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Electronics Ch1
Electronics Ch1
Electronics Ch1
Chapter Outline
1.1 Signals
1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signals
1.3 Analog and Digital Signals
1.4 Amplifiers
1.5 Circuit Models for Amplifiers
1.6 Frequency Response of Amplifiers
1.7 Intrinsic Semiconductors
1 8 Doped Semiconductors
1.8
1.9 Current Flow in Semiconductors
1.10 The pn Junction with Open-Circuit Terminals
1.11 The pn Junction with Applied Voltage
1.12 Capacitive Effects in the pn Junction
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1.1 Signals
Signal processing
Signals can be of a variety of forms in order to carry information from the physical world.
It is most convenient to process signals by electronic system, therefore, the signals are first converted into
an electric form (voltage or current) by transducers.
Input Signal
(voice, speed,
pressure, etc.)
Signal
Processor
Transducer
Electric Signals
Transducer
Electric Signals
v(t)
Output Signal
(voice, speed,
pressure, etc.)
v(t)
t
Signal sources
Thevenin form: (voltage source vs + series resistance Rs)
Presenting the signal by voltage form.
Is preferred when Rs is low.
Norton form: (current source is + shunt resistance Rs)
Presenting the signal by current form.
Is preferred when Rs is high.
In electronics systems, the signal is taken from one of the two forms for analysis.
Two forms are interchangeable with vs(t) = is(t) Rs.
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va(t)
Va
Periodic signal
The fundamental frequency of periodic signal is defined as 0 = 2/T.
A periodic signal can be expressed as the sum of sinusoids at harmonic frequencies (n0) by Fourier series.
v(t )
Time-domain representation
44V
V
1
1
(sin 0t sin 30t sin 50t ...)
3
5
Frequency-domain representation
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Non-periodic signal
The Fourier transform is applied to a non-periodic function of time.
The spectrum of a non-periodic signal contains all possible frequencies.
Time-domain representation
Frequency-domain representation
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v(t)
Data conversion
...
Analog
input
vA
Digital signal
b0
b1 Digital
output
bN-1
...
D/A
converter
Sampling
Quantization
3
2
1
Analog
vD
output
vD b0 2 0 b1 21 ....bN 2 N 1
vA = vD + quantization error
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3,3,3,2,3,3
t
Quantization error
1-5
1.4 Amplifiers
Gain of amplifiers
Voltage gain Av vO / vI
Current gain Ai iO / iI
Power gain Ap vO iO / vI iI
Amplifier gains are dimensionless (ratio of similarly dimensioned quantities).
Voltage and current gain can be positive or negative depending on the polarity of the voltage and current.
The gain is frequently expressed in decibels:
Voltage gain Av (dB) 20 log | Av |
Current gain Ai (dB) 20 log | Ai |
Power gain Ap (dB) 10 log | Ap |
Gain > 0 dB | A | > 1 (amplification)
Gain < 0 dB | A | < 1 (attenuation)
The polarity of the voltage and current is not shown in dB expression.
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Amplifier saturation
Practically, the amplifier transfer characteristic remains linear
over only a limited range of input and output voltages.
The amplifier can be used as a linear amplifier for input swing:
L/Av vI L+/Av vO = AvvI
For input larger than the swing limitation, the output waveform
will be truncated, resulting in nonlinear distortion.
The nonlinearity properties can be expressed as:
vO = a0 + a1vI + a2vI2 + a3vI3 ..
