LAB 5 REPORT

Strain Measurement and 2nd Order Systems

Group Members: Kathryn Carr, Justin Cotten, Jane Olson, and Gabrielle Triche
Date: April 23rd, 2015
Lab Station 2
Section 7

Abstract
A strain gauge is an efficient and effective engineering tool used to measure the
mechanical strain of a material in a lab setting by recording the change in resistance within the
material. In this experiment, a strain gauge was used on an aluminum cantilever beam to
calculate the strain when under stress from a perpendicular force at the free end of the beam.
Using a standard Wheatstone bridge configuration to obtain data from the strain gauges, various
values were recorded for both static and dynamic conditions. LabVIEW was used to record and
model the dynamic deflection, resulting in a 2nd order response to be analyzed. This response was
then used to calculate multiple factors, including the damped natural frequency, the undamped
natural frequency, damping ratio, output voltages, and much more.

Table of Contents
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................3
BACKGROUND AND THEORY........................................................................3
EQUIPMENT.............................................................................................5
PROCEDURE............................................................................................6
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS..............................................................................7
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................14
BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................................................................15
APPENDIX..............................................................................................16

Introduction

In this laboratory experiment students will come to understand the relationship between stress
and strain through nondestructive testing. The lab will focus on the use of a strain gauge, a
device that has been produced to optimize the change in resistance due to strain one way and
minimize the change in resistance in all other directions. From lecture and previous instruction
the group is aware that resistance is a function of the geometry and electrical properties of a
material. In this case the students will be using a cantilevered beam attached to copper wiring
that will read the change in resistance as stress is applied. Both the static and dynamic behavior
of the strain gauge will be examined and the given gauge factor will be implemented to quantify
a ratio between the resistance and strain. The wiring of the strain gauge will be connected in a
standard Wheatstone bridge configuration. Once a downward force is applied to the beam the
output of which will be proportional to the strain applied and the deflection of the beam. The
results can then be modeled as a second order system and previous knowledge will aid the
students in their later calculations. The world of engineering seeks to develop nondestructive
testing procedures in order to preserve prototypes and save money. After these lab procedures the
students will have a better understanding of one method and hold an appreciation for the practice
as they enter the work force.

Background and Theory

The resistance within a material is a function of both cross-sectional area, length, and
resistivity. When a material is under mechanical strain, the resistance is therefore changed due to
alterations in the mechanical properties of the material. These alterations in resistance can be
measured with the use of a strain gauge. The strain gauge is manufactured to, by definition,
maximize the change in resistance due to strain in a given direction and minimize the change in
resistance due to strain in other directions (Lab Manual, p. 41). Along with the variables of
3

cross-sectional area, length, and resistivity, the gauge factor (GF) is an important aspect in
measuring strain with a strain gauge.
GF=

Here,

R /R

is the change in resistance caused by strain,

undeformed gauge, and

is the resistance of the

is the strain. This gauge factor is a ratio which compares the change

in resistance caused by strain and the strain on the material. This is an attribute of the strain
gauge itself and is given in the documentation from the manufacturer.
In this lab experiment, the strain on a cantilever beam loaded at the free is being
measured. Both the static and the dynamic deflections were recorded by the strain gauge. To
measure these strains, a Wheatstone bridge configuration is used shown in Figure 1. In this
arrangement, the results from the strain gauge can be modeled as a 2 nd order system. This means
the system can be modeled by a second-order differential equation (Figliola & Beasley, 2011).
Examples of 2nd order systems include accelerometers and pressure transducers. In a general
form:
a2 y +a1 y + a0 y=F (t)

where

a0 ,

a1 , and

a2

are constants dependent upon the system properties and

y =d2 y /d t 2 , the second time derivative of the

parameter.

Figure 1: Wheatstone bridge circuit with four active legs

Equipment
To conduct this experiment, the following materials were required. An aluminum

15
cantilever beam, of length 14 16

, and cross section 2x1/8, was deflected throughout the

trials. On this beam, four strain gauges of Gauge Factor (GF) 2.005 were attached 8 from the
clamped end. A diamond bridge-circuit terminal block was used to connect the power supply,
strain gauges, and multimeter to the correct terminals. Alligator-banana clips were used to make
the connections. A Tenma 72-4045A Triple Output DC Power Supply was used to supply the 5
Volts to the full Wheatstone bridge, as illustrated by the E in component in Figure 1. The Fluke 73
Series II Digital Multimeter was used to measure the voltage output from the strain gauges in
mV. A ruler was used to measure the applied deflections in inches. A computer with the
LabVIEW 8.6 software and a graphing program (MATLAB or Excel) was required. The NI
USB-6212 DAQ device was used to connect the diamond bridge circuit to the computer. Finally,
a screwdriver was used to tighten the wires into the DAQ USB device.

