 650 is an industry standard
especially designed to fit the needs of the petroleum
industry. The oil tank is usually located in isolated
areas, or in areas zoned for industry where the
probable consequences of mishap are limited to the
owner's property. The owner is conscious of safety,
environmental concerns and potential losses in his
operations, and will adjust the minimum
requirements to suit more severe service conditions.
AWWA D100 is a public standard to be used for
the storage of water. The water storage tank is
usually located in the midst of a heavily populated
area, often on the highest elevation available. The
consequence of mishap could not be tolerated in the
public interest.
The API 650 and AWWA D100 standards have
been in existence for many decades and the
experience under them has been excellent. Before
applying them to tanks storing liquids other than

General Design Formula for Tank Shells

Membrane theory, as it applies to cylindrical tanks
of large diameter, is elementary and needs no
explanation here.
Starting with the basic premise that circumferential
load in a cylinder equals the pressure times the
radius, then expressing Hand D in feet for
convenience, the circumferential load at any level in '
a vertical cylinder containing water weighing
62.4#/cu. ft., can be expressed as:
T=2.6HD
(3-1)
where T = the circumferential load per inch of shell
height
H = depth in feet below maximum liquid level
D = tank diameter in feet
Then the minimum design thickness can be
expressed as:
t (inches) = 2.6 HDG + C
(3-2)

SE

contained liquid specific gravity

S = allowable design stress in psi
E = joint factor
C = corrosion allowance in inches
Obviously the ideal situation would be to vary the
thickness uniformly from bottom to top, but. since
steel plates are rolled to a uniform thickness, any
given course of plates is uniform throughout its
width . Thus a course designed for the stress at its
lower edge will have excess thickness at the top,
which will help carry part of the load in the lower
portion of the course above. API takes advantage of
this and designs each course of plates for the stress
existing one foot above the bottom of the course in
question. AWWA designs on the basis of stress
existing at the lower edge of each course.
Application of other methods of shell design is
permitted and explained in API 650 and AWWA 0100.
where G

Loads To Be Considered

Negative Pressure (such as partial vacuum) Most tanks of this nature at some time will be
subject to a negative pressure (partial vacuum) by
design or otherwise. Approximately one-half oz. per
square inch negative pressure is built into the shell
stability formulae in AWWA 0100 and API 650 .
AWWA 0100 tanks are not usually designed for
negative pressure but negative pressure due to the
evacuation of water is considered in the venting
requirements. Occasionally API 650 tanks a.re
specified to resist a certain negative pressure,
usually expressed in inches of water column. To
meet these requirements the shell and roof must be
designed to resist the specified negative pressure. It
is left to the discretion of the designer to design for
the negative pressure as part of the specified shell
and roof loads or in addition to said loads. Part III of
volume 2 provides design information for negative
pressure on cylinders. Also if the negative pressure
occurs while the tank is empty, the weight of the
bottom plate should be compared against the
specified negative pressure.

As outlined in the preceding section, the thickness of

the shell is determined by the weight of the product
stored. However, there are other loads or forces
which a tank may have to resist and which are
common to both oil and water tanks.

Wind - Wind pressure is assumed to be 30 psf on

vertical plane surfaces which, when applying shape
factors of 0.6 and 0.5 respectively, becomes 18 psf
on the projected area of a cylindrical surface, and 15
psf on the projected area of a cone or surface of
double curvature as in the case of tank roofs. These
loads are considered to be the pressure caused by a
wind velocity of 100 MPH. For higher or lower wind
velocity, these loads are increased or decreased in
proportion to the square of the velocity ratio,
(V/100)2, where V is expected wind velocity
expressed in miles per hour. Other standards for
wind design may be specified such as ASCE 7-88
(formerly ANSI A58.1-1982), UBC, BOCA or SSBC.
Snow -

Snow load is assumed to be 25 psf on the

horizontal projected area of the roof. Lighter loads
are not recommended even in areas where snow
does not occur because of the live loads that must
be resisted during construction and in service. Fixed
roofs on tanks are not usually designed for nonsymmetrical loads but if such load conditions are
anticipated, these should be considered by the
designer.

Top and Intermediate Wind Girders

Open top tanks require stiffening rings at or near the
top of the shell to resist distortion or buckling due to
wind. These stiffening rings are referred to as wind
girders. In addition some tank shells of open top and
fixed roof tanks require intermediate wind girders to
prevent buckling due to wind. API 650 and AWWA
0100 provide differing design requirements for
intermediate wind girders ano are explained in the
examples of Appendix A. The formula for maximum
height of unstiffened shell is based on the
MODIFIED MODEL BASIN FORMULA for the critical
uniform external pressure on thin-wall tubes free
from end loadings.

Seismic - Because of their flexibility, flat-bottomed

cylindrical steel tanks have had an excellent safety
record in earthquakes. Steel has the ability to absorb
large ~mounts of energy without fracture.
Prior to the Alaskan earthquake of 1964, oil tanks
had an almost perfect record of surviving all known
western hemisphere earthquakes with essentially no
effects other than broken pipe connections. In the
Alaskan quake, the horizontal oscillations of the tank
contents caused vertical shell stresses of sufficient
magnitude to permanently deform the shell in a
peripheral accordion-like buckle near the bottom. But
again the properties of steel were sufficient to
accommodate this deformation without fracture of the
shell plates. 4
As a result of this satisfactory experience record, it
is generally considered that earthquake is not an
important consideration in oil tanks where the height- .
to-diameter ratio is generally small.
The record of water tanks has been
correspondingly good, but in the case of a standpipe
where the height-to-diameter ratio is high, the
problem is obviously aggravated.
AWWA 0100 and API 650 contain
recommendations for the seismic design of tanks.
Seismic probability maps of the United States can be
found in each. If applicable, local conditions should
be investigated. UBC and ANSI standards may be
specified but are not as design specific as AWWA
0100 and API 650 for flat bottom , vertical, cylindrical
tanks.

Anchor Bolts
The normal proportions of oil tanks are such
(diameter greater than height) that anchor bolts are
rarely needed. It is quite common, however, for the
height of water tanks to be considerably greater than
the diameter. There is a limit beyond which there is
danger that any empty tank will overturn when
subjected to the maximum wind velocity. As a good
rule of thumb, if C in the following formula exceeds
0.66, anchor bolts are required:
C = 2M where
(3-3)
dw
M = overturning moment due to wind, ft. lb.
d = diameter of shell in feet
w = weight of shell and portion of roof supported by
shell, lb.
Design tens!on load per bolt = 4M - W
(3-4)

ND

where M and Ware as above and

N = number of anchor bolts
D = diameter of anchor bolt circle, feet
The diameter of the anchor bolts shall be
determined by an allowable stress of 15000 psi on
10

obtain a copy of the complete standard.

the net section at the root of the thread with

appropriate stress increase for wind or earthquake
loading.
Because of proportionately large loss of section by
corrosion on small areas, it is recommended that no
anchor bolt be less than 1.25" in diameter.
Maximum desirable spacing of anchors as
suggested by API 650 and AWWA D100 is 10'-0.
This spacing is a matter of judgment and should
remain flexible to facilitate plate seams, nozzles and
other interferences. For example, for a shell plate 10
pi feet long, it would be advantageous to use three
anchors per plate and space the anchors at
approximately 10.5 feet.
Obviously the anchor bolt circle must be larger
than the tank diameter, but care should be taken so
interference will not occur between the anchor bolts
and foundation reinforcing.
Volume 2 part VII provides design rules for anchor
bolt chairs.

Shell Design
API requires that all joints between shell plates shall
be butt welded. Lap joints are permitted only in the
roof and bottom and in attaching the top angle to the
shell.
API 650 offers optional shell design procedures.
The refined design procedures permit higher design
stresses in return for a more refined engineering
design, more rigorous inspection, and the use of
shell plate steels which demonstrate improved
toughness.
The probability of detrimental notches is higher at
discontinuities such as shell penetrations. The basic
requirements pertaining to welding, stress relief, and
inspection relative to the design procedures are
important.
Tank shells designed in accordance with refined
procedures will be thinner than the simplified
procedure, and thus will have reduced resistance to
buckling under wind load when empty. The shell may
or may not need to be stiffened, but must be
checked. This is discussed in the section on wind
girders.

Corrosion Allowance
As a minimum for all tanks, bottom plates should be
1/4" in thickness and lap welded top side only. If
corrosion allowance is required for bottom plates, the
as-furnished thickness (including corrosion
allowance) should be specified. The thickness of
annular ring or sketch plates beneath the tank shell
may be required to be thicker than the remainder of
the bottom plates and any corrosion allowance
should be specified as applicable to the calculated
thickness or the minimum thickness.
API 650 and AWWA D100 specify minimum shell
plate thicknesses based on tank diameter for
construction purposes. If corrosion allowance is
necessary, it should be added in accordance with the
respective standard. A required minimum above
those stated in the standards may also be specified,
but it should be made clear if this minimum includes
the necessary corrosion allowance.
As a minimum for all tanks, roof plates should be
3/16" in thickness and lap welded top side only. If
corrosion allowance is necessary it should be added
in accordance with the respective standard. A
required minimum greater than 3/16" in thickness
may be specified; but it should be made clear if this
minimum includes the necessary corrosion
allowance.
If corrosion allowance is necessary for roof
supporting structural members, it should be added in
accordance with the respective standard. If a
corrosion allowance requirement different from the
standards is necessary, it should be made clear what
parts of the structure require the additional thickness
(flange or web, one side or both sides) and/or the
minimum thickness necessary.

Bottoms
Tank bottoms are usually lap welded plates having a
minimum nominal thickness of 1/4". After trimming,
bottom plates shall extend a minimum of 1 inch
beyond the outside edge of the weld attaching the ,
bottom to the shell plates. The attachment weld shall
be a continuous fillet inside and out as shown in the
following table of sizes:
Maximum t of
Shell Plate
Inches
3/16
over 3/16 to 3/4
over 3/4 to 1-1/4
over 1-1/4 to 1-3/4

Minimum Size of
Fillet Weld*
Inches
3116
1/4
5/16
3/8

* Maximum size Fillet 1/2"

Butt-welded bottoms are permissible, but because of

cost, are seldom used except in special services.
Butt-welded bottoms are usually welded from the top
side only using backing strips attached to the
underside. Welding from both sides presents
Significant construction difficulties in order to perform
the work in a safe manner.

Top Angle
Except for open-top tanks and the special
requirements applying to self-supporting roofs, tank
shells shall be provided with top angles of not less
than the following sizes:

API Standard 650

Tank Diameter
35 feet and less
over 35 to 60 ft. incl.
over 60 feet

General
The following information is based on API 650,
eighth edition. Anyone dealing with tanks should

11

Minimum
Size of Top Angle
2 x 2 x 3/16
2 x 2 x 1/4
3 x 3 x 3/8

12 inches, and when the cross-sectional area of

the roof-to-shell junction does not exceed
A =
0.153W
(3-5)
30,800 tan 8
where W = total weight of the shell and roof
framing supported by the shell in
pounds
8 = angle between the roof and a
horizontal plane at the roof-to-shell
juncture in degrees
.
the joint may be considered to be frangi~le a~d,
in case of excessive internal pressure, Will fall
before failure occurs in the tank shell joints or
the shell-to-bottom joint. Failure of the roof-toshell joint is usually initiated by buckling of the
top angle and followed by teari~g of the 3/16
inch continuous weld at the penphery of the
roof plates.
2. Where the weld size exceeds 3/16 inch, or
where the slope of the roof at the top-angle
attachment is greater than 2 inches in 12
inches, or when the cross-sectional area of the
roof-to-shell junction exceeds the value
. calculated per equation 3-5, or where fillet
welding from both sides is specified, emergency
venting devices in accordance with API
Standard 2000 shall be provided by the
purchaser. The manufacturer shall provide a
suitable tank connection for the device and the
drawings should reflect the need for such a
device to be supplied by the customer. The top
angle may be smaller than previously noted
when a frangible joint is specified.

Roofs
The selection of roof type depends on many factors.
In the oil industry, many roofs are selected to
minimize evaporation losses. Inasmuch as the
ordinary oil tank is designed to withstand pressures
only slightly above atmospheric, it must be vented
against pressure and vacuum. The space above the
liquid is filled with an .air-va~or r:nix~ure .. W~en a
nearly empty tank is filled with liqUid this air-vapor
mixture expands in the heat of the day an~ the .
resulting increase in pressure causes venting. DUring
the cool of the night, the remaining air-vapor mixture
contracts, more fresh air is drawn in, more vapor
evaporates to saturate the air-vapor mixture, and the
next day the cycle is repeated . Either the loss of
valuable "light ends" to the atmosphere from filling,
or the breathing loss due to the expansioncontraction cycle, is a very substantial loss and has
led to the development of many roof types designed
to minimize such losses.
The floating roof is probably the most popular of
all conservation devices and is included as
Appendices to API Standard 650. The prin?ipl.e of
the floating roof is simple. It floats on the liqUid
surface; therefore there is no vapor either to be
expelled on filling or to expand or contract from day
to night.
Inasmuch as all such conservation devices are
represented by proprietary and often pat~nted
designs, they are beyond the scope of t~IS
discussion, which will be limited to the fixed roofs
covered by API Standards.
API 650 provides rules for the design of several
types of fixed roofs.
The most common fixed roof is the-column
supported cone roof, except for relatively small
diameters where the added cost of a self-supporting
roof is more than offset by saving the cost of a
structural framing. The dividing line cannot be
accurately defined because different pr~~tice~ and
available equipment may affect the decl~lon I~ any
given case. If economy is the only consl~eratlon .the
purchaser would be well advised to specify the size
of tank and let the manufacturer decide whether or
not to use a self-supporting roof.
A self-supporting roof is sometimes ~esirable for.
special service conditions such as an Intern~1 floating
roof, or where cleanliness and ease of cleantng are
especially important.
AU roofs and supporting structures shall be
designed to support dead Ioad plus a live load of not
less than 25 psf.
. Roof plates shall have a minimum nominal
thickness of 3/16 inch. Structural members shall
have a minimum thickness of 0.17 inch.
Roof plates shall be attached to t~e top angle with
a continuous fillet weld on the top Side only:
1. If the continuous fillet weld between the roof
plates and the top angle does not exceed 3/16
inch and the slope of the roof at the top-angle
attachment does not exceed 2 inches in

Supported Cone Roofs - Supported cone roofs are

usually lap welded from the top side only with
continuous full fillet welds. Plates shall not be
attached to supporting members, and shall be
attached to the top angle by a continuous 3/16" fillet
weld or smaller on the top side if specified by
purchaser.
The usual slope of supported cone roofs is 3/4" in
12". Increased slopes should be used with caution .
The columns transmit their loads directly to the
supporting soil through bases resting on but not
attached to the bottom plates. Some differential
settlement can be expected. A relatively flat roof will
follow such variations without difficulty. As pitch
increases, a cone acquires stiffness, and instead of
smoothly following a revised contour, unSightly local
buckles may develop. In general, slopes exceeding
1-1/2" in 12" may be undesirable.
Rafters in direct contact with the roof plates may
be considered to receive adequate lateral support
from friction, but this does not apply to truss chord
members, rafters deeper than 15", or roof slopes
greater than 2" in 12".
Rafters are spaced so that, in the outer ring, their
centers are not more than 6.28 feet apart at the
shell. Spacing on inner rings does not exceed
5.5 feet. All parts of the supporting structure shall be
so proportioned that the sum of the maximum
calculated stresses shall not exceed the allowable

12

r'

such tanks to be built in accordance with API 650.

It must be remembered that the API Appendix A
design .stress of 21 ,000 psi at 85 0/0 joint factor is
predicated on the tank being full of water during test,
and that the actual stress in petroleum service is
usually considerably less. Because molasses is
heavier than water, the full design stress is present
in service. Thus if the designer is depending on the
long and successful record _of tanks designed in
accordance with API 650 Appendix A design, it
would be more consistent with the true situation to
use a somewhat lower design stress.
On the other hand, on tanks built to the basic
design of API 650 this difference between usual
petroleum service stress and design stress does not
exist. However, the addition of a corrosion allowance
is required when warranted by service conditions.

stresses as stated in the appropriate section of API

650.
Self-Supporting Roofs - Self-supporting cone,
dome or umbrella roofs shall conform to the
appropriate requirements of API 650 unless
otherwise specified by the purchaser.

Accessories
API 650 contains specific designs for approved
accessories which include all dimensions,
thicknesses, and welding details. For all cases,
OSHA requirements must be satisfied.
No details are shown, but specifications are
included for stairways, walkways and platforms. All
such structures are designed to support a moving
concentrated load of 1000 Ibs. and the handrail shall
be capable of withstanding a load of 200 Ibs. applied
in any direction at any point on the top rail.
Normally all pipe connections enter the tank
through the lower part of the shell. Historically tank
diameters and design stress levels have been such
that the elastic movement of the tank shell under
load has not been difficult to accommodate.
With the trend to larger tanks and higher stresses,
the elastic movement of the shell can become an
important factor.
Steel being an elastic material, the tank shell
increases in diameter when subjected to internal
pressure. The flat bottom acts as a diaphragm and
restrains outward movement of the shell. As a result,
the shell is greater in diameter several feet above
the bottom than at the bottom.
Openings near the bottom of the tank shell will
tend to rotate with vertical bending of the shell under
hydrostatic loading. Shell openings in this area,
having attached piping or other external loads,
should be reinforced not only for the static conditions
but also for any loads imposed on the shell
connections by the restraint of the attached piping to
the shell rotations. Preferably the external loads
should be minimized or the shell connections
relocated outside the rotation area.

Acid and Caustic Tanks - To attempt a

comprehensive discussion of the subject of storing
acids and caustic solutions is beyond the scope of
this work. While stainless steel or other high alloy
materials are often required, some acids and caustic
solutions can be stored successfully in carbon steel
tanks, and the following discussion will be limited to
such application.
In the absence of personal experience, information
concerning the corrosive properties of many common
solutions can be found in chemistry and chemical
engineers' handbooks or in the publications of the
National Association of Corrosion Engineers.
However, it should be noted that very small
differences in content (such as slight impurities) or
conditions can influence the corrosive effect of many
chemicals.
As an example, concentrated sulfuric acid does
not attack carbon steel whereas dilute sulfuric acid is
extremely corrosive. Thus concentrated sulfur~c acid
can often be safely stored in carbon steel tanks
provided proper precautions are taken to cope with
dilute acid that may form in the upper portions of the
tank when acid fumes and water condensation meet
in the vapor space.
Thus one fundamental requirement for an acid
tank is that the interior of the tank be smooth without
crevices or pockets where dilute acid condensation
can collect. Self-supporting roofs are good practice.
If the design of the roof or size of tank requires
structural stiffeners, it is desirable that they be
placed on the outside. If the roof is lap welded, it
should be welded underneath as well as the top. The
connection of the roof to the shell should eliminate
any pocket which might exist at the top of a standard
API tank.
When using Appendix A design basis of API 650,
a lower design stress should be considered for the
same reasons as given under "Molasses Tanks."
The tank user should specify the amount of corrosion
allowance, if any required, for his particular purpose.
In the case of carbon steel tanks storing caustic
solutions, both the concentration and temperature
are important. Carbon steel tanks should not be used
if the combination of concentration and temperature

Tanks Other Than for Oil or Water

There are manyapplicatior1s for steel tanks other
than the storage of oil or water. Since most such
applications are industrial in nature for which no
industry standard has been developed, it is quite
common to use API Standard 650 as a basis for
design and construction. This is a logical approach
provided that problems peculiar to the contents
stored are taken into account.
Tanks designed to store liquified gases at or near
atmospheriC pressure are beyond the scope of this
document. However, those interested in such storage
are referred to API 620 appendices Rand Q.
Molasses Tanks - Molasses presents no unusual
problems other than the fact that its specific gravity
is about 1.48, and the shell design must, of course,
take this into account. It is quite common to require

13

AWWA Standard 0100

exceeds the following values and may in some cases

be unsatisfactory below these limits:
50 0/0 and 120F
25 0/0 and 150F
5 0/0 and 200F
It is most important to make sure that the specified
design conditions are not exceeded in service.
Automatic temperature controls are recommended.
In addition to ordinary corrosion, the principal
problem in caustic tanks is one referred to as
"caustic embrittlement" or "stress corrosion
cracking." In the presence of high local stresses this
type of corrosion can rapidly result in cracks and
leaks. Local stress concentrations approaching the
yield point can exist at shell penetrations, in the
vicinity of welds and at other details. In caustic
service these are the points where stress corrosion
cracking can occur.
Thus, in the case of caustic storage tanks, all
fittings penetrating the shell or bottom, or any
permanent attachments welded to the,interior surface
thereof, should be installed in a plate in the shop
and the entire assembly thermally stress relieved.
Essentially, this leaves only main seam welding to be
performed in the field.
Self-supporting roofs without structural members
immersed in the tank contents are advisable. It is not
necessary, however, to eliminate crevices and
pockets as is recommended for acid tanks. For
caustic tanks, a standard API roof is acceptable.
Certain additional precautions in welding should be
taken in both acid and caustic tanks. Lap welds in
the bottom and the inside bottom-to-shell fillet should
be made in at least two passes. Since the bottom-toshell weld usually consists of a fillet ,inside and out, it
is advisable to provide a water stop (complete
penetration) at each vertical shell joint so that if a
leak does occur in the inside fillet, channeling will be
limited to one plate length.
All other shell joints should be designed for
complete penetration and fusion. The inside passes
should be made first. The later welding of outside
passes will partially heat treat and reduce residual
stresses in the inside weld. If anticipated corrosion
indicates a bottom plate thickness greater than 3/8",
the bottom should be butt welded and the same
sequence followed; i.e. weld the inside passes first.
Inasmuch as all welds create locally high residual
stresses, all brackets, welding lugs, etc. should be
kept to a minimum, be located on the outside, and
attached with small-diameter electrodes to limit the
heat input and consequently the effect on the inside
surface.
When the corrosive attack is considered sufficiently
severe to admit the possibility of local penetration,
but not severe enough to warrant the expense of
high alloy or clad steel plates, the tank is sometimes
supported on a structural grillage to permit
inspection from the under side.

General
The following information is based on the AWWA
Standard D100 issued in 1984. Anyone dealing with
tanks should obtain a copy of the complete standard.
With the exception of shells, roofs and
accessories, the comments made in connection with
API tanks also apply to AWWA tanks and will not be
repeated here in d~tail.
Bottoms may be either lap or butt welded with a
minimum thickness of 1/4 inch.
AWWA does not specify top angle sizes, but the
rules of API represent good practice.

Shell Design
AWWA D100 offers two different design bases, the
standard or basic design and the alternate deSign
basis as outlined in Appendix C. The alternate
design basis permits higher design stresses, in
return for a more refined engineering design, more
rigorous inspection, and the use of shell plate steels
with improved toughness.
AWWA D 100 Appendix C includes steels of
significantly higher strength levels and
correspondingly higher design stress levels. This
introduces new design problems. For example, for
A517 steels, the permissible design stress of 38333
psi will result in reaching the minimum required
nominal thickness several courses below the tank
top. It would be uneconomical to continue the
relatively expensive steel into courses of plates not
determined by stress. The obvious answer is to use
less expensive steels in the upper rings. To govern
this transition, Appendix C adds the followif}g
requirements:
"In the interest of economy, upper courses may be
of weaker material than used in the lower courses of
shell plates, but in no instance shall the calculated
stress at the bottom of any course be greater than
permitted for the material in that course. A plate
course may be thicker than the course below it
provided the extra thickness is not used in any stress
or wind stability calculation. I I
Compliance with this requirement will probably
result in the course or courses immediately below
the transition point being somewhat heavier than
required by stress. Using a steel of intermediate
strength level as a transition between A517 steel and
carbon steel may help the situation. In any event the
use of two or more steels will result in plates of the
same thickness made of different steels. Careful
attention to plain marking for positive identification
becomes very important. Consideration might be
given to varying plate widths for different materials of
the same thickness to aid in identification in the
event markings are lost.

Roofs
Whereas oil tanks are strictly utilitarian, a pleasing
appearance is generally an important consideration
in the case of water tanks. Since the roof line has an
14

I
f

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

important effect on appearance, this striving for

beauty has led to a wide variety of roof designs.
Often a self-supporting roof, such as an ellipsoid,
will extend a considerable distance above the
cylindrical portion of the shell, and the high water
level will extend up into the roof itself. The resultant
upward pressure on the roof is resisted by the
combination of the roof dead load and the weld jOint
between the roof and shell.
AWWA requires that for all roof plate surfaces in
contact with water, the minimum metal thickness
shall be 1/4". Roof plate surfaces not in contact with
water may be 3/16".
As applied to rolled shapes for roof framing, the
foregoing minimum thicknesses shall apply to the
mean thickness of the flanges regardless of web
thickness.
Roof plates not subject to hydrostatic pressure
from tank contents may be welded from the top side
only with either a continuous full fillet or butt joint
weld with 90 0/0 jOint penetration. Where roof plates
are subjected to hydrostatic pressure, the roof may
be continuous double lap welded or butt welded.
Roof supports or stiffeners, if used, shall be in
accordance with current specifications of the
American Institute of Steel Construction covering
structural steel for buildings, with the following
exceptions:
1. Roof plates are considered to provide the
necessary lateral support by friction between
roof plates and rafters to eliminate reduction in
the basic allowable compressive stress, except
where trusses and open web joists are used for
rafters, or rafters having nominal depth greater
than 15 in. or rafters having a slope greater
than 2 in 12.
2. The roof, rafter and purlin depth may be less than
fb
600,000
times the span length in incheSl where fb is the
maximum bending stress in psi, providing slope
of the roof is 3/4 to 12 or greater.
3. The maximum slenderness ratio (Ur) for roof
support columns shall be 175.
4. Roof support columns shall be designed as
secondary members.
5. Roof trusses, if any, shall be placed above the
maximum water level in climates where ice may
form.
6. Roof rafters shall preferably be placed above
maximum water level, although their lower
ends, where connected to the tank shell, may
project below the water level.

Accessories
AWWA does not provide detailed designs of tank
fittings, but specifies the following:
1. Two manholes shall be provided in the first ring
of the tank shell. Manholes shall be either a
24" diameter or at least 18" x 22" when
elliptical manholes are used.
2. The purchaser shall specify pipe connections,
15

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.
9.

sizes, and locations. Due to freezing hazard

these connections are normally made through
the tank bottom and as near to the shell as
practical. A concrete valve box may be provided
to permit access to piping. This valve box must
be designed as a part of the ringwall.
If a removable silt stop is required, it shall be at
least 4" high. If not required, then the
connecting pipe shall extend at least 4" above
the tank bottom.
The purchaser shall specify the overflow size
and type. A stub overflow is recommended in
cold climates. If an overflow to ground is .
required, it should be brought down the outside
of the tank and discharged onto a splash block
or other appropriate drainage structure. Inside
overflows are not recommended. They are
easily damaged by ice, and a failure in the
overflow will empty the tank to the level of the
break.
An outside vertical ladder shall begin 8 feet (or
as specified) above the tank bottom and afford
access to the roof. Need for access to AWWA
tanks is infrequent and a conscious effort is
made to render access difficult for unauthorized
personnel.
The contractor shall provide access to the roof
hatches and vents. The access must be
reached from the outside tank ladder and fulfill
the AWWA D100 requirements consistent with
the roof slope or as specified by the purchaser.
A roof door or hatch whose least dimensions
are 24" x 15", with a curb 4" high, provided
with a hinged door and clasp for locking shall
be placed near the outside tank ladder. A
second opening of at least 20" in diameter C;nd
with a 4" neck must be provided near the
center of the tank. Additional openings may be
required for ventilation during painting.
Safety devices shall be provided on ladders as
required by federal or local regulations, or as
purchaser so specifies.
Adequate venting shal/be provided to
accommodate the maximum filling and
emptying rates. These rates should be specified
by the purchaser.
Venting for outflow (partial vacuum condition)
is based upon the unrestricted vent area and
the pressure differential that can safely be
allowed between the outside and inside of the
tank. This differential is established by
quantifying the strength of the roof and shell
above and beyond other structural
requirements; for example, the margin of extra
strength of the shell against buckling with
respect to the design wind load.
Venting for inflow (pressure condition) is
again based upon the restricted vent area and
the pressure differential that can safely be
allowed before lifting the roof plates. For
example, if 3/16" roof plates are used, the
pressure differential would be 7.65 PSF, 0.053

Calculate she" thickness using the basic equation:

t =2.6 hp 0 G
(3-8)

psi, or 1.47 inches water column. If the

differential is limited to the weight of the roof,
the shell/roof juncture does not become
involved. The overstress in the shell would be
minimal.
The equation for outflow vent capacity is:
Q = O.SAx110x Y'f'x

[(~~)"2B6

-1t

sE
All nomenclature in the above and following
equations is defined in the AWWA 0100 standard.
Notice that hp in the above equation is the full liquid
height above the design point rather than h - 1 as
used in API 650.
The calculation for ring five (top ring) is:

(3-6)

where Q = vent capacity in cubic feet per second

A = minimum clear vent open area in
square feet
T = air temperature in degrees
Rankine
Pa = atmospheric pressure in psia
Pi = pressure in tank during withdrawal
in psia
The equation for inflow vent capacity is:
Q = O.SA {6.2S x 106

[(;!)

0.286 -1]} '/2

t5 = 2.6 x 7.66 x 150 x 1.0 = 0.1547"

19,330 x 1.0
The thicknesses for the remaining rings calculate:
hp = 15.63'
S = 19,330 psi
t4 = 0.3152"
hp = 23.58'
S = 23,330 psi
t3 = 0.3942"
hp = 31.54'
S = 23,330 psi
t2 = 0.5273"
hp = 39.50'
S = 23,330 psi
t1 = 0.6603"
using A36 steel for rings 4 and 5 and A573 GR70 for
rings 1, 2, and 3. Ring 5 will be increased to 0.3125"
because of minimum thickness requirements in
AWWA 0100.
Shell stability is calculated using the basic
equation:

(3-7)

10.625 X 106 x t
Pw (0/t)1.5

(3-9)

The calculation for ring five (top ring) is:

APPENDIX A

hs = 10.625 X 106 x 0.3125 = 17.54'> 7.96'

18 x (150/0.3125)1.5

Design Example
For typical examples of tank design consider two
tanks 150 feet in diameter by 40 feet nominal height
with flat cone supported roofs. Consider one tank per
AWWA 0100 and the other tank per API 650. See
figure 3A1 for tank dimensions.
These examples are for illustration only and are
not to be used for an actual design or construction.
Design of similar tanks should be accomplished by
competent people experienced in the design of like
structures and the use of applicable standards.
For the AWWA tank consider Appendix C, shell
design by equation 3-10 (AWWA 0100), and zone
one fixed percentage seismic loads.
For the API 650 tank consider the standard (non
Appendix A), shell design by the variable point
method, 1/16 inch corrosion allowance on the shell
only, and zone one API 650 seismic loads.
Consider design metal temperature (OMT) of 20F,
standard 100 mph wind loads, standard 25 PSF roof
loads, a maximum liquid content height of 39'-6, and
a design specific gravity of 1.0 for both tanks.
The economics of plate selection with respect to
width and grade and structural selection will differ
with location and construction capabilities. Factors to
consider are plate width and grade availability in a
particular locality and structural rolling schedules.
Also the availability of plate and structural stock in a
particular locality will sometimes influence the
selection of material. Further discussion of material
selection wi" be beyond the scope of this paper.
The following design example covers the AWWA
0100 tank.

For each ring the h calculated is compared to the

actual height of shell above the design point. When
h calculates less than the height of sheH above, the
shell is unstable. This may be corrected by
thickening the shell or adding a stiffening ring. For
this example we will consider only thickening the
shell.
h4 = 17.73'> 15.92'
h3 = 21.76' < 23.87'
Recalculate the thickness of ring 3 by using a lower
strength steel (A36).
13 = 0.4758"
Recalculate:
h3 = 26.37' > 23.87'
The shell is now stable above ring 3; continuing;
h2 = 34.10' > 31.83'
h1 = 45.67'> 39.79'
The entire shell is now stable for a design wind
velocity of 100 mph. See table 3A-1 for shell
thicknesses before and after minimum thickness and
wind stability adjustments.
For 100 mph wind load, design loads are 18 PSF
on projected areas of cylindrical surfaces (shell) and
15 PSF on projected areas of double curved
surfaces (roof). Based upon the tank geometry and
the design loading, the wind shear is calculated:
Shell = 150 x 40.04 x 18 =
Roof = 150 x 4.69 x 0.5 x 15 =
Total =
16

108,113Ibs.
5,273
113,386 Ibs.

diameter schedule 20 pipe based upon a design load

of 41,400 Ibs., an unsupported column length of
470.6 inches, and a slenderness ratio of 159; using
the same design criteria as the center column. See
figure 3A-6 for a typical outer column detail.
For zone 1 AWWA seismic loading the entire water
and dead load mass will be subject to an
acceleration of 0.025. For the seismic shear a simple
calculation of 0.025 times the accumulated weight of
the water and dead load equals 1,102,800 Ibs. For
seismic moment the center of gravity of the dead
load is a matter of geometry. The water mass is
divided into the impulsive and convective modes with
appropriate masses and centers of gravity for each.
USing the procedure and nomenclature from AWWA
0100:
WT = 43,556,600 Ibs.

The minimum required coefficient of friction

against sliding is:
Wind Shear
Tank Weight

113,386
734,250

0.154

(3-10)

. This coefficient is well below established values

which range as high as 0.4 to 0.5.
The wind moment at the base of the shell is
calculated:

Shell
108,113 x 20.02 =
Roof =
5,273 x 41.60 =
Total =

2,164,421 ft-Ibs.
219,357
2,383,778 ft-Ibs.

The ratio, C =2M/dw, calculates to be 0.076 < 0.666;

therefore, no anchors are required to resist
overturning due to wind.
Roof framing concepts, layout and detail vary
among tank designers and suppliers. Rafter spacing
is dependent upon roof loading and plate thickness.
For reasons .of plate strength and construction a
maximum rafter spacing of approximately 7.00 feet is
desirable. For this example consider nine girders and
outer columns, 36 inner rafters and 72 outer rafters
(see figure 3A-2). The outer columns will be located
on a 42'-6" radius. The rafter spacing is 6.54 feet at
the shell and 6.92 feet at the girder. Consider 25
PSF snow load and 7.65 PSF (3/16" roof plate) dead
load.
USing an inner support radius of 2.38 ft, which is
dependent upon the method of supporting the inner
rafters, the maximum design length of the inner
rafters is 39.33 ft, as indicated on figure 3A-2. The
maximum design moment calculates to be 27,580 ftIbs. Using an AISC allowable stress of 0.66 x Fy, a
section modulus of 13.93 in 3 is required. A W12 x
14 section with a section modulus of 14.9 in 3 is
chosen. See figure 3A-3 for a typical rafter loading.
The maximum design length for the outer rafters is
35.33 ft, as indicated on figure 3A-2. The maximum
design moment calculates to be 27,890 ft-Ibs. A
section modulus of 14.09 in3 is required and again
we will choose a W12 x 14 section.
The rafter reactions are placed on the girder at the
locations as determined by the roof framing layout.
The outer rafter reactions are 3480 Ibs.; the inner
rafter reactions are 2840 Ibs.; and the girder design
length is 29.07 ft. The maximum design moment
calculates to be 150,440 ft-Ibs. Again using AISC
allowable stresses, a section modulus of 75.98 in3 .is
required. AW18 x 46 section with a section modulus
of 78.80 in3 is chosen. See figure 3A-4 for a typical
girder loading.
For the center column a design load of 74,900 Ibs.
is calculated from the accumulated reactions of the
inner rafters. Using AISC design procedures an
allowable compressive stress is determined based
upon the unsupported column length of 486.5 inches
and a calculated slenderness ratio of 131. A 10"
diameter schedule 20 pipe will meet the design
criteria. See figure 3A-5 for typical center column
detail.
For the outer columns we have chosen an 8"

= 0.3

W1

WT = 13,067,000 Jbs.

W2 = 0.65 X WT = 28,311,800 Ibs.

X1 = 14.615 ft
X2 = 20.935 ft
From the above criteria the seismic moment
calculates to be 19,946,500 ft-Ibs. The ratio
M
0 2 (W + Wd calculates less than 0.785; therefore,
t

no anchors are required for seismic overturning.