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VI
vI (t ) VI vi (t )
vO (t ) VO vo (t )
vo (t ) Av vi (t )
dv
Av O |at Q
dvI
vI
vI (t)
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Symbol convention:
dc quantities: IC, VD
Incremental (ac) quantities: ic(t), vd(t)
Total instantaneous (ac + dc) quantities: iC(t), vD(t)
iC(t) = IC + ic(t)
vD(t) = VD + vd(t)
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Voltage amplifiers
A simplified two-port model is widely used for unilateral voltage amplifiers
Voltage Amplifier
Voltage gain: Av
1-10
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ix
vx
Ri vx/ix
ix
vx
Ro vx/ix
vo
vx
Avo vo/vx
1-11
Cascade amplifier
Multiple stages of amplifiers may be cascaded to meet the application requirement
The analysis can be performed by replacing each stage with the voltage amplifier model
Buffer amplifier
Impedance mismatch may result in a reduced voltage swing at the load
Buffer amplifier can be used to alleviate the problem
The gain of the buffer amplifier can be low (~1)
The buffer amplifier has high input resistance and low output resistance
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Amplifier types
Voltage amplifier: gain of interest is defined by vo/vi (V/V)
Current amplifier: gain of interest is defined by io/ii (A/A)
Transconductane amplifier: gain of interest is defined by io/vi (-1)
Transimpedance amplifier: gain of interest is defined by vo/ii ()
Amplifier models
Voltage Amplifier
Transconductance Amplifier
Current Amplifier
Transimpedance Amplifier
Unilateral models
The amplifier models considered are unilateral; that is, signal flow only from input to output.
The model is simply and easy to use such that analysis can be simplified.
Not all amplifiers are unilateral and more complicated models may be needed for the analysis.
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Transconductance Amplifier
vo = Avovi RL / (RL+Ro)
vo / vs = Avo[[Ri /(R
( i+Rs)][
)][RL /(R
( L+Ro)]
For ideal case (Ri , Ro 0): vo / vs = Avo
Current Amplifier
io = Gmsvi Ro / (RL+Ro)
io / vs = Gms[[Ri /(R
( i+Rs)][
)][Ro /(R
( L+Ro)]
For ideal case (Ri , Ro ): io / vs = Gms
Transimpdeance Amplifier
io = Aisii Ro / (RL+Ro)
io / is = AisRsRo / [(RL+Ro)(Ri+Rs)]
For ideal case (Ri 0, Ro ): io / is = Ais
vo = Rmoii RL / (RL+Ro)
vo / is = RmoRsRL / [(RL+Ro)(Ri+Rs)]
For ideal case (Ri 0, Ro 0): vo / is = Rmo
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Amplifier bandwidth
The bandwidth is defined within 3dB from the flat gain.
For signal containing components outside the bandwidth, the output waveform will be distorted.
1-15
Single-time-constant networks
The single-time-constant (STC) network is composed of one reactive component and one resistance.
Most STC networks can be classified into two categories: low-pass (LP) and high-pass (HP).
Low-pass
High-pass
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Low-pass STC
T ( j )
T ( j )
Vo ( j )
1 / jC
1
Vi ( j ) R 1 / jC 1 jRC
Vo ( j )
R
1
Vi ( j ) R jL 1 jL / R
General form T ( j )
Magnitude | T(j ) |
K
1 j / 0
K
1 ( / 0 ) 2
Phase T ( j ) tan 1 ( / 0 )
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High-pass STC
T ( j )
Vo ( j )
R
1
Vi ( j ) R 1 / jC 1 j / RC
T ( j )
Vo ( j )
jL
1
Vi ( j ) R jL 1 jR / L
General form T ( j )
Magnitude | T(j ) |
K
1 j0 /
K
1 (0 / ) 2
Phase T ( j ) tan 1 (0 / )
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Electron-hole pair
At 0K, no free carriers are available
Si behaves as an insulator.
At room temperature, a small amount of covalent bonds will be broken by the thermal energy
electron-hole pair generation as free carriers.
Both electrons and holes are free to move
can contribute to current conduction.
conduction
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Extrinsic semiconductor
Extrinsic (doped) semiconductor = intrinsic semiconductor + impurities
According to the species of impurities, extrinsic semiconductor can be either n-type or p-type.
n-type semiconductor
The donor impurities have 5 valence electrons are
added into silicon.
P, As, Sb are commonly used as donor.
Silicon atom displaced by a donor atom.
Donor ions are bounded in the lattice structure and
thus donate free electrons without contributing holes.
holes
By adding donor atoms into intrinsic semiconductor,
the number of electrons increases (n p)
n-type semiconductor.
