THE Jewish Encyclopedia A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS- TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY L Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD Cynus ADLER, PHD. (Departments of Post Jose Jacons, BA. (Departments of the Jews Biblical dntipitcs; the ies of Ameria) ‘of Englandand Andkropoegys Revising Edson. Gorruany Duvtscu, TmuD. (Department of KAVEMASN Kowtern, PuD, (Departments of “Hatery from 1992 161923) Theology and Philo iy) Manstax RoseNTHtat (Department of the Jews of Russia and Po Soloniox ScuEcuTER, MA, Lrrr.D. (Depart Ricakn Gorrnen, PaD. (Departments of "ment of the Tuimud) History from Esra to 1492; History of Pose Tsinoxe, SiNGER, PH.D. (Department of Modern Tatmiuie Literature ‘Biugrapty prow 1750 ?0 tyes) Emit G. Hinset, PHD, LLAD. (Department of Crawrond H, Tov, D.D, LLD. (Departments Louis Ginanerc, PHD. (Department of Rab Binical Literature) the Bible) of Hebrew Philolocy and Hellonitic Liteyature, ISAAC K. FUNK, DD, LLD. FRANK H. VIZETELLY, FSA. (Chairman ofthe Bourd ‘Seoretary ofthe Beard Wrutrast Popre, MA, PHD. Associvte Revising Editor + Chiaf of the Burean of Translation ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. Projector and Managing Editor ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS COMPLETE IN TWELVE VOLUMES EMBELLISHED WITH MORE THAN TWO THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS: NEW YORK AND LONDON FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY mMpeccerirTHE Jewish Encyclopedia A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS- TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD Crnus Aputn, PLD. (Departments of Post JoserH Jacous, BA. (Degartments of the Jews Biblical antiquities; the Jews of Anerica. of Englandand Anibropougy: Revising Editor. Gorruaxn Devrsci, PUD. (Department of Kavetarn Kowren, PuD. (Departments of “History from 1493 t0 1903). Theology and Philosophy). nes ment of has. MEBSGN ROSENTHAL (Department ofthe Jews of Sovowow Sczonren, M.A., LivnD. (Depart Ricuaxo Gorruen, PHD. (Departments of ment of the Talaud), History from Esra to 1492; History of Post ysipone StncER, Pu.D. (Department of Modern Talmindic Literature) Biography from 1750 t0 1905), Ewin G. Hinsct, Pu.D,, LL.D. (Department of Cawronn H. Tov, D.D,, LL.D. (Departments the Bible), of Hebrew Philology and Hellonitic Literature). ISAAC K. FUNK, D.D., LED. FRANK H. VIZETELLY, FSA, (Chairman of the Board Seeretary ofthe Board Wiu1an Poorer, MA, Pu.D. Associate Reviving Editor ; Chief of the Bureau of Translation ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. Projector and Managing Editor ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS VOLUME IV CHAZARS—DREYFUS CASE NEW YORK AND LONDON : FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY MpcccerirLITERARY DIRECTORATE EDITORIAL BOARD CYRUS ADLER, Ph.D. (Departments of Post-iblicat Antiquities: the Jewsof America) President of the American de\ssh Bistorieat Sucety an, Smithsonian fpsttion, Washington, D.C Lib: GOPTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D. (Department