WL in the above ratio is determined by the equatior
WL = 7.9 tb (fy HG)1!2
(3-11)
WL is the portion of the contents that may be used to
resist overturning for an unanchored tank. The value
of WL is based upon a bottom plate width L that will
carry the resisting contents and is calculated by the
equation:
(3-12)
L = 0.216 tb (fy HG)1!2
L is limited ,to 0.0350 which limits the value of WL' tO
1.28 HOG.
The following design example covers the API 650
tank.
Calculate the shell thicknesses by the VARIABLE
POINT OESIGN method as explained in API 650. A
detailed example is in the API 650 Appendix. The
thickness calculations for rings 1 and 2 are shown in
figure 3A-7. The thickness for ring 5 is governed by
minimum thickness requirements. Table 3A-2
summarizes final required thicknesses based upon
static head, specified corrosion allowance, minimum
thickness, and material economics.
Shell stability is calculated using the equation:

H = 600,000 t

(3-13)

(0/t)1.5

For API 650 design t is the thickness of the top

ring and not the average shell thickness as in
AWWA design.
H

= 600,000

x 0.3125
(15010.3125)1.5

17.83 ft

< 39.79 ft

It should be noted here that unless otherwise

specified the as-built thicknesses are used in the
shell stability calculations rather than the corroded
thicknesses.
17

For zone one seismic loading the effective mass

method of API 650 will be used. The design method
considers two response modes of the tank and
contents: the impulsive and convective modes. The
impulsive response mode is the relatively high
frequency amplified response to lateral ground
motion of the tank shell and roof together with the
portion of the contents that moves in unison with the
shell. The convective response mode is the relatively
low frequency amplified response of the portion of
the contents that moves in the fundamental sloshing
mode. The content total, impulsive and convective
masses, are identical to the AWWA design. The
dead load mass is slightly different due to the
different shell and framing design criteria of AWWA
and API 650. The equation for overturning due to
seismic loading applied to the bottom of the shell is:
M = 21 (C 1WsXs + C1WrHt + C1W1X1 + C2W2X2) (3-16)
For zone one: Z = 0.1875
I = 1.0
C1 = 0.24
C2 = 0.0301 (based upon a natural
period of the first
sloshing mode of 8.2
sec. and S = 1.5)
The moment calculates to be 12,804,400 ft-Ibs.
The ratio ___M_ __ calculates less than 0.785;
0 2 (Wt + WJ
therefore, no anchors are required for seismic overturning.

Since H calculates less than the shell height,

calculate a transposed shell height using the
equation:

= W .(tuniform)5/2

(3-14)
tactual
The transposed shell height is the sum of Wtr for
each ring. If H is less than the sum of Wtp the shell
is unstable. As in the AWWA design the unstable
condition may be corrected by thickening the shell or
adding a stiffener ring(s). See figure 3A-8 for Wtr for
each ring and the sum of Wtr . H is less than the sum
of Wtr ; therefore, the shell is unstable for 100 mph
wind loading.
For this example consider stabilizing the shell by
adding a stiffener ring(s). If one-half the sum of Wtr is
greater than H, then two (or more) stiffener rings are
required.
W tr

1/2 x 25.33 = 12.67 ft

<

17.83 ft

Therefore, only one stiffener ring is required. Place

the stiffener ring at the mid-point of the transposed
shell height. This location on the actual shell may be
found by back calculating through the transposed
shell heights. By inspection one can determine that
the stiffener ring will be located on ring 4, 12.67 ft
from the top of the shell or 27.0 ft. from the bottom.
The stiffener ring required section modulus is
calculated by the equation:
Z = 0.0001 0 2 H
(3-15)
Z = 0.0001 X (150)2 x 12.67 = 28.5 in3
The configuration of the stiffener ring may take on
many different shapes at the preference of the
purchaser or supplier.
The shell is now stable for a design wind velocity
of 100 mph.
The wind loads on the API 650 tank are identical
to the AWWA tank; therefore, the resulting wind
shear and moment at the bottom of the API 650 tank
are the same as the AWWA tank.

APPENDIX B - TANK FOUNDATIONS

Soils Investigation
The subgrade of a potential tank site must be
capable of supporting the weight of the tank and
contained fluid. A qualified ,geotechnical engineer
should be retained to conduct the subsurface
exploration and to make specific recommendations
concerning: the type of foundation required,
anticipated settlements, allowable soil bearing and
specific construction requirements.
The ultimate soil bearing capacity should be
determined using sound principles of geotechnical
engineering. The following minimum factors of safety
should be applied to the ultimate bearing capacity
when determining the allowable soil bearing:
1. A factor of safety of 3.0 for normal operating
conditions.
2. A factor of safety of 2.25 during hydrotest.
3. A factor of safety of 2.25 for operating
conditions plus the maximum effect of wind or
seismic forces.
An allowable soil bearing based solely on the
above factors of safety may result in excessive total
settlements. If required, these factors of safety
should be increased in order to limit the anticipated
total settlements to acceptable values. Factors of
safety larger than the above minimums are also
required by certain codes and standards, such as
AWWA 0100.
Factors of safety lower than the above minimums

Shear = 113,386 Ibs.

Moment = 2,383,778 ft-Ibs.
The ratio, C =2M/dw, calculates to be 0.094 <
0.666; therefore, no anchors are required to resist
overturning due to wind.
The roof framing scheme will change significantly
from the AWWA design since the maximum rafter
spacing at the shell cannot exceed 2 x pi (6.28 ft)
and the maximum rafter spacing between inner
rafters cannot exceed 5.50 ft. For this example
consider twelve girders and outer columns, 48 inner
rafters and 84 outer rafters. Consider 25 PSF snow
load and 7.65 PSF dead load. Using identical design
procedures as the AWWA 0100 design and API 650
allowable stresses, we will choose the following roof
framing members:
Inner rafters
= W12 x 14
Outer rafters
= W12 x 14
Girders
= W16 x 31
Center column = 12" dia. sch 20
Outer columns = 8" dia. sch 20
18

3/16" ROOF PL
LAP WELDED TOP SIDE ONLY

..
(Y)

~
RING 5

C'\J

".-.

RING 4

.-.
I

RING 3

"

(/)

0
"It

RING 2

l.:J

Z
.....

a::

RING 1

I.

('\J

"'.....

If)

.1

150'-0

1/4'BOTTOM PL LAP WELDED TOP SIDE ONLY

Figure 3A1 -

Flat Bottom Tank

b.) ADJUSTED FINAL THICKNESSES FOR STATIC

HEAD AND WIND STABILITY (AWWA DESIGN)

a.) CALCULATED SHELL THICKNESSES FROM

STATIC HEAD ONLY (AWWA DESIGN)
RING #

THICKNESS

MATERIAL

RING #

THICKNESS

MATERIAL

0.1547"

A36

0.3125"

A36

0.3152"

A36

0.3152"

A36

0.3942"

A573GR70

0.4758"

A36

0.5273"

A573GR70

0.5273"

A573GR70

0.6603"

A573GR70

0.6603"

A573GR70

Table 3A1 -

Shell Plate Thicknesses

19

42'-61
36 RAFTERS
R

= 2'-4

Figure 3A2 -

72 RAFTERS

1/2

Framing Layout -

AWWA

NON-UN I FORM LOAD .

UNIFORM LOAD (INCLUDES RAFTER

~T.)

Rl

R2

DESIGN LENGTH

Figure 3A-3 -

Typical Rafter Loading

______ REACTIONS FROM

INNER RAFTERS
_..--....L..--.-_-..---L---..-_--.---L---..,..._--.--..I.---._______
REACT IONS FROM
OUTER RAFTERS
GIRDER DEAD LOAD

Figure 3A4 -

Typical Girder Loading

20

J\)

.....&.

iJ
iJ

1>

VI

Figure 3A-5 -

VIZ

;QO

rr1

;Qrl

Dr

nCl

-l
rr1

VI
.....

INNER RAFTERS

Typical Center Column

II ~UMN
II
II I
II
II
I I BASE PLATE
I I ~ BOT~M PLATE
II

COLUMN CONE

"t

GIRDER

\J
\J

Cl

VI

VI

rl
AJ 0

AJrl

Dr

rl 1>

0
VI

BOTTOM PLATE

BASE PLATE

COLUMN

CAP PLATE

RAFTER

Typical Outer Column

I I,
II

I II

I II
II
II
II
II

' 'k

~t::'~NNER

Figure 3A-6 -

{:

OUTER RAFTER

VARIABLE POINT DESIGN: API 650 8TH ED. PARA.3.6.4.

RING NO.1

DESIGN: D = 150.000 H = 39.500 G = 1.000 S = 28000. CA = 0.0625

Td = 2.6* D*{H -1 )*G/S + CA = 0.5362 + CA = 0.5987
Tld = [1.06-(0.463*D/H)*SQRT(H*G/S)]*2.6*D*H*G/S+CA =
Tld = 0.5469 + CA = 0.6094
HYDROTEST: D = 150.000 H = 39.500 G = 1.000 S = 30000.
TT = 2.6*D*(H -l)*G/S = 0.5005
T1T = [1.06-(0.463*D/H)*SQRT{H*G/S)]*2.6*D*H*G/S = 0.5115
USE: 0.599 IN. A573 70

LlH = SQRT{6.0*D*T)/H3

= 0.5929 <=

2.0 OK

RING NO.2

DESIGN: D
150.000 H
31.542 G = 1.000 S = 28000. CA
Td = 2.6*D*{H -l)*G/S + CA = 0.4254 + CA = 0.4879
TX = 2.6*D*{H-X/12)*G/S

= 0.0625

TU
0.4254
0.4116
0.4121

X3
23.872
23.482
23.495

23.872
23.482
23.495

X3
23.062
22.711
22.723

23.062
22.711
22.723

TL
K
0.5362
1.2606
0.5362
1.3028
0.5362
1.3013
TX = 0.4121 + CA =

C
0.1211
0.1390
0.1384
0.4746

X2
45.847
52.595
52.369

Xl
26.607
28.571
28.506

'

TX
0.4116
0.4121
0.4121

DESIGN: PARA. 3.6.4.5

RATIO = 95.500/[SQRT (6*0*0.5362) I = 4.3471
T2 = Tx + (T1 - Tx)* (2.1 - 4.3471/1.25) = 0.2410
T2D = 0.4121 + CA
HYDROTEST: D = 150.000 H = 31.542
n = 2.6*D*(H -l)*G/S = 0.3970
TX = 2.6*D*{H -Xl12)*G/S
TU
0.3970
0.3851
0.3854

TL
K
0.5005
1.2606
0.5005
1.2998
0.5005
1.2985
TX= 0.3854

G = 1.000

0.1211
0.1377
0.1372

X2
45.846
52.127
51.924

= 30000.

Xl
26.202
28.036
27.977

HYDROSTATIC: PARA. 3.6.4.5

RATIO = 95.500/[SQRT(6*D*0.5005)] = 4.4997
T2 = TX + (Tl - TX)*{2.1 - 4.4997/1.25) = 0.2128
T2T = 0.3854
MINIMUM DESIGN THICKNESS

= 0.4746

USE: 0.475 IN. A573 70

FIGURE 3A-7 -API 650 VARIABLE POINT CALCULATIONS

22

TX
0.3851
0.3854
0.3854

THICKNESS
0.3125"
0.3125"
0.3750"
0.4750"
0.5990"

RING #
5

4
3
2
1

TABLE 3A-2 -

Wtr
Wtr
Wtr
Wtr
Wtr
SUM

MATERIAL
A36
A36
A573GR70
A573GR70
A573GR70

ADJUSTED FINAL THICKNESSES

(API 650 DESIGN)
(ring 5)
(ring 4)
(ring 3)
(ring 2)
(ring 1)
OF Wtr

FIGURE 3A-8 -

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

95.50 INCHES
95.50
60.54
33.61
18.79
303.94 INCHES
25.33 FEET

TRANSPOSED SHELL HEIGHT

(API 650 DESIGN)

may be considered when actual experience with similar

- tanks and foundations at a particular site indicates
that satisfactory performance can be expected.

Tank Grade
The tank grade (surface which supports the tank
bottom) can be constructed of earth materials
provided the subgrade beneath the tank bottom is
capable of supporting the weight of the contained
fluid. The tank grade usually consists of a 4" sand
cushion placed over properly compacted fill or soil. It
is recommended that the finished tank grade be
constructed at least 6 inches above the surrounding
ground surface and be crowned from its outer
periphery to its center. A slope of 1 inch to 10 feet is
suggested. The sand should be clean and free of
corrosive elements. Care should be taken to exclude
lumps of earth or other deleterious materials from '
coming into contact with the bottom. These materials
can cause electrolytic action that will result in pitting
of the bottom plate.
If the sand cushion is placed on top of crushed
rock fill, the rock should be carefully graded from
coarse at the bottom to fine at the top. If this is not
done, the sand will percolate down through the voids
in the coarser rock.
An excellent tank grade can also be obtained by
substituting about 1112 inches of asphalt road paving
mix for the sand cushion. This material is available
from ready mix plants in many sections of the
country. It is very important that the paved tank

grade be constructed level and to the proper profile,

particularly near the shell. Once the asphalt has set
up, it is extremely difficult for the tank builder to
correct inaccuracies by taking down the high and
filling in the low spots.
Drainage is important both from the standpoint of
soil stability and bottom corrosion. Good drainage
should be provided under the tank itself and in ' the
general area around the tank. Where the terrain
does not afford natural drainage, proper ditching
around the tank may help to correct the deficiency.

Foundations
The shell of a flat bottom tank can be supported on
a compacted granular berm, concrete ringwall or
concrete slab foundation. Local soil conditions, tank
loads and the intended use of the tank will determine
which of these foundations is suitable for a particular
site. Tanks that require anchor bolts must be
supported, by ringwall or slab foundations.
Granular Berm Foundation - When a qualified
geotechnical evaluation concludes that it is
unnecessary to construct a ringwall or slab
foundation, the shell can be supported by a granular
berm foundation. The berm should be constructed of
well graded and properly compacted stone or gravel.
The berm should extend a minimum of 3 feet beyond
and 2 feet inside the tank shell as shown in Figure
38-1. The berm should be level to within + 1/8 inch
in any 10 feet of circumference and to within 1/2
inch in the total circumference. Adequate drainage
23

The top of the ringwall should be smooth and level

to within 1/8 inch in any 30 feet of circumference.
No point on the total circumference should vary more
than 1/4 inch from the specified finish elevation.

away from the berm must be provided to prevent

erosion of the berm under the shell. Alternatively, a
welded or bolted steel grade band can be used to
retain the outer portion of the berm.

Slab Foundation - When the subgrade beneath the

tank bottom cannot adequately support the weight of
the contained fluid, a slab foundation is required.
The area of the slab must be sufficient to produce a
soil bearing (due to the total weight of the tank,
foundation and contained product) less than the
allowable soil bearing. The depth to the bottom of
the slab will depend on local conditions and must be
sufficient to place the bottom of the slab below
anticipated frost penetration and within the specified
bearing strata.
The detailed design of the slab and requirements
for the materials, construction and testing should be
in accordance with the American Concrete Institute's
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
(ANSIIACI 318).

Concrete Ringwall Foundation - When suitable

bearing is not available at the surface, but is
available at a reasonable depth below the surface, a
ringwall foundation should be considered. The depth
of the ringwall will depend on local conditions and
must be sufficient to place the bottom of the ringwall
below anticipated frost penetration and within the
specified bearing strata. As a minimum, the bottom
of the ringwall should be located 2 feet below the
lowest adjacent finish grade. The width of the
ringwall must be sufficient to produce a soil bearing
less than the specified allowable soil bearing. As a
minimum, the ringwall width should be 1 foot. The
inside horizontal projection (inside the tank shell)
should be no less than 4 inches.
The ringwall must be reinforced to resist the
following forces:
1. Direct hoop tension resulting from the lateral
earth pressure on the inside face of the
ringwall. Unless substantiated by proper
geotechnical analysis, the lateral earth pressure
should be assumed to be 30 0/0 of the vertical
pressure due to the contained fluid and the soil
weight.
2. Bending moment resulting from the uniform
moment load. The uniform moment load is due
to the eccentricities of the shell and pressure
loads relative to the centroid of the soil bearing
stress. The pressure load is due to the fluid
pressure on the inside horizontal projection of
the ringwall.
3. Bending, torsion and shear resulting from
lateral, wind or seismic, loads. A rational
analysis, which includes the effect of the
foundation stiffness, should be used to
determine the soil bearing stress distribution
and the above internal design forces.
The area of reinforcement provided must be
sufficient to resist the above forces and should not
be less than the following minimums. These
minimums are intended to prevent excessive
cracking due to shrinkage and temperature.
1. For wall-like ringwalls the area of vertical
reinforcement provided should not be less than
0.0015 times the horizontal cross-sectional area
of the ringwall.
2. The area of hoop reinforcement provided should
not be less than 0.0025 times the vertical crosssectional area of the ringwall.
The detailed design of the ringwall and
requirements for the materials, construction and
testing should be in accordance with the American
Concrete Institute's Building Code Requirements for
Reinforced Concrete (ANSIIACI 318).
Recesses shall be provided in the concrete ringwall for flush type cleanouts, drain off sumps and any
other appurtenances that require recessing. Refer to
API 650 for details of recesses at flush type cleanouts.

References, Part III

1. API Standard 650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil
Storage, Division of Refining, American Petroleum
Institute, Eighth Edition, November 1988.
2. AWWA Standard 0100-84 Welded Steel Tanks for
Water Storage, American Water Works
Association.
3. Manual of Steel Construction, American Institute
of Steel Construction, Inc., Ninth Edition.
4. "Oil Storage Tanks", The Prince William Sound,
Alaska, Earthquake of 1964 and Aftershocks,
Volume II, Part A, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1967.
5. "Fluid Mechanics", Dodge & Thompson.

24

Figure 38-1 -Example of Foundation with Crushed Stone Ringwall

from API 650, Eighth Edition, November 1988
4' MIN. OF COMPACTED CRUSHED STONE,
SCREENINGS, FINE GRAVEL, CLEAN SAND,
OR SIMILAR MATERIAL

"II

3' MIN.

2' MIN.

SLOPE IF
PAVED
SLOPE
:::' ,"

..

...

. ...

.
!

""

COARSE STONE OR
COARSE GRAVEL 11 MAX. SIZE

~1
1

THOROUGHLY COMPACTED FILL

OF FINE GRAVEL, COARSE SAND,
OR OTHER SUITABLE MATERIAL

Note: Bottom of excavation should be level. Remove any unsuitable

material and replace. with suitable fill, thoroughly compacted.

Figure 38-2 - Example of Concrete Ringwall Foundation

1/21 THICK (MIN)
ASPHALT - IMPREGNATED
BOARD (OPTIONAL)

Z
0-<

II

II
II

4' MIN. OF COMPACTED CRUSHED STONE.

SCREENINGS, FINE GRAVEL, CLEAN SAND.
DR SIMILAR MATERIAL
SLOPE

FINISH
GRADE

\D

MATERIAL AND
FILL,
z

......
~

ru
REINFORCEMENT AT BOTH FACES FOR
RINGWALL WIDTHS EXCEEDING 12
INCHES. CLOSED STIRRUPS MAY BE
REQUIRED FOR SHEAR AND/OR TORSION.

II' MIN:.I

25

Part IV
Stainless Steel Tanks
for Liquid Storage
Introduction

Type 304

t the present time, the only rules for stainless

. steel storage tanks are given in Appendix Q
of API Standard 620(1) which covers lowpressure tanks for liquefied hydrocarbon gases,
particularly liquefied ethane, ethylene, and methane,
at a minimum temperature of - 270F. Rules for the
design and construction of pressure vessels including stainless steel vessels - are given in the
ASME (2) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII, Division 1 and Division 2, Pressure Vessels.
In the following discussion rules are presented for
design and construction of stainless steel tanks at
atmospheric pressures. These rules are not intended
to cover storage tanks which are to be erected in
areas subject to regulations more stringent than
specified in the following pages. These rules are
recommended only insofar as they do not conflict
with local requirements.

Possessing corrosion resistance, strength and

fabricability, this is the general purpose stainless
steel, long known as "18-8". Attesting to its wide
usage is the fact that it accounted for 35% of all
stainless steels produced in the United States in
1980. Type 304 is extensively specified for food
handling and storage, dairy equipment, nuclear
fluids, and in general most applications where even
small amounts of corrosion product would be
intolerable.

Type 316
Containing higher nickel than Type 304, and 2-30/0
molybdenum, Type 316 possesses greatly improved
resistance to corrosion by pitting. It is used under
conditions too severe for Type 304, such as mineral
acids (phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid), strong organic
acids (oxalic, formic, etc.) and halides in various
dilutions.

FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION

OF STAINLESS STEEL

Types 304L and 316L

There are a total of 62 stainless steel compositions

that are recognized as standard by the American
Iron and Steel Institute (3), as well as commercially
available proprietary compositions.
The five stainless steels most generally used as
plate material for construction of liquid storage tanks
are Types 304, 304L, 316, 316L and 410S. The last
is not recognized as standard by American Iron and
Steel Institute. The chemical compositions of these
types are listed in Table 4-1 and their mechanical
properties are listed in Table 4-2.
The selection of a particular type of stainless steel
for a given corrosive environment often follows
extensive study of comparative data, and sometimes
even pilot or service testing. However, a general
understanding of the corrosion resistance capabilities
of the five stainless steels, in terms of their relative
resistance to various common media, is shown in
Table 4-3. The five types fall within two categories:
namely, Types 304, 304L, 316 and 316L are in the
chromium-nickel group, while Type 410S is in the
straight chromium group.

Containing 0.03% maximum carbon, these are the

low carbon counterparts of Types 304 and 316. The
lower the carbon content, the less the chromium
carbide that can be formed.
Chromium-nickel stainless steels form a grain
boundary chromium-carbide precipitate when heated
in the 800-1650F temperature range for sufficient
time (see Figure 4-1) (5). If the degree of precipitation
is severe - Le. the grains are completely
surrounded - there may be a loss of corrosion .
resistance in aggressive media such as hot, oxidizing
acids (e.g. strong nitric acid), iron or copper sulfates
in hot dilute sulfuric acid, and air-saturated hot
sulfuric acid. Such aggressive corrosion conditions
do not normally exist in storage tanks.
Intergranular corrosion attack used to be a
common occurrence when the stainless steels
contained up to 0.12% carbon (as in Type 302, for
example). This was enough carbon to remove
considerable chromium from solution during welding
cycles, causing mild to heavy carbide preCipitation in
the weld heat-affected zone. Corrosive attack would
27

be evident in this zone, if the environment was

severe. This situation resulted in widespread
specifying of low carbon (0.03 0/0 maximum) stainless
steels, but it should be understood that there are
relatively few situations where the L grades are
actually required for storage vessels. Even these
should be carefully investigated to establish such a
need before the additional expense of the L grades
is incurred. Types 304 and 316 (0.08 0/0 maximum
carbon) can, in many cases, be welded free of
carbide precipitation. If a small amount does
develop, it may be unaffected by the liquid being
stored, except possibly as indicated above.
It should be noted here that galvanized material or
other zinc products welded to stainless steel will
cause intergranular cracking.
In general, the L grades should be used when and only when - it is ascertained that conditions will
be present, which are conducive to intergranular
attack on as-welded 0.08 0/0 maximum carbon
stainless steel (see Figure 4-1). The general
corrosion and pitting resistance of the L grades is
not better than their higher carbon counterparts in
the annealed condition; nor is there any advantage in
weldability or fabricability.

failure of life of the vessel is very dependent on

temperature, concentration of chloride and
stress. Increased values in each case will
shorten the life of the vessel.
4. While Types 304 and 316 are both susceptible
to hot chloride stress corrosion cracking, Type
316 under similar service conditions. tends to
give better life than Type 304.
5. Because of variation in fabrication and service
stresses, it is frequently difficult to predict the
life of an austenitic stainless steel vessel in hot
chloride-containing media.

STAINLESS STEEL PLATE

Manufacture
Stainless steel plate is defined as a flat rolled or
forged product, 3/16 inch (4.76 mm) and over in
thickness, and 10 inches (254 mm) and over in width
(3). It is formed in the same type of equipment as
utilized for carbon steel plate, although production
allowances must accommodate the much greater hot
strength of stainless steel over carbon and low alloy
steels.
In producing plate, care is taken to attain the good
surface condition that is essential to corrosion
resistance. The first of several surface cleaning
operations occurs at the slab stage, where the 4 to
10-inch-thick bloomed slab is ground or scarfed
overall to remove not only the scale but some of the
underlying base metal as well. The slab is then cut
to size, yielding the ordered plate size, reheated and
hot rolled. The plate is then annealed, and again
cleaned of scale by either a chemical solution or
mechanical means, or both.
During the hot rolling, high pressure water jets and
other mechanical devices are employed to assure
that the refractory scale is not rolled into the surface.
Light gauge plate (3/16 inch and 114 inch thick)
can be rol/ed in coils up to 60 inches wide on
continuous mills. This product normally has improved
surface, gauge accuracy and offers greater flexibility
in length.

Type 410S
This straight-chromium stainless steel is not subject
to the above form of carbide precipitation. It finds
use where moderate corrosion resistance is needed,
and slight product contamination is not critical (see
Table 4-3). The low carbon (0.08 0/0 maximum) results
in a tough plate product which avoids formation of
the less-tough metallurgical structures possible in
high-strength, low-alloy steels.

Stress Corrosion Cracking

Another phenomenon associated with the chromiumnickel stainless steels Types 304, 304L, 316 and
316L, is stress corrosion cracking.
By definition, stress corrosion cracking involves the
combined action of a tensile stress and a corrosive
medium. Aside from some ultra-pure metals, most
commercial metals are subject to this phenomenon
in certain specific environments. While the initial
reaction may be one of great concern, it should be
emphasized that throughout industry there are
numerous applications of stainless steel in
environments where stress corrosion cracking does
not occur or which have been engineered to avoid
stress corrosion cracking.
Although stress corrosion cracking is not fully
understood, there are some general guidelines that
can be related to stainless steels:
1. The form of stress corrosion usuaUy found in
the AISI 300 stainless steels is related to
exposure to hot chloride-containing corrosive
media.
2. At temperature much below 160 of, stress
corrosion failures are not very likely to occur.
3. At temperatures exceeding 160 o F, the time to

Forming
Press brake flanging or bending, and roll bending
are the most widely used cold forming operations
performed on stainless steel plate.
Type 410S has cold forming characteristics similar
to carbon and low alloy steels in the 35,000-50,000
psi yield strength range.
The chromium-nickel stainless steels (Types 304,
304L, 316, 316L), on the other hand, work-harden
quite rapidly with increasing plastic deformation. As
the steel increases in strength with increased
deformation, the bending forces exerted by the
forming equipment rise commensurately.
The most noticeable effect of work hardening is
the greater degree of springback, compared with
carbon steel. Dies for brake bending and rolls for roll
bending must overbend the stainless steel to
compensate for the springback. In brake bending,
28

requirements, finishing may include a final polishing

to produce the brightest surface possible.
Various cleaning practices are summarized in
ASTM A380 (6) and more comprehensively described
in ASTM Special Technical Publication 538 (7).

bending to a smaller radius can compensate for the

greater springback.

Cutting
Most stainless steel plates are cut by tank fabricators
with the plasma arc process. Thin plates can be
sheared. Thicker plates can be cut by saw cutting or
abrasive wheel cutting. Gas-oxygen (oxy-gas) is also
applicable if used in conjunction with iron powder.
Stainless steel cannot be cut by conventional flame
cutting, but in some cases may be cut and beveled
with the carbon-arc gouge if the cut edges are
ground to remove oxides.

FACTORS AFFECTING TANK DESIGN

Th,e design rules and details of API Standards 650
(8) and 620 (1) are applicable for stainless steel
tanks at atmospheric pressure with certain
exceptions. In the following. discussion, the design
stresses recognize the increased toughness of
stainless steels over carbon steels and the low yield!
tensile ratios of Types 304, 304L, 316 and 316L. The
increased toughness permits designing to a higher
proportion of yield strength, but the lower yield
strength introduces the problem of permanent strain.
Section VIII of the ASME Code (2) recognizes the
strain by stating two allowable design stresses for
the austenitic stainless steels. The higher stresses
are related to the following footnote to the ASME
table of stresses:
"Due to the relatively low yield strength of these
materials, these higher stress values were
established at temperatures where the short time
tensile properties govern to permit the use of these
alloys where slightly greater deformation is
acceptable. These higher stress values exceed
62112 percent but do not exceed 90 percent of the
yield strength at temperature. Use of these stress
values may result in dimensional changes due to
permanent strain. These stress values are not
recommended for flanges of gasketed joints or
other applications where slight amounts of
distortion can cause leakage or malfunction."
After consideration of the allowable design
stresses of the ASME Code and the API Standards,
the following stress basis is suggested for stainless
steel tanks at atmospheric pressure:
a. The design basis for shells where permanent
strain ~ .05 0/0 is acceptable is the lesser of:
Sd = .8 x
.3 x Ft
see Table 4-5(a)
b. The design basis for shells where permanent
strain ~ .1 % is acceptable is the lesser of:
Sd = .9 x
.
.3 x Ft
see Table 4-5(b)
= min. yield strength
where
F t = min. tensile strength
Sd = design stress
c. Because the lower carbon grades (Types 304L,
316L) usually exhibit yield strengths at room
temperature greater than the specified minimum
value, the allowable stress for 100 0 F has been
based only on the tensile factor.
d. Where a lower level of permanent strain is
desirable such as mentioned above for
gasketted joints or other applications where
slight amounts of distortion can cause leakage or
mechanical malfunction see Table 4-5(c) for values.

Welding
Gas metal arc and ' submerged arc welding are highproduction methods and are usually used in the
down hand position, fully automated. Both give deep
penetration and, for high volume welding that can be
positioned, are the lowest cost methods for joining
plates. A modification of gas metal arc called
interrupted (or pulse) arc welding is useful for butt,
fillet, and lap welding.
Shielded metal arc~ welding is widely used for all
types of stainless steel welding, particularly where
automatic welding is impractical. Advantages are low
cost equipment and mobility. Disadvantages are slow
speeds and high labor cost for skilled operators. An
essential requirement for any '!Velding method is
clean edges (and near-edge areas) prior to welding.
Contaminants, whether organic or inorganic, can
cause problems when they decompose in the arc
heat. The oxide film on stainless steel surfaces is
very refractory and reduces the wetting action
between parent and weld metal.
The filler metals for welding stainless steels are
listed in Table 44.
When stainless steel is welded to carbon or low
alloy steels, Type 309 electrodes are normally used.

Cleaning and Passivation

'Yor

These two terms are actually synonymous if the word

clean is strictly interpreted to mean "the complete
removal of all contaminating materials from the
stainless steel surface". If the surface is clean, it will
self passivate.
Iron particles and!or oil are the contaminants most
generally encountered, and to the extent that they
are present some surface staining or rusting may
occur. Whether such an occurrence is serious or not
depends on the requirements of the application
which can range from "food quality surfaces" to
simply "retention of structural strength".
Prevention of contamination is to be preferred over
removal of contaminants. A main source of
contamination due to iron particles results from comingling plate fabrication operations involving carbon
steel and stainless steel. Another source is the
existence of weld scale or weld spatter, which can
only be removed by energetic chemical or
mechanical means. In extremely demanding

'Yor

'Y

29

e. The yield values at temperature can be

obtained from table AHA2 of ASME Section
VIII, Div. 2.
The allowable stresses listed in Table 4-5, a, b, and
c, result from these bases, with the higher stresses
for the austenitic grades taking into account the
greater deformation of item b above. Table 4-5(b)
should be the default basis unless directed otherwise for
shells and Table 4-5(e) should be used for flanges.
The design thickness for each shell course can be
calculated by the formula in API Standard 650,
modified by the allowable stress and joint efficiency:
t = (2.6) (D) (H-1) (G) + C
(E) (1000S d )
where:
t = minimum thickness, in inches
C = an additional thickness required for corrosion
allowance (rarely if ever required)
D = nominal diameter of tank, in feet. This shall
be the centerline diameter of the shell plates,
unless otherwise specified by the purchaser
H = height, in feet, from bottom of course under
consideration to top of top angle, or to
bottom of any overflow which limits tank
filling height
G = specific gravity of liquid to be stored, but in
no case less than 1.0
Sd = maximum allowable stress in ksi. Values
tabulated in Table 4-5, a or b
E = 1.0 if tank is radiographed in accordance
with section 6
= 0.85 if tank is radiographed in accordance
with A.5.3
= 0.7 if tank is not radiographed. This value
shall be given as part of the buyers'
specifications
Stainless steel separation pads (or poison pads)
should be considered at points where carbon steel is
welded to the stainless steel tank to avoid carbide
precipitation. Typical areas for this would be anchor
bolts and support brackets.
The recommended nominal thickness of shell
plates should not be less than th~,,~; based
on construction minimums:

Standard 650 Tank Shells", presented in May, 1963,

to the API Division of Refining.
For the design of shells under external load (small
negative pressures) the designer should refer to
ASME Section VIII or Part III of "Design of Plate
Structures" (11). For the design of structural
members, the designer should refer to the Stainless
Steel Cold-Formed Structural Design Manual (10).

NOTE: Roof designs for stainless steel tanks may be

done in a similar manner as that outlined in part III
for carbon steel tanks but normally all .structural units
will need to be fabricated in custom shapes. A lighter
gage, lighter than .17 allowed in API 650 for carbon
steel structural units, may be used to accommodate
forming.

FACTORS AFFECTING
FABRICATION & CONSTRUCTION
Before proceeding with any fabrication or
construction of a stainless steel tank, satisfactory
weld procedure qualifications should be performed in
accordance with all the essential variables of Section
IX, Welding Qualifications, of ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, including conditions of
postweld heat treatment or the omission of postweld
heat treatment. Requirements and restrictions for
postweld heat treatment are described in ASME
Section VIII. Materials that would require postweld
heat treatment should not be used for storage tanks
designed by the rules in this manual.
All austenitic chromium-nickel alloy steel welds,
both butt and fillet, between plates exceeding 3/4
inch nominal thickness, shall be examined for
detection of cracks by the liquid penetrant method,
before the hydrostatic test of the tank. All cracks
shall be eliminated.
Butt-welded joints in Type 410S welded with
electrodes that produce an austenitic chromiumnickel weld deposit shall be radiographed when the
thinner plate at the welded joint exceeds 1112 inches.
Referring to Part AM of ASME Sect VIII Div 2 it
will be noted that both values of thermal conductivity
(TC) and thermal diffusivity (TO) (given in Btulhr ft OF
and ft 2 /hr respectively) are considerably lower (about
2 to 1) for stainless compared to carbon steel, which
indicates that heat (from welding) is not conducted
away or diffused as rapidly with stainless steels and
therefore distortion is likely unless design steps are
taken to assure that nozzle location (with respect to
vertical and horizontal seams) should be thought out.
Also the tolerances given in API 650 for banding and
peaking may not be achievable for stainless steel
shells.
For the design of stainless steel tanks at
refrigerated temperatures, the designer is referred to
Appendix Q "Low-Pressure Storage Tanks for
Liquefied Hydrocarbon Gases" of API Standard 620.
This subject is beyond the intended scope of this
discussion.

Nominal Tank
Nominal Plate
Diameter
Thickness
Smaller than 50'
3/16"
50' to 120' excl.
1/4"
120' to 200' incl.
5/16"
Over 200'
3/8"
Throughout this design procedure it shall be
remembered that Young's Modulus for stainless steel
is less than that of carbon steel. Therefore designs
for compression and stability should consider this
fact.
Normally the tank shell should be designed to
resist the design wind velocity given in the
customer's specifications. API Standard 650 provides
rules for stiffening tank shells. The background for
the API rules was given in a paper, "Stability of API
30

FIGURE 4-1

1652

900
0.080

,,

............

;'

800

1472

700

1292

o.

!!
::I

eK

'"~

::l

!
8.

600

1112

500

932

10aec.

1min.

1Omln.

1hr.

10 hrs.

1OOhrs.

1OOOhrs.

TIme

Time required for formation of carbide precipitation in stainless steels

with various carbon contents. Carbide precipitation forms in the areas
to the right of the various carbon-content curves. W ithin time-periods
applicable to welding, chromium-nickel stainless steels with 0.05%
carbon would be quite free from grain boundary precipitation. (5)

31

10.000hrs.

TABLE 4-1 - STAINLESS STEELS COMMONLY USED

FOR CONSTRUCTION OF LIQUID STORAGE TANKS (4)
COMPOSITION, PERCENT
ASTM
Type

UNS
No.8

Carbon
max.

Manganese
max.

Phosphorus
max.

Sulfur
max.

Silicon
max.

304

(830400)

0.08

2.00

0.045

0.030

. 1.00

304L

(830403)

0.03

0.045

2.00

0.030

1.00

Chromium

Nickel

18.00 ~
20.00
18.0020.00

12.00

B.OO10.50

B.OO-

Other
Elements
N 0.10 Max.
N 0.10 Max.

316

(831600)

0.08

2.00

0.045

0.030

1.00

16.00 18.00

10.00 14.00

2.00-3.00
Molybdenum
N 0.10 Max.

316L

(831603)

0.03

2.00

0.045

0.030

1.00

16.0018.00

10.00 14.00

2.00-3.00
Molybdenum
N 0.10 Max.

4108

(S41 008)

O.OB

t.OO

0.040

0.030

1.00

11 .50 13.50

0.60
(max)

aUnified Numbering System, originated by ASTM and 8AE, developed to provide a single orderly system for designating
commercial metals and alloys.

TABLE 42 - MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STAINLESS STEELS

COMMONLY USED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF LIQUID STORAGE TANKS (4)
ASTM
Type

UNS
No.