Figure 2: Schematic of the beam

Procedure
The experiment began by taking the preliminary position and geometric measurements of
the beam. Then the multimeter was used to ensure that the resistances of the strain gauges
matched with the listed resistance of 120 . The four strain gauges were connected to the
diamond bridge-circuit terminal block, making sure no two adjacent legs of the bridge had
gauges from the same side of the beam. Before the 5 Volts could be applied to the bridge circuit,
a multimeter was used to check the voltage because any voltage over 5 Volts could cause damage
to the bridge itself. After this was checked, the output of the bridge circuit was connected to the
multimeter, which would measure the voltage associated with each applied deflection. The power
supply was then turned on. When no deflection was applied, the output voltage was measured to
act as the voltage offset of the bridge. Then deflections of 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00 were
applied using the beam screw and by pushing upwards. The output voltage in each situation was
measured and recorded.

After manually performing the static deflections, LabVIEW was used to measure and
record the beams dynamic, second order response. The bridge output was connected to terminals
15 and 16 on the DAQ screw terminal and LabVIEW was launched. The Cutoff Frequency was
changed to 20 Hz, the labels were changed to Unbiased Bridge Voltage and Bridge Voltage, the
y-axis scale was adjusted, and the VI was run with the beam at rest. While it was at rest, the
offset value was adjusted to show a voltage of zero. Then the system was ready to measure the
oscillatory response. The beam was deflected manually by 1 and let go quickly. The file was
saved and the data was imported to the graphing program. The deflection was applied four more
times until a range of data was collected and exported.

Results and Analysis

2. The first calculation the group did was to find the beam stiffness. The beam can be represented
in a 1D picture as follows.

Figure 3

The governing equation for the beam is

EI

d4 w
=q( x ) . This equation is a basic equation that
d x4

describes the deflection of a uniform static beam. Using this equation as well as relating it to the
stress and strain equations the group can then find an equation that will give them the stiffness of
the beam. The equation for the stiffness of the beam is as follows:
K=

EA
L

The following measurements are the measurements that the group took of the beam during the
experiment. By inputting these values into the above equation the static stiffness can be found.
L=0.3792m, w=0.0508m, t=.003175m, E=69GPa
K=29.3106 N/m
3. Using linear regression the static sensitivity can then be found for the system. The group
measured the output voltages at different deflections. These measurements can then be graphed
on a mV vs. m diagram and the slope of the line can be found.
Table 1
deflection (m)
-0.0254
-0.01905
-0.0127
-0.00635
0
0.00635
0.0127
0.01905

-1.5

Voltage (mV)

Voltage (mV): measured

-10.2
-8.6
-6.9
-5.2
2.6
-1.9
-0.4
1.4

4
f(x) = 6.45x - 2.98 2
R = 0.82
0
-1
-0.5
0
-2

0.5

1.5

-4
-6
-8
-10
-12

Deflection (m)

Figure 4

Using excel the equation of the line can be found and from there the static sensitivity.
Static sensitivity (K)= slope of the graph
K= 6.4467 mV/m
4. Comparison of measured and calculated output voltages.
In order to calculate the output voltages many dimensions need to be related. The first

calculation needed is the Inertia (I):

y=

F l3
3 EI

I=

1
3
w t , then the Force (F) needs to be calculated:
12

, from there the force can then be related to the momentum (M):

the bending moment equation can be used:

M =FL . Then

My
I , where the y here stands for the distance

from the fixed end to the strain gages (8in=.2032m). Then the strain () can be found

Finally the output voltage (V o) can be found:

V o=GF V i , where GF=2.005 is the gauge

factor, and Vi = 5mV is the input voltage. Table 2 shows the comparison of measured and
calculated voltages, which seem to be off by a power of 10.
Table 2
y (m)
-0.0254
-0.01905

V (mv): measured
-10.2
-8.6

Vout (mV): calculated

-1.0794
-0.8095

-0.0127
-0.00635
0
0.00635
0.0127
0.01905

-6.9
-5.2
2.6
-1.9
-0.4
1.4

-0.5397
-0.2698
0
0.2698
0.5397
0.8095

6. Natural Responses recorded from the experiment. There are 4 trials and all show the
characteristics of being underdamped.

Figure 5: Trial 1

Figure 6: Trial 2

10

Figure 7: Trial 3

Figure 8: Trial 4

7. Calculating and wd
The responses were then taken and the first ten peaks of each trial were evaluated. The list of
these peaks is located in the Appendix: Tables 3-6. The damping ratio () and the damped natural
frequency (wd) were then measured. The following were the equations used to find those values.

ln

V iV static

=2 ( ki)
2
V k V static
(1 )

w d=

2 (ki)
t k t i

11

Here k and i stood for the number of peaks and had to statisfy the following inequalities:
5k-i8, 1i5, and 6k10. This resulted in 14 data sets per trial and 56 data sets in total. The
data sets can be found in the Appendix: Table 7. The averages were then taken for the data
resulting in =1.71*10-3 and wd=162.64.
8. The experimental undamped natural frequency could then be calculated from these results:
w d=wn 1 2
wn= 162.64
The uncertainties can also be calculated for a 95% confidence. To start the uncertainty of the
equation can be evaluated for both and wd.
wn
wd
=
=162.64
(1 2 )3/ 2
wn
1
=
=1
w d (1 2)1 /2