Majority carrier: electron
Minority carrier: hole
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p-type semiconductor
The acceptor impurity has 3 valence electron (Boron).
Silicon atom displaced by a trivalent impurity atom.
The boron lacks one valence electron. It leaves
a vacancy in the bond structure.
This vacancy can accept electron at the expense of
creating a new vacancy.
Acceptor creates a hole without contributing
free electron.
By adding acceptor into intrinsic semiconductor,
semiconductor
the number of holes increase (p n)
p-type semiconductor.
Majority carrier: hole
Minority carrier: electron
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Carrier concentration
Charge neutrality:
Particles with positive charge:
p: hole concentration (mobile)
ND: donor concentration (immobile)
Particles with negative charge:
n: electron concentration (mobile)
NA: acceptor concentration (immobile)
Local charge density: v = q (NA n ND p )
Charge neutrality (positive charge = negative charge): NA n = ND p
Mass-action law
np = ni2 for semiconductor under thermal equilibrium
2n
ND
[1 1 ( i ) 2 ]
ND
2
2
p ni / n
if ND ni
n ND
p ni2 / N D
2n
NA
[1 1 ( i ) 2 ]
NA
2
2
n ni / p
p
if NA ni
p NA
n ni2 / N A
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Carrier drift
Thermal motion in the absence of electric field:
The direction of flight being changed at each collision with the heavy, almost stationary ions.
Statistically, a electron has a random thermal motion in the crystal structure.
Net displacement over a long period of time is zero no net current flow (I = 0).
Thermal motion under electric field E:
The combined motion of electron under electric field has a random component and a drift component.
component
Still, no net displacement due to random motion component over a long period of time.
The drift component provides the electron a net displacement.
Drift is the carrier movement due to the existence of electric field.
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Mobility
F = qE
a = F /m* (m* is the effective mass of electron)
Assume the time interval between collision is tcoll and the drift velocity immediately after the collision is 0.
Then the average velocity of the electron due to the electric field is:
v d (drift )
atcoll
qE
tcoll E
2
2m *
vd qtcoll
E 2 m*
(cm 2 /Vsec)
Mobility indicates how fast an electron/hole can move under certain electric field intensity.
n is used to specify the mobility of electron.
Similarly, p is used to specify the mobility of hole.
In most cases,
cases electron mobility is larger than hole mobility in a semiconductor.
semiconductor
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Carrier diffusion
Diffusion is a manifestation of the thermal random motion of particles.
Section I: total # = 6 (3 moving to the left and 3 moving to the right)
Section II: total # = 4 (2 moving to the left and 2 moving to the right)
Net flux: 1 moving across the interface from section I to section II.
I
II
Statistically, a net carrier flow from high to low concentration region in a inhomogeneous material.
dp
dx
dn
qD
Dn
dx
J p ( diff ) qD p
J n ( diff )
dn
dp
qD p
dx
dx
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Graded semiconductor
For a non-uniform semiconductor, the doping concentration is represented as ND(x).
The mobile carrier will diffuse due to the non-uniform distribution.
The uncompensated space charge will build up a field (potential) for the system to reach equilibrium.
n(x)
No net current flows at any point under equilibrium.
Electron diffusion
Therefore, the built-in potential can be derived under thermal equilibrium
between points with different doping concentration.