Tensile Strength,
min
ksi
MPa

Yield Strength,
min
MPa
ksi

Hardness,
max
RBc
Bhn b

304

(830400)

75

515

30

205

40

202

92

304L

(S30403)

70

485

25

170

40

183

88

316

(831600)

75

515

30

205

40

217

95

316L

(S31603)

70

485

25

170

40

217

95

4108

(841008)

60

415

30

205

22.0

183

88

a Elongation in 2 inches (50.8 min)

b

Elongation,8
min
Percent

Brinell
Rockwell-B

32

TABLE 43 - RELATIVE CORROSION RESISTANCE OF STAINLESS STEELS

,COMMONLY USED FOR CONSTRUCTION OF LIQUID STORAGE TANKS
ASTM
Type

UNS
No.

Mild Atmospheric
and Fresh Water

304

(S30400)

304L

(S30403)

316

(S31600)

316L
410S

Atmospheric
Industrial Marine

Chemical
Oxidizing

Salt
Water

Mild

(S31603)

(S4100B)

Note: X's indicate environments to which the various stainless steels

may be considered resistant.

TABLE 4-4 - TYPICAL FILLER METALS FOR WELDING STAINLESS STEELS

Base Metal

Electrodes (AWS)

Type 304

E30B-15 or 16; ER30B; E30BT-2

Type 304L

E30BL-15 or 16; ER30BL; E30BT-2

Type 316

E316-15 or 16; ER316; E316T-2

Type 316L

E316L-15 or 16; ER316L; E316T-2

Type 410S**

E410*-15; ER410*; E410T*-2

*Type 410 electrodes must be specified to O.OB% maximum carbon in all cases.
* * It is permissible (and often desirable) to weld Type 410S with austenitic
(chromium-nickel) electrodes.

33

Reducing

TABLE 45 - ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR TANK SHELLS OF STAINLESS STEEL

Minimum
Yield,
KSI

Minimum
Tensile,
KSI

100F

200F

300F

400F

500F

600F

304a

30.0

75.0

22.5

20.0

18.0

16.6

15.5

14.6

304 b

30.0

75.0

22.5

22.5

20.3

18.6

17.5

16.4

304La

25.0

70.0

21.0c

17.0

15.3

14.0

13.0

12.4

304Lb

25.0

70.0

21.0c

19.2

17.2

15.8

14.7

14.0

316a

30.0

75.0

22.5

20.6

18.6

17.1

15.9

15.0

316 b

30.0

75.0

22.5

22.5

21.0

19.3

17.9

16.8

316La

25.0

70.0

21.0c

16.9

15.1

13.8

12.7

12.0

316Lb

25.0

70.0

21.0C

19.0

17.0

15.5

14.3

13.5

410S a

30.0

60.0

18.0

18.0

18.0

18.0

18.0

18.0

Type

For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding

Note: a, b, & c explained on page 32.

34

TABLE 4-S(a) - ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR TANK SHELLS OF STAINLESS STEEL

Limiting % Strain
O.OS%

Minimum
Yield,
KSI

Minimum
Tensile,
KSI

100F

304

30

75

22.5

20

304L

25

70

21

316

30

75

316L

25

4108

30

Type

For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding

400F

500F

600F

18

16.6

15.5

14.6

17

15.3

14

13

12.4

22.5

20.6

18.6

17.1

15.9

15

70

21

16.9

15.1

13.8

12.7

12

60

18

18

18

18

18

18

200F

300F

TABLE 4-S(b) - ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR TANK SHELLS OF STAINLESS STEEL

Limiting % Strain
0.10/0

Minimum
Yield,
KSI

Minimum
Tensile,
KSI

100F

200F

300F

400F

500F

600F

304

30

75

22.5

22.5

20.3

18.6

17.5

16.4

304L

25

70

21.0

19.2

17.2

15.8

14.7

14.0

316

30

75

22.5

22.5

21.0

19.3

17.9

16.8

316L

25

70

21.0

19.0

17.0

15.5

14.3

13.5

Type

For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding

TABLE 4-S(c) - ALLOWABLE STRESSES FOR FLANGES OR GASKETTED JOINTS OF STAINLESS STEEL
Limiting % Strain = 0.01 % per 62.50/0 Fy Yield Strength limit
Minimum
Yield,
KSI

Minimum
Tensile,
KSI

100F

200F

300F

400F

500F

600F

304

30

75

20.0

16.7

15.0

13.9

12.9

11.5

304L

25

70

16.7

14.3

12.8

11.7

10.9

10.3

316

30

75

20.0

16.7

15.0

13.9

12.9

11.5

316L

25

70

16.7

14.3

12.8

11.7

10.9

10.3

4108

30

60

18

18

18

18

18

18

Type

For Metal Temperatures Not Exceeding

35

TABLE 4-6
FACTORS FOR LIMITING PERMANENT
STRAIN IN HIGH-ALLOY STEELS1

References, Part IV
1. API Standard 620 - Recommended Rules for
Design and Construction of Large, Welded, LowPressure Storage Tanks; Division of Refining,
American Petroleum Institute, Eighth Edition,
June 1990.
2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
1980.
3. "Steel Products Manual - Stainless and Heat
Resisting Steels", December 1974, American
Iron and Steel Institute.
4. ASTM Designation A240-80b (ANS G81.4) Standard Specification for Heat-Resisting
Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel
Plate, Sheet and Strip for Fusion-Welded Unfired
Pressure Vessels.
5. Svetsaren English edition 1-2; 1969, p. 5.
6. ASTM Designation A380-78 (ANS G81.16)
Standard Recommended Practice for Cleaning
and Descaling Stainless Steel Parts, Equipment
and Systems.
7. ASTM S.T.P. 538 "Cleaning Stainless Steel"
includes ASTM A380 and 22 papers presented at
a symposium.
8. API Standard 650 - Welded Steel Tanks for Oil
Storage; Division of Refining, American
Petroleum Institute, Eighth Edition, November
1988.
9. ASTM Designation A370-77 (ANS G60.1) Standard Methods and Definitions for Mechanical
Testing of Steel Products.
10. "Stainless Steel Cold-Formed Structural Design
Manual - 1974 Edition", American Iron and
Steel Institute.
11. "Desig,('l of Plate Structures", Vol. 2, AISI/SPFA,
1991.
12. Steel Products Manual - Plates; Rolled Floor
Plates: Carbon, High Strength Low Alloy, and
Alloy Steel, January 1979.

Limiting Permanent
Strain, 0/0

Factors

0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01

0.90
0.89
0.88
0.86
0.83
0.80
0.77
0.73
0.69
0.63

NOTE:
(1) Table 4-6 lists multiplying factors which, when
applied to the yield strength values shown on
Table AHA-2, will give a value that will result in
lower levels of permanent strain. If this value is
less than the design stress intensity value listed
in Table AHA-1, the lower value shall be used.

Other Information on Corrosion

"Corrosion Resistance of the Austenitic ChromiumNickel Stainless Steels in Chemical
Environments", The International Nickel Co., April
1970, 16 pages.
"Selection of Stainless Steels", American Society for
Metals, 1968, 82 pages.
"Corrosion Engineering", G. Fontana and N.D.
Greene, McGraw-Hili Book Co., 1967.
"The Possibility of Service Failure of Stainless Steels
by Stress Corrosion Cracking", J.E. Truman and
H.W. Kirkby, Metallurgia, August 1965.

36

Steel Plate Engineering Data-Volume 2

Useful Information on the

Design of Plate Structures
Revised Edition-' 1992

Published by
AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE
With cooperation and editorial collaboration
STEEL PLATE FABRICATORS ASSOCIATION, INC.
Revised December 1992

Acknowledgements
or the preparation of the original version of this te.ch.nical publication,
the American Iron and Steel Institute initially retained Mr. I.E. Boberg
and later obtained the services of Mr. Frederick S. Merritt. For their
skillful handling of the assignment, the Institute gratefully acknowledges its
appreciation.

The Institute also wishes to acknowledge the important and valuable

contribution made by members of the Steel Plate Fabricators Association
and representatives from the member steel producing companies of
American Iron and Steel Institute in reviewing, and later revising and
updating, the material for this publication.
Appreciation is expressed to the American Institute of Steel
Construction, American Petroleum Institute, the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, Business Communications, Inc., Chicago Bridge
and Iron Company, Pitt-Des Moines, Inc., U.S. Army Mobility Equipment
Command, and the American Water Works Association for their
constructive suggestions and review of this material. Much of the
illustrative and documentary material in this manual appears through their
courtesy.

American Iron and Steel Institute

The material presented in this publication has been prepared in accordance with recognized
engineering principles and Is for general information only. This Information should not be used
without first securing competent advice with respect to Its suitability for any given application. The
publication of the material contained herein is not Intended as a representation or warranty on the
part of American Iron and Steel Institute-or of any other person named herein-that this
Information is suitable for any general or particular use or of freedom from infringement of any
patent or patents. Anyone making use of this Information assumes all liability arising from such use.

AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE

1101 17th Street, N.W., Suite 1300 Washington, D.C. 20036-4700

December 1992

jj

Introduction
olume 1 of this series, "Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage," deals with
the design of flat-bottom, cylindrical tanks for storage of liquids at
essentially atmospheric pressure. Steel plates, however, are used in a
wide variety of other structures, such as pipe, penstocks, pressure vessels,
stacks, elevated tanks, and bulk storage tanks. These structures present
special problems in design and detail, the answers to which are not readily
available without searching a number of sources. Volume 2 gives useful
information to aid in design of such structures.

Scope
Volume 2, "Useful Information on the Design of Plate Structures," does
not cover in depth the design of any particular structure. For example,
design of stacks involves problems of vibration that are beyond the scope
of this volume. Similarly, design of pressure vessels requires a detailed
knowledge of ASME, state and, sometimes, city codes. Designers should
work with the applicable code. Any attempt to summarize pressure-vessel
codes could be misleading and even dangerous, because of constant
revision and updating by the various regulatory bodies.
There are, however, many facets of plate design that are generally
applicable to many types of structures. Information on these is not now
conveniently collected in one source.
Drawing on many sources, this volume offers such information and
discusses some of the more commonly encountered problems. Included is
an outline of membrane theory, data for weld design, commonly used
details, plus data and mathematical tables useful in design of steel plate
structures. The intent is to include information principally pertinent to plate
structures. For convenience of users of this volume, some data readily
available elsewhere, particularly in mathematical tables, has been
incorporated.
Volume 3, "Welded Steel Pipe," and Volume 4, "Penstocks and Tunnel
Liners," of this series treat these applications in detail and are available
from Steel Plate Fabricators Association, Inc.

iii

Contents
Part
Part
Part
Part
Part
Part
Part
Part
Part
Part

I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII IX
X

Flat Plates ................................. 1

Large Diameter Plate Tubular Columns .......... 7
External Pressure on Cylinders ............... 11
Membrane Theory .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
Self-Supported Stacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Supports for Horizontal Tanks and Pipe Lines ... 35
Anchor Bolt Chairs .......... . .......... . ... 49
Design of Fillet Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 53
Inspection and Testing of Welded Vessels ...... 63
Appendices ........ '....................... 65

Part ' l
Flat Plates
lat plates are used in many conventional
structural forms, such as plate girders, built-up
columns, or component parts of trusses. Such
uses are well covered in standard texts or
handbooks and are not discussed in this volume.
Instead, Part I will cover applications in steel tanks.

The mode of support and manner of loading

specified must be complied with if the stresses are to
be realized. No commercial edge fastening will
correspond exactly with the theoretical conditions.
The exact restraint of the edge, where bending is of
prime importance, will depend on the rigidity of the
support, the flexibility of any gaskets used, the
position of the bolting circle and the spacing of the
bolts therein, as well as the tightness with which the
joint is bolted up. When membrane action is of
importance, the degree of bolting up and the ability
of the reinforced opening to resist slight deformations
under radial tensions will largely determine the exact
stress in the plate and the corresponding
deformation. The bending moment at the edge is of
less importance than at points where plate resistance
depends primarily on bending. In view of these
remarks, the conditions "Fixed" and "Supported"
serve as guides to the possible range of stress and
deflection.

Bending Stresses and Deflections

Used as a membrane, as in the shell of a tank, a
steel plate is a very efficient member. In contrast, a
flat plate in bending normal to its plane is inefficient.
Circumstances, nevertheless, sometimes dictate the
use of a ' flat-walled tank because of space
limitations, or the storage of a corrosive liquid may
dictate use of a grillage-supported bottom to facilitate
inspection. In such cases, a stiffened flat surface is
indicated.
On the next page, formulas are given for
calculating the maximum bending stresses and
maximum center deflections of certain flat plates.
These formulas have been derived from various
sources, the most important being based on an
analytical derivation from elastic theory. However,
those relating to three classes of elliptical plates and
to certain others with a central applied load are less
rigid in their derivation though sufficiently reliable for
the use of the designer. It must be remembered that
all formulas apply to materials such as steel, for
which Poisson's ratio is 0.30.
The inherent limitations of these formulas must be
kept in mind. It is assumed that tensions in the plane
of the plate appropriate to membrane action are
small or negligible compared with the stresses due to
bending. In general, the deflection must be small
compared with the plate thickness if this is to be
true. For greater deflections, other more complicated
formulas must be used in whose derivation both
membrane and bending action are considered. The
formulas given may yield reliable working stresses
yet be absolutely unreliable in calculating the load at
failure and the corresponding deflection, particularly
in the case of materials which elongate materially
before failure, or which assume a dished form under
load through initial stressing beyond the elastic limit.
In general it must not be expected that these
formulas will yield stresses accurate to better than 5 0/0.

Notation
a

= length,

= length,

8
81
82

E
f

Fy
H

Ls
n

p
P
1

in., of semi-minor axis of supporting

ellipse for elliptical plates
length, in., of semi-major axis of supporting
ellipse for elliptical plates

in., of short side of rectangular plate at

supports

= length, in., of long side of rectangular plate or

side of square at supports
= factor for stress in uniformly loaded, fixededge, rectangular plates (Tables 1A and 18)
= factor for stress in uniformly loaded, simply
supported, rectangular plate (see Tables 1A
and 18)
= modulus of elasticity, psi
= maximum fiber stress in bending, psi
= specified minimum yield strength, psi
= uniform load, ft. of water
= stiffener spacing, in.
= alA or bIB
= uniform load or pressure, psi
= concentrated load, lb.

r
r'

R
S

<1>
<1>1

<1>2

<1>3

plate approaches a catenary between supports,

the support spacing is given approximately by the
following formula:

radius, in., of central loaded area

= i~side knuckle radius, in., for flat, unstayed,
circular plates
= radius, in., to support for circular plates
= spacing, in., of adjacent staybolts at corners
of square plates
= plate thickness, in.
= center deflection, in., of plate relative to
supports
= factor for stress in circular flanged plate
(see Table 1A)
= factor for deflection of uniformly loaded
fixed-edge, rectangular plates (see Tabl~s
1A and 1 B)
= f~ctor for deflection of uniformly loaded,
simply supported rectangular plates (see
Tables 1A and 1B)
= factor for deflection of fixed-edge,
rectangular plates subjected to central
concentrated load (see Tables 1A and 1B)

Ls =

(54,0:0

/2 ) ,12

Ls

(1-3)

112

= 900 1- = 2,076 1P

(1-4)

Figure 1-2 gives graphical solutions for Eqs. 13

and 1-4.
For the catenary approach, it is essential that
a lateral force of 10,OOOt be resisted at the
peripheral support. Since this is not always
practicable, application of the catenary approach
is limited. Similarly, it should not be used where
pressure is reversible or where deflection is
objectionable.
In the above discussion, only plate stresses
have been considered, and it is assumed that any
welded plate joints will develop the full strength of
the plate including appropriate joint efficiencies.
Also, the stiffener system should be in
accordance with accepted structural design
principles.
Protection against brittle failure of a structure
sho~ld be considered at the time of design. Since
environmental extremes, design detail, material
selection, fabrication methods and inspection
adequacy are all interrelated in protecting a
structure from such failure, these factors should
be evaluated.

(1-1)

For convenience in connection with tank bottoms,

the load can be expressed in feet of water, rather
than psi, in which case:

Ls = ( 124,6 15 t2) 1/2

H

2;')

Because of the approximate nature of the

solution, a conservative value for f is indicated.
Assu~ing f = 10,000t and E = 29,000,000 psi
for mild carbon steel, the equation becomes:

One of the most commonly encountered

conditions is a uniformly loaded flat plate
supported on uniformly spaced parallel stiffeners.
In the absence of any code or specification
requirement, assume an allowable bending stress
equal ~o 3/4 of the specified minimum yield stress
value In the plate for determination of stiffener
spacing Ls, in.
The plate stress can be obtained from the
formula in Table 1A for the case of a rectangle b
x B, where B = CD and b is taken as Ls. Thus,
for the fixed condition (continuous over the
supports), the maximum permissible spacing of
stiffeners becomes:

Ls =

~(

(1-2)

Figure 1-1 gives graphically stiffener spacing

determined from Eqs. 1-1 and 1-2 for an allowable
bending stress of 27,000 psi (i.e. Fy =36,000
psi).
If deflection exceeds t12, the plate will tend to
act as a membrane in tension and exert a lateral
pull on the outside support that must be taken
into account. An alternative solution, therefore, is
to assume that yielding does occur at the support
and the plate acts as a catenary between
supports. At intermediate supports, the tension in
the plate will be balanced; but at the outside
support, restraint must be provided to resist that
tension. This is not always easily accomplished.
When the span is such that the profile of the

I
I
I

CONTINUOUS BEAM
50
45

-.....
(1)

co

Note: Plate figured .. a oontlnuoua beam with a unit II.reaa

of 27,000 pel In bending. May be uaed for other
II.reaaea by varying H directly with unit strea.

t = 5/16"

35

~
\t- 30
o
.....
(1)

25

- 20
(1)

u..

J:

...

"C

co 15
(1)

J:

10
5

,
,
,
I
I
I
I
I
I

40

'-

0
10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

Support Spacing, Ls (in)

Figure 1-1. Stiffener Spacing for Flat Plate Acting as Continuous Beam.

