Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CH 7
CH 7
241
Bernard Lewis, What Went Wrong? The Clash between Islam and Modernity in the Middle
Mawil Izzi Dien, Islam and the Environment: Theory and Practice, Journal of Beliefs &
98
Fazlun M. Khalid, Islam and the Environment, in Peter Timmerman (ed.) Encyclopedia
of Global Environmental Change, Volume 5, Social and Economic Dimensions of Global Environmental Change, (Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, 2002), pp. 332-339.
244
Hussein A. Amery, Islam and the Environment, in Naser I. Faruqui, Asit K. Biswas, and
Murad J. Bino (eds.) Water Management in Islam (Tokyo: United Nations University Press,
2001), pp. 39-48.
will (taqwa) and are thus accountable for their actions. Humans will
accordingly be held accountable for any acts of destruction committed
against the earth (2:205, 7:85). Wastefulness, overconsumption and
hoarding are also forbidden (7:31). The protection and regulation of
water and watercourse are central requests in the Quran and are to
be regarded as common property (54:28). 245
Among the important hadiths concerning water are Prophet
Muhammads prohibition to his followers to waste water, even in
situations where it is abundant or when it is used for holy purposes
(Musnad ii, 22), and his saying: Muslims have [a] common share in
three things: grass (pasture), water and fire (fuel) (Abu-Dawood
3470) is telling.246 Prophet Muhammad also decreed that no more
than an ankle depth of water could be taken for irrigation. One ankle
was to be sufficient for one season. According to the hadith of Muslim
(553), Muhammad forbade urination into stagnant water. Muslim
scholars have annexed penalties to the misuse of water, including
the pollution or degradation of clean water. This could lead to the
punishing or fining of acts of pollution through modern contemporary
legislation.247
General concepts in sharia with explicit references to the
environment are harim and hima. The institution of the protected zone,
harim, prohibits the development of certain areas, mainly riverbanks,
for the purposes of protecting watersheds. A related institution is
preservation, hima, which usually entailed the protection of trees
and wildlife. Some traditional harims and himas still exist today, but
they are greatly reduced from former times and are on the wane. 248
There are two clear principles regulating water demand
management in the Quran. The first is that the supply of water is
fixed (40:18) and the second is that water should not be wasted
(7:31). The interpretation is that water demand must at some point
be managed because supplies cannot be increased indefinitely. There
are two hadiths which illustrate this even more clearly. According
245
Richard C. Foltz, Ecology and Religion: Ecology and Islam, in Lindsay Jones (ed.) Encyclo-
pedia of Religion, Second Edition (Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005), pp. 2651-2654.
246
Naser I. Faruqui, Islam and Water Management: Overview and Principles, in Faruqui et al.
(eds.) Water Management in Islam (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2001), pp. 1-32.
247
248
100
250
Ibid., p. 16.
sense of equity in Islam is clearly not being fulfilled and the right to
slake ones thirst (haq al shafa) is being compromised.251
Water distribution has clear-cut legislation in Islam. In general
terms, the rules are based on the principle of benefiting all those who
share the watercourse, which includes groundwater and wells. Water
rules are laid down according to the origin of the water source and
these are divided according to the size of the source, the kind of water
it provides and its usage. The sources are divided into rivers, water
springs, wells and rainwater. Rivers are divided into natural rivers,
large and small rivers, human-dug canals and irrigation channels.
Large public rivers (anhr amma) such as the Tigris, the Euphrates
and the Nile belong, according to the standard textbooks of Islamic
law, to the entire community and everyone can benefit from them,
providing that no harm is caused to others. The right of flowing water
(haqq al-majra) is recognized and protected in Islam.252
Water ownership
Water cannot be privately owned in its natural state since it is
considered common property and a gift from God. Restrictions on
common use increase with the growing scarcity but possessors with
usufruct rights, according to Islam, may not withhold water that is
surplus to their own needs. Farmers who develop land for irrigation
agriculture have the right to a fair share of the available water.