of History from 3202 to 1005. Professor of Jewish History, Hebres Union Cotege, Cinctanat, ‘Ohio: Filion ™ Deters.” LOUIS GINZBERG, Ph.D. (Department of Reabhiniend Literatures Professor of ati, Jevssh Thooleal Seminary of America, ‘New York Author of * Die Hagguda bel den ‘Kirvenvitern.” RICHARD GOTTHEIL, Ph.D. (Departments of History frum Bera to 1925 History of Post Tatinudie Literature.) Professor of SemitieTanguges, Columbia University, New Yorks ‘Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Public Library ‘resident of the Federation of American Zionists EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph.D., LL.D. (Departinent of the Bite.) ‘Rabbi of Chiengo Sinaé Conpresation, Chicago, Ih Professor of Rabbinical Literatare and Philosophy, University of ‘Chicago; Failor of" The Reform Advocate." JOSEPH JACOBS, B.A. (Departments of the Jens of England and Anthropology: Revising Bititor.) Formeriy President ofthe Jewish Wstoriea Soles of Rnglands Author of * Jess of Angerin England,” et. * AMERICAN BOARD OF BERNARD DRACHMAN, Ph.D., ‘Rabbi of the Congregation Zichvon Epuatm: tnsteuetor i tbe ‘Bible and in Heres? Granuae, Jewish Theological Sem ary of America, Nex Work B, FELSENTHAL, Ph.D., apo! Bmeritns of Zion Congregation, Chiao; Author of ‘A Practica! Grammar ofthe Hebrew Langage.” GUSTAV GOTTHEIL, Ph.D., Rabbi Fierits of Pemple Emnanu-Fl, New York HENRY HYVERNAT, D.D., ead ofthe bepartient of Sent and Fayptlan Literatures, ‘Cathotie University of Amerie, Washington, D.C KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D. (Departinents of Theology: Piespiny.) Rabbi of Temple BetD-F, (of Jewish Ministers, New York. HERMAN ROSENTHAL. (Department of the Jone of Russia ant Poland) Chief ofthe Slasonte Department, New York Library. SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D. (Department of the Tamu) President ofthe Faculty of the Jovish Theologies! Seminary of “America, New York; Author of "Studies in Judafs.” ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. MaxaciNG Eo1Ton. (Department of Modern Biography from 1790 to 1800) CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D. (Departments of Hebrew Philology and Hellenttie Literature) Professor of Hebrew i Harvard University, Cambridge, Mase ‘author of The Religion of tal" ee I. K. FUNK, DD. LL.D. (Chairman of the Beara.) ilorinchiet of the STANDARD DICTIONARY OF THK ENGL TAG ace, et. FRANK H, VIZETELLY, F.S.A. (Secretary f the Boart} Associate Baitor of the Staxann DictIONARY, “Tbe Colum tian CSelopediay” ee WILLIAM POPPER, MLA., Ph.D. (Associate Revising Eaitor: Chief of the Bureau of ‘Pransiation) Autbor of * Censorship of Hebrew Books." CONSULTING EDITORS MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D., [Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodet Shalom, Philadel hin, Pa; Author of” Ditionary of the Tam. MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D., Professor of Sentie Languages and Litraran inthe University ‘of Penssivani, Piladelpbia, Pa: Author of “Re tigion of the Babylonians and Assyrians,” ete. J, FREDERIC McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D., 2, Eniversity College, Toronto, istors, Prophecy. and ‘he Moniment. H, PEREIRA MENDES, ¥.D., Rabbi of the Shearith Ierael Congregation (Spanish and Portue ‘these, New York; President ofthe Board of Jewish ‘Ministers, New Yorks.a IITERARY DIRECTORATE MOSES MIELZINER, Ph.D., D.D. (Dcesse) Late Presidout of the Hebrew Union ‘Author of "tuted tothe Tata.” GEORGE F, MOORE, M.A., D.D., Professor of Bible Literature and the History of Religions ‘a Hlarvant University, Cambridge, Moss Author of A Commentary ob the Book of Judges,” ete, DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D., Ravbt of tie Congregation Bene Israel: Profesor of Hoult, Hebrew Union College, Cinetunat, Ohio: President ot breve Sablaith Setool Union of Aer IRA MAURICE PRICE, B.D., Ph.D., Profear of Semite Languages and Literatur, University of ‘Chisago, HL; Anthor of "The Monuments and the Ola Testament," et. JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D., Presidént of Centra Conference of Anveriean Habis? Rabbi of “Temple Bnsami-Bl New York. JACOB VOORSANGER, D.D., Rabbi of the Congestion Brant, San Presto, Cal: Pro- Tessr of Seu Langnges nd Literatures, Ch ‘versity of California, Berkeley, Cal EDWARD J. WHEELER, M.A, ator ot "1 ne York; Author of "Stories FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A, Contr of Tue Jewish Quarters Mev" Autor of Jen Tah Life tate Mido agee ees Renter a Tl Cambridge Univesity, Busan W. BACHER, Ph.D., Professor he Jesh Telogo Seua stung. M. BRANN, Pa.D., Professor in the Jee Theologiel Snir, Bresiay, Gere Sug! Borat" Monster Gestion Nvisenshat dee Senne” H, BRODY, PhD., Rabbi, Nota olen Ausra Coto Hetriane Bingo ABRAHAM DANON, 4 the dewith Theta Seminary, Conesuoope, HARTWIG DERENBOURG, Pb.D., Pnoesor of Literal Arable atthe spect Schoo! ut Ores Paves amber oa Taste de Prace . Mt, DUBNOW, stor of Fao Yevreper” Olese, Rust MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D. Petal of evs! Clg London, Baan: ssthor of Tae Ses eon,” IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D., Press of Seite Pibogy Cavers of apes, M. GUDEMANN, Ph.D, ‘oer al ot Viena, At, BARON DAVID GUNzBURG, A. HARKAVY, Ph.D, ute entre Drrtinent ote peri Pale Library St"Petusonrg. sn ZADOC KAHN, Cie Rw of frances Honorary Prank of he Atiance Tene Univeral: Onker ofthe Lo or or Pare Fe M, KAYSERLING, Ph.D., avd, Mudaest thay Corse yar Arlen of Misr, ad. Stn, uudanest i Zeteenrte fOr Prive MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D., rte nett of Patol eters of Brin; Nery ANATOLE LEROY-BEAULIEU, ene’ ot the fren Totnes Protein a6 Fre Sel Sr Pole Stent, Par, Pane; Ar ISRAEL LEVI, Profinet Tes Senay: Ee of “Spee aes Bs Juve" Pars Faces HUDE LOLLI, D.D., Cofet abot Pata Prter of Melvow ate Carers, IMMANUEL LOW, Ph.D., et Raunt etn thingy sutorot™ le aanaken 8. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D., Principat of te Jovish Phot Stns Ct AbD of Fre al H. OORT, D.D., Profs of tere Tangge aml Anse at te Ste nent Taya Honan appé PIETRO PERREAU, orwery bara of the Henle mote Paton, Pam, Tay MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D., FomerlyPrtesee of Hisiry a he Universe of Bonn abd rss Preset of he Deis ‘Svat, erin, cern SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D., E. SCHWARZFELD, LLD., secretary. General of the Jewiah Colonization Assocation, Paria, Prue LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D., Professor of Pilosny, University of Bern, Switzerland; Bator fot" Ahi fir Gesehlehte der Posionphie,” ete HERMANN L. STRACK, Ph.D. Professor of Ot ‘Test uae, ‘University of Hein, German CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LLD., Master of St. 2oni"s College. Cuntbridge. England Bator of leSYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAMES’ . ‘A.—Rules for the Transliteration of Hebrew and Aramaic. 1. All important names which occur in the Bible are cited as found in the authorized King James ‘version ; e.g., Moses, not Mosheh; Isaae, not Yizhak; Saul, not Sha'ul or Shatil: Solomon, not Shelomoh, ete. 2, Names that have gained currency in English books on Jewish subjects, or that have become familiar to English readers, are always retained and cross-references given, though the topie be treated under the form transliterated according to the system tabulated below. B. Hebrew subject-headings are transcribed according to the scheme of transliteration ; cross-refer- fences are made as in the ease of personal names. ‘The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew and Aramaic: x Not noted at the beginning or the end of a word ; otherwise’ or by dieresis; e.g., Ze'eb or Meir, ab re St B with dagesh, p woh 29 nak pm » without dagesh, f ees aa be 27 ve ne nh vy bs pk vw ak ye ar ‘Nore : The presence of dagesh lene is not noted except in the case of pe. Dagesh forte is indi- ‘cated by doubling the letter. 5, The vowels have been transeribed as follows va . Bla. CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1V cyrus Adler, Ph.D., readent of the American Jewish Historical ‘Xvetety Present of the Board of Trustees of She lewis Theolgieal Seminary of America neuron of the Sftisomian Tnsttulon, Washington, D.C. Amélie André Gedalge, aris, France Armin Blau, wei, Germany. A, Freimann, Ph.D., or of tig, “aaseite fe Hebrisene Ditiographies: Librarian. of the Hebrew Denurinents Stadeibiees, Frankfort ‘hetaln, ero Alfred Feilohenfeld, Ph.D. Vrineipal of the Tealsebute, Pare, Bavaria Gerwany. Aaron Friedenwald, MD, (Dreease, rte of Baltnore, Me _ Adolf Guttmacher, Ph.D., ‘aunbtof te Bultiniore Hebrew Congregution, aluinore 3. A. Kaminka, Ph.D. Tans Seeretary ofthe Wiener Traeitlsehe Ising” enna, sri Albert M. Friedenberg, B.S. Contepmnlent of The. iets” Comment,” SBattnore, Lz New York Ce. A. Porters ‘Romieny Aroetate Rltor of “The Forum, Revising Bator Standard Cyelopedia,” New York cy A. Peiginsky, Ph.D., ‘New York (i. A. Rhine, ‘abl fn Hot Springs, Ark Benuel H. Brumbers, “Gontrintior to "Nationa Cyelopedin of Amer- team Bingrapla.” New York CHE. Benzion Eisenstadt, New York Cw tha Fishbers, ‘Sew York city. B, Jacob, Ph.D. avon in Gittngen, Germans. Bernhard