CATENARY ACTION
50
10,000 t - - I - - _......- - i
Ls

45

-..... 4035 ~~_~

__

~~~_~~~~_ _~_ _ _~~~~on~~~~.(~~) ~ ~.(9~)

CO

\t-

.....
(1)
(1)

J:

...

"C
CO

(1)

.........

Caution: UN thla graph only to determine limiting

value. for comparison.

'(1)

~--- ~f-: l~, O~O

t = 7116"

30

NOTE: Platea IIgured .. a catenary at 10,0001

tension. End. must be reatralned and capable of taking
a horizontal pull par Inch of 10,000 time. thlckneea.

25

= 1/2"

20
15

J:

10
5
0
10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

Support Spacing, Ls (in)

Figure 1-2. Stiffener Spacing for Flat Plate with Catenary Action.

60

,3

60

Table 1-1A. Flat Plate Formulas

Poisson's Ratio = 0.30
SHAPE

Loading

Fixed

R2
-r
t

0. 75P

Uniform
p

Circle
Radius

Fixed
Supported

1.43 [,og IO

(-~)+0.11 (fi)

P-;r

a
P2

Supported
0.420

Central
concen
trated
p

Fixed

Supported

""1

13.1

0.42n + n + 2.5

Fixed

b2
B) p -

Uniform '

Supported

b2
B2 p...:...

(p) a

5~3

Supported

0.308

Fixed

n = a/A Ap;Jroximate
Fits n == 1, load over
0.01 %of area

Uniform

Uniform

(p)
-b
3 E t3

P
1.582"
t

Staybolts
spaced at
corners of
square of
sideS

0 .228

0.0138

.!.. +cP

O. '2S

S2

2t

E 78
~)

t)K
E

t3

E7

0.0284 (p) S4

1+~R

Fits n = 1 and n = 0
=

n ApproxlnJ(lte

f max. center of side

0.0443

PT

(R -~

(E.) 3
E

depend
2
on Bib. See Table 1 B.
b
.
B
= n Approximate

Fitsn = 1 andn = 0

0.287 p 2

Supported

2 and 8

_12
B'l

P
1.32"2
t

) and 8 I depend
on B/b . See Table 1 B.

p-

Fixed

Fastened
to
shell

(!)-;;4

Central
concen
trated
P

Fits n :.: 0 and n == 1

n - alA Approximate
Fi ts n = 0 and n = 1
Load over 0.01 % of
area

(p)
b

-2 E t3

a Exact
n=A SOlution
n = ~ Approximate

..

-;r

1 + 2.4n 2

E -;r

Square

Circular
Flanged

1.365

uniform over
circle, radius r.
Center Stress
As above
Center Stress

4 .00
P
1 + 2n2

Fixed

Supported

Flat
Stayed
Plate

t.
t3

t2

BXB

0 .55 (p)
E

t2

Rect.angle
Central
concen
trated
P

K3

50

...

0.22(1.)
E

3n 4 + 2n 2 + 3

max . at edge

f max. at center

+ n2 + 1

3n 4 + 2n2 + 12.5

Uniform
P

BXb
b<B

Pit 2

a2

6
3n + 2n2 + 3
4

a<

1.43'~OglO(;!r 0.334 + 0.06(~)2J ?'

Uniform

Ellipse
2A X 2a
A

Fixed

O:.695(~
E t3

1.24pt

Remarks

R4
(~) ?

0.17

R2

Supported
Central
concen
trated
P
on r

Center Deflection
~
In .

Maximum Fiber Stress, psi

Edge
Fixation

f max. of center
As above.
Deflection nearly
exact .
Approximate for J;
area of contact not too
small.
If plate as a whole de
forms, superimpose the
stresses and deflections
on those for plate flat
when loaded.
varies with shell
and joint stiffness from
0.33 to C.38
Knuckle 8adius, r'

J]

*Formula of proper form to fit circle and infinite'rectangle as n varies from 1 to O.

tFormulas for load distributed over 0.0001 plate area to match circle when n
for stress when n = O. Stress is lower for larger area subject to load.

=1. They give reasonable values

tFormulas of empirical form to fit Hutte values for square when n = 1. They give reasonable values when
n =O. Assume load on 0.01 of area.
Apparent stresses only considered.
These formulas are not to be used in determining failure.

Table 1-1 B. Flat-Plate Coefficients

Stress Coefficients - Circle with .Concentrated Center Load

rlR

I
I

1.0

0.10

0.09

0.08

0.07

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01

Fixed l

0.157

1.43

1.90

1.57

1.65

1.75

1.86

2.00

2.18

2.43

2.86

Supported 2

0.563

1.91

1.97

2.05

2.13

2.23

2.34

2.48

2.66

2.91

3.34

3.0

4.0

5.0

Stress and Deflection Coefficients - Ellipse

1.0

Ala

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2.0

2.5

1.42
0.322

1.54
0.350

1.63
0.370

1.77 1.84
0.402 0.419

1.91
0.435

1.95
0.442

2.00
0.455

00

Uniform Load'
Fixed.
Stress 3
0.75
Deflection 4 0.171

1.03 1.25
0.234 1.284

Uniform Load
Supported 5
1.24

1.58

1.85

2.06

2.22

2.35

2.56

2.69

2.82

2.88

3.00

Central Load
Fixed 6
Supported'

3.26
3.86

3.50
4.20

3.64
4.43

3.73
4.60

3.79
4.72

3.88
4.90

3.92
5.01

3.96
5.11

3.97
5.16

4.00
5.24

2.86
3.34

Stress and Deflection Coefficients - Rectangle

"
1.0

1.25

Stress 8 1
Stress 82
4
1 + 2n2
5.3
1 + 2.4n2

0.308
0.287

0.399 0.454
0.376 0.452

1.33

1.75

1.56

2.09

Deflection 4>1
Deflection 4>2
Deflection 4>3

0.0138 0.0199 0.0240

0.0264 0.0277
0.0443 0.0616 0.0770 0.0906 0.1017 0.1106
0.1261
0.1671
0.1802

Bib

IValues
2Values
3Values
4Values

1.5

1.6

1.75

2.0

0.517

0.490
0.569

0.497
0.610

2.12

2.25

2.42

2.67

2.56

2.74

2.97

3.31

of 1.43 [Iog 1 0 Rir + 0.11 (rfR)2 1

of 1.43 [Iog 10 Rir + 0.334 + 0.06 (rfR)2 1
of 6/(3n 4 + 2n2 + 3)
of 1.365/(3n4 + 2n2 + 3)

2.5

3.0

5.0

00

0.713

0.741

0.748

0.500
0.750

3.03

3.27

3.56

3.70

4.00

3.83

4.18

4.61

4.84

5.30

0.0284
0.1336 0.1400 0.1416 0.1422
0.1843 0.1848
0.1849

SVaJues of 3/(0.42n4 +nl + 1)

6VaJues of 50/(3n 4 + 2n2 + 12.5)
7Vawes of 13.1/(0.42n4 + n2 + 2.5)

4.0

I, V

I
,

Part II
Large Diameter Plate
Tubular Columns~~~~~~~~~~_
e

olume 1, "Steel Tanks for Liquid Storage,"

covered the design of cylindrical tanks
subjected to internal pressure. Cylinders (and
cones), however, may also be used as columns, in
which case they are subjected to axial compression .
This application is discussed in the following. The
cylinder-cone junction is discussed in Part V.

0L

Column Formulas for Circular Tubes

Small diameter pipe columns have long been
designed using conventional column formulas .
However, for tubular columns of relatively large
diameter and thin plate, when local buckling controls
the column strength, the conventional column rules
no longer apply.
The PIA::;; XY formula, developed in the 1930's
for mild carbon steels with minimum yield strengths
of 30-33 ksi, has been widely used for design of
carbon steel columns. It has been specified for
elevated tank column designs by AWWA and ~FPA
for the past 50 years.
Formulas suitable for use with carbon or alloy
steels having higher minimum yield strengths are
now available for use. The ASME code, section VIII,
Division 1 and the AISC specification for buildings
include such formulas, and AWWA is proposing them
for the next revision of the water tank standard.
The allowable stresses are applicable to axially
loaded cones if e s 60 degrees and R1 and t1, at the
point being investigated, are substituted for Ro and t
respectively, in the formulas.
The formulas for tubular columns are useful in
determining allowable axial and bending stresses in
many structures, such as tanks, buildings, stacks,
pipes and skirt-supported vessels. The requirements
of the specification, standard or code that is
applicable to the specific structure being designed
should be used to determine the allowable axial,
bending and combined stresses.
When forces due to earthquake or wind are
included, the allowable stresses may be increased by
113.
Only the Proposed AWWA and the AISC formulas
are presented here. Persons interested in the current
AWWA and the ASME formulas are directed to those
documents for information. Values of Fa for KUr = 0
for both the Proposed AWWA and the AISC formulas

Notation

= cross sectional

area of column, in. 2

n(Do - t)t

Cc

= column

slenderness ratio separating elastic and

inelastic buckling for AISC formulas
C~ = column slenderness ratio separating elastic and
inelastic buckling for Proposed AWWA formulas
D; = inside diameter of cylinder, in.
Do = outside diameter of cylinder, in.
E = modulus of elasticity, ksi
Fa = allowable axial compressive stress in the
absence of bending moment, ksi
Fb = allowable bending stress in the absence of
axial force, ksi
Fy = yield stress of steel being used, ksi
FS = factor of safety
I = moment of inertia of column, in.4 =

n(Do4

= half apex angle of cone, deg.

= critical local buckling stress for Proposed
AWWA formulas, ksi

D,A)/64

K = effective length factor

K~ = slenderness reduction factor for Proposed
AWWA formulas
M = moment at design point, in.-kips
P = vertical axial load on column, kips
Ro = outside radius of cylinder, in.
R1 = outside conical radius, in.
S = section modulus of column, in.3 =
n(D0 4 - D;4)/32 Do =21IDo
fa = computed axial stress, ksi = PIA
fb = computed bending stress, ksi = MIS
L = actual unbraced length of column, in.
r = radius of gyration, in. =1/4 v'D02 + D?
t = wall thickness of cylinder or column, in.
t1 = wall thickness of cone, in.
7

are shown graphically in Fig. 2-1 for Fy

in Fig. 2-2 for Fy = 36 ksi.

= 30

For tiRo ~ Fy 11650

Fb = 0.66 Fy
(2-13)
Fa = the value obtained from formula 2-11 when
KUr < Cc or from formula 2-12 when KUr";?
Ce
Ce = ""'2 1(2 EIFy
(2-14)

ksi and

Proposed AWWA
(2-1 )
(2-2)

Fb= oLIFS
Fa = oLKetiFS
fe/Fa + ft/Fb s: 1

(2-3)

References

~ 34 ksi
tiRo Range
(} L
tiRo $ 0.0031088
3500 tiRo [1.0 + 50000 (tIRo)2) (2-4)
0.0031088 <tiRo <0.012 11.55+1476 tiRo
(2-5)
tiRo ~ 0.0125
30

For Fy

For Fy> 34 ksi

tiRo Range
(}L
tiRo $ 0.0035372
Formula (2-4)
0.0035372 ~ tiRo < 0.012 13.86 + 1771.2 tiRo
tiRo ~ 0.0125
36

FS = 2
C'c = ""'2 1(2Elo L

K", = 1-0.5

(2-6)

(2-7)

C'C)2
= 0.5 (KUr

Kef>

Proposed Revision to AWWA Standard 0100-84.

AISC 1989 Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings - Allowable Stress Design and Plastic
Design

when KUr~ C'c

(~~r

when KUr

when KUr

(2-8)

< C'c

(2-9)

25

AISC
Some of the formulas in the AISC Specifications are
presented in terms of Dclt. Those formulas, when
shown below, have been converted to tiRo terms, so
they are not in the exact same form as those in the
specification.
Members subjected to both axial compression and
bending stresses should be proportioned to satisfy
the combined stress requirements of the A'ISC
specification. The combined stress formulas are not
presented here so must be obtained from the AISC
specification.
.
The AISC specification contains no
recommendations for allowable stresses when tiRo <
Fy16500.
For Fy 16500 ~ tiRo < Fy 11650
Fb = 331 tiRo + 0.40 Fy
Fa = smaller of the value obtained
from formula 210 or

1 - (KUr)21 F
2Ce2
Y

when KUr

.. + 3(KUr) _ (KUr)3
3

8Ce

12 1[2E
or 23(KUr)2

(2-10)

< Ce

(2-11 )

8Ce3

h KU > C
w en
r e

(2-12)

I
~

20
18

AISC-

16

~
./"

---- ---- . /V

14
12
Fa
(ksi) 10

---- -----

k"

./

8
6

" "-PR OPOSE DAVM

/'

/
oV
2

0.004

0.008

I
II

0.012

0.016

0.02

t/ Ro

KUr

= 0, Fy = 30 ksi
Figure 2-1

".

\ )'.

22

20

A1SC

18

-----

16
14

Fa 12
(ksi)
10

8
6

l(
o

/'

----------

!-""

~ -/~

V
i'-Pf ~OPos r-DAWV JA

/
-

0.004

0.008

0.012

t/ Ro

KUr

= 0, Fy = 36 ksi
Figure 2-2
9

0.016

0.02

.>

I
I C

II

Part III
External Pressure
on Cyli nders ________________________

ylindrical vessels subjected to external

pressure must be designed as tubular
columns to resist axial loads imposed on the
heads. In addition, circumferential stiffeners may be
required to prevent buckling of the shell due to radial
pressure.

Is

I~

Ls

= external pressure, psi

Pa

= allowable external

pressure, psi
For a vessel with atmospheric pressure inside,
and greater than atmospheric pressure outside,
p and ' Pa refer to the gage pressure outside the
tank. For a vessel with atmospheric pressure
outside and a partial vacuum inside, p and Pa
refer to the partial vacuum inside the tank, in
psi, taken as a positive number. For vessels
which are simultaneously exposed to a partial
vacuum inside and greater than atmospheric
pressure on the outside, P and Pa should be
taken as the maximum difference in the inside
and outside absolute pressures.
t = minimum thickness, in., of cylindrical plate; or
for determining stiffener spacing, average
thickness, in., of unsupported shell between
stiffeners; or for short spans, thickness, in., of
middle quarter of span
t1 = weighted average thickness, in., of shell
between end stiffeners
!l = Poisson's ratio = 0.30 for steel

Notation

A
As
B
Do
Ro
E
F
Fa
h

= strain factor (see Fig. 3-1)

= cross-sectional area, sq in., of stiffener

= allowable pressure factor (see Fig. 3-1)
= outside diameter, in., of cylinder plate

= outside radius, in., of cylinder

= modulus of elasticity, psi
= safety factor wlrespect to predicted failure
= allowable unit stress, psi
= height or length, in., of cylindrical shell
between end stiffeners
= required moment of inertia of the stiffening ring
cross section about its neutral axis parallel to
the axis of the shell, in.4
= required moment 'of inertia of the combined
ring-shell cross section about its neutral axis
parallel to the axis of the shell, in.4
= design length, in., of cylinder = largest of
following:
Distance between head bend lines plus onethird depth of each head if there are no
stiffener rings
Greatest distance center to center between any
two stiffener rings
Distance from first stiffener to head bend line
plus one-third depth of head
= half the distance, in., from center of stiffener to
next stiffener or line of support on one side
. plus half the distance, in., to next stiffener or
line of support on the other side
= number of complete waves into which stiffener
ring will buckle
= number of waves into which unstiffened shell
between end stiffeners will buckle

Types of Pressure Vessels

With respect to the spacing and sizing of stiffeners,
cylindrical vessels may be grouped into three general
classifications:
A. Vessels designed for an external (or internal)
pressure greater than 15 psi. These are usually
subject to the rules of ASME Code. The code
provides a safety factor of 3 for stiffener spacing
based on buckling of the shell between stiffeners.
B. Vessels subject to both axial and radial/oads
and designed to operate at 15 psi or less. These are
not always specified to be in accordance with code
rules. When the external pressure approaches the
upper limit or the pressure cycle alternates between
internal and external, the stiffener design might best
be in accordance with code rules with a minimum
safety factor of 3. For less severe conditions, some
designers have reduced the safety factor to 2112 with
successful results.
C. Storage tanks of large diameter. These are
11

If A from Step 4 is to the left of the applicable

material/temperature line, then use:
_ 2AE
Pa - 3(Oclt)
(3-2)

sometimes subjected to relatively static, small,

external pressures that are radial only. Examples are
earth pressure on buried tanks, or granular or liquid
pressure on the inner shell of a double-walled tank.
In such cases, successful results have been
achieved with the stiffener design based on a safety
factor of 2.
It should be noted that the ASME code as well as
most of the experimental and analytical shell
buckling information aVpilable are for a uniform
round shell with uniform static loading. In the case of
a buried or submerged horizontal tank, or a vertical
tank subjected to wind loading, the external pressure
will vary around the periphery of the tank. In the
case of a partially buried vertical tank, varying
compaction and soil conditions may cause the
external pressure to vary in an irregular way around
the tank. Wind or water currents may produce
dynamic effects which would present problems in the
analysis. Any such variation in the loading, or any
significant deviation from a true circular shape, may
result in bending stresses in the cylindrical shell and
stiffeners, which are not accounted for by the
following analysis. Additional investigation may be
required in these cases.
The selection of the factor of safety in all cases
should take into account the consequences
associated with a failure of the structure, as well as
the accuracy of the analysis and accuracy and
duration of the loadings. Caution should also be
exercised in applying ASME design equations to
shells which do not meet ASME tolerances.

When t may be determined by factors other than

external pressure, then, for known values of Pa and
Do, and a known or assumed value of t, factor Bean
be determined from Eq. 3-1. The steps outlined
above can be reversed to determine stiffener spacing
from the corresponding UDo ratio obtained from the
chart.
ASME also provides charts for steels of other
strengths, as well as other metals and alloys. Where
pressure-vessel codes apply, reference should be
made to the latest edition of the code.
Sizing the stiffener rings as prescribed by ASME is
done as follows:
The required moment of inertia should not be less
than:
(3-3)
or:

Design of Pressure Vessels

A.

Step 6.
Step 7.

Using the value of A from Step 4, enter the

applicable material chart in Fig. 3-2. Move
vertically to the material/temperature line for
the maximum design temperature.
From this intersection, move horizontally to
the right and read value of B.
Compute the allowable external pressure
from the following formula:
Pa =

4B
3Delt

= DQ 2Lsft + A/LJA
10.9

(3-4)
The width of shell contributing to the combined
moment of inertia (Is') should not be greater than
1.10 VDot. Assume that half the width lies on each
side of the centroid of the ring, except that there
should be no overlap of effective widths between two
adjacent stiffeners.
The procedure for stiffener design is as follows:
Step 1. Assuming the shell has been designed, Do,
Ls and t are known. Assume a stiffener
section and determine its area, As, and
moment of inertia, Is. Then calculate B vom
pDQ ]
B = 3/4 [ t + AILs
(3-5)
Step 2. Enter the right-hand side of chart on
Fig. 3-2 at the computed value of B.
Step 3. Follow horizontally to the design
temperature line.
Step 4. Move vertically to the bottom of the chart
and read the value of A.
Step 5. Calculate required value of Is from Eq. 3-3
or I~ from Eq. 3-4.
Step 6. If Is required is greater or substantially less
than Is provided, assume a new section and
repeat the steps.
Step 7. If the value of B in Step 3 is below the left
end of the applicable material temperature
line, then use A = 2BIE.
Type B. Non-Code Vessels Subject to Both Axial and
Radial Loads. For pressure vessels, stiffener design
might best be in accordance with code rules with a
minimum safety factor of 3. Code charts, however, do
not include Delt ratios greater than 1,000 whereas
many non-code vessels are of .reJatively large
diameter and have Delt ratios greater than 1,QOO. In
such cases, internal pressure often controls shell
thickness. But even small external pressures may
require stiffeners because of the large diameter.

Design of types A, Band C vessels is discussed in

the following:
Type A. ASME Code Rules. To serve as an
illustration, Figs. UCS 28.1 and 28.2 and UGO-28.0
have been reproduced here as Figs. 3-1 and 3-2.
These charts are used to determine shell thickness
of cylindrical and spherical vessels under external
pressure when constructed of carbon steel having a
yield strength of 30,000 to 38,000 psi. The procedure
for using the chart is as follows:
Step 1. For the assumed t, determine ratios
UDo and Delt.
Step 2. Enter left-hand side of Fig. 3-1 at the value
of UD o.
Step 3. Move horizontally to the line representing
Delt.
Step 4. From this intersection move vertically
downward to determine the value of factor
Step 5.

I'

(3-1)

12

20.0
11.0

0 \

\t\.lH-4-+,,-+1H-+-R--t-IrHH--+++++HH-H-+t-t-tt--r-t-t-t-ttt-t-t-rr-t-tt-rtM1tt-H

16.0 ~ - \-~-+-~44H+-I-l-+++-+-+-+H-HH++-+-+-+-H-tt-+-H-H-t1-t--t-1-t-i-tt--HH-tttt1

14.0
12.0
10.0
9.0

8.0

7.0

\
K.~\->\J.lr-\Hi~
\fH\-Ht-HH-+-H-+-1H-+H-H-tt-H-tH-tt-T-H-t-ttt1---Ht-Ht-HH1t1rt1
\

...\ I
~\ ~
~\
0

~
.. \

5.0

~O .'O~""
\

3.5

3.0

2.5 -

2.0

~..

I
I
I

r\\ \
1\

\
1\ \

1\

\~

1.2

\
1\ \

\ \

r\ \. i\ \
\

~ \

.90
\

1\ \
\

r"\

1\

\
\

r"\

1\

r\

\
\

\.

\ \
\

~-:.. \

1\ \ .I ~
\ \: L
240'

1\

\"\

'.)~

~~ \,.;

"\ \

I\

~\O

r\
r\
\

\
\

r\ \

"\

\J

1\ \ \
\

1\
\

[\

I\.

~ \

\
\

I\. i\

1\

i\ \ \
\

1\

~_

~'.-

['\0

\
I\. \
\ J\
\
\
\
I ~
.60 t--+-+-+-+--I-t-+-~~-+-+-1f-l.cf-~\H--H.:-IH-l~\:-:4.~~~:-+--*+.1f+P+--+-~I~\~~+.-1=+W-i

\
\ \ \
\
, 1\ \
\
\ \ \
\~
.50 t--+-+-+-+--+-""';-+-H~\-f-1~~\r-+-1Ito\+TI\+-!-l+--+'-I\-1\r-+-Jod--''r-\.-+--+\M-!\o~\r-+--''r-T-I\~
' ~",_..

1\ \
\
\'
r \ \ . . . . . -""
'Jt-+-+-+-I-+-+-+-+-Hf-1l,,,,,~~--j-J~.,\~.,,,+-,,~\..:Ir4-l,-\+--4\-1I~
\~,\+l-1M1\-PI\~\-+-l\-f\M\~i-\~'-PI!li
\

.4Q

.J5

. ,

:::

"\

1\ ~ \.

1\ \ \

i\

1\:\ \ \ [\ \. \ \ \\ \r\ "

1\ \
1\,

r\

:\ \..

\1\

\r\i\ \ '\ \1\ i\ \[\ \

\ \\ '\ \ \'\
\
\ \ 1\

\\ ~ 1\1\ \

\1\ \\

.20
.18
. \6

1\

:)~J

\.~

~y/

~~'Z
"\' \ \ '\ . V.
0

I:'

,,
i\ 1\
\
r\ \
.1. t--t-+-+-+-~H-H-T+-+--+-I~~+-+-+rHflt-~~+-+-4r-++*+~~-+--f-Il'o,~~

.12

NOTE: Sec hble UGO28.0 10' ubulM nlun

_\

1\

I\.

'\. \

1\ r..

.10

I
I
I
I
I

1\

1\

"\ \

\
\

1\ \ \ I\.

\ i\

f'

\.

r\ \

I\.

\ \
r\ \

1\

1\

\\

[\.

\. \

\\

\'\

\.
\

'\

1\

I\.

,I

\ \

_~

1\

1\

1\

~ r\ 1\

\ \ \. \

r\ \

I\"

1\

\ \ \ \

1\ \

' 1\

1\

r-..

\.

.80
.10

1\

\ \ 1\.\

\
\

\
~

1 \ \ _\
\

I\.

1.0

"\

1\

\
\

1.4

\
\ 1\
r\ r\

r\ \ ~ \
i\.

:::

to

~~

-~

\
\

, r\

--:

"\

,%\ \

\
1\

'\

~~,\ 1\

\
i\

6.0 r-" _ '0

\ \

I\. \
\ \~ .\

f\ 1\

I\.

t\ \

\~ _}:'~'

\ " !\'\

::~!=:~~=~:~~~\~v.~X~\~~~~~~~t
t--:t-+-+-+-+-H-+-H+--+-+--1H--+-+++I\'%~-~1\~~~~~~~~
~~=t~:~
I 1\1 Il\ l\ I "I "\J I'\. Lf'.

.010
.060 t-+-+-+-+-+-t-+-+-H+--I-+--1I-+--+-+++t,1 }J

I -\

I'

1t -J...J.I.....".J.'IJ.J.JI
,osa _____~-'-'"""-........I..O-.I.___'"""-........'-'-........I-\....
U....ll..l.l_~II......I......J..ll_.l-.I.I.....I...I.I..I..~J..I.
II_"_.J-...J
111.....J-..I..
345678V
.00001

.0001

~56}U

.001

3.56789
.01

3.,56789
.1

FACTOR A

Fig. 5-UGO-28.0 Geometric Chart for Cylindrical Vessels under External

or Compressive Loadings (for All Materials)
FIGURE 31
13

~TE;I s':' iabl~ ~d~d8~11t()( tabUI.J vJu~

~ ...

L--' :.-

16.000

...- ...-"- ":"1- JOO1F

, fo--

12.000

~~

.,;'"

/,

./

.........

I"

".

'11/

...

.-'"

.,.

.....

14.000

700 F

-I-

I I

., 900 F

.... r- V

10.000
9,000

800 F fo---

8,000

~--

.J#O .....

.,"

Ii",

E 24.S x 104'
E 22.8 x 10e
E - 20.8 )( 10'

.,..,.

L.-""

11

....... ,.,.

...".

.... i-'~

I I

....

-,.,-

.......

l,......- ........

~i'"

-~ ....

:...--~

.E 29.0 x 10e
......... ...... I
E. 27.0 x 10e

.....-

20,000
18.000

up to :lOOF ~-

/
---. l..- I--

--;;.;,.

./

'1:

4 5 6789

.OO(X)1

a:
u

<
u..

::3.500
l-

3.000

r;

2.500

(A~

7.000
6.000

4.000

{/, '1/ ......

......... I: ~,

'h

/,

al

5,000

, ...

'I

2.000

:1

3 " 5 6789

5 6789

045&789

.01

.001

.0001

.1

FACTOR A

Fig. 5-UCS-28.1 Chart for Determining Shell Thickness of Cylindrical and Spherical
Vessels Under External Pressure When Constructed of Carbon Or Low-Alloy Steels
(Specified Minimum Yield Strength 24,000 psi To, But Not Including, '30,000 psi)

NclTE: I se!. iab'~ s-Ld~2'8~ 'f

Of'

25.000

t~ular' Val~.!

./

V
~

V.,.

1/",,"

/1

VI

~ ....
~

E - 29.0
27.0

eee-

x 10'
x 10' ...... 1-0....

x 10' ~ [j)

E - 20.8 )( 10'

I 1111'
2
.00001

"

.......

---

........

;;;;;;--

:-.-

~"...,.

-,...

..... ~

~-

...

20,000
18.000

V?OO F-

~~

16,000

----- ,.,.'"
-

... V

...". ~

... ...V

.............

...-

I I

~I

800 FII

J900 F_

----

104,000
12.000

............. ,...

;;.ii"

:1" 5 6789
.0001

rh

:/.

7.000

u..

6.000

....
.;'

5.000

4.000
3.500

'Ii'

3.000

~ 'I

JO.ooo
9.000
8.000

2.500

456789

4 5 6789

.01

.001

04 5 6789
.1

FACTOR A

Fig. 5-UCS-28.2 Chart for Determining Shell Thickness of Cylindrical and Spherical
Vessels Under External Pressure When Constructed of Carbon Or Low-Alloy Steels
(Specified Minimum Yield Strength 30,000 psi and Over Except for Materials Within This Range
Where Other Specific Charts Are Referenced) and Type 405 and Type 410 Stainless Steels

FIGURE 3-2
14

aJ

a:

JI/1.
"'r--. Illll

24.5 )( 10' 1-0....

22.8

'I

.-~

.- ........ ~

'I'

I,
II,

.-'"

---

....
., ~i"'"tptJ3lL
sao F-

Where this situation occurs, design may be in

accordance with the following discussion of type C
vessels If The Limitations Given Therein Are Followed.
Note that the curves in Fig. 3-2 based on material
strength (temperature curves) are not straight over
their entire length. The procedure outlined for type C
vessels is applicable only to the straight portion of
the curve, where most type C vessels will fall. If the
same rules were applied indiscriminately, inadequate
design could result.
Where the rules do apply to type B vessels, the
safety factor for stiffener spacing should preferably
be at least 3, but may be less at the designer's
discretion, depending on severity of loading, inherent
hazard, etc.
Type C. Storage Tanks of Large Diameter Subject

it is recommended that a minimum safety factor of 2

be used.
Some vessels may be subjected to external
pressures that vary from zero at an upper point on
the shell to a maximum at the shell-to-bottom
junction. For this type of triangular radial loading,
determination of the first lower unsupported span LS1
should be based on the pressure at the bottom. This
locates the first intermediate stiffener above the
bottom. Then, the next span LS2 should be based on
the pressure at the first stiffener. This procedure
should be repeated up the shell. For each span, the
thickness should be assumed as the thickness of the
middle quarter of the span, or the average thickness
of the plates in the span.
To prevent buckling of the intermediate stiffeners,
the moment of inertia should be at least:

to Radial Loads Only, or Small Vacuums Where the

Axial Load is Negligible. In determination of stiffener

I~

ring spacing, the safety factor of 3, as specified by

the ASME code, seems excessive for storage tanks
of this type. Furthermore, the code design of
stiffeners assumes that they will buckle into two
waves. Stiffeners on short tanks with large diameters
may be stayed so that buckling takes place in more
than two waves. In that case, design in accordance
with the code may be overconservative.
The following procedure was developed to provide
a more reasonable design basis for such tanks. In
using this approach, however, designers should
remember that it applies to a special situation,
frequently encountered, and is not a general solution
for all cylinders subjected to external pressure. (See
preceding discussion of type B structures.)
The procedure is based on the use of two end
stiffeners of sufficient strength to permit installation
of small intermediate stiffeners based on the wave
pattern postulated for the unstiffened shell between
end stiffeners. An .example for a vertical storage tank
would be incorporation of one end stiffener at the
bottom of the shell and one at the roof or at an
upper point of the shell where the radial external
pressure becomes zero. Intermediate stiffeners would
be located between these end stiffeners.

Do

t' 0:

(3-7)

In Eq. 3-7, computation of I~ provided may include a

portion of the shell :guivalent to the lesser of
1.1 t Dot = 1.56t Rot or the area As of the
stiffener.
The moment of inertia for intermediate stiffeners
attached to shells under radial pressure only or
under both radial and axial pressures should have a
minimum safety factor of 2.
In Eq. 3-7, N is an integer with approximate value
of:
N2 =
0.663 s: 100
(3-8)

r-IL
t' Do

h
Do

To prevent yielding of the stiffener, it should also

satisfy the following requirement for minimum crosssectional area:
(3-9)
As = P.l::.8

Fa

where Fa should be taken as 15,000 psi for mild

carbon steel.
In determination of As provided, a width equal to
0.78 Rot of the available shell each side of the
stiffener should be included in the composite area.
To insure a nominal-size stiffener, in no case should
the area of the stiffener alone be less than half the
required area.
Both Eq. 3-7 and 3-9 are based on the assumption
that all the circumferential shell force is carried by
the stiffeners. This is a very conservative assumption
and could be relaxed with a more rigorous analysis.

Within the following limitations, the spacing Ls of

intermediate stiffeners may be determined from the
David Taylor Model Basin formula 1 (Eq. 3-6). The
formula, however, does not a2.Q!y if the resulting
spacing Ls is less than 0.9 vo;;t.The circumferential
stress in the shell alone, not including the stiffeners,
should not exceed the allowable working stress for
the shell material in compression.
The David Taylor Model Basin formula is:
f0.45 + 2.42E (tJDQ)2]
Fp (1 - ~2)O.7j

FpL s D Q 3

8E (N2 - 1)

Intermediate Stiffener Rings

h = It

End Stiffener Rings

For the preceding design procedure for
intermediate stiffeners to apply, the ends of the
cylindrical shell must be held circular. It is assumed
that half the total external radial load on the shell is
transferred to the end stiffeners. This load is further
distributed to the end stiffeners in inverse proportion
to the ratios of their distances from the resultant of
the load on the shell to the distance between end

(3-6)

For shells constructed of mild carbon steel under

radial pressure only and for temperatures to 3DDoF,
1Col/apse by Instability of Thin Cylindrical Shells Under External
Pressure, by Dwight Windenburg and Charles Trilling.

15

assumed as part of the required area. Fa should be

taken as 15,000 psi for mild carbon steel.

stiffeners. The required moment of inertia for end

stiffeners therefore should be at least
I; =

Fph Do 3
16 E(N2_1)

(3-10)

Top Intermediate Stiffener Ring

For a cylindrical shell with external pressure on
only a portion of its total height, such as a partly
buried tank, additional consideration must be given
to the distribution of load to the end stiffeners. In any
case, always locate the top intermediate stiffener at
the surface elevation of the external pressure. N
should be taken the same as that recommended for
intermediate stiffeners (unless this stiffener is
assumed to be the end stiffener). The load on the
top intermediate stiffener depends on the distance
from this stiffener to the top end of the cylinder. If
this distance is greater than twice the greatest
intermediate stiffener spacing, assume that no load
is transmitted through the shell to the top end of the
cylinder. Therefore, the top intermediate stiffener
should be designed as a top stiffener. If this distance
is less than twice the greatest intermediate stiffener
spacing, the regular end stiffener design may be
provided at the top of the cylinder, while the load on
the top intermediate stiffener is computed as for the
other intermediate stiffeners.

For open top tanks, N for the top end stiffener

must be taken as 2. When the end stiffener is stayed
by a cone roof or radial framing, N equals the
number of rafters at the shell. For a flat bottom, a
full diaphragm, or a self-supporting roof, N should be
calculated in the same way as for intermediate
stiffeners.
An end stiffener can be a circular girder composed
of a portion of a flat bottom fora web, a portion of
the shell for one flange, and a circumferential
member welded to the bottom for the other flange.
The proportions of such a girder should be limited by
the AISC rules for compression members.
The required .cross-sectional area of a composite
end stiffener should be at least

As = phDo
4 Fa

(3-11)

If available, a portion of the shell equal to

0.78 y'Rot on each side of the stiffener can be

16

Part IV
Membrane

Theory~~~~~~~~~~

ost vessels storing liquid or gas are surfaces

of revolution, formed by rotation of one or
more continuous pl~me curves about a
straight line in their plane. The line is called the axis
of revolution. All sections of a shell of revolution
perpendicular to the axis of revolution are circles.
Usually the axis of revolution of a storage vessel is
vertical, in which case all horizontal sections are
circles.

Note:
Radii R, and R2 lie in the same line, but have
different lengths except for a sphere where R1 == R2.
T1 and T2 are loads per inch and will give the
membrane stress in the plate when divided by the
thickness of the plate.

General Equation for Membrane Forces

Consider an element of a spherical section of unit
length in each direction.
Figure 4-1 indicates the radii and forces T1 and T2
acting on the element.
Figures 4-2 and 4-3 indicate the pressure on the
element and the components of the membrane unit
forces in the latitudinal and meridional planes.
For equilibrium, the summation of forces must be
equal to zero.

Notation
P

= The

internal pressure on shell. It may be due

to gas alone (PG) , liquid alone (Pd, or both
together (PG + Pd (psi).
T, = The meridional force (sometimes called
longitudinal force). This is force in vertical planes,
but on horizontal sections (pounds per inch).
T, is positive when in tension.
T2 = The latitudinal force (sometimes called hoop or
ring force). This is Jorce in horizontal planes,
but on vertical section (pounds per inch).
T2 is positive when in tension.
R = Horizontal radius at plane under consideration
from axis of revolution (in).
R1 = Radius of curvature in vertical (meridional)
plane at level under consideration (in).
Generally R, is negative if it is on the
opposite side of the shell from R2.
R2 = Length of the normal to the shell at the plane
under consideration, measured from the shell
to its axis of revolution (in).
Generally R2 is positive unless the plane
results in more than one circle.
W = Total weight of that portion of the vessel and its
content, either above or below the plane under
consideration, which is treated as a free body
in computations for such plane (pounds). W has
the same sign as P when acting in the same
direction as the pressure on the plane of the
free body, and the opposite sign from P when
acting in the opposite direction.
AT == Cross sectional area of the interior of the vessel
at the plane under consideration (square
inches).
y = Density of product (pounds per cubic inch).

l: Outward Force = P.R2 <l>2.R1 cJ>1

l: Inward Force
2T1 <l>1R2<1>2 + 2T2 <I>2R,cJ>,

"2

"2

Equating the two:

P.R2 <l>2.R1<1>1 =

2T1 <I>,R2<1>2 + 2T2 <l>2R1<1>,

"2

2"

:. PR1R2 = T,R2 + T2R,

:. p = 11 + 12
(4-1)
R1
R2
Equation 4-1 is the general equation for membrane
forces. This equation considers membrane forces
primarily produced by the product contained within
the vessel. The weight of the vessel itself may add to
these forces and should be considered in the
analysis.

Modified Equations for Membrane Forces

In general, the meridional force is the unit force in
the wall of the vessel required to support the weight
of the product, internal pressure, and plate weights
at the plane under consideration.
In the free body diagram (figure 4-5), consider the
forces acting at plane 1-1.
The total forces acting at plane 1-1 from above the
plane = p.rr.R2.

17

General Equation for Membrane Forces

PLANE BB
(VERTICAL)

PLANE AA
(NORMAL TO SURFACE)

FIGURE 41

Elevation View, Plane B-B

Plan View, Plane A-A

FIGURE 4-3

FIGURE 4-2
18

Modified Equations for Membrane Forces

1-'-----'1

FIGURE 4-4

1--~

R = R2 SIN<I>
FIGURE 4-5
19

For figures 4-6, 4-7,4-8,4-9, and 4-14, the equations

for membrane forces are:

Total forces acting at plane 1-1 from below the

plane = W.
Total vertical downward force = P.TI.R2 + W
Vertical force required along circumference at
plane 1-1 to support the downward forces:

T1 =

_ P.TIR2+ W

T. =

2TIR

VI -

_ JJLL _

P.TIR2+ W

T1

T, - Sin cI> - 2TIR Sin cI>

T,

PR

= 2 Sin cI>
= 2

Since

.W
+ 2TIR Sin cI>

s~n 4> [ p

[p -

= R2 and TIR2 = AT

~.

[p

~]

T.

= R. [ P

Further Simplifications

(4-2)

=~[p+~]
2
AT

The sign of R1, R2, P, W, and AT are shown in table

4-1 and must be included in computing the forces.
For any other vessel configuration, a free body
diagram can be drawn and the forces T, and T2
calculated in a similar way.

The equations for membrane forces can be further

simplified for some of the shapes.

From Equation 4-1

a.Spheres

~~]

For spheres with no product (gas pressure

only), the equations reduce to:

These are the equations used in API 620.

T,

Simplified Equations for

Commonly Used Shapes

II

T2 = R2 .[ P _
R,

Since

T1

PR2]
2R,

= R2 = R

= T2 =

PR

2
where R = radius of sphere.

Level of product in the vessel.

b.

Volume of product to be used in calculating

the weight of product above or below the free
body diagram.

Cylinders

If the weight of the plate is neglected and

there is no internal pressure in the vessel and since

R2 = R:

Area of plate to be used in calculating the

weight of plate above or below the free body
diagram.

T,

= 2"R [ PL

TIR2YH]
TI R2

Since rH = PL

For all figures:

T1

P = PG + rH
AT

PGR2
2

Figures 4-6 to 4-14 show the common vessel shapes

used and the direction and magnitude of the radii,
pressure, and weights acting on the free body
diagram. Table 4-1 indicates the sign for each
variable . The figures use the following notations:

fE[l
Wj

~~]

T2 = PR2

n~.]

Sin cI>

T, =

R.

For figures 4-10,4-11,4-12, and 4-13 where R1 =

co, the equations for membrane forces reduce to:

Membrane force

or

~[P
+~]
2
AT

T2

= TIR2

=0
= PL.R

where R = radius of cylinder.

20

[
_ ...1-1----

LINE OF
SUPPORT

R=R2 SIN cp
FIGURE 4-6
Spherical Vessel or Segment. Plane below line of support.

R=R2 SIN cp

I
l---L---~T-ri~H"'i+.ri.~~T:-ri~r-l

[
~ :~:.I-I----

LINE OF
. SUPPORT

FIGURE 47
Spherical Vessel or Segment. Plane above line of support.
21

.. .. . ..., .:.

. ... . -: . .:

.. . '

. . .. . . .

,'
'

':

., . .

. '

LINEOF

J -T

. SUPPORT

R=R2 SIN cp
FIGURE 48
Spheroidal Vessel or Segment. Plane below line of support.

R=R2 SIN cp

l------L-f't~~~~~r-A~~~~~~~lr-l

-r-

[LINE OF
SUPPORT

-r

FIGURE 49
Spheroidal Vessel or Segment. Plane above line of support.
22

LINE OF
SUPPORT

R-R2 CDS

cp
R 1 = .DO

FIGURE 410
Conical Vessel or Segment. Plane below line of support.

R=R2 CDS cp

1
LINE OF
SUPPORT

R 1 = DO
FIGURE 411
Conical Vessel or Segment. Plane above line of support.
23

~~
I

Rl =

00

FIGURE 412
Conical Vessel or Segment. Pressure on convex side.
Plane above line of support.

R=R.;:>
PGI
'~

/:':'~

,')'

:::;",';

::,~

\l

':" /

,r.:: ,'')

",,)

<.;WI
:;/:

LINE OF
SUPPORT

'J

:',:,
::,:,)"
',,;

:',<,,:'
:',::, ':','

:;,:
'

.. :

~;)}

1::

r,

~">

(\'

.":'>,': ',,' y'

:/'::":::/,:':,:,

::':,

...::

1-

''':;
::.',

f
I

R1 = 00
FIGURE 413
Cylindrical Vessel. Plane above line of support.
24

\"

FIGURE 4-14
Curved Segment. Pressure on convex side.
Plane above line of support.

TABLE 4-1
Figure

R1

R2

AT

4-6

4-7

4-8

4-9

4-10

co

4-11

co

4-12

co

4-13

co

4-14

25

Part V
Self-Supported Stacks ....................._
Scope

a damping device. Such devices might consist of a

gunite or similar lining or so-called "wind spoilers"
on the exterior of the stack.
'
The subject is quite complex. To attempt a brief
summarization could be dangerously misleading.
Instead, a bibliography of references is appended at
the end of this part for the benefit of those who wish
to explore the subject more thoroughly.

he scope defined for this Volume stated that

stacks would not be discussed in detail
because of the complicated problem of
resonant vibrations. Apart from this phase, however,
there are purely structural facets that may be of
interest. For the benefit of those not familiar with the
problem, a brief explanation of stack vibration
follows:

Minimum Thickness and Corrosion

In view of the corrosive nature innate to stack
operation, it is wise to add a corrosion allowance to
the calculated shell thickness. The nature of the flue
gasses and moisture content in the area are some
important parameters in determining the amount of
corrosion for which to allow.
Erection requirements usually dictate minimum
plate thicknesses and the stress formulae in this part
are not considered valid for thicknesses less than
Y4". Therefore, the minimum thickness for shell plate
is taken to be Y4" nominal.

Wind-Induced Vibrations
When a steady wind blows on an unsheltered,
unguyed stack, formation and shedding of air
vortices on each side of the stack can apply
alternating lateral forces that cause movement of the
stack perpendicular to the direction of the wind.
The frequency of vortex shedding is a function of
wind velocity and stack diameter. The term critical
velocity denotes the wind velocity at 'A'hich the
frequency of vortex shedding equals the natural
frequency of the stack. Under such conditions,
resonance occurs.
Excessive lateral dynamic deflection and vibration
of the stack from vortex shedding may occur at wind
velocities considerably below the maximum wind
velocity expected in the area.
One way to avoid resonance and consequent
damage to the stack is to proportion the stack so
that the critical wind velocity exceeds the highest
sustained wind velocity that is likely to occur. In most
areas, for example, it is unlikely that a steady wind
of more than 75 mph will occur. Hence, a stack
having a critical velocity of 75 mph is probably safe
in those regions, though gusts of greater velocity
might occur.
There may be reasons, however, why a stack of
such proportions will not serve the purpose. If so, the
effects of dynamic vibrations must be thoroughly
investigated. If the critical wind velocity is low
enough, it may be that the stresses due to dynamic
deflections are within design limits. In that case, the
stack is structurally adequate if noticeable movement
of the stack is not objectionable.
If investigation shows that stresses due to
vibrations are not within safe limits, the only
solutions are to change the stack diameter or to add

Notation
A
(l

AB
As
~

G
G'c
GL

o
Do

E
E1

Fa
Fb
Fe
Fer
FL
Fs

27

= Cross sectional area of base ring, in.2

= Vertical angle of cone to cyl., degrees
= Anchor bolt circle, in.
= Required area for stack stiffeners, in.2
= Critical damping ratio of .stack
= See Fig. 10 Sec. A-A
= Euler Factor
= Lift coefficient (0.2 for circular cylinder)
= Outside diameter of stack, in.
= OutSide diameter of cylindrical portion of
stack, ft.
= Modulus of elasticity, psi at design temperature
= Joint efficiency for base plate design
= Allowable compressive stress for
circumferential stiffeners, 12000 psi
(unless otherwise noted)
= Allowable bending stress, 0.6 F4, psi for
stiffeners
= Allowable compressive stress, ksi
= Critical buckling stress, ksi
= Equivalent static force, Ibltt of height
= Allowable compressive stress, psi (in conecylinder junction area)

Fy

= Yield

point of stack material, ksi

Factor of safety
Overall height of stack, ft.
Overall height of stack, in.
Required moment of inertia for stack
stiffeners, in.4
K4> = Effective length factor
K = Slenderness reduction factor
Ls = Stiffener spacing, ft.
L = length for KUr
LS1 = Stiffener spacing, in.
M = Moment at any design point, inch-pounds
N = Number of anchor bolts
Pd = Wind load, psi
R 1 = Outside conical radius, in.
Ro = Outside radius of cylinder portion of stack, in.
S = Strouhal number (0.2 for steel stack)
Ss = Required section modulus for stack stiffeners,
in.3
T = Load per bolt, lb.
V = Total direct load at any design point, lb.
Ver1 = Critical wind velocity, mph
VCr2 = Critical wind velocity, ftlsec.
Vo = Resonance velocity, ft/sec.
W = Chord for arc W', in.
W' = Arc length of breeching opening, in.
Ws = Unit weight of stack shell, Ib.lin. 3
do = Outside diameter of belled stack base, ft.
fe = Compression stress, ksi
fo = Frequency of the lowest mode of ovaling
vibration, cps
f t = Natural frequency, cps
9 = Acceleration of gravity, 386 in.lsec.
h = Height of stack bell, ft.
p
= Wind load, psf
qer = Dynamic wind pressure, psf
r
= Radius of gyration, in.
= Thickness of stack, in.
w = Uniform load over breeching opening, Ib.lin.

FS =
H =
H1 =
Is =

Minimum base diameter

do = H/10
(5-1)
Minimum bell height
h = 0.3H
(5-2)
Minimum diameter of
cylinder, Do = H/13

.r

(5-3)

---a..-..-o.-"

/---,-.-

I_

do~

Figure 5-1. Cylindrical Stack with Belled Base.

Stacks are likely to be subjected at least to the
following loads:
1. Metal Weight.
2. Lining Weight.
3. Wind: Wind load provisions may be found in
ASCE 7-88. Local building codes should also be
consulted.
4. Icing (if required).
5. Seismic (if required).
6. Thermal cycling (vertical & circumferential).
7. Possible negative pressures.
8. Other requirements of local building codes.

Dynamic Wind Criteria

The dynamic influence of wind may be approximated
by assuming an equivalent static force, FL, in pounds
per foot of height, acting in the direction of
oscillations, given by:

FL = CL Do qer/2~
(5-4)
NOTE: ~ = Critical damping factor which varies from
1% for an unlined steel stack of small
diameter to 5 0/0 for concrete.
The dynamic wind pressure, qcr, in psf, is given by:
*qer = 0.00119 Vel. The critical wind velocity, Ver2 in
fps, for resonant transverse vibration is given by:
Veriftlsec)

=~
S

(5-5)

The natural frequency, ft (cps), of vibration of a stack

of constant diameter and thickness is given by:
ft = 3.52 D [~]\h
(5-6)
4nH12
2Ws
Critical velocity for a steel stack with an S value of
0.2 is given by:

Static Design Criteria

In the suggested static design criteria below, the
proportions indicated are those desirable from a
structural standpoint. Independent calculations are
needed to determine sizes to satisfy draft or capacity
requirements. In general, stacks proportioned as
suggested will probably have a high critical wind
velocity, but a dynamic check should be made to
verify this.
Short stacks (less than 100 ft. high) may be
straight cylinders without a belled base.

Ver1 (mph) = 3.41 Doft

(5-7)
Values of effective diameters and effective height for
stacks of varying diameter and thickness may be
determined by methods found in reference number 19.
*Reference number 14(b)

28

Critical Wind Velocity for Ovaling Vibrations

M~

In addition to transverse swaying oscillations, stacks

experience flexural vibration in the cross-sectional
plan as a result of vortex shed~ing .. Thi~ freq~ency
of the lowest mode of ovaling vibration In a circular
shell is:

(5-8)

Ro

Resonance occurs when frequency of the lowest

mode of ovaling vibration is twice the vortex
shedding frequency; thus, the critical wind velocity
for ovaling frequency is:

Vo = toDo = (ft/see)

(5-9)

cos ~

28
Unlined stacks are subject to ovaling vibrations. In
order to prevent this phenomenon, the thickness of
the stack should not be less than DI250 or
intermediate stiffeners are required to raise the
resonant velocity above 60 mph. Care should be
exercised in coastal areas to give special attention to
high winds as outlined in the aforementioned ASCE
7-88.

!
Figure

In many applications of tubular columns, it is

desirable to use a base cone to provide a broader
base for anchorage. At the junction of the cone and
cylinder (Fig. 5-2), it is necessary to provide
reinforcement to resist the maximum vertical force.

The stresses associated with buckling have four

ranges into which they can fall depending on the tlR
ratio. They in turn may be affected by the Euler
effect or slenderness ratio reduction factor. The
stresses calculated in this manner are not to be
increased for wind or earthquake stresses.

FY[0.35 +
Fy [ 0.8 +

0.017

~:]

< tiRo S

~:]

Kc'P

= VRo tan a

(5-14)

Under load, the junction reinforcement, or stiffener,

will move elastically inward. This will induce
secondary vertical bending stresses on each side of
the junction. For that reason, it is desirable to keep
allowable stress Fs relatively low. If Fs is inthe,range
of 8,000 psi, the secondary stresses can usually be
ignored if Do is not greater than about 15 ft. For
greater diameters or higher values of Fs it would be
advisable to evaluate the secondary stresses. Note
that V is the maximum value resulting from both
vertical load and bending moment in the cylinder at
the junction level.
The moment of inertia Is of the stiffener section
should not be less than:

0.5 [ C'C]2

=1

(5-13)

Fs

(5-10)

< KUr Kc'P =

If G'e ;::: KUr

= HRo = VRo tan a

The area of reinforcement required is

FS = 2.0

Fe = Kc'PFer/FS

(5-12)

The ring compression to be resisted is

As

=.r/ 2nFer

(5-11)

nRo2

H = V tan a

Fy/11600

0.01 ~ tiRo S .04

+ ~

and the radial thrust

tiRo> .04

If GTe

= -p-

2nR o

Fy/11600 ~ tiRo S 0.01

Fy

G'e

tiRo Range

5.8 x 103 tiRo

Loads on CylinderCone Junction

Cylinder-Cone Junction

Stack Stresses

Fer

5~2.

KUr

_ 0.5 [ KUr ]2

G'e
Tables 5-1, 5-2 and 5-3 have been developed
using A8TM A36 steel with a yield of 36 ksi. The
value of K is taken as 2 in view of the fact that a
stack is normally a cantilever.
These allowable stresses will also be used for
tapered or belled base stacks using the equivalent
cylindrical radius approach as ~hown bel?w. In o~der
to arrive at allowable stresses In the cOnical section
one would substitute R 1 into the above formulae for

HR o 3
(5-15)

based on a factor of safety of 3 for critical buckling.

The area of reinforcement and computation of Is
provided by a stiffener may, include an area of

Ro

29

and bottom flanges. The shell of the stack will serve

as the web. Each ring girder must be capable of
carrying a uniform distributed load, in terms of
pounds per inch of arch W', of:

cylinder and cone plate equal to

0.78(t vRot +

vR 1t)

t1

where R 1 = Ro

Icos

(5-16)

w= ~ + ~

This approach can be used in designing the

junction of two cones having different slopes, except
that H would be the difference between the
horizontal components of the axial loads in the two
cones.

reDo

The bending moment in the girder is:

Mq = WW'2

Allowable bending stresses may be chosen using

AISC rules.

A stiffener is required at the top of the stack, also

intermediate ring stiffeners are required to prevent
deformation of the stack shell under wind pressure
and to provide structural resistance to negative draft.
Spacing of intermediate stiffener Ls is:

v' ~

Base Plates

(5-19)

In addition to bending stresses due to bending loads,

the stack base plate must resist ring tension due to
the horizontal component of the base cone if one is
used. Maximum ring tension should be limited to
10,000 psi to account for secondary bending
stresses in the base cone. This value may be varied
upward depending upon the extent of secondary
stress evaluation. Tension should be checked at the
minimum cross-section occurring at the anchor bolt
holes or at a weld joint where 85 010 or 100 010
efficiency may be assumed.
A base plate area may be calculated by the
following equation:

(5-20)

A = VDotana
20,000,

(5-17)

To insure a nominal size of intermediate stiffener,

the spacing is limited within 1.5 times the stack
diameter.
Intermediate stiffeners should meet the following
minimum requirements:

Ss = pL S1 D2

(i n3 )

(5-18)

1100Fb

A
s

Pd Ls1 D
2Fa

(in2)

(5-23)

12

Circumferential Stiffeners

Ls =60

(5-22)

reDo2

(5-24)

To satisfy the requirements of the above

intermediate stiffener d~Sign formulae a port. ion of
the stack equal to 1.1 t Dot may be included.

Breeching Opening
The breeching opening should be as small as
consistent with operating requirements with a
maximum width of 20013.
The opening must be reinforced vertically to
replace the area of material removed increased by
the ratio of DelC. Therefore, each vertical stiffener on
each side of the opening should have a crosssectional area of:

A = W'tD o
s
2C

(5-21).

Each vertical stiffener in conjunction with a portion

of the liner shell would be designed as a column.
Each stiffener should extend far enough above and
below the opening to develop its strength.
Horizontal reinforcement should be provided by a
ring girder above and below the opening. These
girders should be designed as fixed-end beams to
carry the load across the opening above and below.
The span in bending is the width W between the side
column, but the girders should encircle the stack to
preserve circularity at the opening. To form each ring
girder, stiffener rings should be placed to act as top

,Fig. 5-4)

(Fig. 5-4)

Figure 53. Elevation of Stack.

30

Base plate thickness may be determined by using

AISC formulae and allowable bending stresses.

Anchor Bolts
Minimum diameter = 1112"
Maximum spacing of anchor bolts = 5'-6'
Maximum tension at root of threads = 15,000 psi
Each bolt should be made to resist a total tension in
pounds of:

= 4M

ND

V (#/Bolt)

= # of AB

A suggested design procedure for anchor bolt

brackets is covered in Part VII.

Figure 5-4. Horizontal Section Through Opening.

.(Section A-A, Fig. 5-3)

For tiRo from .0017 through Fyl11600

~
KLir

0
17.5
35
52.5
70
87.5
105
122.5
140
157.5
175

.0017

.00192

.00214

.00236

.00258

.0028

.00302

4930
4917
4878
4813
4722
4605
4462
4293
4097
3877
3630

5568
5551
5502
5419
5303
5154
4971
4755
4507
4225
3909

6206
6185
6124
6071
5876
5691
5414
5196
4887
4537
4145

6844
6819
6744
6618
6443
6217
5942
5616
5240
4814
4338

7482
7452
7362
7212
7003
6733
6404
6015
5565
5056
4487

8120
8085
7979
7803
7556
7238
6850
6392
5862
5263
4593

8758
8717
8594
8389
8101
7732
7281
6747
6132
5434
4655

Table 5-1
Fe Allowable Compressive Stress (Fy = 36 ksi)

31

(5-25)

For tiRo from Fy/11600 to .01

~
a

.003104

.00425

.0054

.00655

.0077

.00885

.00999

9094
9049
8917
8695
8386
7988
7501
6926
6262

10128
10073
9908
9634
9250
8756
8152
7439
6616

11162
11095
10895
10562
10095
9496
8762
7896
6896

12196
12116
11888
11480
10928
10207
9331
8297

13230
13136
12855
12387
11732
10889
9859
8642

14264
14155
13829
13284
12523
11543
10345
8930

15298
15173
14797
14171
13295
12168
10791
9163

Z~.Q$.

Zg~a

Z~Q~.

~R~$.

~ZR~

5769
4673

Zg$.?

~t?~.~

5769
4673

5769
4673

5769
4673

KUr l

17.5
35
52.5
70
87.5
105
122.5
140
157.5
175

4670

4673

4673

Table 52
Fe Allowable Compressive Stress (Fy = 36 ksi)

For tiRo from .01 to .04

~
0

.01

.015

.02

.025

.03

.035

.04

15300
15175
14798
14173
13296
12169
10792

15750
15617
15219
14556
13627
12432
10972

16200
16060
15638
14936
13954
12690
11146

16650
16502
16057
15315
14277
12942
11311

17100
16944
16474
15692
14597
13189
11468

17550
17385
16891
16067
14914
13431
11618

18000
17827
17307
16440
15227
13666
11760

~~.R~

~g~?

~~gQ

~~~$.