The uncertainty can also be found from the equation =

x ( avg ) t S x(avg)

The Sx(avg) can be found from the standard deviation being divided by the square root of the
number of data sets= 56.
() Sx(avg)=1.23*10-4
(wd) Sx(avg)=1.57
t=2.005, from the student t chart in the textbook

12

 uncertainty = 2.005*1.23*10-4= 2.466*10-4

wd uncertainty = 2.005*1.57= 3.15
9. The theoretical undamped natural frequency can be found from the following equation

w n=

12 EI
A L 4
wn=110.61

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Conclusions and Recommendations

After the completion of the experiment, students have become familiar with strain gauges
and their representation in second order systems. Employing programs such as LabVIEW and
Excel facilitated the output analysis process and allowed for appropriate characterization of the
strain gauge behavior. The static and dynamic responses in particular were studied for specified
deflections. The output voltages measured in the static situation differed from their respective
calculated values by a factor of about 10. This could have been due to an instrument calibration
error or inconsistencies in applying the deflections manually. LabVIEW was used to illustrate the
oscillations that occurred as a result of the dynamic loading conditions. The damped and
undamped natural frequencies, the damping ratio, and the measured output voltages taken from
this data then characterized the gauges second order behavior. Ten peaks of the oscillations for
each test were chosen and manipulated to calculate this information. In the future, a standardized
way of applying the deflections on the cantilever beam should be implemented to limit the effect
human error had on the results. With the knowledge gained from this experiment, the students
will be better able to operate instrumentation software, apply second-order system equations, and
use strain gauges in engineering applications.

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Bibliography
Figliola, R. S., & Beasley, D. E. (2011). Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements. Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
LSU Department of Mechanical Engineering. (Spring 2015). ME 3603 Fundamentals of Instrumentation:
Laboratory Manual. Baton Rouge: LSU.

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Appendix
Table 3

Trial 1
time
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Peaks
1.50942
1.54622
1.5845
1.62542
1.66238
1.69996
1.7415
1.77818
1.81456
1.858

0.000561
0.0006
0.000474
0.000451
0.000533
0.000401
0.000377
0.000457
0.000379
0.000338

Table 4

Trial 2
time
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

peaks
0.71128
0.75144
0.78836
0.82544
0.8676
0.90436
0.94086
0.98396
1.02056
1.05644

0.000525
0.000445
0.000512
0.000435
0.000374
0.000463
0.000372
0.000323
0.000375
0.000316

Table 5

Trial 3
time
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

peaks
0.69158
0.73008
0.7668
0.80738
0.8459
0.88254
0.92332
0.96192
0.99862
1.03914

0.000706
0.000726
0.000735
0.000524
0.000597
0.000652
0.000479
0.000543
0.000559
0.000401
16

Table 6

Trial 4
time
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

peaks
0.85254
0.8939
0.9315
0.96768
1.0104
1.04766
1.08348
1.12644
1.16396
1.19956

0.000478
0.000334
0.000429
0.000412
0.000299
0.000354
0.000348
0.000243
0.000319
0.000318

Table 7

wd
2.40E-03
3.36E-03
2.54E-04
1.05E-03
2.87E-03
2.29E-03
1.83E-03
1.16E-03
1.36E-03
1.13E-03
2.38E-03
1.41E-03
1.70E-03
2.45E-03
9.37E-04
1.06E-03
2.76E-03
8.70E-04
8.19E-04
1.89E-03
1.46E-03
1.69E-03
1.42E-03
2.11E-03
7.27E-04
2.04E-03
1.39E-03
1.16E-03

164.8784
160.8763
162.2053
166.0988
160.5967
162.4402
162.5242
163.8664
162.0909
163.6490
163.9051
160.8128
164.7292
161.2210
162.7094
165.8533
160.6131
161.0082
166.3627
164.2090
162.1328
162.3562
163.1996
161.2964
163.4301
164.0641
162.5242
164.8049
17

Average
Std. Deviation
Sx(bar)

8.95E-04
3.94E-03
3.12E-03
5.41E-04
2.97E-03
3.00E-03
2.47E-03
2.39E-03
1.53E-03
1.88E-03
1.94E-03
3.75E-03
1.49E-03
3.18E-03
1.81E-03
1.97E-04
2.62E-03
1.32E-03
2.64E-04
1.58E-03
1.04E-03
1.31E-03
1.12E-03
2.39E-03
1.50E-04
1.13E-03
1.44E-03
1.40E-04
0.0017068
0.000920886
0.000123059

164.5157
162.5747
161.0082
164.2749
162.5747
162.6785
162.6083
162.6223
162.6644
162.6925
163.7830
161.4977
163.7099
162.6399
161.0082
165.7133
161.1569
160.0567
166.0812
163.2420
162.1188
162.1746
162.5803
160.5779
162.8612
164.0763
161.4074
164.4490
162.6398837
1.571603301
0.210014325

18