Pick, Ph.D., DD. r oui's_ Lateran iy star of Chae anbuny, N.Y 1008 0. A. Trier, ovecatgeh, Denar. ©. de Bethencourt, Lisbon, Porta Clarence I, do Sols, ‘Montreat, Canada Chasles J. Mendelsohn, ‘iadelis, Pa Caspar Levies, M.A., Tininictor of Exegessaad Tahnudie Aramaic, Hebrew non College, Cincinnat, Obi Gotthard Doutsch, Ph.D. Sprotecer of Jewish Hisiors, Hebrew Cuion College, cneinnat, Oho. D. Le. DP. DW. BA B.C... £.G.H , Ms. EN. BE. 8d... E.W.B. F. Bu. Fs. FES, BR. ¥.T. E. _.David Levy, habla in Sek Haven, Conn, _-David Philipson, D.D., Rabbi of the Consregaton Wine Israel; Pro- esor of Honleties, Hebrew Union Ciere. Cinclonach, Out D, Simonsen, ‘rw Cet Rabbl of Denmarks ni, Deut David Werner Amram, LL.B., “Stores at Law, Potadelphia, Pa aouard André, Pata, France “Executive Com. of the Raitorial Board. ‘Bmil G. Hirsch, Ph.D.) LL.D.) D.D.» Tabu of sinal ‘Congregation: Professor of Fauna! Literature and Puslosopy nthe Cnlversity of Cheng, Chiao, I Bauard Kénig, Ph.D., DD.» Profesor of Old Testament Exegesis, Cni- ‘ety of Hoan, Germs. Eduard Meyer, PhD.. ‘Professor of ancient story, University of Berlin, Germans. Eagar Mels, ‘New York chy. Bauard Neumann, Ph.D., ‘Chie Hauoi of Nazy-Katlsay Huma. B, Schwarafeld, LL.D.» Serreiny of Jewish Colosization Assocation, Paria, Franc award William Bennett, ‘New York Cit. Franz Bubl, Ph.D. "Profenur of Serie PDIOIOg Copentiazen, Denmark. ‘Frank H, Vizetelly, F.S.A-. Rtuclnte ator of the Staxpanp DICTION Ane and the "Collmbian Cselopeata.” Now Yors Cty Friedman Janovsky, ‘Se Petersburg. ss University of _..Frank Knight Sanders, Ph.D., DD.» "Professrof Bolieal History and Areolods + Dram of the Diviulty sehool, Yale Universi, ew Haven, Coun. LF. Rosenthal, Pb.D.. abut in Bresia, Gerjans. Frederick T. Haneman, M.D., Brooklyn, X.Y. Richard Gotthell, Ph.D., ‘profesor of, semitie Languages, Columbia ‘Valversty; Chief of te Oriental Departzent, New Tork Public Litrary: President of the Federation of Amerienn Zioulsts, New York cis. George A. Barton, Ph.D. *eecetate Professor) bc Literature and ‘Semin Langtages, Bryn Mawr Collet, Po George Alexander Kohut, Sfatitant Librarian Jewish Theological Semi ‘ary of Amerien, New York it.CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME IV an E Dry. Egnaaz Deabiin, Ph.D.» pecarencn en Pec, 6.5 sosGintseppe Tas, E, Bogus ecEomar Elvowen, PhD, EP Rito roar, tay. Tareas sie Ws sodman Lipkind, B.A, paca tei ater a ais Tet ot, Sas ent 6.8. sseGabriel Schwere, Ph.D., 1.6, Dansk Georze Dodsevacs, aati cara hoo Seay eee! 1H Tshdore Harvie eee PMR teenie fir Heine tetra West + anon, SMinerges nab Sota Benen tnt sua Be Mla. duane Hush, ete or ie Cote Peni Pn eingich Bloch, PUD neupeat | E Bgy, fon Tarnel LOW Stow. Bias Har a . sant Nobbl to the Chie RAL Paes HE, Gus. Henry Cohen, fair Site dette hoes TEN Gf te Cagresatlon Diva Ie, Gab Ha So teste Sey, Pa Tegtn ee Since HE 2... -Hentl Cordier, BBE, C.J. M, Casanowion, PID., Beer roe dos Lanes Onenaes Frisneene ettnas Cut Bones Ste woe: Bu fame ai ann Mason Se BE Da. Hartwig Derenbourg, 1M P.....Iva Mausice Price, BD,, Ph.D. Srantar