~~7.~

~RQ~

7302
5769
4673

7302
5769
4673

~~~~

7302
5769
4673

7302
5769
4673

7302
5769
4673

7302
5769
4673

7302
5769
4673

KUr l

17.5
35
52.5
70
87.5
105
122.5
140
157.5
175

If tiRo> .04

Fe

= .5

Fy

KcI>

Table 53
Fe Allowable Compressive Stress (Fy = 36 ksi)
Dotted lines are an indicator at which point G'c> KUr

32

References

13. G.B. Woodruff and J. Kozok, "Wind Forces on

Structures: Fundamental Considerations,"
Proceedings of ASCE, Vol. 84, ST 4, Paper No.
1709,1958, p. 13.
14. -F.B. Farquaharson, "Wind Forces Structures:
Structures Subject Oscillations," Proceedings of
ASCE, Vol. 84, ST 4, Paper 1712, 1958, p.13.
15. ASCE Transaction Paper #3269 {"Wind Forces
on Structure"}.
16. C.F. Cowdrey and J.A. Lewes, "Drag
Measurements at High Reynolds Numbers of a
Circular Cylinder Fitted with Three Helical
Strakes," NPLlAero/384, July 1959.
17. L. Woodgate and J. Maybrey, "Further
Experiments on the Use of Helical Strakes for
Avoiding Wind-Excited Oscillations of Structures
with Circular or Near Circular Cross-Section"
NPLlAero/381, July 1959.
'
18. A. Roshko, "On the Wake and Drag Bluff
Bodies," presented at Aerodynamics Sessions,
Twenty-Second Annual Meeting, lAS, New York,
N.Y., January, 1954.
19. J.~. Smith and J.H. McCarthy, "Wind Versus
Tall Stacks," Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 87,
. January, 1965, pp. 38-41.
20. Gaylord and Gaylord, "Structural Engineering
Handbook." 2nd Edition, Chapter 26.
21. R. Stuart III, A.R. Fugini, A. DeVaul, PittsburghDes Moines Corp. Research Report #98528,
"Design of Allowable Compressive Stress
Cylindrical or Conical Plates, AWWA D100,"
May, 1981.
22. Roger L. Brockenbrough, Pittsburgh-Des Moines
Corp. Research Report 98030, "Determination of
The Critical Buckling Stress of Cylindrical Plates
Having Low t/R Values." October 5, 1960.
23. Tom Buckwalter, Pittsburgh-Des Moines Qorp.
Supplement to RP 98030, "Determination of the
Critical Buckling Stress in a Cylinder Having a
tlR of 0.00426," December 20, 1960.
24. AISC 1989 "Specification for Structural Steel
Buildings - Allowable Stress Design and Plastic
Design."

1. M.S. Ozker and J.O. Smith, "Factors Influencing

the Dynamic Behavior of Tall Stacks Under the
Action of Winds," Trans. ASME Vol. 78, 1956,
pp. 1381-1391.
2. P. Price, "Suppression of the Fluid-Induced
Vibration of Circular Cylinders," Proceedings of
ASCE, Vol. 82, EM3, Paper No. 1030, 1956, p.
22.
3. W.L. Dickey and G.B. Woodruff, "The Vibration
of Steel Stacks," Proceedings of ASCE, Vol. 80,
1954, p. 20.
4. T. Sarpkaya and C.J. Garison, "Vortex Formation
and Resistance in Unsteady Flow," Journal of
Applied Mechanics, Vol. 30, Trans. ASME, Vol.
85, Series E, 1963, pp. 16-24.
5. A.W. Marris, "A Review on Vortex Streets,
Periodic Wakes, and Induced Vibration
Phenomena," Journal of Basic Engineering,
Trans. ASME, Series D, Vol. 86, 1964, pp.
185-196.
6. J. Penzien, "Wind Induced Vibration of
Cylindrical Structures," Proceedings of ASCE,
Vol. 83, EM 1 Paper No. 1141, January, 1957, p.
17.
7. W. Weaver, "Wind-Induced Vibrations in Antenna
Members," Transactions of ASCE, Vol. 127, Part
1, 1962, pp. 679-704.
8. C. Scruton and D. Walshe, "A Means of
Avoiding Wind-Excited Oscillations of Structures
with Circular or Nearly Circular Cross-Section,"
NPLlAero/335, October 1957.
9. C. Scruton, D. Walshe and L.Woodgate, "The
Aerodynamic Investigation for the East Chimney
Stack of the Rugeley Generating Station,"
NPLlAero/352.
10. A. Roshko, "On the Development of Turbulent
Wakes from Vortex Streets," NACA Report 1191,
1954.
11. A. Roshko, "On The Drag and Shedding
Frequency of Two-Dimensional Bluff Bodies,"
NACA Technical Note 3169, July 1954.
12. N. Delany and N. Sorensen, "Low-Speed Drag of
Cylinders of Various Shapes," NCA Technical
Note 3038, November, 1953.

33

Part VI
Supports for Horizontal
Tanks and Pipe Lines ----------------different distribution of stress in the pipe or vessel
wall from that encountered with a full ring support,
are discussed in the following paper by L. P. Zick. It
includes some revisions of and additions to the
original paper published in "The Welding Journal
Research Supplement", September, 1951, and
reprinted in "Pressure Vessel and Piping Design Collected Papers 1927-1959", published by ASME in
1960.

here is considerable information available on

design of supports for horizontal cylindrical
shells where a complete ring girder is used.
There are many installations where a horizontal
tank, pressure vessel, or pipe line is supported by a
saddle extending less than 180 0 around the lower
. part of the cylinder. The effects of vertical deflection
of the cylinder and the concentration of stress
around the horn of the saddle, which result in a

Original paper published in September 1951 liTHE WELDING JOURNAL RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT." This paper
contains revisions and additions to the original paper based upon questions raised as to intent and coverage.

Stresses in Large Horizontal Cylindrical

Pressure Vessels on Two Saddle Supports
Approximate stresses that exist in cylindrical vessels supported on two saddles at various conditions
and design of stiffening for vessels which require it

by L.P. Zick

INTRODUCTION

which vessels may be designed for internal pressure

alone, and to .design structurally adequate and
economical stiffening for the vessels which require it.
Formulas are developed to cover various conditions,
and a chart is given which covers support designs
for pressure vessels made of mild steel for S.torage
of liquid weighing 42 lb. per cu. ft.

The design of horizontal cylindrical vessels with

dished heads to resist internal pressure is covered
by existing codes. However, the method of support is
left pretty much up to the designer. In general the
cylindrical shell is made a uniform thickness which is
determined by the maximum circumferential stress
due to the internal pressure. Since the longitudinal
stress is only one-half of this circumferential stress,
these vessels have available a beam strength which
makes the two-saddle support system ideal for a
wide range of proportions. However, certain
limitations are necessary to make designs consistent
with the intent of the code.
The purpose of this paper is to indicate the
approximate stresses that exist in cylindrical vessels
supported on two saddles at various locations.
Knowing these stresses, it is possible to determine

HISTORY
In a paper1 published in 1933 Herman Schorer
pOinted out that a length of cylindrical shell
supported by tangential end shears varying
proportionately to the sine of the central angle
measured from the top of the vessel can support its
own metal weight and the full contained liquid weight
without circumferential bending moments in the shell.
To complete this analysis, rings around the entire
circumference are required at the supporting points
to transfer these shears to the foundation without
distorting the cylindrical shell. Discussions of
Schorer's paper by H.C. Boardman and others gave

L.P. Zick is a former Chief Engineer for the Chicago Bridge & Iron
Co., Oak Brook, III.

35

Figure 6-1. Strain gage test set up on 30,000 gal. propane tank.
approximate solutions for the half full condition.
When a ring of uniform cross section is supported on
two vertical posts, the full condition governs the
design of the ring if the central angle between the
post intersections with the ring is less than 126 0,
and the half-full condition governs if this angle is
more than 126. However,the full condition governs
the design of rings supported directly in or adjacent
to saddles.
Mr. Boardman's discussion also pointed out that
the heads may substitute for the rings provided the
supports are near the heads. His unpublished paper
has been used successfully since 1941 for vessels
supported on saddles near the heads. His method of
analysis covering supports near the, heads is
included in this paper in a slightly modified form.
Discussions of Mr. Scharer's paper also gave
Table 6-1 Saddle
angle,

Maximum
lonf}' bending
stress,

Mkl. K1 "

= 0.09)
= 0.11)

Values of Coefficients in Formulas for Various Support Conditions

Tangent.
shear,

Circumf.
stress top
of saddle,

K2

K3t

Additional
head
stress,

Ring
compres.
in shell,

K4

Ks

Rinfl. stiffeners
Circumf.
Direct
bending,
stress,

K6

K7

Tension
across
saddle,

K8

Shell unstiffened

1.171
0.799

0.0528
0.0316

0.880
0.485

0.0132
0.0079

120 0
150 0

0.63 (AIL
0.55 (AIL

120 0
150 0

1.0 (AIL
1.0 (AIL

120 0
150 0

0.23 (AIL = 0.193)

0.23 (AIL = 0.193)

0.319
0.319

120 0
150 0

0.23 (AIL = 0.193)

0.23 (AIL = 0.193)

1.171
0.799

= 0)
= 0)

successful and semi-successful examples of

unstiffened cylindrical shells supported on saddles,
but an analysis is lacking. The semi-successful
examples indicated that the shells had actually
slumped down over the horns of the saddles while
being filled with liquid, but had rounded up again
when internal pressure was applied.
Testing done by others 2 ,3 gave very useful results
in the ranges of their respective tests, but the
investigators concluded that analysis was highly
indeterminate. In recent years the author has
participated in strain gage surveys of several large
vessels. 4 A typical test setup is shown in Fig. 6-1.
In this paper an attempt has been made to
produce an approximate analysis involving certain
empirical assumptions which make the theoretical
analysis closely approximate the test results.

0.760
0.673

0.204
0.260

Shell stiffened by head, A $ RI2

0.401
0.297

0.760
0.673

0.204
0.260

Shell stiffened by ring in plane of saddle

0.0528
0.0316

0.340
0.303

0.204
0.260

0.0577
0.0353

0.263
0.228

0.204
0.260

Shell stiffened by rings adjacent to saddle

0.0132
0.0079

0.760
0.673

See Fig. 65, which plots K, against AIL, for values of K, corresponding to values of AIL not listed in table.
tSe, Fig. 67.

36

I"-.

""-

'"

"-

'
"
'"
" "'"
""

"-

.............

~,

............

e:

~ "'-.s'
6' "'"
~ t'-...

A
l~ .2

~ :!
L

'J

'\

'"""

I
1)4
lYe
'ta 3/4
SHELL THICKNESS. t. IN INCHES

IZO

"z~

l:re

o~

"-

I'

k-

"-,
~

120';

I II
1/ /
/
/
//
fa: 7
1.09 =~

h.DD
I Rlt-GS

150

//

\.
\

-:l

. I~

..,

V.17

T~~

PL

_'T~r~ foil'.-:-~

./

~(2 ..

A _

Lt.:
f'-

-.

""':::

6"

1-

80

90

40

50

,,,,,-

'" """" '"

...

60
7o

,~

~:~
~" ~~~

"'-,

~I~

"\ ~.s I'Z'

.'" '\~

~ 110
12-'

~ 1.~:

"\

I...,

.25

30

~ ,"'~ " "'-

~ ~O

W
to)

r
20

~ ~, .........

4'"

:r:

AT
P~TS

./'

"'ADO Rlt-GS AT SU PPORT ~

~ 30 ~ .........

/e-I~~
"LRf A~ 16... ~
ADD ~INCS AT
...
......
SUPPORT
/
\
V
NOT
~r ~ .2.4 /
/ VA"! .. fr;~ ~
BE
V
/,. ~6~ ~~.5 ify
PPORT ED CJ-I
~
TWO SADO "-ES
/
/
"CtJE ....K ~AO/

~ ~~

~a

BASIS OF' DESIGN

A-265 CRADE C CARBON STEEL
LIQUIO WT. - . 42 LBS PtR. CU. F'T
EX AMPLE SHOWN BY ARROWS
R - 5'} USE 120" SADOLES
L- 80'
A = R/2 OR LESS
t 3/;'
CHECK HEAD PL THK

Ve:

/e =
II o~ .Izi

IZO

\~

........

IV:2

80

<

"~

"'" ""'~

''""'"'" '" '"

9o
I00
II

12 o

~13

,.

Figure 6-2. Location and type of support for horizontal pressure vessels on two supports.

SELECTION OF SUPPORTS

should be increased for extremely heavy vessels,

and in certain cases it may be desirable to reduce
this width for small vessels.
Thin-wall vessels of large diameter are best
supported near the heads provided they can support
their own weight and contents between supports and
provided the heads are stiff enough to transfer the
load to the saddles. Thick-wall vessels too long to
act as simple beams are best supported where the .
maximum longitudinal bending stress in the shell at
the saddles is nearly equal to the maximum
longitudinal bending stress at mid-span, provided the
shell is stiff enough to resist this bending and to
transfer the load to the saddles. Where the stiffness
required is not available in the shell alone, ring
stiffeners must be added at or near the saddles.
Vessels must also be rigid enough to support normal
external loads such as wind.
Figure 6-2 indicates the most economical locations
and types of supports for large steel horizontal
pressure vessels on two supports. A liquid weight of
42 lb. per cu. ft. was used because it is
representative of the volatile liquids usually
associated with pressure vessels.

When a cylindrical vessel acts as its own carrying

beam across two symmetrically' placed saddle
supports, one-half of the total load will be carried by
each support. This would be true even if one support
should settle more than the other. This would also
be true if a differential in temperature or if the axial
restraint of the supports should cause the vessel
acting as a beam to bow up or down at the center.
This fact alone gives the two-support system
preference over a multiple-supporting system.
The most economical location and type of support generally depend upon the strength of the vessel to
be supported and the cost of the supports, or of the
supports and additional stiffening if required. In a few
cases the advantage of placing fittings and piping in
the bottom of the vessel beyond the saddle will
govern the location of the saddle.
The pressure-vessel codes limit the contact angle
of each saddle to a minimum of 120 0 except for very
small vessels. In certain cases a larger contact angle
should be used. Generally the saddle width is not a
controlling factor; so a nominal width of 12 in. for
steel or 15 in. for concrete may be used. This width

37

t ;t

(a) UNSTIFFENED SHELL

3H

r",
I

Q Qd

A(~)

... /

,
I

(b) SHELL STIFFENED BY RINGS

ADJACENT TO SADDLE B

;'

,~ (~ +:.

(1-+1)

SECT AA

B4

I. (QL)(~-<4~
1.~1
_ 1.<4H L

A-

(I ~

l Cl.) LO .... OS ~ AtACTIO. NS

ASSUMED
TANGENTIAL
SHEAR STRESS

RING

(e) SHELL STIFFENED BY RING IN

Q (~)

PLANE OF SADDLE

~l+T

(d) SHEAR DIAGRAM SADDLE

AWAY FROM HEAD

(b)

MOMEWT OIAGA.......

IN

'T.- Las

(e) SHELL STIFFENED BY HEAD

10

Figure 63. Cylindrical shell acting as beam over supports.

Where liquids of different weights are to be stored
or where different materials are to be used, a rough
design may be obtained from the chart and this
design should be checked by the applicable formulas
outlined in the following sections. Table 6-1 outlines
the coefficients to be used with the applicable
formulas for various support types and locations. The
notation used is listed at the end of the paper under
the heading Nomenclature.

MAX_ OSlNa (

~-;;-;-

a-SlNu

. -.

cos. )
cos.

+ SiNo

SECTCC

Figure 64. Load transfer to saddle by tangential

shear stresses in cylindrical shell.
just as though the shell were split along a horizontal
line at a level above the saddle. [See Fig. 6-4 (a)]. If
this effective arc is represented by 2A (A in radians)
it can be shown that the section modulus becomes:

MAXIMUM LONGITUDINAL STRESS

The cylindrical shell acts as a beam over the two
supports to resist by bending the uniform load of the
vessel and its contents. The equivalent length of the
vessel (see Figs. 6-2 and 6-3) equals L + 4H13,
closely, and the total weight of the vessel and its
contents equals 20. However, it can be shown that
the liquid weight in a hemispherical head adds only
a shear load at its junction with the cylinder. This
can be approximated for heads where H ~ R by
representing the pressure on the head and the
longitudinal stress as a clockwise couple on the head
shown at the left of Fig. 6-3. Therefore the vessel
may be taken as a beam loaded as shown in Fig.
6-3; the moment diagram determined by statics is
also shown. Maximum moments occur at the
midspan and over the supports.
Tests have shown that except near the saddles a
cylindrical shell just full of liquid has practically no
circumferential bending moments and therefore
behaves as a beam with a section modulus
lie = 1tr2t.
However, in the region above each saddle
circumferential bending moments are introduced
allowing the unstiffened upper portion of the shell to
deflect, thus making it ineffective as a beam. This
reduces the effective cross section acting as a beam

lie

= 1tr2t

A + sin A cos A - 2 Sin: A )

u

It (

Si~ ~

- cos

~)

Strain gage studies indicate that this effective arc is

approximately equal to the contact angle plus onesixth of the unstiffened shell as indicated in Section
A-A of Fig. 6-4. Of course, if the shell is stiffened by
a head or complete ring stiffener near the saddle the
effective arc, 2A, equals the entire cross section"
and lie = 1tr2t.
Since most vessels are of uniform shell thickness,
the design formula involves only the maximum value
of the longitudinal. bending stress. Dividing the
maximum moment by the section modulus gives the
maximum axial stress in lb. per sq. in. in the shell
due to bending as a beam, or

S1

3K1QL
1tr2t

K1 is a constant for a given set of conditions, but

actually varies with the ratios AIL and HIL ~ RIL for
different saddle angles. For convenience, K1 is
plotted in Fig. 6-5 against AIL for various types of
saddle supports, assuming conservative vafues of

38

1.6

1.4

~/
?
lv~
<t.

1.2

-........

~
~;

K, .8

"'{<

-Y

~;

..... ~

.6

".:>

~vv

of?

'-....

by (0/2 + ~/20) or (1t - a) as shown in Section A-A

of Fig. 6-4. The summation of the vertical
components of these assumed shears must equal
the maximum total shear.
The maximum tangential shear stress will occur on
the center side of the saddle provided the saddle is
beyond the influence of the head but not past the
quarter point of the vessel. Then with saddles away
from the heads the maximum shear stress in lb. per
sq. in. is given by

~~

,;::.f?
-::i

1.0

"re

4'

~ ~~17
~

i'--.!!'lyG

~'f:f:

.4

~~

S
2

= K2Q (L rt

2A )
4H

3
o

.02

.04

.06

.08

.10

-.12 '

.14

.16

.18

.20

.22

.24

Values of K2 listed in Table 6-1 for various types of

supports are obtained from the expressions given for
the maximum shears in Fig. 6-4, and the appendix.
Figure 6-4 (f) indicates the total shear diagram for
vessels supported on saddles near the heads. In this
case the head stiffens the shell in the region of the
saddle. This causes most of the tangential shearing
stress to be carried across the saddle to the head,
and then the load is transferred back to the head
side of the saddle by tangential shearing stresses
applied to an arc slightly larger than the contact
angle of the saddle. Section C-C of Fig. 6-4 indicates
this shear distribution; that is, the shears vary as the
sin 4> and act downward above angle a and act
upward below angle a. The summation of the
downward vertical components must balance the
summation of the upward vertical components. Then
with saddles at the heads the maximum shear stress
in lb. per sq. in. is given by
8 2 = K2 Q

RATIO A

Figure 6-5. Plot of longitudinal bending-moment

constant, K1

H = 0 when the mid-span governs and H = R when

the shell section at the saddle governs. A maximum
value of RIL = 0.09 was assumed because other
factors govern the design for larger values of this
ratio. As in a beam the mid-span governs for the
smaller values of AIL and the shell section at the
saddle governs for the larger values of AIL; however,
the point where the bending stress in the shell is
equal at mid-span and at the saddle varies with the
saddle angle because of the reduced effective cross
section. Fig. 6-SA in App. 8 gives acceptable values
of K1
This maximum bending stress, S1' may be either
tension or compression. The tension stress when
combined with the axial stress due to internal
pressure should not exceed the allowable tension
stress of the material times the efficiency of the girth
joints. The compression stress should not exceed
one half of the compression yield point of the
material or the value given by
S1

~(

E..)
29

rt

in the shell, or

in the head.
Values of K2 given in Table 6-1 for different size
saddles at the heads are obtained from the
expression given for the maxim.um shear .stress in
Section C-C of Fig. 64 and the appendix.
The tangential shear stress should not exceed 0.8
of the allowable tension stress.

(tlr) [2 - (2/3) (100) (tlr)]

which is based upon the accepted formula for

buckling of short steel cylindrical columns. * The
compression stress is not a factor in a steel vessel
where tlr~ 0.005 and the vessel is designed to be
fully stressed under internal pressure.

CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS AT
HORN OF SADDLE

See also par UG23 (b) ASME Code Section VIII Div. I.

TANGENTIAL SHEAR STRESS

In the plane of the saddle the load must be

transferred from the cylindrical shell to the saddle.
As was pointed out in the previous section the
tangential shears adjust their distribution in order to
make this transfer with a minimum amount of
circumferential bending and distortion. The
evaluation of these shears was quite empirical
except for the case of the ring stiffener in the plane
of the saddle. Evaluation of the circumferential
bending stresses is even more difficult.
Starting with a ring in the plane of the saddle, the
shear distribution is known. The bending moment at
any point above the saddle may be computed by any

Figure 6-4 (d) shows the total shear diagram for

vessels supported in saddles away from the heads.
Where the shell is held round, the tangential
shearing stresses vary directly with the sine of the
central angle 4>, as shown in Section 8-8 of Fig. 6-4,
and the maximum occurs at the equator.
However, if the shell is free to deform above the
saddle, the tangential shearing stresses act on a
reduced effective cross section and the maximum
occurs at the horn of the saddle. This is
approximated by assuming the shears continue to
vary as the sin 4> but only act on twice the arc given

39

 IZO

----------~,~___

- - - Ut

I
, O~

..
..

0'
.0 I

..
'

ISO

SH[L~

v.. sr Irr(~o

~tL~

UII"

'H"

(D

//

120

V/

11O

..5
" ...TIO

,,-

Figure 67. Plot of circumferential bendingmoment constant, K3

Figure 6-6 Circumferential bending-moment
diagram, ring in plane of saddle.

near the horn of the saddle. Because of the relatively

short stiff members this transfer reduces the
circumferential bending moment still more.
To introduce the effect of the head the maximum
moment is taken as

of the methods of indeterminate structures. If the

ring is assumed uniform in cross section and fixed at
the horns of the saddles, the moment, M\f)' in in.-Ib.
at ,any point A is given by:

~~

cos <1> + ' cI> sin cI> 2

2

M\f) = Or {
1t

f3

Mp = K3Qr
where K3 equals K6 when AIR is greater than 1.
Values of K3 are plotted in Fig. 6-7 using the

assumption that this moment is divided by four when

AIR is Jess than 0.5.

cos P _ 1 (cos cI> - ~) x

2413

9[

The change in shear distribution also reduces the

direct load at the horns of the saddle; this is
assumed to be 0/4 for shells without added
stiffeners. However, since this load exists, the
effective width of the shell which resists this direct
load is limited to that portion which is stiffened by
the contact of the saddle. It is assumed that St each
side of the saddle acts with the portion directly over
the saddle. See Appendix B.
Internal pressure stresses do not add directly to
the local bending stresses, because the shell rounds
up under pressure. Therefore the maximum
circumferential combined stress in the shell is
compressive, occurs at the horn of the saddle, and is
due to local bending and direct stress. This
maximum combined stress in lb. per sq. in. is given by

4-6(T)'+2COS2B]}

Si~ Pcos f3

+ 1 - 2(

Si~ PY

This is shown schematically in Fig. 6-6. Note that 13

must be in radians in the formula.
The maximum moment occurs when <l> = 13.
Substituting f3 for <1> and K6 for the expression in the
brackets divided by 1t, the maximum circumferential
bending moment in in.-Ib. is

Mp

= K6 0r

When the shell is supported on a saddle and there

is no ring stiffener the shears tend to bunch up near
the horn of the saddle, so that the actual maximum
circumferential bending moment in the shell is
considerably less than Mp, as calculated above for a
ring stiffener in the plane of the saddle. The exact
analysis is not known; however, stresses calculated
on the assumption that a wide width of shell is
effective in resisting the hypothetical moment, M p,
agree conservatively with the results of strain gage
surveys. It was found that this effective width of shell
should be equal to 4 times the shell radius or equal
to one-half the length of the vessel, whichever is
smaller. It should be kept in mind that use of this
seemingly excessive width of shell is an artifice
whereby the hypothetical moment Mp is made to
render calculated stresses in reasonable accord with
actual stresses.
When the saddles are near the heads, the shears
carry to the head and are then transferred back to
the saddle. Again the shears tend to concentrate

S3

=-

4t(b

0
- 3K30, if L>- 8R
+ 1Ot)
2t2

or

S3

=4t(b

0
- 12KaQR, if L * < 8R
+ 1Ot)
Lt2

Note: For multiple supports:

L = Twice the length of portion of shell carried by saddle.
If L ~ 8R use 1st formula.

It seems reasonable to allow this combined stress to

be equal to 1.50 times the tension allowable provided
the compressive strength of the material equals the
tensile strength. In the first place when the region at
the horn of the saddle yields, it acts as a hinge, and
the upper portion of the shell continues to resist the
loads as a twa-hinged arch. There would be little
distortion until a second paint near the equator
started to yield. Secondly; if rings are added

40

to reduce this local stress, a local longitudinal

bending stress occurs at the edge of the ring under
pressure. 5 This local stress would be 1.8 times the
design ring stress if the rings were infinitely rigid.
Weld seams in the shell should not be located near
the horn of the saddle where the maximum moment
occurs.

EXTERNAL LOADS
Long vessels with very small tlr values are
susceptible to distortion from unsymmetrical external
loads such as wind. It is assumed that vacuum relief
valves will be provided where required; so it is not
necessary to design against a full vacuum. However,
experience indicates that vessels designed to
withstand 1 lb. per sq. in. external pressure can
successfully resist external loads encountered in
normal service.
Assume the external pressure is 1 lb. per sq. in. in
the formulas used to determine the sloping portion of
the external pressure chart in the current A.S.M.E.
Unfired Pressure Vessel Code. Then when the vessel
is unstiffened between the heads, the maximum
length in feet between stiffeners (the heads) is given
approximately by

L +

213H

r(n-- a: .. lIINa:cosa::1
_

' - -_ _~

When the head stiffness is utilized by placing the

saddle close to the heads, the tangential shear
stresses cause an additional stress in the head
which is additive to the pressure stress. Referring to
Section G-G of Fig. 6-4, it can be seen that the
tangential shearing stresses have horizontal
components which would cause varying horizontal
tension stresses across the entire height of the head
if the head were a flat disk. The real action in a
dished head would be a combination of ring action
and direct stress; however, for simplicity the action
on a flat disk is considered reasonable for design
purposes.
Assume that the summation of the horizontal
components of the tangential shears is resisted by
the vertical cross section of the flat head at the
center line, and assume that the maximum stress is
1.5 times the average stress. Then the maximum
additional stress in the head in lb. per sq. in. is
given by

= 30 (
8rth

1t -

SIN~COs.d

Figure 6-8 indicates the saddle reactions, assuming

the surfaces of the shell and saddle are in
frictionless contact without attachment. The sum of
the assumed tangential shears on both edges of the
saddle at any point A is also shown in Fig. 6-8.
These forces acting on the shell band directly over
the saddle cause ring compression in the shell band.
Since the saddle reactions are radial, they pass
through the center O. Taking moments about point 0
indicates that the ring compression at any pOint A is
given by the summation of the tangential shears
between a and <1>.
This ring compression is maximum at the bottom,
where <I> = 1t. Again, a width of shell equal to 5t
each side of the saddle plus the width of the saddle
is assumed to resist this force. See Appendix B.
Then the stress in lb. per sq. in. due to ring
compression is given by

ADDITIONAL STRESS IN HEAD

USED AS STIFFENER

S4

Ii" C.O$$

RING COMPRESSION IN
SHELL OVER SADDLE

= E Yif( i)2
52.2

(
,.. 00.".

This stress should be combined with the stress in

the head due to internal pressure. However, it is
recommended that this combined stress be allowed
to be 25 0/0 greater than the allowable tension stress
because of the nature of the stress and because of
the method of analysis.

When ring stiffeners are added to the vessel at the

supports, the maximum length in feet between
stiffeners is given by

L - 2A

Figure 6-8. Loads and reactions on saddles.

Yif( i)2
52.2

= E

MAl(

S5

t(b+ 10t)

1t -

1 + cos a
)
a + sin a cos a

or

S5

K5 0
t(b + 10t)

The ring compression stress should not exceed

one-half of the compression yield pOint of the material.

WEAR PLATES
The stress may be reduced by attaching a wear
plate somewhat larger than the surface of the saddle
to the shell directly over the saddle. The thickness t
used in the formulas for the assumed cylindrical shell
thickness may be taken as (t1 + t2) for S5 (where t1 :
shell thickness and t2 = wear plate thickness),
provided the width of the added plate equals at least
(b + 10t1) (see Appendix B).

sin2 a
)
a + sin a cos a

or

41

The thickness t may be taken as (t1 + t2) in the

formula for 52, provided the plate extends rl10
inches above the horn of the saddle near the head,
and provided the plate extends between the saddle
and an adjacent stiffener ring. (Also check for 52
stress in the shell at the equator.)
The thickness t may be taken as (t1 + t2) in the
first term of the formula for 53, provided the plate
extends rl10 inches above the horn of the saddle
near the head. However, (t12 + t22) should be
substituted for t2 in the second term. The combined
circumferential stress (53) at the top edge of the
wear plate should also be checked using the shell
plate thickness t1 and the width of the wear plate.
When checking at this point, the value of K3 should
be reduced by extrapolation in Fig. 67 assuming e
equal to the central angle of the wear plate but not
more than the saddle angle plus 12.

..... 1l.

H[ [ "IN.

Mcp = Or { ~ - <I> sin <I> 2nn

sin 13
cos c!> [3/2 + (It -

Mp

2(1 - cos

13)

cos

cos

p may be found by statics and is given by

P p

0 [
nn

p sin p

_ cos

2(1 - cos p)

p] _

cos P
(Mp + Mt)
r(1 - cos p)
or

Pp

p]+

r(1 - cos P}

= K6 Or

n
Knowing the moments Mp and Mf, the direct load at

Knowing the maximum moment MJ3 and the moment

at the top of the vessel, Mf, the direct load at the
point of maximum moment may be found by statics.
Then the direct load at the horn of the saddle is
given in pounds by

13) cot III }

For the range of saddle angles considered, M~ is

maximum near the equator where <I> = p. This
moment and the direct stress may be found using a
procedure similar to that used for the stiffener in the
plane of the saddle. Substituting p for <I> and K6 for
the expression in the brackets divided by 21t, the
maximum moment in each ring adjacent to the
saddle is given in in .-Ib. by

10'

shown in Section AA. Conservatively, the support

may be assumed to be tangential and concentrated
at the horn of the saddle. This is shown
schematically in Fig. 69; the resulting bendingmoment diagram is also indicated. This bending
moment in in.lb. at any pOint A above the horn of
the saddle is given by

When the saddles must be located away from the

heads and when the shell alone cannot resist the
circumferential bending, ring stiffeners should be
added at or near the supports. Because the size of
rings involved does not warrant further refinement,
the formulas developed in this paper assume that the
added rings are continuous with a uniform cross
section. The ring stiffener must be attached to the
shell, and the portion of the shell reinforced by the
stiffener plus a width of shell equal to 5t each side
may be assumed to act with each stiffener. The ring
radius is assumed equal to r.
When n stiffeners are added directly over the
saddle as shown in Fig. 64 (e), the tangential shear
distribution is known . The equation for the resulting
bending moment at any point was developed
previously, and the resulting moment diagram is
shown in Fig. 6-6. The maximum moment occurs at
the horn of the saddle and is given in in.-Ib. for each
stiffener by
M J3 .;...
- K6Or
-

(} sin

Figure 6-9. Circumferential bending-moment

diagram, stiffeners adjacent to saddle.

DESIGN OF RING STIFFENERS

n Pf) = Q [

.;1t

= K7 Q
n

Then the maximum combined stress due to liquid

load in each ring used to stiffen the shell at or near
the saddle is given in lb. per sq. in. by
S6 = - !5.zQ K60 r

(MJ3 - M1)

or

na

PJ3 = K7 Q

nllc

where a = the area and lIe = the section modulus

of the cross section of the composite ring stiffener.
When a ring is attached .to the inside surface of the
shell directly over the saddle or to the outside
surface of the shell adjacent to the saddle, the
maximum combined stress is compression at the

If n stiffeners are added adjacent to the saddle as

shown in Fig. 6-4 (b), the rings will act together and
each will be loaded with shears distributed as in
Section a-a on one side but will be supported on the
saddle side by a shear distribution similar to that
42

th = thickness of head, in.

b = width of saddle, in.
F = force across bottom of saddle, lb.
S1, 8 2, etc. = calculated stresses, lb. per sq. in.
K1, K2, etc. = dimensionless constants for various
support conditions.
M4>, M~, etc. = circumferential bending moment due
to tangential shears, in.-Ib.
8 = angle of contact of saddle with shell, degrees.

shell. However, if the ring is attached to the opposite

surface, the maximum combined stress may be
either compression in the outer flange due to liquid
or tension at the shell due to liquid and internal
pressure.
The maximum combined compression stress due
to liquid should not exceed one-half of the
compression yield point of the material. The
maximum combined tension stress due to liquid and
pressure should not exceed the allowable tension
stress of the material.

(3

= (. 180

Each saddle should be rigid enough to prevent the

separation of the horns of the saddle; therefore the
saddle should be designed for a full water load. The
horn of the saddle should be taken at the
intersection of the outer edge of the web with the top
flange of a steel saddle. The minimum section at the
low pOint of either a steel or concrete saddle must
resist a total force, F, in pounds, equal to the
summation of the horizontal components of the
reactions on one-half of the saddle. Then

=Q

[ 1

+ cos (3 - 112 sin2(3 ]

(3 + sin (3 cos (3

a =

180

Q)
6

= ~ ( 58

180 12

+ 30 ). 2~

= arc, in

7t -

~( ~ +
180

JL)
= the central angle, in radians,
20

from the vertical to the assumed point of

maximum shear in unstiffened shell at saddle.
<I> = any central angle measured from the vertical, in
radians.
p = central angle from the upper vertical to the point
of maximum moment in ring located adjacent to
saddle, in radians.
E = modulus of elasticity of material, lb. per sq. in.
Ilc = section modulus, in. 3
n = number of stiffeners at each saddle.
a = cross-sectional area of each composite stiffener,
sq. in.
pP' p~ = the direct load in lb. at the point of
maximum moment in a stiffening ring.

= KaQ

The effective section resisting this load should be

limited to the metal cross section within a distance
equal to r/3 below the shell. This cross section
should be limited to the reinforcing steel within the
distance r/3 in concrete saddles. The average stress
should not exceed two-thirds of the tension allowable
of the material. A low allowable stress is
recommended because the effect of the
circumferential bending in the shell at the horn of the
saddle has been neglected.
The upper and lower flanges of a steel saddle
should be designed to resist bending over the
web(s), and the web(s) should be stiffened according
to the A.I.S.C. Specifications against buckling. The
contact area between the shell and concrete saddle
or between the metal saddle and the concrete
foundation should be adequate to support the
bearing loads.
Where extreme movements are anticipated or
where the saddles are welded to the shell, bearings
or rockers should be provided at one saddle. Under
normal conditions a sheet of elastic waterproof
material at least V4 in. thick between the shell and a
concrete saddle will suffice.

Bibliography
1. Schorer, Herman, "Design of Large Pipe
Lines," A.S.C.E. Trans., 98, 101 (1933), and
discussions of this paper by Boardman, H.C., and
others.
2. Wilson, Wilbur M., and Olson, Emery D., "Test
of Cylindrical Shells," Univ. III. Bull. No. 331.
3. Hartenberg, R.S., "The Strength and Stiffness
of Thin Cylindrical Shells on Saddle Supports,"
Doctorate Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1941.
4. Zick, L.P., and Carlson, C.E., "Strain Gage
Technique Employed in Studying Propane Tank
Stresses Under Service Conditions," Steel, 86-88
(Apr. 12, 1948).
5. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Penstock Analysis
and Stiffener Design. Boulder Canyon Project Final
Reports, Part V. Technical Investigations, Bulletin 5.

Nomenclature

= load on one saddle, lb. Total load = 20.

= tangent length of the vessel, ft.
= distance from center line of saddle to tangent
line, ft.
H = depth of head, ft.
R = radius of cylindrical shell, ft.
Q

L
A

Appendix
The formulas developed by outline in the text are
developed mathematically here under headings
corresponding to those of the text. The pertinent
assumptions and statements appearing in the text
have not been repeated .

r = radius

= ~ ( .!!

central angle from vertical to

horn of saddle, in degrees
(except as noted).

radians, of unstiffened shell in plane of saddle

effective against bending.

7t -

~) =
2

DESIGN OF SADDLES

of cylindrical shell, in.

thickness of cylindrical shell, in.

43

Maximum Longitudinal Stress

The bending moment in ft.-lb. at the mid-span is

Referring to Fig. 6-3, the bending moment in ft.-lb. at

the saddle is

20
L

+ 4H

2Q
[(L - 2A)2 _ 2HA _ A2
R2 - H2 ]
L + 4H
8
3
2 +
4
3

[2HA + A2 _ R2 - H2] =
3
2
4

3
OA

OL
4