Built-in potential
from hole concentration
J p qp p E qD p
p p E D p
dp
dx
V dp
dV
E T
p dx
dx
dp
dV VT
p
dp
0
dx
Built-in potential
from electron concentration
J n qn n E qDn
n n E Dn
dn
dx
dn
0
dx
V dn
dV
E T
n dx
dx
dn
dV VT
n
p
V21 V2 V1 VT ln 1
p2
n
V21 V2 V1 VT ln 2
n1
p1 p2eV21 /VT
n1 n2e V21 / VT
E=0
ND(x)
n(x)
Electron drift
Electron diffusion
excess negative
mobile charge
excess positive
fixed charge
E
ND(x)
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pn-junction in contact
1-29
n-type (ND)
hole diffusion
Jp = 0
hole drift
electron diffusion
electron drift
Neutral
Region
p-type
Depletion
Region
Jn = 0
Neutral
Region
V0
| V0 | VT ln
n-type
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p p0
nn 0
N N
VT ln
VT ln A 2 D
np0
pn 0
ni
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Electric field ()
E v / Si dx Emax qN D xn / Si qN Ax p / Si
W xn x p
2 SiV0 N A
2 SiV0 N D
2 SiV0 N A N D
qN D ( N A N D )
qN A ( N A N D )
q
ND N A
Electrostatic potential (V)
2 SiV0
For NA >> ND: W
qN D
2 SiV0
qN A
Potential of electron
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Carrier distribution
Neutral n-type region:
Majority carrier nn = nn0 = ND
Minority carrier pn = pn0 = ni2/ND
Neutral p-type region:
Majority carrier pp = pp0 = NA
Minority carrier np = np0 = ni2/NA
Depletion region:
n=0
p=0
No net current flows across the junction
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qND
xp
qND
xn
xp
qNA
Emax qN D xn / Si qN Ax p / Si
xn
Electric field ()
x
xp
Emax
xn
xn
xn
NA
2 Si N A (V0 V )
W
N A ND
qN D ( N A N D )
xp
ND
2 Si N D (V0 V )
W
N A ND
qN A ( N A N D )
V0+VR
V0VF
xp
xn
2 Si (V0 V ) N D N A
q
ND N A
Emax
xp
qNA
Electric field ()
xp
xn
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V / VT
1)e
( x xn ) / L p
( x x p ) / Ln
pn 0
1018
V0
pn0
np0
xp
1018
np0
nn0
V0
1010
102
Zero Bias
pp0
pp0
Forward Bias
nn0
V0
1010
VF V0
VF
102
pn0
np0
xp
xn
Reverse Bias
1018
pp0
102
nn0
V0
1010
V0
VR
np0
pn0
VR
xp
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xn
xn
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dpn
dx
xn
dn p
dx
xp
qD p pn 0
Lp
qDn n p 0
Ln
(eV /VT 1)
(eV /VT 1)
Total junction current: J(x) = Jn(x) + Jp(x) = Jn(xp) + Jp(xp) = Jn(xp) + Jp(xn)
qDn n p 0 qD p pn 0 qV / kT
(e
J J n ( x p ) J p ( xn )
1) J s (e qV / kT 1)
L
Lp
n
D p pn 0
Saturation current: I s qA
Lp
Dp
Dn n p 0
D
qAni2
n
L N
Ln
p D Ln N A
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Reverse breakdown
Breakdown voltage: a reverse junction bias VR = VZ
A large reverse current flows when reverse bias exceeds VZ
For breakdown voltage < 5V Zener breakdown.
For breakdown voltage > 5V avalanche breakdown.
Breakdown is nondestructive if the power dissipation is limited.
Zener breakdown
The strong electric field in the depletion region breaks covalent bonds, generating electron-hole pairs.
Generated electrons are swept into the n side and holes are swept into the p side for a reverse current.
Zener breakdown normally takes place for pn junction with high doping concentration.
concentration
Avalanche breakdown
The minority carriers that cross the depletion region gain sufficient kinetic energy due to the field.
The carriers with high kinetic energy break covalent bonds in atoms during collision.
More carriers are accelerated by the field for avalanche reaction.
Avalanche normally takes place first for pn junction with low doping concentration.
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q SiV0
ND N A
dQ d qAN D wn
A
dVR
dVR
2(V0 VR ) N D N A
2 Si N D N A
(V0 VR )
q ND N A
Si A
wdep
C j0 A
Si q N A N D
1
C j0
2 N A N D V0 VR
VR
V0
Si q N A N D
1
2 N A N D V0
VR m
)
V0
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Diffusion capacitance
Excess minority carrier stored in neutral region will change with the terminal voltage capacitance.
By integration the excess minority carriers at both sides:
Q Q p Qn
L2p
Dp
Ip
L2n
In p I p n In T I
Dn
dQ T
( )I
dV
VT
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