atthe Pe fst: Yroes of Pater ay Seanke tans ad tet ae tthe spe Sa tiv aria ha Eechtrtangunsty, erg Pe Sera ee Basso Blast So ane, Covnnat hs ‘dias a Joseph Jacob, B.A, eR eT Festa al to Jevih ial sietrhg umenentt f tepartinene Eee fF Corrine Neh Sentai bay of comer Wa Sette Hora Stencay of singe ua! sate conpeaig Sees a he Seat Sut Cy Meuvtan Seubhe iiwkal Sauk hike | J.D. B.....5.D. Braverman, Ph.D, ain Ravan FE. 6. BiscHl @. Bulow, D.D., fm 5.D. Blsenstoin, rete nein A al, Line Ronis wiles 3. D.P...u.John Dyneloy Prince, Ph.Day HE. Gun.....Hermann Guiakel, Ph.D. DD. Teeter at senlte: Linings Count Gr aint fstanct ts Cae EMSs et Yo oul en Geran 3. Bosses oneph Baskiol, J.P FE Gut. oH, Guttenstesn, Se ere Gren tthe coautor Gut. BE Guttenstein, Tea a et ens Bem Romnpeyrariet DD. |g. moe. eipdrigseGundy, PhD LD de cee Caner of aero, Was Brofsor of Gren fanguagts Chives waa Be Cite" rnt ai HE Mn BlaronigHionehfods PLD, Fema Bash See eee signa ton. ns New Yok cy HP. M,....H, Pereira Mendes, M.D., FB ne BAT UIP, NOW Seray gate Ba rsh of of Gran Con ‘Shut Sto Se transi Toate tet tates wn Canada wn ot “Kd Se ee uingue Halblol the | J: eH... de Hans, Scrat Wags Contest, So Sivonen. Yoni 3-H. G.... Julius HL Greenstone, EB... Herman Rosenthal, i iste ema Rowen armen of the Sow | J. Hf Go... arey Gorden, Sui Se ars Noe nk Barmy Gongs HL. S.........-Henrietta Szold, | 54.0. C5. H. ML. Chumaceiro, earner fae Bldetion Comite Braman. Dhieh Wea nt. SSE Sein Sh Jag Hams HL Vi.s-s.s-Hlaxmann Vogelstein, Ph-D., B.Teo osu Moris Jastvow, Je., Ph.D., abel wos Germ Preset Soule Lagan Clery o 1 Be..o-Tmmanuel Bensinger, PhDs Pounce Pitti, Sean eee ear eats, Cal | J, O....-Fules Oppert, Fb.D., sr nein Gea Seana et ie Freier Insite: Profs of Ber... Tsea0l Berlin, aces ns st Ct de rn Ben Pos fare ne Ee Brisssid Brose, J. Rss sTogeph Rebuach, Pio of the Rest des tates ess Fee bap andor s.Chiet of La Pe Comin othe AManee fri ‘puna Par rane Cae Pace na SO Wo | 3, Sommh tuna, DD a Foetus Canin Crnfeencoot Smee Cohen, ere bh! at Tene Ro Cette. mse, Germans: Sow Yor iCONTRIBUTORS vo VOLUME IV 3.80... 30 aw. L. Git. 1b. Ka, Lt LM. L.N.D. L.N.E. Lv. LY. M.A. M.A. Gr. aL. 1M. BL 1M. Bui M0. 1M. Go, MF MF. 1M. Fr. M. Fre, 2. Gr Joseph Sohn, Conirinor to peta’; formerly York Cty Marous Jastrow, Ph.D. TMatbl Heri of he Congresaslon Tevet ‘Shan, hada, Po J. Theodor, Ph.D., Tabor i Bejunsor Dosen, Germans. Julien Weill, Rabi tn Versailles, France we New International ‘te orm,” New Kaufmann Kohler, Ph.D, Tubb of “empl, Beth eneatet of tne Hebreae Cnion Calege, Cine ‘hunt Kay] Heinvich Cornill, Ph.D. Prndresnt of ets et Od Testament EXC fei, University of Brena, Germany Ludwig Blau, Ph-D., ition of Nayar Zien tte gerish Meola! Sentry, Munsary, Louis Ginzberg, Ph.D. Protercor of Tae desis Stuninary of Ameria, Neiv York Cs. _ Lazarus Griinhut, instr of te Ophnan Asslum, Jerusen, atest ‘Leo Kamerase, Mubbi, char cotaurs Wel Bert, er L, Lowenstein, Ph.D., adi ste Germany Leo M, Franklin, B.L., ‘tauhi of Temple belie, Detrot, Mle Lewis N. Dombita, tore at Eats, Losey Leo N. Levi, “Cuorary