[1 ___-_Z_+_R_2_~_L_H_2_ ]

1 +~
3L
Referring to Section A-A of Fig. 6-4 the centroid of
the effective arc = r sin d. If <5 equals any central
d
angle measured from the bottom, the moment of
inertia is

2f3t

: (

cos2 0 - 2 cos 0 Si: /1 +

Si~/

) do

where

4A
nr2t [ L

= nr2t, and
= 3K10L

- H2
1 + 2 R2 L2

d + sin d cos d _ 2 sin2 d ]

d
[
sin d - cos <5
d

= 30L

- - - - = - - - 4 ~L

K1 =

1 + 4H
3L

Tangential Shear Stress

Section a-a of Fig. 6-4 indicates the plot of the shears
adjacent to a stiffener. The summation of the vertical
components of the shears on each side of the stiffener
must equal the load on the saddle Q. Referring to Fig.
6-4 (d) the sum of the shears on both sides of the
stiffener at any point is Q sin c'Phtr. Then the summation
of the vertical components is given by
2

~ 1t 0
~

Then the stress in the shell at the saddle in lb. per

sq. in. is given by
S1

_ 4 ~
L

nr2t

The section modulus for the tension side of the

equivalent beam is
r2t

51

Si~/1

L2
1 + 4H
3L

The section modulus

2r3t [1/2 sin <5 cos <5 + Q _ 2sin <5 sin d + sin2 d <5]~ =
2
d
d2
0
f.lt [sin /1 cos /1 + /1 - 2

1 + 2 R2 .- H2

sin 2 <l> rd<l>

nr

= 20
1

.[

<l> _ sin

c'P cos c'P] 1

=0

The maximum shear stress occurs at the equator

when sin <l> = 1 and K2 = 1/1 = 0.319.
~
Section A-A of Fig. 6-4 indicates the plot of the
shears in an unstiffened shell. Again this summation
of the vertical components of the shears on each
side of the saddle must equal the load on the
saddle. Then the total shear at any point is

R2 - H2

(1 _ __-_I_+_---'=-2A...:..::L"---_) x
1 + ~
3L

sin <l>
r(n - a + sin a cos a)
and the summation of the vertical components is
given by
or

0 sin 2, <l>
rd<l>
~ a r(n - a + sin a cos a)

2 ~n

S1 = 3K1 0L
nr2t

where

1t( Si:/1

- cos /1 )

. 2
K, = [ /1 + sin d cos d - 2 Sind
d

1 (

o[

<l> - sin <I> cos <I>

]1 = 0
n - a + sin a cos a a
The maximum shear occurs where c'P = a and
K2 = _ _ _s,;:..i..;,..;.n..,.;:a..:...-_ _
n -a + sin a cos a

1
X

~ + R22AL
.- H2 ) 1

Section C-C of Fig. 6-4 indicates the shear transfer

across the saddle to the head and back to the head
side of the saddle. Here the summation of the
vertical components of the shears on arc a acting
downward must equal the summation of the vertical

1 - _L
+-4H

3L
44

component of the shears on the lower arc

acting upward. Then

ao -~~--=--!.0 sin2 <1>, rd<1>,

1t -

2~ [

1[

Q sin <P2d<I>2
=
a + sin a cos a)

(1t -

~in ex cos ex

ex +

o[

][

COS

4>2 ] :

cos <1> + cos a

- a + sin a cos a

=
]

1t -

The ring compression becomes a maximum in the

shell at the bottom of the saddle. Or if <P = 1t this
expression becomes

o[

a - sin a cos a
] [<1>2 _ sin <1>2 cos <1>2] 1t
1t - a + sin a cos a
2
2
a

1 + cos a
]
a + sin a cos a

1t -

Then

Finally

Q (a

- sin a cos a) =

Q (a

+ cos a
]
- a + sin a cos a

- sin a cos a)

1t

1t

The maximum shear occurs when cI>2 = a and

K2

sin a [
1t

1t

Design of Ring Stiffeners;

Stiffener in Plane of Saddle

a - sin ~ cos a
]
- a + Sin a cos a

Referring to Fig.6~6, the arch above the horns of the

saddle resists the tangential shear load. Assuming this
arch fixed at the top of the saddles, the bending moment
may be found using column analogy.
If the arch is cut at the top, the static moment at any
pOint A is

Circumferential Stress at Horn of Saddle

See under the heading Design of Ring Stiffeners.

Additional Stress in Head Used as Stiffener

Referring to Section G-G of Fig. 6-4, the tangential
shears have horizontal components which cause
tension across the head. The summation of these
components on the vertical axis is

~a Q

sin cI>, cos cI>, rdcI>1 -

~ 1t Q

sin cI>2 cos cI>2 [

~ 0 1tr

~ a 1tr

sin a cos a
]
sin a cos a
rd<1>

20 [<1>, _ sin <1>, cos cI>,] a =

2

~ +

or
1t

1tr

a
[

1tr

~ <1> Q sin <1>, rd<1>, = _ ~ <P

a)

1tr

o sin2 <1>2

(1t -

Q {[ sin2 cI>1]a _ [
2

1t

1t

Ms

1t

a - sin ~ cos a
] [Sin 2 cI>2]1t}
- a + Sin a cos a
2
a

<1

d<l>,

[ - COS'V1
"" - cos<I> Sin
. 2 ""
'V1 +
2

sin <I> sin <I> cos <P

0,: [

sin2 a
)
1t - a + sin a cos a

- sin If>, cos If>, cos If> - sin 2 <1>, sin

-_ -Or

1t

a - sin ~cos a
] rdcI>2
1t - a + Sin a cos a

o(

= Or ~ If> (sin If>,

_ <1>1 sin <I> ] <1>

2
0

1 -

cos 4> -

~ sin 4> 1

Then the Ms lEI diagram is the load on the analogous

column.
The area of this analogous column is

Then assuming this load is resisted by 2rth and that

the maximum stress is 1.5 times the average

8,

84 = K4 0

= 2 ~P -'- dcI> = gfu:

~o EI

EI

rth
where

K4 = -s3 (
1t -

The centroid is sin P/J3" and the moment of inertia

about the horizontal axis is

sin2 a
)
a + sin a cos a

Ih = 2

Wear Plates
The ring compression at any point in the shell over
the saddle is given by the summation of the
tangential shears over the arc = (cI> - a) shown in
Section A-A or G-G of Fig. 6-4 or in Fig. 6-S. Then
_

~ cI> 0
~ a

sin <I> 2
1t,

~ P ( cos <I>
~0

2r3 [ 1. sin <I> cos <I> + 1. <I>

EI 2
2

r3 [

a - sin a cos a
) ,dcI>2 _
1t - a + Sin a cos a

EI

45

P )2 r3 d<I> =
P
EI

_ sin

2 sin cI> sin B + <I> sin2 B] B=

sin pcps

B2

P+ P_ 2

.0

sin2

p]

VALUES OF

H/L

= .10

H/L

= .05

HfL

~ ~

.~ ~ ~ ~

t;:~

KI

v/

v"}

~v

0"

"-. ....
......... .........

........

, ....

.6

-" ........ .......

K~",0

'"

I. o

K,
.8

oj

-...-;.~ ,

Iff:"r:-

~~

.2

I. 2

,.'7

~ ..ft!tvr:

.4

,,~y
~

~o/

<-v.6/

""-

"'J

~ "- ,"J

,"'-...

~~ ~

'""::'-~""-'"''"""'" a""""~V"'""'0"'~8
'""""~" "~O
~

"-

"

"'-

"-

AOQf2~

'"'"

"YV

----- -

.4
2
0

"- ""- "-",

,~

"- ,~ ,"'- ,~ "\,......... ,"'- ,"- ~,

(J

VALUES OF

I. 4

,~'t;

~~/

........

1,

:<lI
~-<-7

1.2

1.4

l.O

?P .~ .~ .~

V V /--"V V V V V V V V V V V V V V
,/'
~ 5- ::::--V / ~- :/V V '/ ~ t/ Y ~ ;:, ~

VV VVV
/" ~V ~ ::/ ~ / V / -:/ -:/ /

.~ ~

0>

IV V V V V

WHEN

..........

~ ......

"'-

................

.........

~. "'<e ""~o ""'~ ~.

R = 2H

WHEN

Figure 6-SA. Plot of longitudinal bending-moment constant K , "

~; [ ~ sin Bcos J3

The load on the analogous column is

= 2 ~ ~ Ms rd<l> = 20r2 ~ ~ (
~

= 20r2

rtE!

~ sin <1

1 - cos <l> -

reEl ~ 0

EI

[2~

- 3 sin

]~

- Or3

= - 2 ~ ~ M.s (
~ 0 EI

~~

rtfl ~ 0

cos <I> -

M.nr. = Or { 2p
Ih

S~2 ~ + BS~2 ~

- 12 sin2 p + 2p2 sin 2p ] }

~2 - 2 sin2 ~

Si~ B ) "

Finally, the combined moment is given by

=-

Ms + M;

= Or {
re

cos cI>

+.

=
3 sin J3 + cos J3 - 1/4 ( cos cI> -

<I> sin <I> _ cI> _ sin cI> cos cI>

rtB

~4

<I> sin2 <I> _ sin

~ (24) -

2 sin 4> - sin 4>

P cos P _

Y = ( cos 4> -

given by

M<J)

- Or3 [ 2 sin cI> - cos

The distance from the neutral axis to pOint A is

r2dcI> =

- 2 cos 4> - 4> sin 4 ] d4>

+ 4> cos <1

9 _
] p
0

]j!

2~

~ sin ~ cos ~

4r

- 3 sin p

rt

L [ 9~ sin p cos p + 3P2

[ 2 cos cI> - 2 cos 2 cI> - cI> sin cI> cos cI> -

Si~ J3 (2

U1

~ cos ~ ]

= -.SL

Mi

The moment about the horizontal axis is

Mh

~ B_

Then the indeterminate moment is

[ cI> _ sin cI> _ sin <l> + <I> cos cI>

2
2
Or2
rtE!

d<l>

46

~2 sin cI> ~

) x

~ )2 + 2 cos2 B

]}

~cosll+1-2(~y

4 - 6 (

= ~;

This is the mrXimum when <P

Mp

1t

The summation of the horizontal components of the

radial reactions on one-half of the saddle shown in
Fig. 6-8 must be resisted by the saddle at <I> = 1t.
Then this horizontal force is given by

~ cos ~ + ~ ~ +

p sin p -

= Or

Design of Saddles

then

F = ~. 1t O( - cos <I> sin <I> + cos p sin <1 rd<I> =

~ p
r(1t - ~ + sin ~ cos ~)

o[ Finally

o[

Because of the symmetry the shear stress is zero

at the top of the vessel; therefore, the direct load in
the ring at the top of the vessel, Ptl may be found by
taking moments on the arc ~ about the horn of the
saddle. Then

(1 - cos

~)rPt
= Or [
,1t

P - 0 [ 1
t -

1t

1 - cos

Psin p
2( 1 - cos ~)

~2 sin ~

= Or (1

Then

- cos

] - (Mp - MJ

1t

Psin p
2(1 - cos ~)

cos P (M - MJ
r(1 - cos B) Il

where

Psin B
2(1 - cos B)

cos

B] +

P-

P+

1/2 sin2 p ]
sin ~ cos ~

P-

P+

1/2 sin2 p
sin ~ cos ~

After the article had been published, certain

refinements seemed desirable; therefore, the
following has been added to take greater advantage
of the inherent stiffness of these vessels. The
methods outlined in the paper will give conservative
results.
The effective width of shell has been limited to 10t
in order to prepare the chart of Fig. 6-2. It has been
shown 5 that this effective width may be taken as
1.56 Yrf. That is, where 5t each side of the saddle or
stiffener has been used, the more liberal value of
0.78 vff each side could be used.
The values plotted in Fig. 6-5 for K1 cover
conservatively all types of heads between H = 0
and H = R. More liberal values are given in Fig.
6-5A for hemispherical and 2 to 1 ellipsoidal heads
for values of HIL between 0 and 0.1. The minimum
values of K1 given in Table 6-1 have not been listed
for specific values of AIL and HIL; so they are
conservative. Specific minimum values of K1 may be
read from Fig. 6-5A.

or

K7 = -1t1 [

Appendix B

~) -(Mp - MJ

cos B ] +

P ]1t

The bending at the horn would change the saddle

reaction distribution, and increase this horizontal
force.

Substituting the value above for Pt , and solving for Pp

gives

PIl = Q [

K8 =1 + cos
1t -

. 1
(M
MJ
- r( 1 - cos ~)
Il-

1t

1 + cos
1t -

The direct load, PIl , at <I> = ~, the point of

maximum moment may be found by taking moments
about the center. Then

r(PI} + Pt)

112 sin2 <I> - cos <I> cos

1t - ~ + sin ~ cos ~

cos P
(Mil - MJ
Qr(1 - cos P)

If the rings are adjacent to the saddle, K6 and K7

may be found in a similar manner, except that the
static structure would become the entire ring split at
the top and loaded as indicated in Fig. 6-9.

47

Part VII
~nchor

Bolt

Chairs~~~~~~~~~_
w

hen anchor bolts are required at supports

for a shell, chairs are necessary to
distribute the load to the shell. Small
tubular columns (less than 4 ft in diameter) may be
an exception if the base plate is adequate to resist
bending. Otherwise, chairs are always needed to
minimize secondary bending in the shell.
For flat-bottom tanks, choose a bolt circle to just
barely clear the bottom without notching it. For other
structures, follow the minimum clearances shown in
Fig. 7-1 a. The designer must evaluate anchor bolt
location for interference with base or bottom plate.

W = total load on weld, kips per lin. in. of weld

WH = horizontal load, kips per lin. in. of weld
Wv = vertical load, kips per lin. in. of weld

= top-plate length, in., in radial direction

= top-plate thickness, in.

= anchor-bolt diameter,

= anchor-bolt eccentricity, in.

e min

= 0.886d

= distance, in., from outside of top plate to

= cone angle, degrees, measured from axis of

cone

= reduction

Critical stress in the top plate occurs between the

hole and the free edge of the plate. For convenience
we can consider this portion of the top plate as a
beam with partially fixed ends, with a portion of the
total anchor bolt load distributed along part of the
span. See Fig. 7-2.

in.

s = ~2 (0.375g
fc

+ 0.572, based on a heavy hex nut

clearing shell by 1/2 in. See Table 7-1

c = [ :, (0.375g - 0.22d) ]1/2

fmin = dl2 + 118

g
= distance, in., between vertical plates
(preferred g = d + 1) [Additional distance may
be required for maintenance.]

= chair height,

= vertical-plate thickness, in.

= vertical-plate width, in. (average width for
tapered plates)
= column length, in.
= bottom or base plate thickness, in.

k
L

m
p

Chair must be high enough to distribute anchor bolt

load to shell or column without overstressing it. If the
anchor bolt were in line with the shell the problem
would be simple - the difficulty lies in the bending
caused by eccentricity of the anchor bolt with respect
to the shell. Except for the case where a continuous
ring is used at the top of chairs, maximum stress
occurs in the vertical direction and is a combination
of bending plus direct stress. Formulas which follow
are approximations, based on the work of Bjilaard.

load, kips; or maximum allowable

anchor-bolt load or 1.5 times actual bolt load,
whichever is less

= nominal shell

radius, in., either to inside or

centerline of plate (radius normal to cone at
bottom end for conical shells)

= stress at point, ksi

= shell or column thickness, in.

(7-2)

Chair Height

= design

= least radius of gyration, in.

(7-1 )

Top plate may project radially beyond vertical plates

as in Fig. 7-1d, but no more than 1/2".

in.

- 0.22d)

or

edge of hole

factor

Top Plate

Notation
a = top-plate width, in., along shell
b

= weld size (leg dimension), in.

pet2 .[ 1.32 Z

1.43 ah2 + (4ah2).333

Rt
49

+ .031 ] (7-3)
t'Rf

Table 7-1. Top-Plate Dimensions

Anchor Bolt Nut

Based on anchor-bolt stresses up to 12 ksi for 11/2-in.-dia.

bolts and 15 ksi for bolts 1% in. in diameter or larger;
higher anchor bolt stresses may be used subject to
designer's decision.

d + t)Hole dia

~
H-:; ~"
r: "
-

--,.--+-....~,-:"'..

001,.

Top Plate Dimensions, in.

~TI---r-..:;---L---_~

~~

d
1112
13/4
2
2114

el

(d) Conical Skirt

Figure 7-1. Anchor-Bolt Chairs.

r---j

-L'I ,-\

,J

41/2
4%
5
5114

1.B7
2.09
2.30
2.52

0.734
0.919
1.025
1.145

19.4
32.7
43.1
56.6

Vertical Side Plates

Be sure top plate does not overhang side plate (as in
Fig. 7-1d) by more than 1/2" radially.
Vertical-plate thickness should be at least
jmin = 1/2" or 0.04 (h - c), whichever is greater.
Another requirement is jk~ P125, where k is the
average width if plate is tapered.
These limits assure a maximum Ur of 86.6 and a
maximum average stress in the side plates of 12.5

To.ol load

rcA)'-..
~J

2112
23A
3
3114

Bolt Load, kips

emin Cm/n

d /

"L

If chair height calculated is excessive, reduce

eccentricity e, if possible, or use more anchor bolts
of a smaller diameter. Another solution is to use a
continuous ring at top of chairs.
' If continuous ring is used, check for maximum
stress in circumferential direction, considering the
ring as though it were loaded with equally spaced
concentrated loads equal to Pe/h. Portion of shell
within 16t either side of the attachment may be
counted as part of the ring. (Refer to Fig. 7-3)
Note that the base plate or bottom is also
subjected to this same horizontal force, except
inward instead of outward. This is true even if a
continuous ring is not used around the top of the
chairs - but it should never cause any very high
stresses in the base, so we do not normally check it.
However, it is a good thing to keep in mind in case
you have a very light base ring.

.c

(c) Flat Bottom Tank

'lil
1
11fo
1114

~l=d+ 1

and where earthquake or winds over 100 mph

must be considered.
Maximum recommended chair height h = 3a.

(b) Vertical Column

or Skirt

(a) Typical Plan &

Outside Views

I..J

Po,Holly
Fixed Ends

Figure 7-2. Assumed Top-Plate Beam.

Where: Z

= _____1..:...;.~0_ _ _ __

,1~ (

7f +

(7-4)

1.0

Maximum recommended stress is 25 ksi. This is a

local stress occurring just above the top of the chair.
Since it diminishes rapidly away from the chair, a
higher than normal stress is justified but an increase
for temporary loads, such as earthquake or wind is
not recommended. The following general guidelines
are recommended.

.,

Minimum chair height h =6", except use h =12"

when base plate or bottom plate is 3/8" or thinner

Figure 7-3. Chair with Continuous Ring at Top.

50

ksi, even assuming no load was transmitted into the

shell through the welds.

Assembly of Chair
For field erected structures, ship either the top plate
or the entire chair loose for installation after the
structure is sitting over the anchor bolts. _
Where base plate is welded to skirt or column in
shop, attach side plates in the shop and ship top
plate loose for field assembly. See Fig. 7-4.
Where base or bottom plate is not welded to shell
in the shop, as for flat-bottom tanks and single
pedestal tanks, shop attach side plates to top plates
and then ship the assembly for field installation.
When you do this, weld both sides at top of side
plates so shrinkage will not pull side plate out of
square. See Fig. 7-5.
Welds between chair and shell must be strong
enough to transmit load to shell. 1/4" minimum fillet
welds as shown in Figs. 7-4 and 7-5 are nearly
always adequate, but you should check them if you
have a large anchor bolt with 'a low chair height.
Seal welding may be desired for application in
corrosive environments.
Assume a stress distribution as shown in Fig. 7-6
as though there were a hinge at bottom of chair. For
the purpose of figuring weld size, the base or bottom
plate is assumed to take horizontal thrust only, not
moment.
Note that loads are in terms of, kips per inch of
weld length, not in terms of kips per square inch
stress. Critical stress occurs across the top of the
chair. The total load per inch on the weld is the
resultant of the vertical and horizontal loads.

Figure 7-6. Loads on Welds.

Formulas may also be used for cones, although
this underrates the vertical welds some.
Wv

WH =
W

(7.;5)

Pe

(7-6)

a + 2h

ah + 0.667h 2

= y'Wv

Wtt

(7-7)

For an allowable stress of 13.6 ksi on a fillet weld,

the allowable load per lin. in. is 13.6 x 0.707 = 9.6
kips per in. of weld size. For weld size w, in., the
allowable load therefore is
9.6w

(7-8)

Design References
H. Bednar, "Pressure Vessel Design Handbook",
1981, pp. 72-93.
M.S. Troitsky, "Tubular Steel Structures", 1982, pp.
5-10 - 5-16.
P.P. Bjilaard, "Stresses From Local Loadings In
Cylindrical Pressure Vessels," ASME
Transactions, Vol. 77, No.6, 1955.
P. Buthod, "Pressure Vessel Handbook," 7th
Edition, pp. 75-82.

Figure 7-4. Typical Welding,

Base Plate Shop Attached.

-:&16

Figure 7-5. Typical Welding,

Base or Bottom Field Attached.
51

Part VIII
Design of Fillet Welds

esign of butt welds is closely controlled by

weld details and jOint efficiencies clearly
specified in various codes and specifications.
Design of fillet welds, however, is not so clearly
outlined. The following pages are intended to fill the
gap. While referring to the following pages and
designing fillet welds, the designer is encouraged to
keep in mind actual shop and field welding practice
and the quality of fillet welds that can consistently be
expected. The size and length of the weld as well as
the allowable stresses used in their design should
reflect the actual shop and field welding and not
necessarily the value used here .
Size of an equal-leg fillet weld is the leg width W
of the largest 45 right triangle which fits in its cross
section. They are referred to by their leg sizes, such
as a 1/4 in. fillet weld.

following:
1. Use of 45 (equal leg) fillet welds whenever
possible
2. Minimum size of fillet
3. Lower cost of down welding position
4. Locate weld to eliminate eccentricity
5. Balanced welds to control distortion
6. Avoid locating welds in highly stressed areas
7. Readily accessible
Use the smallest size of fillet permitted (see Fillet
Weld Limitations). Flat fillets 5/16" and smaller are
normally made in one pass and are more economical
than larger fillets. Generally, the fillet with the least
cross-sectional area is the most economical.
Increasing the size of a fillet weld from 1/4" to 3/8"
more than doubles the amount of filler metal, but the
strength only increases 500/0. A gap also requires
additional filler metal.

Figure 8-1. Fillet-Weld Sizes (Leg Dimensions) . .

Size of an unequal length fillet weld is described

by the leg lengths of the largest right triangle which
fits in its cross section, such as a 3/8" by 1/2" fillet
weld.
The strength of a fillet weld is assumed to equal
the allowable shearing stress times the throat area of
the weld. The throat area of a weld is the length of
weld times the theoretical throat distance, which is
the shortest distance from the root of the weld to the
theoretical weld's surface.
Some codes, however, define the throat distance
differently.
AWWA defines the throat as .707 times the length
of the shorter leg of the fillet weld.
AISC distinguishes between welding processes to
be used when determining throat distances (e.g.
AISC 1.14.6.2). The designer should check to see
what code, if any, applies to the work.
In these papers, however, the fillet weld throat
dimension for an equal-leg fillet is assumed to be the
leg length times 0.707 (i.e. cos 45).

" triangle
volumes

9 triangle
volumes

13 friangle
volumes

Figure 82. Volumes of 1-ln. Long Welds.

Flat welding position is the most economical and
overhead the least. For example, the relative costs of
3/8" fillets for different positions are:
lap flat
flat fillet
vertical fillet
overhead fillet

1000/0
11 00/0
240 0/0
250 0/0

The costs can vary according to weld procedure

used.
Specify shop welding whenever practical. The
fitted-up material can normally be repositioned easier
in the shop.

Types of Fillet Welded Joints

Single-fillet welded joints
Strength depends on size of fillet.
Do not use when tension due to bending is
concentrated at root of weld.

Economy of Welding
Economical design of fillet welds includes the

53

Allowable Loads on Fillet Welds

Do not use for fatigue or impact loading.

Difficult to control distortion.

Stress in a fillet weld is assumed as shear on the

throat area, for any direction of applied load.
Many codes express the allowable shear stress for
fillet welds in psi on the throat area. It is more
convenient, however, to express the strength of fillet
welds as allowable load f, kips per lin. in. for 1" fillet.
The following formula may be used to convert
allowable shear stress on throat area to allowable
load for 1" fillet with equal leg lengths:

Figure 83. Types of Single Fillet Welds.

Double-fillet welded joints

Used for static loads.
Economical when fillet size is 1/2" or less.
Lap joint maximum strength in tension when length
of lap equals at least 5 times the thickness of thinner
material.

Figure

8~4.

= 0.707

x allowable shear stress, ksi

(8-1)

Since transverse welds are stronger than parallel

(or longitudinal) welds some codes permit different
allowable stresses for them. API 620 6th Edition and
AWWA D100-84 are two codes that have different
allowable stresses for the two types of welds. API
650 8th Edition and AISC 9th Edition, however, make
no distinction between transverse welds and parallel
welds and use the same allowable stress for both.
The designer is cautioned to check which code
applies to the work at hand as well as the most
recent edition of the code to see if their approach to
these types of stresses has changed.
In the following pages, however, for the sake of
completeness, a distinction will be made between the
two types of stresses, fp and ft.
When a jOint has only transverse forces applied to
the weld, use the allowable transverse load ft. If only
parallel forces are applied to the weld, use the
allowable parallel load fp If one of the forces is
parallel and the other forces are transverse, use the
allowable transverse load when the resultant force is
found from Eq. 8-3.
New specifications on allowable stress for fillet
welds are given in Section 8 of the latest revision of
AWS Structural Welding Code, 01.1.
Current AISC specifications also refer to:
1. allowable stress at weld for both weld metal and
base metal
2. minimum length of fillet weld
3. minimum size of fillet weld
4. maximum size of fillet weld
5. end returns or "boxing of welds"
6. spacing of welds
7. fatigue loading of welds

Types of Double Fillet Welds.

Double-fillet welded corner joint

Complete penetration and fusion.
Used for all types of loads.
Economical on moderate thickness.

Figure 85. Corner Joint.

Welds transmit forces from one member to
another. They may be named according to the
direction of the applied forces.
Parallel welds have forces applied parallel to their
axis. Fillet weld throat is stressed only in shear.
Parallel welds may also be called longitudinal welds.

Figure 8-6. Parallel Weld.

Notation

Transverse welds have forces applied at right

angles to their axis. Fillet weld throat has both shear
and normal (tensile or compressive) stresses.
Transverse welds are about 33 0/0 stronger than
parallel welds.

= cross-section area, sq. in., of member

transmitting load to weld

Aw = length, in., of weld

b

= length,

= distance, in., from neutral axis to outer parallel

surface or outer point

in., of horizontal weld

= horizontal component of c, in.

C v = vertical component of c, in.
d = depth, in., of vertical weld
f = allowable load on fillet weld, kips per lin. in.
per in. of weld size

Ch

Figure 87. Transverse Weld.

54

fb
fp

= bending stress, ksi

= allowable parallel load on

ft

f to

=
=

I
10
Ix
Iy
J

=
=
=
=

Jw

L
M

=
=

=
=

Sw =
t

=
=

w
W =
Wb =
Wh =
Wq =
Ws =
Wsa =
Wt =

Wv =
x

=
=

Fillet weld size w, in., is found by dividing the

force W, kips per lineal inch, on the weld by the
allowable load f (kips per lin. in. for 1" fillet) for the
weld.
W=W
(8-2)
f

fillet weld, kips per

lin. in. per in. of weld size
allowable transverse load on fillet weld, kips
per lin. in. per in. of weld size
torsional stress, ksi
moment of inertia, in.4, of member transmitting
load to weld or of weld subjected to torque
moment of inertia about 0 axis, in.4
moment of inertia about x axis, in.4
moment of inertia about y axis, in.4
polar moment of inertia, in.4, of member
transmitting load to weld
polar moment of inertia, in. 3, of weld lines
subjected to torque
column length, in.
bending moment, in.-kips
number of plate sides welded or number of
welds loaded
allowable concentrated axial load, kips
statical moment of area, in.3, above or below a
point in cross section, about neutral axis
least radius of gyration, in.
section modulus, in.3, of member transmitting
load to weld or of weld subjected to moment
section modulus, in.2, of weld lines subjected
to bending moment
plate thickness, in., or thickness, in., of
thinnest plate at weld
torque, in.-kips
vertical shear, kips
fillet weld size (leg dimension), in.
total load on fillet weld, kips per lin. in. of weld
bending force on weld, kips per lin. in. of weld
horizontal component of torsional force on
weld, kips per lin. in. of weld
longitudinal shear on fillet weld, kips per lin.
in. of weld
average vertical shear on fillet weld, kips per
lin. in. of weld
actual shear on fillet weld, kips per lin. in. of
weld
torsional load on fillet weld, kips per lin. in. of
weld
vertical component of torsional force on weld,
kips per lin. in.
distance from y axis to vertical weld
distance from x axis to horizontal weld

Table 8-1. Formulas for Force on Weld

Type of Loading

Common
Design
Formula for
ormulas for Force on Weld

. Stress, psi

Tension or
Compression

Vertical

Shoar

Bending

Torsion

Longi~udinal

Shear

P
A

V
A

K/Kips per In.

- Aw

v
w-s~

Tc

w _ Tc
t

Jw

YQ

tr

Force W on a weld depends on the loading and

shape of the weld outline. Table 8-1 shows the.. basic
formulas for determining weld forces for various
types of loads.
Combining forces: There may be more than one
force on the weld, such as bending force and shear
force. It is usually easier to determine each force
independently and then combine vectorially to obtain
a resultant force. All forces which are vectorially
added must occur at the same position in the weld.
Be sure to find the position on the welded
connection where the combination of forces will be
maximum.
To simplify calculations increase parallel forces by
the ratio ftlfp before combining to account for the
lower allowable parallel shear stress specified by
some codes.

Combined Loads on Welds

It is necessary to designate the size and length of
fillet welds. Since neither are known, it is usually
simpler to assume the length and then calculate the
size.

55

w =

~ = ~ = 0.25" Use 1/4" fillet

f

9.6

Weld volume = (1/4)2 x 12.5 = 0.39 cu. in.

2

TryA w2 =5+5=10"
W2

=~

W2

Aw2

Figure 88. Forces on Weld Combined.

~ = 0.312"

Use 5/16" fillet

9.6

Use 1/4" fillet on three sides because of less weld

volume. Check fillet size (see Fillet Weld Limitations).

(8-3)
Shear load is considered uniformly distributed
over the length of weld. Force formula Ws = VIAw
from Table 8-1 gives average shear force. Use
average shear force when combining with bending
force or torsional force. However, if the average
shear force about equals or exceeds the bending or
torsional force, determine the actual shear force
distribution to aid in locating the maximum combined
force.
The actual shear force per weld at any point can
be determined from:

Refer to Fig. 8-8 for explanation of W1 , W2 ,and W3

The total force shall be determined in accordance
with the applicable code.
Simple tension or compression loads: The force W,
kips per inch of weld, is the load P divided by the
length Aw of weld. As shown in Table 8-1 the tensile
or compressive force on a weld is:
W=

10

Weld volume = (5/16)2 x 10 = 0.49 cu in.

2

To determine the resultant force for combined

forces, use Eq. 8-3. If only two forces exist, use 0 for
one force.

W = tfW 1 2 + W2 2 + [ W3 (ft lfp)1 2

= ~ = 3.0 kips per lin. in.

P
Aw

(8-4)

(8-5)

With this force W, the required fillet weld is

calculated from Eq. 8-2.
Example: Find size of fillet welds for the
connection shown in Fig. 8-9. Assume Aw
+ 2112 = 12112".

=5

For example, the average shear force and actual

shear force distribution are compared for a
rectangular member in Fig. 8-10.

+ 5

mox
.hear
force

lf2 ~
~I~~:1
t

1 'to-

.ectlon
thru member
at weld

30,000 lb.

Figure 8..9. Tension-Member Connection 1

= ~ = 2.4 kips per lin.

Average shear force Ws

=~
Aw

Wsa at 1

in.

12.5

= VQ =
nl

VQ tQ
2 4

(t1~)

Wsa at 2 = VQ = ~ = 0
nI
nI

actual

.hear
forc.

diagram diagram

Figure 810. Shear Distribution at Welds.

Referring to API 650 the allowable basic shearing

stress of an E60 electrode fillet weld is 13.6 ksi.
f = (.707)(13.6 ksi)(1 inch weld) = 9.6 kips/inch/1
inch weld

W = ~
Aw

avg

.hear
force

1AISC for E60 electrodes would give f

(.707)(.3)(60)
12.7 ksi
shear stress with max shear stress on base metal of .4 yield of
base metal.

JL.

(8-6)

2d

= 3V

= 1.5Ws

(8-7)

4d
(8-8)

Bending or torsional load may be applied to the

same weld outline.

56

Table 82. Properties of Weld Outlines

(Treated as a Line)

r
Bending and
shear load
on a weld

Torsional
and shear load
on a weld

Bending
(abollt x-x axi s)

Outl ine of
Welded Joint

dG-- x
..Jt..
d[+-+x

Weld outline

Figure 8-11. Moment and Torque on Weld.

[1F~~,Y-

_..J.

~;2(b+dl

d(3b l + d2 )
6

Sw bd

2
l
J w b{b + 3d )

..

-'--j

(8-9)

J w " 12 in.'

2
S .. -d

dE.:--x
t71 j

d'

d
in.:Z
Sw - 6

In the figure with the bending load, the weld must

transfer the same stress as in the member at the
connection. This stress can be determined using the
common formula for bending stress.

Torsion

). ~(4b + d)

S (

w top

6
d' (4b,. d'

Sw(bott) 6(2b+d) J w

~l.6b2dl
12(b

+d)

2[b+d)
-_._---+._---------_
... _......_._--_.._-

In the connection with the torsional load, the weld

wants to rotate or twist about the center of gravity of
the weld group. The stress in the weld can be found
from:

Ef

(max forc:e at botl)

y'"

---:t
.

r.

bd+ -d'
6

b+d

.J x- 2L

(8-10)

d~y

However, before using these formulas, it is

necessary to determine the section modulus S or
polar moment of inertia J of the weld without
knowing its width (size). A simple way to determine
the section modulus or polar moment of inertia of the
weld is to treat the weld as a line. The property,
such as section modulus S, of any thin area is equal
to the property of the section when treated as a line
Sw times its thickness w.

_'d
y

Y-t+"2tJ

r-1

dEUx
dE-6-

(8-11 )

(:2b d)' b'(b.d)'

- --I w,.. .-- 12

2b + d
--.- ...-----_..

S ( ) d(2b+d)
w top"
1
d2 (2b+d) J (b+2d)' _d'(b+d)l
b+ 2d
Sw(bott)- 3(b:d) w 12
D

fmox force ot Dott)

d2
Sw - bd +3

s 77d
w

.. (b +d)'
w

J
w

_ 77d'
4

Revised and expanded outline properties given in Lincoln Electric pub

lication 0810.17. Solutions to Design of Weldments. p. 3.

The common formula for bending stress can now

be used to find the bending force on the weld.
Bending and shear forces on a welded connection
are combined vectorially after determining each force

(8-12)

independently from Eqs'. 8-12 and 8-6. Determine the

combined force Won the weld using Eq. 8-3. Make
sure you have found the position on the welded
connection where the combination of forces will be
maximum. See Fig. 8-10 for shear force distribution.
Calculate the required weld size from Eq. 8-2.

Properties of sections treated as lines for typical

weld outlines are shown in Table 8-2. The method
for determining these properties is given later.
When designing welds using the line method,
select the weld outline with care. Several
combinations of line welds will produce the required
property Sw or J w ' However, select the weld outline
where the weld distribution is consistent with the
load distribution in the member at the connection.
For non-circular members (such as beams, channels,
etc.) resisting torsion loads, transverse forces on the
weld are present in addition to parallel forces
computed from Tc/Jw. These transverse forces are
the result of the non-circular cross section warping
and should not be neglected.

Figure 812. Bending and Vertical Shear on Welds.

57

Example: Find size of fillet weld on clip

loaded as shown in Fig. 8-13.
Use f t = 8.9 kips per lin. in.
and fp = 6.4 kips per lin. in.
from API 620. Assume length
of fillet = 10" (5" each side)

4k

Sw from Table 8-2

= cJ2 = 52 = 8.33 sq. in.

3

Bending force Wb =

M =
Sw

4 x 3
8.33

= 1.44 kips per lin. in.

Avg shear force Ws

Figure 8-14. Torque and Shear on Welds.

= Aw
X = ..i.
10

= .40 kips per lin.

The horizontal torsional force component is

in.

Wh

= If.Jt.

(8-14)

Jw

The vertical torsional force component is

Wv

Figure 8-13. Loaded Clip.

ft
fp

= (.707) (12.6 ksi) (1

= (.707) (9.0 ksi) (1

inch weld)
inch weld)

Resultant force W =

= B.9

kips/inch/1 inch weld

inch weld

Wb 2 + [ Ws ( :; )

(8-15)

Jw

Equation 8-3 can now be used to find the resultant

force on the weld. Increase the forces parallel to the
weld at the point considered by ftlfp before
combining.
The required fillet size is calculated from Eq. 8-2.

= 6.4 kips/inch/1

y'

= B2n

Example: Find fillet size for connection

2

3"

0/1.44 + [ 0.40 ( ::: ) ]'

Fillet size

= 1.544 kips per I.in.

w = W = 1.544 = .173"
ft

3*"

Sk shown in Fig. 8-15.

Use ft
lin. in.

in.

= fp = 9.6

kips per

8.9

Use 3,/16" fillet

Note that the designer is still cautioned to check the

shear capacity of the plate.

~~u>l

Torsional and shear forces on a welded connection

are combined vectorially after determining each force
independently from Eq. 8-6 and the torsional force
formula

cg

-J '

(8-13) .

(b)

"i

Figure 8-15. Loaded Bracket.

From Table 8-2,

Maximum torsional force occurs at the most distant

weld fiber measured from the center of gravity of the

weld outline. This distance to the outer fiber is c in
Eq. 8-13.
The direction of the ,torsional force Wt may be
other than horizontal or vertical. By resolving the
torsional force into vertical and horizontal
components, the problem of combining forces is
simplified. Resolve the torsional force into
components by using the horizontal and vertical
components of dimension c as indicated by Eqs.
8-14 and 8-15.

Jw =

b2

2 _ _ = 0.75"
= _ _3_
2b + d 2 x 3 + 6

(2b + c/)3 _ b2 (b + d)2

2b + d
12

= (2

x 3

12

58

6)3 _ 3 2 (3 + 6)2

2 x 3 + 6

= 83.25

in.3

Find components of maximum torsional force at 1.

Cv =
Ch

3"

=3

x = 2.25"

By Eq. 8-14, the horizontal component of torsional

force is

Wh =

Figure 8-16. Examples of Built-up Members.

Longitudinal shear force at any position along the
length of beam is calculated from

IQv.
Jw

= 5{3.75 +

2.25) (3)
83.25

Wq

VQ

(8-16)

, ni

Longitudinal shear force may vary along the length

of the beam. The vertical shear diagram for the
beam can be used as a picture of the amount and
location of welds between flange and web.

1.08 kips per lin. in.

NOTE: (3.75 + 2.25) is the distance from the point

load to the centroid of the weld.

By Eq. 8-15, the vertical component of torsional

force is

Wv = IQb.

1 L

til"" 11111\
Seom 3

Seam 2

Seam 1

Jw

= 5(3.75 + 2.25)(2.25)
83.25
= 0.810 kips per lin. in.

Figure 8-17. Shear in Beams.

Find average vertical shear force:

Ws

Notice there is no shear in the middle portion of

beams 1 and 2; therefore, little or no welding is
required in this portion. When there is a difference in
shear along the length of beam, as in beam 3, the
welding could vary in this same ratio along the
length of beam. This is why continuous welding is
sometimes used at the ends of beams and reduced
size or intermittent fillet welds used throughout the
rest of the beam;

= - V = - -5- 3 + 6 + 3

Aw

= 0.416 kips per lin. in.

Combine forces using Eq.8-3.

W = y(00810 + 0.416)2 + [ 1.08 (

~::

)] 2'

Built-up members subject to axial compression:

Welds joining the component parts of a built-up
compression member, such as a cone roof tank
column, are also stressed in longitudinal shear.
Determine this longitudinal shear force Wq from Eq.
8-16 using the shear V at any position along the
member as given by Eq. 8-17 or 8-18.

= 1.635 kips per lin. in.

Calculate weld size using Eq. 8-2.
W

= W
f

= 1.635 = 0.17"
9.6

Use 3/16" fillet.

Built-up members subject to bending:

Welds attaching the flange to the web are stressed
in longitudinal shear and must be adequate to
transfer the calculated longitudinal shear force.
"Note that if we had been using API 620 where ft = 8.9 kips per
lin. in. and fp = 6.4 kips per lin. in., this equation would be

(::!)

= 0.01P for Ur < 60

(8-18)

Also at each end of a built-up compression

member, use a total length of continuous fillet weld
equal to the maximum width or depth of the member
or 4", whichever is greater.
Fillet weld size at any position along the beam or
column is determined from Eq. 8-2 with the
longitudinal shear force Wq at the same position.

Welds in Built-up Members

(.810 + .416)2 + [ 1.08

(8-17)

Check fillet size (see Fillet Weld Limitations).

W =

V = 0.02P for Ur> 60

= W =

59

~
fp

(8-19)

Table 8-3. Length and Spacing of Intermittent Welds

Continuous
Welds 0/0

Length of Intermittent Welds and

Distance Between Centers, In.

60
57
50
44
43
40
37
33
30
25
20
16

3-5
2-4

Maximum clear space between intermittent fillet

welds depends on the component parts of the built-up
member. The clear space between welds must be close
enough to prevent local buckling of the component