Irrigation water may not be withheld from livestock unless damage
to irrigation facilities or failure of crops is likely to result. 253
Even though water cannot be privately owned in the strictest
sense, three categories of water ownership have developed based on
the conclusions of Muslim scholars. Since it is better according to a
hadith (Muslim 1727) to go to the woods and cut and sell timber than
it is to beg people for help, individuals and groups have the right to
use, sell and add value costs to most categories of water. If the water
251
252
253
Othman Abd-Ar-Rahman Llewellyn, in Richard C. Foltz, Frederick M. Denny & Azizan Ba-
haruddin (eds.) The Basis for a Discipline of Islamic Environmental Law, Islam and Ecology.
A Bestowed Trust (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003), pp. 185-247.
102
254
255
256
257
Ibid., p. 205.
258
104
260
Ibid., p. 22.
261
Sadok Atallah, M. Z. Ali Khan & Mazen Malkawi, Water Conservation through Public
Awareness Based on Islamic Teachings in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, in Faruqui et al.
(eds.) Water Management in Islam, (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2001), pp. 49-60.
262
263
Atallah, Khan & Malkawi, Water Conservation through Public Awareness, pp. 49-50, 57.
264
106
religious values and rules are among the most effective factors
affecting and shaping individuals behaviour and attitudes towards
various issues of life.266 There is a growing environmental awareness
in the Levant that can be observed, for example, in the teachings
in mosques and religious schools. Some scholars argue that these
forums constitute an effective domain for reaching people. However,
environmental awareness programmes should not be confined to this
domain, but should also extend to the education system as a whole.267
Literacy, including water management and environmental literacy, is
a never-ending process, which should be continuously promoted and
encouraged at all levels and in all sectors. If environmental literacy
were understood in a broader sense, through the inclusion of the
social, cultural and ecological dimensions, this would also work for
the goals of effective education.268 Unfortunately, this method has not
been efficiently used. Water conservation must involve everyone and
requires a change in behaviour, which involves social and financial
costs. Isolated projects or activities will not achieve the required
results.269
Concluding remarks
As a recognized political and social power in the Levant, Islam as
a holistic approach is best attained when considered in its local
context. For example, according to the Iraqi scholar Mawil Izzi Dien,
the main environmental problems in the Middle East are caused by a
disruption of the prevalent value system due to a decline in morals:
when spiritual or ethical values are not recognized as commercially
important, this leads to a severe cultural rupture that takes people
further away from their natural associations with the environment.
In order to reverse the alienation from this natural relationship, Dien
suggests reverting to the traditional Islamic relationship between
266
267
268
269
Atallah, Khan & Malkawi, Water Conservation through Public Awareness, p. 53.
humans and the earth270 while bearing in mind that Islam is not a
magic word that can be uttered to solve all problems. As Dien writes:
Islam as a religion has many difficulties when it comes to practice,
not to mention those that have developed over the last fourteen
centuries due to misunderstandings, misinterpretations, and
misappropriation. Islam can only make sense if it is taken as a
system and utilized in such a way that makes it applicable within
the notion of submission to the paradigm of tawhd that governs
the whole.271
Even though not all states in the Levant are outspokenly Islamic in
their constitutions, it does not mean that Islam as a religion or social
and political force would be diminished. On the contrary, it is argued
here that Islam is one of the key elements shaping a common identity
between the states in the Levant. This shared identity could then
become beneficial in resolving not only the regions environmental
problems, but also issues related to water distribution. Most of the
countries in the Levant consider water distribution pivotal in solving
many of the economic problems, such as those related to industry
and irrigation.272
This chapter has presented general Islamic principles regarding
environmental and water management and governance, based on the
Quran and hadiths. It has emphasized Islam as a social and political
power, as well as its possible role in helping to resolve transboundary
water issues and increase awareness of water conservation. While the
chapter has sought to demonstrate the versatility and universality of
these religious principles and has given examples of their potential
practical applications, the extent to which Islam actually influences
practices in Muslim societies is a largely uncharted area. In general,
there has to date been very limited research on the impact of Islam on
environmental practices. In order to conceptualize the contemporary
environmental situation in this regard, further research and fieldwork
is of immediate interest.
270
271
Ibid.
272
Ibid., p. 54.
108