at tate Present of the Fxecutive nunett ofthe Onder of Bray B'rith. Ludwig Venetianer, Ph.D., ky Mig, L. Yayo, Vic, Aust Michael Adler, B.A., Tabi of the Central Synagogue; Fellow of Seve Colize Ign, England. Michael A. Green, Formeniy Honwrry Seeotary.of the Jewish han nf Guanine, Loudou. Pound ‘Moses Beer, erin, Gena Maurice Bloch, Trineiyal of the Fools Bisco for. Inerly: Preset of the Soviet des Eades dives” Pat, Era ML Bujes, inavbl fm Constanta, Ruma. Br. Caimi, ‘cont Bax Cohen, ‘tomes at Las, New York Cty. Michael Friedlander, Ph.D. Prinvipal of eves Covfege, Lonion, England ‘Maurice Fishberg, M.D. Heieal Vwnsiner io ie” Cuited Charities eve York City M. Franco, ‘principal ofthe Alliance Isradtite Entversele Shae sold, Baan, ‘Max Fyoudonthal, Ph.D. TRabli tn Dabs, West Puss Germans, M. Grunwald, Ph.D. ‘natn fn Hanbun Germany 1M, Hoa....,.-Frraum: read P. J. 1M. J.K..,..Max J. Kobler, M.A. LE.D., haar nt lates Recofdlng Secretary of the ‘Anwrican Jewish Historical Soeety, New York cy. MK... Mayer Kayserling, Ph.D., abhi Radapest, Hsu. ME. Koo... Kopfstein, Ph.D. ‘iat in Duiten,Stesla, Germany. BM, Lan......Max Landsberg, Ph.D.» Ravi of tie Coogregation B'rith Kodesb, Rochester, Ss ¥- MP. J...., Moxes P. Jacobson, B.A» Sino of tie congreiton Mebnew Zio Chicago, 1 1M, R......--Max Rosenthal, MLD. eine Physiiun, Gerecen Dispensary, New York cis 1M, Ra.......Max Raisin, Teabt tPortsnct. Oi M.R.D...... Mary Robinson Darmesteter Duclaux, ais rane. 1M. Se.....+-.Maxe Sehléssinger, Ph.D.. Teidelborg, Gury MM, Sel.,...-.M. Seligsohn, ‘pinome of Faote des Hautes Eudes, Pals, Peles ne Seve Yorn Cy ME, Wenees Mae Wolbz, PhD.» Tenuta, tomar. MM, W.L.....-Martha Washington Levy, B.A. Contetor to ete New tnvermtlonal En ‘etiag” Nea Vark City. MM. W. M.... Maxy W. Montgomery, Ph.D., ‘New York Ch: M,Z. aK. Zametkin, ew York C1 WN. Doone Dubay ‘ewath 8 WLR. E....,.Nabida Ruth Lazarus, ‘ers, AUS NTL... .N-T. London, ‘New Vurs Ct PLS. PS. aston, Eresuner in Chembsty, Owens College. Max cGreter. Euan. PRs sses Paul Riower, Ph.D.» Tabbi i arabs Germany. P.Wi.....Peter Wierniky, ‘Sev York lt R.W.R....-Robert W. Rogers, D.D., Ph.Dsy Qhonor of Hebrews and Oia Testaivent Exe fous, Drew Vheolagieal Semtnary. Maison, Su 8. Isidoxe Singer, Ph.D. Mlexscise Erifow. Sew York Cis. 8. Avene Sadle American, ‘Corresponding. Secretary Counel of Jews ‘ren, New York City sa Ss. Janovsky, Atomey at a 3.x. 8.Kahn, Tabi fy Nes, France. 8, Br...--8. Krauss, Ph.D. ‘Protestor Norval Cotege Budapest, Hungary. 8. Mu...s08. Mendelsohn, PhD, Rabb ton NU 8. Man,,.,..$. Mannheimer, BL, Instructor Hebrey Uni College. Cena Ohio 8. M, D......8. M. Dubs Acorns 3p. Samuel Ponanskt, Ph.D., Tai sy Wasa stCONTRIBUTORS 'TO VOLUME 1V S.R.D.. 8.82. 8.80. 8. Wol.... \$. Posner, Waa, Russa 8. RB. Driver, D.D., eels Prosi of Solomon Schechter, M.A., Litt... Presitent of the Pacaly of he geist hao. Tonal Seminary f Amores, New Vork CIty. tress, Oxford Unt ., Sigismund Salfeld, Ph.D., abot in Mayenre 8. Sommerfeld, i in Chen, Sasony. Germany Samuel Wolfenstein, ‘Superintendent of thedewcish Orptan Assim, ‘Curelana, Onto. Crawford Howell Toy, D.