parts when the loading develops the full strength of the
built-up member.

4-7
4-8
4-9

3-6
,

Example: Find size and spacing of fillet weld

joining plate and angle of built-up member shown in
Fig. 8-19. Use ft = 8.9 kips per lin. in., fp = 6.4 kips
per lin. in.

3-7
2-5

4-10
3-8
3-9
3-10
3-12

2-6
2-8
2-10
2-12

4-12

O'170 kips ~er ft

~
7.33'

~...Ili:.
O.612"E~1 ..

1.575" .~
2" x ,~ .. x 3/16"

"<tltQjj] v
shear diagram

Use intermittent fillet welds when the calculated

leg size is smaller than the minimum specified in
Table 8-5. The calculated size divided by the actual
size used, expressed in percent, gives the length of
weld to use per unit length:
0/0

Intermittent weld lengths and distances between

centers for given percentages of continuous welds
are shown in Table 8~3.
12"

12"

2".J

6"

Vi

2-12

~2"

~2"~&

012=W

6"

12"

I L

~.I

&

l-2"

Shear diagram for beam shows that welding for

longitudinal shear could be reduced in center portion
of beam. Because the vertical shear is small, design
the welds for maximum shear throughout the length
of beam.
The longitudinal shear force is

W = VQ = 0.623(0.1875)6(0.518)
q
nI
1(1.094)

_~

= 0.332 kips per lin. in.

The continuous weld size required is

..r .....

Figure 8-18. Spacing of Intermittent Welds.

Minimum size fillet from Table 8-5 is 3/16".

Compression

rolled shape
flange

24"

plate flange

22t (12" max)*

rolled shape
flange

24"

continuous weld

= 0.052

0.1875

Table 8-4. Maximum Clear Space

Between Intermittent Fillet Welds
(Carbon Steel BUilt-up Members)

Tension

6.4

(Use fp because longitudinal shear force is parallel

to weld.)

0/0

24t (12" 'max)*

= ~ = 0.332 = .052
fp

Minimum length of fillets for intermittent welds is 2"

or 4w, whichever is greater. Selecting the longest fillet
possible is usually the most economical. However, do
not exceed the maximum clear space between fillets in
Table 8-4.

plate flange

0.623 kips

Figure 8-19. Plate Girder.

= calculated leg size (continuous) x 100 (8-20) .

actual leg size (intermittent)

,6 6 b
~I .p...

0.17(7.33)
2

x 100

= 27.70/ 0

Minimum length fillet permitted for intermittent

welds is 2".
Maximum clear space between fillets is, from
Table 8-4, 22 x 3/16 = 4.1".
Maximum spacing with 2" fillet = 2" + 4.1" =
6.1" .
Use 2" - 6" intermittent fillet on one side. This
provides 33 0/0 (Table 8-3) continuous weld which is
more than adequate to transfer the calculated
longitudinal shear.

Fillet Weld Limitations

* Many of the built-up members we use have an assumed flange. This

Minimum size fillet: The calculated weld size may

be small. To eliminate cracks resulting from rapid
cooling, it is best not to put too small a fillet on a
thick plate. Follow Table 8-5 for minimum sizes.

flange, usually part of a roof, bottom or shell, may be partially

restrained from local buckling when the maximum load is applied.
When the built-up member has restraint on the flange, the clear space
between fillet welds could be increased to about 32t maximum.

60

3
d
- w1y -

From handbook,

Table 8-5. Minimum Size Fillets

12

When w is small, let Iy = 0

Thickness'
~
~

>

Minimum Leg Size

Of Fillet2

3/16"
1/4"3
114"3,4

112"
3/4"
3/4"

Jw

'2

'2

Ix

-,-_x

E=~31-:1'~o Ix
w

of roll.d

lec:tion

max fillet t

(8-22)

12

= 10

+ Ay2 = 0 + wby2

= wby2

= Ix

-:- y

= wby

Treated as a line, then

Sw = ~ = by about x axis

Minimum length of fillets for strength welds:

11/2" or 4w, whichever is greater
(Use 2" or 4w for intermittent welds)

(8-23)

From handbook
3
- wb
IY -

Spacing of Fillet Welds:

1. When bars or plates are connected only by a
set of parallel longitudinal fillets, the length of
those welds should not be less than the
perpendicular distance between those two
welds.
2. When fillet welds are used for end connections,
the distance between them must not be greater
than 8 inches unless transverse bending is
otherwise prevented.

12

= Ix

+ Iy

= wby2

+ wb

12

Treated as a line, then

J w = ,{ = by2 +

l!!...

(8-24)

12

By adding the properties of the two basic lines in

Figs. 8-21 and 8-22, properties for other straight line
outlines may be determined. For example, find Sw
and J w for the outline in Fig. 8-23:

Determining Weld Outline Properties

Properties Sw and J w of a weld outline when treated
as a line are nearly equal to the section modulus or
polar moment of inertia divided by the width w of the
weld. When w is small, say 100/0 of d, the error is
usually less than 10/0.
The properties Sw and J w in Table 8-2 are
determined as follows:
From handbook

Figure 8-22. Horizontal Weld.

Figure 8-20. Weld Size Limited to Plate Thickness.

= ,{ = s!!..

1x"-- -wcJ3
12
S = Ix -:- Q
2

+ 0

12

max fill.t - t

= wcJ3
12

From handbook, for a horizontal

3
weld, 10 = w b

Maximum size fillet for strength welds:

~dg fPI.t.

+ ~

Treated as a line, then

1Thickness of thicker part to be joined,

2Leg size of fillet need not exceed thickness of thinner part to be
joined.
3A minimum fillet of 3/16" is acceptable provided 200F preheat
or surface examination of the weld (PT,MT) is performed.
4AWS 01.1-82 or AISC require a.minimum 5/6" fillet.

dge

=~

= wcJ2
6

Treated as a line by dividing by w,

then
Sw = ~ = cJ2 about x axis
(8-21)
w
6

II

Figure 8-21. Vertical Weld.

]I

Figure 8-23. Combination of Welds.

61

Ix

=2

wcJ3 + 2 (Wby2)
12

= wcJ3

Cautionary Note

+ 2wby2

Some designers and engineers are not aware of a

form of cracking called lamellar tearing, which can
occur beneath highly stressed T-joints in steel plate.
Plate forced to deform plastically in the thruthickness direction by welds which are large, mUltipassed, and highly restrained can decohere at a
plane of microscopic inclusions. A crack may then
progress from plane-to-plane in a terrace-like fashion.
While lamellar tearing is not frequent, even one
incident has the potential of becoming a serious
problem. Since there are means to minimize the
hazard, it behooves the engineer to take every
precaution by optimizing joint design and welding
procedure selection. Where these factors cannot be
controlled, it may be necessary to use special steels.
The reader is referred to the following sources for
guidance in designing against lamellar tearing:
1. Engineering Journal, Third Quarter, 1973, Vol.
10, No. 3, pages 61-73. American Institute of
Steel Construction, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the
Americas, New York, New York 10020
2. Bibliography on Lamellar Tearing, Welding
Research Council Bulletin 232. Welding
Research Council, 345 East Forty-Seventh
Street, New York, New York 10017

When y = Q,

Ix

+ wbcJ2 = wd2 (d + 3b)

626

= wcJ3

3
_ wb
wb3 - 0 + 21y 12
6

Sw =

(iL)
1.. = 2wcJ2 (d + 3b)
w d
6wd

= cJ2 + bd about x axis

3

Jw

= .i.... = Ix

= b3

+ Iy = wcJ2 (d + 3b) + wb 3

(S-25)

+ 3bd2 + cJ3

6w
(S~26)

62

Part IX
Inspection and Testing
of Welded Vessels
necessary for the test is accomplished by means of
a vacuum box placed on the top side. This box has
a glass top and is open on the bottom. The portion
of the weld to be inspected is brushed with a soapy
solution, the box is fitted over it, and a vacuum
created in the box. The weld is inspected through
the glass top for leak-indicating bubbles.

treatise on the subject of defects in welded

vessels and their detection is beyond the
scope of this work. But an acquaintance with
some of the available inspection and testing tools
may serve to dispel the mystery of unfamiliar terms.
In the interest of economy, the refinement of
inspection and testing must be in tune with the
degree of perfection necessary for various classes of
work. For example, a pressure vessel storing a lethal
substance, or one constructed of a special material
known to be crack sensitive, may require as a
minimum that 1000/0 of all main joints be
radiographed. On the other hand, simple structures
such as oil and water tanks, constructed of readily
weldable materials, usually require only spot
examination. In general, it is safe and wise to follow
the inspection requirements of the applicable codes.
First, let us distinguish between hydrostatic or
overload testing to demonstrate strength or liquid
tightness, and inspection to determine weld quality.

Inspection for Weld Quality

Prior to the beginning of any welding, weld qualification
and welder certification tests should be performed.
These tests insure that the type of welds proposed
are adequate for the application and that the workers
proposed to be used are capable of applying the
required welds.
VISUAL INSPECTION is usually the first stage in
the inspection of a finished weld, regardless of any
other tool that may be employed. Visual inspection
can determine conformity with specifications as to
dimensional accuracy, extent, etc. It can also reveal
noticeable surface flaws, such as obvious cracks, .
surface porosity, undercutting of parent metal, etc. In
some types of work, visual inspection is the only
inspection performed; e.g., welds subjected only to
compression as in a tubular column, or low-stressed
fillet welds. But for most important structures, further
inspection is usually required for the main joints, on
which the strength of the structure depends. Some of
the more commonly used methods are described below.
RADIOGRAPHY is an inspection method that
shows the presence and nature of macroscopic
defects or other discontinuities in the interior of
welds. Just as in the case of medical X-rays with
which we are all familiar, radiography utilizes the
ability of X-rays or gamma rays to penetrate objects
opaque to ordinary light. Radiograph films can reveal
slag (non-metallic) inclusions, porosity or gas
pockets, cracks, lack of fusion, inadequate
penetration, and even surface defects, such as
undercut. However, welds are rarely perfectly free of
all minor defects nor do they need to be. As a result,
the inspector must have a good background of
experience in reading films, and a knowledge of
standards. The various construction codes, such as
AWS and ASME, define limits of acceptability.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION is an aid to

Testing for Strength and Tightness

Required overload tests are clearly outlined in the
various governing codes. Whenever the structure
itself, its supports, and foundation conditions will
permit, the overload test is usually hydrostatic, i.e.,
the structure is full of water when the overload,if
any, is applied.
For the water and oil tanks of Volume 1, no
overload can be applied other than that inherent in
any difference between the specific gravity of water
and that of the product to be stored in service. The
normal cone roof will withstand pressures only
slightly greater than the weight of the roof plates. It
will not withstand hydrostatic pressure due to
overfilling. Hence, the water test level is limited to
the top capacity line.
The testing of the flat bottom, however, may
warrant brief comment. The liquid tightness of a flat
bottom is usually demonstrated by means of a soap
bubble test. A soapy liquid is brushed on the weld
and a small differential positive pressure created on
the opposite side of the plate. Leaks in the weld will
be indicated by bubbles as the air passes through
the leak. Since the bottom of a tank is inaccessible
from the underside, the differential pressure

63

When a FLUORESCENT PENETRANT is used, the

indications will fluoresce when exposed to near ultra
violet or black light. DYE PENETRANT utilizes visible
instead of fluorescent dyes. As the dye penetrant
rises from the flaw by capillary action, it stains the
developer (usually a chalky substance) and clearly
marks the flaw.
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION requires a. great deal
of explanation for even a rudimentary understanding
of how it works. Briefly, ultrasonic testing makes use
of an electrically timed wave of the same nature as a
sound wave, but of. a higher frequency, hence the
name ultrasonic. The sound wave or vibrations are
propagated in the metal being inspected and are
reflected back by any discontinuity or density
change. The search unit contains a quartz or similar
crystal, which can be moved over the surface much
like a doctor's stethoscope. The search unit applies
energy to the metal surface in short bursts of sound
waves for a very short, controlled period of time. The
crystal then ceases to vibrate for a sufficient period
of time to receive the returning echoes. The reflected
signals are indicated on a cathode ray tube or
oscilloscope. From the reflection or oscilloscope
pattern, a trained operator can determine the
distance to the discontinuity and some measure of its
magnitude.
Ultrasonic testing is a valuable tool for certain
applications. But it must be used only by an operator
skilled in the interpretation of the reflection patterns.
In addition to the above methods the following can
be used: Eddy Currents, Acoustic Emission, Video
Enhancement, Ultrasonic Holography, and Neutron
Radiography. Only technically qualified personnel
should use these methods.

visual inspection for surface defects too fine to be

detected by the naked eye, plus those that lie slightly
below the surface. With special equipment, more
deeply seated discontinuities can be detected. The
method is applicable only to magnetic materials. It
will not function on non-magnetic materials such as
the austenitic stainless steels.
The basic principle involved is as follows: When a
magnet,ic field is established in a ferro magnetic
materiai containing one or more discontinuities in the
path of the magnetic flux, minute poles are set up at
the discontinuities. These poles have a stronger
attraction for magnetic particles than the surrounding
surface of material.
Normally the area to be inspected ' is magnetized
between two "prods" by introducing high amperage
current or some other convenient means. Then the
area is covered with a powder of finely divided
magnetic particles " These form a visible pattern of
any discontinuity due to the stronger attraction at
those points.
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION is another
method for detecting surface discontinuities too small
to be readily seen by the naked eye. It is particularly
useful on non-magnetic materials where the
magnetic particle method is ineffective.
The method utilizes liquids with unusual
penetrating qualities, which, when applied to a
previously cleaned surface, will penetrate all surface
discontinuities. The surface is then cleaned of all
excess penetrant and a developer applied. Penetrant
that has entered a crack or other discontinuity will
seep out, make contact with the developer and
indicate the outline of the defect.
There are two principal types of penetrant used;

64

Part X
Appendices
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.

Trigonometry
Elements of Sections
Properties of Circles and Ellipses
Surface Areas and Volumes
Miscellaneous Formulas
Properties of Roof and Bottom Shapes
Columns for Cone Roof Framing - Flat
Bottom Storage Tanks
H. Conversion Factors
Specific Gravity and Weights of Various Liquids
A.P.1. and Baume Gravity and Weight Factors
Pressure Equivalents
Wire and Sheet Metal Gages

65

A-1
A-2
A-7
A-8
A-10
A-12
A-13
A-15
A-17
A-18
A-18
A-19

Appendix A. Trigonometry

TRIGONOMETRIC FORMULAS
Radiul AF

-1

TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS

- aln l A + COil A - lin A cOlec A

- COl A lec A - tan A cot A

~/{a

"/~F

Sine A

COl A - c;c;s;cA
1
- COtA
-

Coaine A

_ ain A _ _1_. _ lin A cot A _" 1-1lnl A _ AC

,t an A lee A

Tangent A

_~_-1--linAaecA
COl A

- FO

cot A

COl A
Cotangent A - lin A -

iiriA -

-HG

COl A cOlee A

tan A

Secant A

COl A tan A - " 1-COI I A - BC

-AD

- 8i'n'A - CciI"A
cot A
- COl A -

COlecant A

-AG

i'i'nA

.~~~

RIGHT ANGLED
TRIANGLES

~
c

CI - b l

el

CI -

al

+ b2

al
b

Abe

al

Required

Known

a, b

tan A -

a, C

aln A-!.
C

~
a

tan B COl B

900-A

A, b

900-A

b tan A

A, e

900 -A

cain A

a cot A

1-

~
C

ab

ii"nA
b
COl A

K _ ~ (I - a) (1:- b) (I - c)

2
a l cot A
--2bltan A
--2CI lin 2 A
4

C COl A

a+b+c
2

T
.,,~

"ca=;;.

-..!.
C

OBLIQUE ANGLED
TRIANGLES"

Are.

""'ii'+'b'i

A,

Abe

8 1 -

bl + cl

bl -

a l + c. - 2 ac COl B

cl

a l + bl

2 be COl A

2 ab COl C

- "._...
Required

Known
A
'A, b,e

tan

2' A

--I

tan "2 B.

tan

I-a

I-b

2' C-

Are.
" I (I-a) (I-b) (I-C)

.-=c
1SOO-(A+B)

a, A, B
a, b, A

alnB-~
a

a lin B

atin C

Iin'A

ai'ftA
btln C
lin B

.,b.C tan A .' a lin C

b-aeol C

" a l +b2-2ab COl C

A-1

ab aln C
--2-

l>
,

_J..

SQUARE

IJ

Axis of moments through center

RECTANGLE

Axis of moments on diagonal

11

cent.~

Axl, of moments on base

SQUARE

Axl, of moments through

SQUARE

= d2

=~
12

Vz

d2

=i

= bel

"

= bell

"i
v'12

=~
II

12

!l!!!

= 2~

I '"

2c3

v'12

r",i

IIVz

5 "'~

Vi

r =..L

5" ~

I" ~
3

c " d

"

z =~

.288675 d

3\12

'" ...!!!.

= .288675 d

'" .117851 dl

.707107 d

.577350 d

..Iff = .288875 d

=~
6

r"

I" ~
12

d2

c " If

.235702 dl

PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

_J..

A"la of momenta through center

HOLLOW RECTANGLE

throu.h center of gravity

RECTANGLE
A... of mom.nta any line

11..1. of momenta on elleton.'

RECTANGLE

lUj

AJd. of mom.nta on .....

ftECTANGLE

It

It

bel

.lnSiOd

+ d' COl'.)

+ d COl

+dl

bldl'

.W'

b,eI,'

-4-

12A

~- .bldll

COl'.

+ d l cOla.)
+ d coe a)
12

bld l l
12

-----ed

bd l

bel' -

2"

bd- bid.

~ b l ain'.

bel (b l aln l
I (b lin.

bd (b' a'n'.
12

b aln

+dl)

bel

e (b l

bel

01

,01 b l + d l

bldl

bid'
I (b i .+ dl )

01 b l + d'

bel

.[f

bell

-,-

bel'

-,-

bel

PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

en

::J

r-t

en
en

en

r+

::J

en

m
en

CD

en
:J
a.

l>
~
~

d,

i
_ _ _ _ _ _ _*..

!"2

!-

d,----~-t-

t--+-------+-"T<.::......

TRIANGLE
Alii, of momlnta on b...

AIlII 01 mom.nta through

center of gravity

TRIANGLE

c,

1 !i+--3:-J..!
I
"

1..

.. ~

Axil :!~:,.r::~~~!n;OUgh
b~ t

UNEQUAL RECTANGLES

LB

ll f

Axil of moment. through

center 01 gravity

EQUAL RECTANGLES

b (d - dtl

eI.')

bty

~ ta)

Sa

CaI

+ ~ + bataYa

bat,-

Cd -

~.

II
_r:-

~'"

~.

..

~
2

;231102 II

-.4OI:MI II

YTi -

24"

bd'

""38*

bd'

2d

1-("-(~)]

_II
1"A

I
C
_

bt'

+ bat,
+ b, ta

~ bt'

bt

"4 lel 2

It

dl)

d' - d,s

1 12(d -

b (d' -;; d,l)

S

b(d';;d,,)

- ----r2 +

PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

-1

..

_of _?j-l

through cent"

HOllOW CIRCLE
Axl. of moments

-- ~--

HALF CIRCLE
Axis of moments through
center of gravity

[6I
Axi. 01 moments
through center

CIRCLE

Axi, of moment, through

center of grnitv

TRAPEZOID

-: :

2" '"

,,:4 '" .049081d4

= .785l98R4

'" "': '" "R2 '" .785l98dZ '" 3.141593R2

IIlb + b,) V 2 1b2 + 4 bb, + b 121

dZlb2+4bb,+b,21
12(2b + b,)

3111b + b,)

cP 1b2 + 4 bb, + b,Z)

3Ib+b,)

dl2b fbI)

dlb + b,1
-2--

.,

+ d,2
_

-~

'"

Rl
2.

,. R

~.

Ih2 - 141
13,,' - 4)
---

d,.'

.515517R

1.570791R2

.2M338 R

'" .190681 R3

... (: ~)".,.,",
R

d,2

---.-

d4 -

.0490811d4 _ d,4)

.785398(d2 - d 12)

d,.) _.ota,75
32d

v dZ

d,.' 14
..1d4 -

..(d4

~-~

.- :: 2

A :: ~

r-+

ci

:J

n
0

:J

"0
16

~
~CO

_ "Rl _
_
S -_"CP
i2"-7-098115d3-.785398R3

PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

.1....

....

"TI

J--

..ARABOLIC "'ILLET IN
RIGHT ANGLE
I

COMPLEMENT OF HALF
PARABOLA

.-S---_---11~-1.

~l

rJAP

HALF PARABOl..A

..ARABOl..A

a ..

"

,4, .b'
I':
a

A
m

It

It

I.

I,

I ..

-.!!..
.Ib
105

..

II

n
-

1.
tl
8

-./-;:

2YZ

...!....
ab a
10

2100

2100

11

it

~alb

.!.b

2....
10

I b

...!..
15 .b a

abl

...!!.
410

ab
17'5

fb

fb

-T
-

Ia

I,

Ia

..!!..
175 a

I.

I,

fa ..
,a

tot

PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

-,-'

-.,-no

"alb

16
1
16

+)
8 (1 - + )

_"ahl

= ab

'Z

.M

= b = R.

(T -~, - "(', --n)

H(:~)

(-i--:')

(:6 - ~)
(:6 - ~)
_"alb

.hZ

alb

J,;""

4b

J,;""

4a

= 4~ "Ib

~ ".hZ

.3b

J,;""

4a

= ..!.2 "ab

6 (1 -: )
" "'(2--~
3 16 -

I.

'3

lz

't

13

't
'2

To obtain p,operti.. 01 ha" cI,cle. quarte, ei,el. and ci,eular complement substituta a

ELLIPTIC COMPLEMENT

--~----r-~-~3

rn~

QUARTER ELLIPSE

"'
~-----L____LI_-L3

HALF ELLIPSE

PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

0:

r-+

0
::::s

()

to

0X

::::s

CD

-0
-0

0,

z-z la axl. of minimum

Tran.v.rse force oblique

through center of oravity

:.t

BEAMS AND CHANNELS

ANGLE

A.i, of moment. throuoh

center of ,ravit)'

+ cl

Zib

abcdt

lw ..

,.
I. cos29 +

Iv slnZ8 K lin29

.. sln2& + 'y cos28 + K lin 28

. , =(i tlb-XI.l+dxl-clx-tP)
'a

+ c)

Product of 1nertf8 about X-X lit y-y

21b

tlb + c). '" ~ Y ., d2 + at

48

12 + 82

,.

14
M

!.sI.... +.!-..
)
Iy
( I,.

I,. cos2. + Iy sln2a

...ln2. + 1y cosZ.

whe M I. banding moment due to forcs F.

..

,.

!1:r:.:..'='.:'Iv!"!':~::!"Z=::,:.t!'::'

~:

Iy-:-I,.

ZK

24

yUR

48

a2

AU2R,! + 821

Z4

= ~nR2Sin:z. =nR,Ztan.

AI6R2 - 821

!n82cot.

2 tan.

2 sin.

.. :(i tld-YI3+bY3-aIY-tI3)

,.

of sides

ZVR2 - R,2

= /6R2 -

tan Z&

" = '2

" =~

R,

180"

... xI. of momenta

through center

Number

REGULAR POLYGON

PROPERTIES OF GEOMETRIC SECTIONS

AND STRUCTURAL SHAPES

S
.a

= d [\.1 (110 +

hlo>

hi

(hi

h)

h,

h7

+ ~l + 2 (h2 +

hi

+ ~ + hll].

+ ~) + h2 + h) + h. + h~ + ~ + h1 + ha].

+ h2 + h3 + ~ + h, + ~ + h7 + h. + 11,].

+ 1.1

4 (hi

h lO)

Area

d [ \.1 (hi

+ 11,) + hz + h3 + h. + h, + h6 + h1 + hI].

When the ends arc nol curved. but are the straight lines hi and ~ then.

Area

Trapezoidal Rule:

Area = d [0.4

hlo

(110 +

=!! ["" +

Durand's Rule:

Area

Simpson's Rule:

When the ends are curved. ho and hlO are zero and cancel out of fonnulas.

The given figure has been divided into ten strips of width, d; the ordinates are ho to h lO .

Divide the plane surface into an even number of parallel strips of equal width .

IRREGULAR PLANE SURFACE

a::

::J
....

()

OJ

a..
X

::J

Cl)

1:)
1:)

Appendix B. (Cont'd)

Thin Wall Sections (Dimensions are to Center of Wall)

= rrdt

= rrd 3 t
8

S = rrd 2 t
4

- -- t

= O.355d

=d

A = 4dt

I = 2d t

3
r

- -.

= 0.408d

d>b

-t

A = 2(b

r--

+ d)t

I 1-1 = d 6 t (3b + d)

SI_l

= d; (3b + d)

= O.289d ~~
... rJF+(T

I-I

Sector of thin
annulus
2

A = 2a.Rt

Il~j::

(1 - Si~ a)
Y2 = R (-Si: a - cos a)
y1 = R

~
I

A-6

-.....J

l>
,

.r--

c- >-,

M
, '~

;'" ------1:,

'

me"

Pb

0, -A,

p n.

= area of circle-area of segment. m n p

~i\'ell in tahles

the quotient of

~:
C

h~'

the coenirimt

.,'J'J

pu

Circular Lune, m p n s

Area = segment. m p n-segment. m s n.

v Q w).

se~ent. t

Circular Zone, t u w V

+ art'a of !:t'~ent .

= b x ex coeff. = U9 x :1.52 x 0,5.12 = 3.%56.

Area = area of cirde-(area of

Area

are obtained by interpolation .

Example-Gin"n: rise = 1.-19 and chord = 3.52.
.'
rb"",U9_
3.52 - 0 .... ~ .... ,. C ()(' fljalrnt
-- 0-"1')
. /J-_.

Intermediate coefficients for values of?

not .civen in tahl('S
C

~iv('n opposite

Given: rise. b. and chord. c.

Area = product of ril'C and chord. h x c. multiplied

Circular Segment, from Table II page 284

Coefficient by interpolation = 0 .371233.

Area = d 2 x coeff. = 25.9-1629 x 0.371233 = 9.6321.

are obtained by interpolation.

Example-Given : ric;e = 2; 16 and diameter = 5~y'!.
b
d =27 J6 +5~~ =0.178528.

Intermediate coefficients for values of ~ not

Given: rise. b. and diameter. d = 2r.

Area = square of diameter. d 2 multiplied by the coefficient d\'en
.

fb
oPPOsite the quotient 0 d '

Circular Segment, from Table I, pages 282 and 283

Area

Circular Segment, m q n, greater than half circle

Area = area of sector. m 0 n p-area of triangle. m 0 n

(IenRth of arc. m p n. x radius. r)-(radius. r.-rise. b)x chord . r

Circular Segment, m p n, less than half circle

in degrees.

= 0.0087266 x square of radius, rl. x angle of arc, m

Area = ~'l (length of arc, m p n )( radius, r)

_
f . 1 arc, n:' p n, in degrees
- area 0 ClrC e x
360

mBn

Circular Sector, m 0 n p

AREA OF CIRCULAR SECTIONS

o
ng
.

log = 0.9942997

= 0.2485749

v',2 - Ir + y - bl2

-;3

1.50211501

0 .0322515, log

= 2.5085500

0.1013212. log = 1.0057003

" = 3.14159265359.

= 0.4971499

110

"

57.2957795. log

= 1.7511226

0.0174533.1011 = 2.2418774

0.SM11H. log

= 1.7514251

- Are. of Segment nop

180

x rl

- A,e. of tri.ngle ncp

.Jf =

log

Jlo
x rZ x .,

llength of .rc nop x rl - x (, - bl

2

= A,e. of Circle

= chord b = rise
= A,e. of Sector ncpo

= 0.0017268

= Area of Circle

= rt Uength of arc nop

angle ncp in deg,e.s

.,

1.27324 side of square

0.78540 diamate, of circle
1.41421 slda of squa,e
0.70711 diameter of circle

, = ,adius of ci,cle

Area of Segment nsp

0.3183099. log

2raln2~ = ' +.,-~

b-r+~

Not,, : logs of f,actlons such a.1 :5028501 .nd 2.5085500 ma., .Iso be w,itten 9.5028501 - 10 .nd 1.501550 - 10,espectlvely.

1.7724539. log

,,2

= 2,sln~
, - ~v'4,2 - c2 = .!.tan~
2
4

2v'2br - b2

4b2 + c2
--I-b-

A,ea 0' Secto, ncpo

Are. of Segment nop

, = ,adlus of elrcle

= 0.017483 r A'

~ = 57.2957I a

180"

6.283111' = 3.14159 d
0.31831 clrcumfe,ence
3.14159,2

VALUES FOR FUNCTIONS nF 1T

= 31.0062767. log = 1.4914496 ~

= 9 .1169604-4.

v;- =

... 3

... 2

CIRCULAR SEGMENT

CIRCULAR SECTOR

Side of square in.."ibed in circle

~;~~~:~~:~j~l~e~~~~=~:;a:':~~~ua,e

Diameter of circle of equal pe'lphery as squa,e

Rise

., =

Cho,d

A' =

Radius,

Angle

A,c

Ci,eumf ..,ence
Oiamete,
A,ea

PROPERTIES OF THE CIRCLE

en
ct>
en

-6'

a..
m

::J

Q,)

en

ct>

(")

....,

()

o-+.

en

ct>

.-+

ct>
....,

"0

-0
....,

X
()

a..

::J

ct>

l>
"0
"0

Appendix D. Surface Areas and Volumes

SURFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS

CI RCULAR RI NG (TORUS)
D and R = Mean Diameter and Mean Radius, respectively,
of Ring
d and r = Mean Diameter and Mean Radius, respectively.
of Section
Surface = ,/!,2 Dd = 4,/!,2Rr
,/!,2
Volume = 2,/!,2Rr2 = "4 Dd 2

4R?l
I
I

1 - - - - - - - - -1- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - PRISMOID
End faces are in parallel planes.
Volume =

6 (A + A' + 4M), where

l = perpendicular distance between ends

A.A' = areas of ends
M = area of mid section, parallel to ends

UNGULAS FROM RIGHT CIRCULAR CYLINDER

I.

(As formed by cutting plane oblique to base)

Base, abc, less than semicircle;
Convex Surface
= h[2re- (d X length arc abc)] + (r-d)

= h [~eL-(d X area
Base, abc, = semicircle;
Convex Surface = 2rh
Volume

II.
Ill.
I

,,I
_L

Volume = J r 2h
Base, abc, greater than semicircle (figure);
Convex Surface
= h [2re + Cd X length arc abc)] + ~ + d)

Volume = h [~e3 + (d X area base abc) + (r + d)

Base, abc, = circle, oblique plane touching circumference.
Convex Surface = '/!'rh
Volume = Y2'/!'r2h
Base. abc. = circle, oblique pl~ne entirely above (figure)
Convex Surface = 2'/!'r
X Y2 (h, minimum + H, maximum)
Volume = '/!'r2 X Y2 (h, minimum + H, maximum)

,
~

base abe)] + (r - d)

IV.
V.

ANY SOLID OF REVOLUTION

Let abcd represent the generating section about axis AA of
solid abef.
Let g at distance h from A-A be the center of gravity of abed.
Let aO be the angular amount of generating revolution.
Then
Total Surface of solid abef
= (2'/!'ha + 360) X perimeter abed
Volume of solid abef = (2'/!'ha + 360) X area abed
For complete revolution (2'/!'ha + 360) = 2'/!'h

A-a

(0

,.

t'

~~--+--->i

1<---"11---->:

{g

t\

i_

Ii

1f ~d~ ---r

~t' /~-----~~

tiI

I
I

-----~-

r---d--->1

tli

:f_

--!-

(i

,5

-f'

, --- -- y-

:
,

A.

----J,.-

~L

t)

_'L

I
I

Ii<-d-->lr
1I'd'

CYLINDER

~.

above base

+ Base Area

Surface = Sum of surfaces of bounding planes

wh
Volume ~ ""6 (I + m + n)

WEDGE

Convex = !~ (d + d') = .~ (d + d') "4h' + (d=<f')1

Surface 2
11'5
4
r
Total Surface = 2 (d + d') + 4" (d! + d'!)
Volume = ~h (dt + dd' + d'2)
12 .
h(d! 2dd' + 3d'!)
Center of GraVlty above base "" 4 Cdt + dd' + d;i)-

FRUSTUM OF CONE

Total Surface = Convex Surface + 4Volume = ~ d 2h = .~ d 2 "4s~

12
24
h
Center of Gravity above base = "4.

Convex Surface =

CONE
~2 ds = ~
"ar:t4tii
4
yd!

iii!)

Lateral Surface = s (Top + Base Perimeters) + 2

If a = top area and A = base area,
Total Surface = Lateral Surface + (a + A)
Volume = h (a + A + viA) +3
Center of Gravity = h (~~_-t-_A + 2
above base
4
a + A + "aA

FRUSTUM OF PYRAMID

Center of Gravity =

Volume = 3" X Base Area

Total Surface = Lateral Surface

Lateral Surface = ~ X Base Perimeter

PYRAMID

Lateral Surface = h X Base Perimeter

Total Surface = Lateral Surface + (2 X Base Area)
Volume = h X Base Area
Center of Gravity above Base - ~

PRISM

Volume Cylinder. right or oblique = area of section at right angles

to sides X length of side.
b
Center of Gravity above Base -

Total Surrace = rdh + '"2

Volume = .11' d'h

Convex Surface = lI'dh

SURFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS

II

____ '

~- - -

C- - -->1

, r'

~--

...

G[

__--'_~___ :1_

_td ______ i_

---1X
':d

Ii
_-t_

~----D----->{

-+-1---

~----c----->t

.--r /

~--eL-->i ---,r

...-'....... ~,'f'

L=SJ[

'J!/

.,;.,

:
::L

----:-S

1<-----<:----+1

h :-

l+---d---;:.l

:G

/2

3" Rr'

+. R (!linIe)]
-e-

Sin-'e=Angle. in radians.
whose sine ... e

Wheree=

R -

"Rt - -if

4h,>~~-r']
Total Surface - Convex Surface + rrl
,..r'h
.
h
Volume - T
Center of GraVlty = 3 above bage

Convex Surface- ;~2[ (rl +

PARABOLOID

Use common or base 10. log.

4
Volume-311'R 1r

2.303r2
+e)]
Surface = 11' [ 2R' + - -e- Iog. 1~

(1

ELLIPSOID (II. Revolution about conjugate axis)

Volume -

Surface - 211'r [ r

ELLIPSOID (I. Revolution about transverse axis)

Total Surface ... 2yrh + (c 2 + C

lI'h
Volume = 24 (Jet + 3c'1 + 4h2)

Convex Surface = 2rrh

SPHERICAL ZONE

Spherical Surface=2rrh=r(c2 +4h 2 ) + 4

Total Surface = Spherical Surface + (rc 2 + 4)
Volume = ,.-h 2(3r - h)+ 3= ,..h(3c 2 + -lh2) + 2.1
Center of gravity above base of segment = h (4r- h) +4(3r- h)

SPHERICAL SEGMENT

h)

Center of Gravity
_ ~(r
above center of sphere - , - 2

Volum'C"= ~ 1I'r2h= 1rr2( (r- ~r'L..~2)

Total Surface = i (4h+c)

lI'r

SPHERICAL SECTOR

Surface = rd 2 = 4rr2
rd J 4
Volume = Ir = j 1I'r'
Side of an equal cube = diameter of sphere X 0.806
Length of an equal cylinder = diameter of sphere X 0.6667
Center of Gravity of Half Sphere = ~r above spherical center

SPHERE

SURFACES AND VOLUMES OF SOLIDS

l>

a:

::J
......

(')

a.

::J

CD

"0
"0

Appendix E.

MISCELLANEOIJS FORIUULAS
7. Heads for Horizontal Cylindrical Tanks:

1. Area of Roofs.
UmbrelJa Roofs:
ciiamf"trr or tank in feet.

o=

Hemiellipsoidal /leads have an ellipsoidal rross section, usually

with minor axis equal to one half the major axis-that is. depth
1,4 D, or more.

=0.842
D' (when radius = diameter)
0.882 D' (when radius = 0.8 diameter)

Surface area . in 1. {
square feet
f

Conical Roof.:
Surface area in} {
square feet

=
0.787 D' (when pitch is % in 12)
= 0.792
D' (when pitch is Ilh in 12)

2. Average weights.
-490 pounds per cubic foot-specific gra\'ity 7.85

Steel

Wrought iron -485 pounds per cubic fOOl-specific gravity 7.7i

-450 pounds per cubic foot-specific gravity 7.21

Cut iron

1 cubic foot air or gu at 32- F., 760 m.m. barometer

cular weight x 0.0027855 pounds.

3. Expansion in steel pipe

feet per

}OO

= mole

0.78 inch per 100 lineal

degrees Fahrenheit chan~e in temperature

Dished or Basket Heads consist of a spherical segment nor

mally dished to a radius equal to the inside diameter' of the
tank cylinder (or within a range of 6 inches plus or minus)
and connected to. the straight cylindrical flange by a "knuckle"
whose inside radius is usually not less than 6 per cent of the
inside diatneter of the cylinder nor less than 3 times the thick
ness of the head plale. Basket heads closely approximate hemi
ellipsoidal heads.
Dumped Heads consilit of a spherical segment joining the
tank cylinder directlY without the transition "knuckle." The
radius = D. or less. This type or head is used only for pressures
of 10 pounds per square inch or less, ex{'eptin~ where a com
pression ring is placed at the junction of head and shell.
Surlace Area 0111 eads:
(7a) Hemi.ellipsoidal Heads:

= 0.412 inch per mile per de~ree Fahrenheit tempera

S = 'Ii' R' [l + KI(2-K))

S = surface area in square feet

ture chan~e.

R
K

4. Linear coefficients of expansion per degree increase

in temperature:

Per Degree
Fahrenheit
STRUCTURAL STEEL-A-7
70 to 200 F .............. 0.0000065

Per Degree
Centigrade

21.1 0 to 93C ............. .

0.0000117

STAINLESS STEEL-TYPE 304

32 to 932 OF .............. 0.0000099
0 to 500C .............. .

0.0000178

ALUMINUM
-76 to 68F .............. 0.0000128
-60 to 20C ............. .

T= 6PD

S
working preuure in pounds per square inch

= diameter of cylinder in feet

S = allowable unit working stress in pounds per square inch
=

(7d Bumped Heads:

5 = .. Rr (1
K')
S, R, and K as in formula (7a)

0/ Head$:

(7d) Hemi-ellipsoidal Heads:

R

= radius of cylinder in feet

= ratio of the
depth of the head (not including the
Onnj:e) to the ' radius of the cylinder
~lraight

(7e) Dished or Basket Heads:

Formula (7d) gives volume within practical limits.

(70 Bumped Heads:

(7b) Dished or Basket Heads:

Formula (7a) gives surface area within practical limits.

\' = %,.. K R"

5. To determine the net thickness of shells for horizontal

cylindrical pressure tanks:

ratio of the depth o( the head I not including the

straight fIanj:e) to the radius of the cylinder

The above formula isnol exact but is within limits of

practical accuracy_

Yolume
0.0000231

= radius of cylinder in feet

V = Y2 .. K RI (1 + % K'l
V, K and R as in formula (7dl

Net thickness in inches

Resulting net thickness must be corrected to gross or actual

thickness uy dh'iding by joint efficiency.

6. To determine the net thickness of heads for cylindrical

pressure tanks:
'
(6a) Ellipsoidal or Bumped Heads:

Note: K in aLove formulas may ue determined as follows:

Hemiellipsoidal heads-K is known
Dished Heads-K
MR
mR
R

= radius of knuckle in feet

= radius of cylinder in feet
MR

.\1 - I f

For IlIlmpf>d hf'ao".

T, P and" D as in formula 5

2m)

= principal radius of head in feet

T= 6PD

= M- V (M-l) (M + 1 = [M- V W-IJ

Bumped Heads- K

_ mR

m-lf
m = 0

(6b) Dished,or Basket Heads:

T = 1O.6P(MR)

8. Total Volume of a Sphere:

T, S lind P as in formula 5
MR

= principal radiuo:; of head in feet

Resulting net thickness of heads i~ both net and gross thick.

nen if one piece seamless heads are used, otherwise net thick
ness must be corrected to Jrro'lS thickness as above.
Formula~ 5 and {, mu!"t often he modified to comply with
various en~ineerin~ codes, and state and municipal reftUlalions.
Calculated ~O8!l plate thickneuet are sometime. arbitrarily
increased to provide an additional anowance (or corrosion.'

A-10

V = total volume
D = diameter of sphere in feet
V = - 0.523599 D3 Cubic Feet
V = -0.093257 D3 Barrels of 42 U.S. Gallons
Number of barrels of 42 U.S. Gallons at any inch in a true sphere
(3d-2h) h2 X .0000539681 where d is diameter of sphere and h is
depth of liquid both in inches.
The desired volume must include appropriate ullage for the stored
liquid.

Appendix E. (Cont'd)

MISCELLANEOUS FORMULAS
(CONTINUED)
9. Total volume or length of shell in cylindrical tank with ellipsiodal or hemispherical heads:
V

Total volume

Length of cylindrical
shell

KD

Depth of head

= '7iD2 (L +

(V

1'/3 KD

10. Volume or contents of partially filled horizontal cylindrical

tanks:
(lOa) Tank cylinder or shell (straight portion only)

R2L[(;8~O)

- sin

Note: To obtain the volume or quantity of liquid in partially filled tanks, add
the volume per formula (lOa) for the cylinder or straight portion to twice
(for 2 heads) the volume per formula (lOb), (I0e) or (lOd) for the type of
head concerned.

11. Volume or contents of partially fined herni-ellipsoidal heads

with major axis vertical:

e cos e ]

partially filled volume or

contents in cubic feet

radius of cylinder in feet

length of straight portion of cylinder in feet

v
R

The straight portion or flange of the heads must be considered a part of

the cylinder. The length of flange depends upon the diameter of tank
and thickness of head but ranges usually between 2 and 4 inches.
a
A
~

Cos

=
=

a ratio
1 - ~. or

Q
R-a

= degrees

partially filled volume or

contents in cubic feet

total volume of one head

per formula (7d)

R=
~

radius of cylinder in feet

1Y2 V A (l - Y.l

~2)

KR =

~ KR = depth
of liquid in feet

a ratio

"<

'"><
'"
>0:

(lIb) Lower Head:

.
a ratio

Radius of cylinder

(lOb) Hemi-ellipsoidal Heads:

Q
3;4 V ~2 (l - 1f3~)

Total volume of one

head per formula
(7d)

01a) Upper Head:

R=

e =

= Partially filled volume

or contents in cubic
feet

in feet

R = depth of liquid in feet

Dished or Basket Heads:

Formula (1 Ob) gives partially filled volume within practical
limits, and formula (7d) gives V within practical limits.

OOd) Bumped Heads:

Formula (lOb) gives partially filled volume within practical
limits, and formula (7f) gives V.

1'/3 KD)

7i~2)

(l0e)

R = depth of liquid in feet

A-11

1'h V A2 (1 -

1m

~ KR = depth
of liquid in feet

= a ratio

Y.l~)

.....a.
N

1.3

0+~)

or

--4-

3p O

+ 4.5pO

~;.60 (~ +f)

+1.950

0.20830

90 0

90 0

Belt line Stres s

(pound s)

NOTE: All dimensions expressed in feet; H

Angle at edge

trX\~ -3

0+~)

0+~)

o
90 0

(0 2

4X2)

"X\:4 - T

+ 6p O
-6 p O or

-2.60

+2.60

0.15630

0.14390

6p r

2.6r (H + h)

12r - 4h

8rh - 3h

gh (roughly)

calculate
sector - V

calculate angle

2"rh

calculate

0.0796WO

Height).
load.

colculafe

O.3183W~r2 -~
o

calculate new
calculate
vol. on basis
vol. V - vol.V (h _ x) & subtract

2.6 H Do

3h

-.-

2h

Dh

-2-

=water elev. above belt line (Shell

=total load carried, including dead

)
X2)1,trX\T
l02 _ 3X 2
T

+f) 0

(0 2

3p O

(H

0.31250

Partial Volume
within depth X
(cu. ft.)

Stress due to
Gas pressure
"p" Ibs per
Inch

Stress (water)
Ibs. per inch

of Mass

V to Centroid

Prol. Ar.

0.19190

0.19640 2

0.26180 2

0.39270 2

Projected Area

0.28780

1.2110

1.3220

1.57080

Length of Arc

V to Centroid

"Do

-2-

1.0840 2

1.240'

1.5710'

Surface, sq. ft.

30 0

O.276W

0.04510

0.0560

38.67 0

0.198W

0.05960

0.07550

('.11950 2

1.0800

1.04720
0.09060 2

0.88220 2

0.53670'

0.071750'

0.17550

0.84180 2

0.40310 '

1.95840'h

0.97920'

1.30560'

1.95840'

Volume, gals.

7.833h 2 (3r-h)

0.1340

r -0

0.05390'

1.0472h 2(3r"':h)

0.26180 2 h

0.17450'

0.13090'

STD. UMBRELLA SHAPES

~y ~y
I,

~~T~
H

0.26180'

o
"4

Volume, cu.ft.

3"

2"

Depth or RI Ie

~~~~Yr\xrl

r ~E~~l rj~x ~~I~.

SEGMENTAL

Appendix F. Properties of Roof and Bottom Shapes

90 0

0.45430

0.44640 2

1.66610'

90 0

0.66020

0.56390 2

1.96350

2.44810'

2.07720 1

o
0.32720'

0.27770'

0.7070

90 0

0.10000

0.12550 2

1.10430

0.92860 2

0.60590'

0.08100 J

0.1690

O.R.=O
K.R. = .060

~~m
0

90 CONISPH. 60 CQNISPH F & 0 HEAD

, Appendix G. Columns for Cone Roof Framing - Flat Bottom' Storage Tanks
Pipe Columns
Column Length and
Allowable Load

Pipe
Dia

Sch
Thickness

lIr

Max
Length

40
.280
20
.250
40
.322
20
.250
40
.365
20
.250
40
.375
10
.250

180
175
180
175
180
175
180
175
180
175
180
175
180
175
180
175

33/-8
32/-9
44/-3
43/-3
44/-2
42/-10
55/-8
54/-1
55/-0
53/-6
66/-4
64/-6
65/-9
64/-0
83/-6
81/-4

10

12

16

A WWA DIOO-84 Column Formulas

=[

18 000

L2

Max Load
@

lIr

kips

36.8
37.6
43.3
44.4
55.3
56.6
54.3
55.5
78.5
80.2
64.6
66.1
96.0
98.0
81.4
83.2

Weight Area
Ih/ft sq. in.

I
in.4

in. 3

in.

19.0

5.58

28.1

8.5

2.25

22.4

6.58

57.7

13.4

2.96

28.6

8.40

72.5

16.8

2:94

28.0

8.25

113.7

21.2

3.71

40.5

11.91

160.8

29.9

3.67

33.4

9.82

191.9

30.1

4.42

49.6

14.58

279

43.8

4.38

42.1

12.37

384

48.0

5.57

Maximum permissible slenderness ratios Llr shall be

175 for columns carrying roof loads only. ,'
The maximum permissible compressive stress for
tubular columns and struts shall be determined by the
formula

The maximum permissible unit stress for structural columns shall be determined by the formula

A '

Properties

= Xy

P
A

18000r2

in which X is the smaller of

or 15,000 psi, whichever is less.

Where:
P = the total axial load, in pounds.
A = the cross-sectional area, in square inches.
L = the effective length of the column, in inches.
, = the least radius of gyration, in inches.

18000

L2

+--18 000,2

or 15 000 psi and

for values of tlR less than 0.015, and unity (1.00) for
values of tlR equal to or exceeding 0.015.
Where:
P = the total axial load, in pounds.
A = the cross-sectional area, in square inches.
L = the effective length, in inches.
, = the least radius of gyration, in inches.
R = the radius of the tubular member to the
exterior surface, in inches.
t = the thickness of the tubular member, in
inches (minimum allowable thickness is IA in.).

A-13

API Standard 650

The maximum allowable compression shall not exceed
the following limits:
For columns on cross-sectional area, when Llr $
120 (See Note 1),

Crna = [ 1 When 120

< Llr $

Crna

(Llr)
34,700

33,000Y )
FS

131.7 (see Note 2),

(Llr) 2
34,700

33,OOOY )
FS
------~~~~~--~--~
1.6 - (L;200r)
[

1 _

When Llr> 131.7

crna

where:
Crna = maximum allowable compression , in pounds per
square inch.
L
= unbraced length of column, in inches.
r
= least radius of gyration of column, in inches.
Y
= 1.0 for structural or tubular sections having tlR
values greater than or equal to 0.015

149,000,000Y
(Llr)2[1.6 - (L;200r)]

Note 1: The allowable stresses, not including Y, are

tabulated in AISC S 310-311. Specifications for the
Design, Fabrication, and Erection of Structural Steel for
Buildings (1969), Table 1-33, column headed "Main and
Secondary Members."
Note 2: The allowable stresses, not including Y, are
tabulated in AISC S 310-11, Table 1-33, column headed
, 'Secondary Members."

2~ (

)] [ 2 _

2~0 (

;)]

for tubular sections having t/R values less than

0.015.
= thickness of the tubular section, in inches, less any
specified corrosion allowance. (The minimum
thickness, including any currosion allowance on
the exposed side or sides ., shall not be less than 114
inch for main compression members or %6 inch
for bracing or other secondary members.)
R = outside radius of tubular section, in inches.
FS = safety factor
= ~ + Llr _ _ -l,;;(L;;..;.I:..t.r)_3_
3
350
18,300,000
For main compression members, Llr shall not exceed 180.

A-t4

(]1

K
mol
cd

Symbol
m
kg
s

SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS
Quantity
Unit
Symbol
plane angle radian
rad
solid angle steradian sr

joule
watt

Unit
newton
pascal
N/m2
Nm

J/s

J
W

kgm/s 2

Formula

Symbol
N
Pa

10 18
10 15
10 12
109
106
103
102
10 1
10- 1
10- 2
10- 3
10- 6
10- 9
10- 12
10- 15
10- 18

Prefix
exa
peta
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto b
deka b
decib
centib
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto

E380-79 for more complete information on 51.

Use is not recommended.

1 000 000 000 000 000 000

1 000 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000
1 000000000
1000000
1000
100
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.000001
0.000 000 001
0.000000000001
0.000 000 000 000 001
0.000 000000 000 000 001

SI PREFIXES
Multiplication Factor

Quantity
area
volume
velocity
acceleration
specific volume
density

f
a

da
d
c
m

T
G

Symbol

DERIVED UNITS (WITHOUT SPECIAL NAMES)

Formula
Unit
m2
square metre
m3
cubic metre
m/5
metre per second
m/5 2
metre per second squared
m 3 /kg
cubic metre per kilogram
kg/m 3
kilogram per cubic metre

force
pressure, stress
energy, work,
quantity of heat
power

Quantity

a Refer to A5TM

Unit
metre
kilogram
second
ampere
kelvin
mole
candela

DERIVED UNITS (WITH SPECIAL NAMES)

length
mass
time
electric current
thermodynamic temperature
amount of substance
luminous intensity

BASE UNITS
Quantity

(Metric practice)

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

International System of Units (SI)a

=
=

Square feet
.006944
1.0
9.0
272.25
43560.0

Feet
.08333
1.0
3.0
16.5
660.0
5280.0

=
=

Gills
Pints
1.0 = .25
4.0 = 1.0
8.0 = 2.0
32.0 = 8.0

Pints
Quarts
1.0
.5
2.0
1.0
8.0
16.0
51.42627
25.71314
64.0
= 32.0

4.0

Quarts
.125
.5
1.0
4.0

Acres

Bushels
.01563
.03125
.25
.80354
1.0

Cubic

Cubic
Feet
.01945
.03891
.31112
1.0
1.2445 ,

.000207
.00625
1.0
640.0

Gallons
Feet
.03125 = .00418
.125
.01671
.250
.03342
1.0
.1337
7.48052 = 1.0

U.S.

LIQUID MEASURE

Pecks
.0625
.125
1.0
3.21414

DRY MEASURE

SQUARE AND LAND MEASURE

Square Yards
Sq. Rods
.000772
.111111
1.0
.03306
30.25
1.0
160.0
4840.0
3097600.0
102400.0

.0000098
.0015625
1.0

Sq. Miles

LINEAR MEASURE
Furlongs
Miles
Rods
Yards
.00012626 = .00001578
.02778 =
.0050505
.00151515
.00018939
.0606061
.33333
.1818182 = .00454545 = .00056818
1.0
1.0
5.5
.025
.003125
1.0
.125
220.0
40.0
1760.0
= 320.0
8.0
= 1.0

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHTS
Grains
Drams
Pounds
Tons
Ounces
1.0
.03657
.002286
.000143 = .0000000714
27.34375 =
1.0
.0625
.00000195
.003906
437.5
1.0
.0625
.00003125
16.0
16.0
1.0
.0005
7000.0
256.0
14000000.0
512000.0
32000.0
2000.0
1.0

SQ. Inches
1.0
144.0
1296.0
39204.0

Inches
1.0
12.0
36.0
198.0
7920.0
63360.0

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

United States System

en

o-,

.-+

Q)

11

:J

en

Cb
-,

<

:J

()

:r:

0..

:J

(1)

"0
"0

Quantity

Multiply
by

inch
foot
yard
mile

2.204622
1.102 311 x 10- 3

kilogram

ounce
(avoirdupois)
pound
(avoirdupois)
short ton

35.273966 x 10-3

gram

cubic inch
cubic foot
cubic yard
gallon (U.S.
liquid)
quart (U.S.
liquid)
gram
kilogram
kilogram

kilogram

in2
ft2
yd 2
mi2

m2

m2
m2
km2

mm 2

yd
mi

ft

in

mm
m
m
km

Ib av

oz av

kg
kg

qt

in3
ft3
yd 3
gal

cubic miRimetre mm3

cubic metre
m3
cubic metre
m3
litre
I
I
litre

square
square
square
square
acre
acre

square
millimetre
square metre
squ.are metre
square
kilometre
square metre
hectare

inch
foot
yard
mile

28.34952
0.453592
0.907 185 x 103

1.056688

61.023759 x 10-6
35.314662
1.307951
0.264172

b16.387 06 x 103
28.31685 x 10-3
0.764555
3.785412
0.946353

1.550003 x 10-3
10.763910
1.195990
0.386101
0.247 104 x 10-3
2.471044

4.046873 x
0.404687
103

x 103

to obtain
millimetre
metre
metre
kilometre

ounce (avoirdupois)
pound (avoirdupois)
short ton

litre

cubic-millimetre
cubic metre
cubic. metre
litre

cubic inch
cubic foot
cubic yard
gallon (U.S. liquid)
quart (U.S. liquid)

square millimetre
square metre
square metre
square kilometre
square metre
hectare

b 0.092903

square foot
square yard
square mile
(U.S. Statute)
acre
acre
0.836127
2.589998

b 0.645160

39.370079 x 10-3
3.280840
1.093613
0.621370

1.609347

b25.400
b 0.304800
b 0.914400

square inch

millimetre
metre
metre
kilometre

inch
foot
yard
mile (U.S. Statute)

Refer to ASTM E380-79 for more complete information on SI.

b Indicates exact value.

Mass

Volume

Area

Length

SI C'ONVERSION FACTORSa

0.238846
0.277 778 x 10-6

joule
joule

t"C = (tOF x 32)/1 .8

t~ = 1.8 x to C +
32
b

kW

kW.h

Btu

ft.lbf

J
J
J
J

degree Celsuis
degree
Fahrenheit

radian
degree

rad

ft.lbfls
foot-poundforce/second
eBritish thermal Btu/h
unit per hour
horsepower
hp
(550 ft . lbl/s)

Refer to ASTM E380-79 for more complete information on SI.

Indicates exact value.
e International Table

degree Fahrenheit
degree Celsius

Temperature

17.45329 x 10.3
57.295788

1.341022

kilowatt
ree
ddl
ra Ian

3.412141

0.737562

kilowatt

0.745700

watt

foot-poundforce
eBritish termal
unit
ecalorie
kilowatt hour

joule
joule
joule
joule

watt

watt

watt

kPa
kPa

kPa

Ibf.ft

Ibf.in

Ibflin2
pound-force
per square
Inch
foot of water
(39.2 F)
inch of mercury
(32 F)

kilopascal
kilopascal

0.293071

1.355818

0.947817 x 10-3
joule

foot-pound-force/
second
eBritish thermal unit per
hour
horsepower (550 ft.
Ibfls)

0.737562

joule

0.295301

kilopascal

1.355818
1.055056 x 103
4.186800
3.600 000 x 106

0.334562

kilopascal

foot-pound-force
eBritish thermal unit
ecalorie
kilowatt hour

0.145038

2.98898
3.38638

6.894757

kilopascal

pound-force per
square inch
foot of water (39.2 F)
inch of mercury (32 F)

kilopascal

pound-forceinch
pound-forcefoot

0.737562

8.850748

newton-metre

newton-metre

N.m
N.m

Ibf

newton-metre
newton-metre

ounce-force
pound-force

0.112985
1.355818

3.596942
0.224809

newton
newton

N
N

newton
newton

to obtain

pound-force-inch
pound-force-foot

0.278014
4.448222

by

ounce-force
pound-force

Multiply

Angle

Power

Energy,
Work,
Heat

Pressure,
Stress

Bending
Moment

Force

Quantity

SI CONVERSION FACTORSa

a:

.-+

:J

(")

0..

:J

Cl)

'0
'0

Appendix H. (Cont'd)

SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHTS OF

VARIOUS LIQUIDS
Liquid
Acetaldehyde
Acetic Acid
Acetic Anhydride
Acetone
Aniline
Asphaltum
Bromine
Carbon DisulfIde
Carbon Tetrachloride
Castor Oil
Caustic Soda, 66% Solution
Chloroform
Citric Acid
Cocoanut Oil
Colza Oil (Rape Seed Oil)
Corn Oil
Cottonseed Oil
Creosote
Dimethyl Aniline
Ether
Ethyl Acetate
Ethyl Chloride
Ethyl Ether
FOr"maldehyde
HI Fuel Oil
1/2 Fuel Oil
1/4 Fuel Oil
1/5 Fuel Oil
1/6 Fuel Oil
Furfural
Gasoline (Motor Fuel)
Glucose
Glycerin
Hydrochloric Acid, 43.4% Sol.
Kerosene
Lal~tic Acid
Lard Oil
Linseed Oil-Raw
Linseed Oil-Boiled
Mercury
Molasses
Naphthalene
Neallfoot Oil
Nitric Acid. 91 % Solution
Olive Oil
Peanut Oil
Phenol
Pitch
Rosin Oil
Soy Bean Oil
Sperm Oil
Sulfer Dioxide
Sulfuric Acid. 87% Solution
Tar
Tetrachloroethane
Trichloroethylene
Tung Oil
Turpentine
Water (Sea)
Water (0 0 C)
Water (20 0 C)
Whale Oil

At Tei!'
of 0

7f,ecific

Weight in
Lbs. per

ral:lly

u.s. Cal.

Weight in
Lbs. ~er
Cu. t.

64.4
68.0
68.0
68.0
68.0
68.0
68.0
68.0
68.0
59.0
68.0
68.0
68.0
59.0
68.0
59.0
60.8
59.0
68.0
77.0
68.0
42.8
77.0
68.0
60.0
60.0
60.0
60.0
60.0
68.0
60.0
77.0
32.0
60 . 0
68.0
59.0
59.0
68.0
59.0
68.0
68.0
68.0
59.0
68.0
59.0
59.0
77.0
68.0
68.0
59.0
59.0
80.0

0.783
1.049
1.083
0.792
1.022
1.1-1.5
3.119
1.263
1.595
0.969
1.70
1.489
1.542
0.926
0.915
0.921-0.928
0.926
1.040-1.100
0.956
0.708
0.901
0.917
0.712-0.714
1.139
0.80-0.85
0.81-0.91
0.84-1.00
0.91-1.06
0.92-1.08
1.159
0.70-0.76
1.544
1.260
1.213
0.82
1.249
0.913-{).915
0.93
0:942
13.595
1.47
1.145
0.913-0.918
1.502
0.915-0.920
0.917-0.926
1.071
1.07-1.15
0.98
0.924-0.927
0.878-0.884
1.363
1.834
1.2
1.596
1.464
0.939-0.949
0.87
1.025
1.00
0.998
0.917-0.924

6.52
8.74
9.0:
6.60
8.51
9.2-1i5
25.98
10.52
13.28
8.07
14.16
12.40
12.84
7.71
7.62
7.67-7.73
7.71
8.66-9.2
7.96
5.90
7.50
7.64
5.93-5.95
9.49
6.7-7.1
6.7-7.6
7.0-8.3
7.6-8.8
7.7-9.0
9.65
5.8-6.3
12.86
10.49
10.10
6.83
10.40
7.60-7.62
7.8
7.84
113.23
12.2
9.54
7.60-7.65
12.51
7.62-7.66
7.64-7.71
8.92
8.91-9.58
8.61
7.70-7.72
7.31-7.36
11.35
15.27
10.0
13.29
12.19
7.82-7.90
7.25
8.54
8.34
8.32
7.64-7.70

49
65
68
49
64
69-94
195
79
100
60
106
93
96
58 .
57
57-58
58
65-69
60
44
56
57
44-45

64.4

68.0
68.0
68.0
59.0
68.0
59.0
39.2
68.0
59.0

A-17

71

50-53
51-57
52-62
57-66
57-67
72
44-47
96
79
76
51
78
57
58
59
849
92
71
57
9.4
57
57
73
67-72
61
58
55
85
114
75
100
91
59
54
64
62.4
62.3
57

The parameters given are

approximate for estimating purposes
only. The properties of the stored
liquid should be determined
analytically and used in the final
design.

Appendix H. (Cont/d)

A.P.I. AND BAUME GRAVITY AND WEIGHT FACTORS

The relation of Degrees Baume or A.P.I. to Specific Gravity is expressed by
the following formuJas:
For liquids lighter than willer:
Degrees Baume

= 140 - 130,
G

Degrees A.P.I.

=~ G

131.5,

For liquids heavier tluJn water:

Degrees Baume = 145 _ 145,
G

= ~::-:--:::-_140_-:::-_-:130 + Degrees Baume

G = -===:-:-~1~4_1._5~-:::-':""
131.5 + Degrees A.P.I.

Formulas are based on the weight of 1 gallon (U.S.) of oil with a volume of
231 cubic inches at 60 degrees Fahrenheit in air at 760 m.m. pressure and 50 %
humidity. Assumed weight of 1 gallon of water at 60 Fahrenheit in air is
8.32828 pounds.

To determine the resulting gravity by mixing oils of different gravities:

D

= md.m++ndn

= Density or Specific Gravity of mixture

Proportion of oil of d density
= Proportion of oil of d density
= Specific Gravity of moil
='Specific Gravity of n oil

D
m~
n
d1
d2

=...."....,.,,,...-..,,,,-._14_5-,,,...--..,.
145 - Degrees Baume

G
Specific Gravity
ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil at 60
Fabrehelt to the weight of the same volume of water at 6()0 Fahrenheit.

PRESSURE EQUIVALENTS
PRESSURE
lib. per sq. in.

= 2.31 ft. water at 60F

= 2.04 in. hg at 60 F
= 0.433 lb. per sq. in.
= 0.884 in. hg at 60 F
= 0.49 lb. per sq. in.
= 1.13 ft. water at ~F
= lb. per sq. in. gauge (psig) + 14.7
0

1 ft. water at 600f

1 in. Hg at 6()OF
lb. per sq. in.
Absolute (psia)

A-18

Appendix H. (Cont'd)

WIRE AND SHEET METAL GAGES

Equivalent thickness in decimals of an inch

GaOl
No.

7/0
610
510
4/0
310
2)0
1/0

3
4
5
6
7
8

9
10
l'

12

u.s. SUncWd

GalvaniUd

GaOl tor
Uncoated

Sheet Gaoe
lor Hot-Dlpped

Hot & Cold

Zinc Coated
Rolled Sheets'
Sheets'

---

.2391

.2242
.2092
.1943
.1793
.1644
.1495

.1345
,1196
,1046

' ,'

--

-,
.1661
.1532
."382
.1233
,1084

u.s. SWidard

USA
Stut
Wire Gaoe ,

A90
.46~

.430.394.362"
.331
.306

.283
.2S~

"

.244.225&
.207
.192

Gage
No.

13
14
15
16
17
16
19
20
21
22

23
24
25
26
27
28

.1n

.162
.148,135
.120:106-

29

30

Galvanized
Gaoo tor
Sheet Gaoe
Uncoated for HotDipped
Hot & Cold
Zinc: Coated
Rolled Sheets'
Shoets'

.0897
.0747
.0673
.0598
.0538
.0478
.0418
.0359
.0329
.0299
.0269
.0239
.0209
.0179
.0164
.0149

USA
Steel
Wire Gaoe

.0934

.09~

.0785

.060
.072

.0710
.0635
.0575
.0516
.0456
.0396
.0366
.0336
.0306
.0276
.0247
.0217

.0202
.0167
.0172
.0157

.06~

.054
.048.041
.035-

--

--

&Rounded value. The steel wire gage has been taken from ASTM AS10 "General Require.
ments for Wire Rods and Coarse Round Wire, Cartxm Steel", Sizes originally quoted to 4
decimal equivalent places have been rounded to 3 decimal places in accordance with
rounding procedures of ASTM "Recommended Practice" E29.
b

The equivalent thicknesses are for intonnation only. The product is commonly specified to
decimal thickness, not to gage number.

A-19

IJ
n
IJ