-D., LL.D., Professor of rebrew in Hiareard Coiversty, Cambradee. Mass. ‘Theodove Reinach, ‘Reroute Lettres formerly President of the Stviee des Hider Dlves, Paris, Prabee Umberto Cassuto, Florence. Tal. ..W, Muss-Armolt, PLD, ..Wiotor R. Emanuel, New ork Ct W. Bacher, Ph.D., ‘profesor, dew Totogical Seminary, Bitda- pest, Hungay W. H. Bonnett, iiessor of Hebrew at Norfolk, England, ‘sistant Professor of Biblical Philology, Unk ny of Ceo, M W. Max Milller, Ph:D., Profemor of Bible Faesesis, Reformed Epis: ‘opal Theotogteal Seminary, Phtidetpha, Pa William Nowack, Ph.D., D.D., Professor of Old festanent. Exegesis, Unk. versity of Strasburg, Germany. William Popper, Ph.D., New York Cin" William Rosenau, Ph.D., Tabb of Bata Page Ten Baltimore, Ma William S. Friedman, Ph.D., Rabbi of te Temple Emanuel, Denver, Col,LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME IV N. B.—In the following list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated ‘under each heading. Pace Abdala, Samuel, Arms of..... ‘Abolais Family, Arms of... ‘Aosandre, Albert (Anton), Freneh Chess Master. Algiors, Jews of. [Almemar: see Cnacows Damascus. ‘Almodovar, Gate of, or Bab al-Yahud, Formerly the Entrance to the Juderia at Cordova, . ‘Alvarez Family, Arms of America: see Cunagao; Uxrrep StarEs, ‘Archeology: sce Cuenusis; Comix; Cookery: Coven; Crnes; Dacox; Danits; Dewoxoroey; Sssaxase; Toss, Architecture: sce Ciicaco; CLEVELAND; CoNstaxTiNorne; Dawasces; DasteL; Doses Coxvin- sonual; SYNAGOGUES [Ark of the Law: see Cnixa; Cracow; Cunagao; Centar; Damasces. “Arms of the Tribe of Judah,” on Silver Salver Said to Have Been Presented by Manassch ben Istuct to Oliver Cromwell... ; aa ‘Art: sco Ancumocooy; Ancmimmerunn; Goats or Anois; Cosrtit ‘Tyrocraruy. Assyria: see Curnunnt; Dacox; Dexoxorosy. ‘Autogtaphs: see Cnwousox, Daxter; Cocxcm or Focr Laxps ; Cniiwrevx, Issac Avoua; Davo, Fenpisanp; Disnseut, BENJAMIN; D'Tsnasua, Isaac; Maxassent nN Israel Azevedo Family, Arms of.....++ a ‘207, and Fig. 21 of plate between 298-260 265 126 366 126 Bab al-Yahud: see Atstopovan, Gate oF. Badges, Various Forms of, Worn by Jews...+.4- Bahya hen Asher: sve Kap na-Kesam. Dassovi vou Treuenfeld, Arms of Bebri Family, Arms of Bed: see Cover, Balls of the Law: see Crowns oF Tite Law. Berlin Congress of 1878; Benjaunia Disraeli in Conference with Prince Gortschakefl. Painted by Anton von Werner..sssessesesesee ere --plate facing 620 Bible: see Dacarocus: Black Jew of Cochin Bie Yeshurun Temple, Cincinnati, Ohio ; 90 Books, Confiseated Hebrew, Thrown into the Flames by Polish Bishop 202 Border on Title Page of Baya ben Asher’s “Kad a-Kema,” Printed at Constantinople, 1580... 248 Bordereau, The, upon Which Captain Alfred Dreyfus Was Convicted .......-++ 600-861 195, and Figs, 6, 7, 18, 14 of plate beticeen 298-299 126 126 137 206 301 334 Gevicature ofan lish Jew of the Stock Bscahge, Panky Eighteenth Century ‘Caucasus, Fows of the, in Native Costume .....++ Cephalic Index of 1,071 Jews aud 845 Jewesses «... Ceremonial: see Cruoninrn: Coxeresion; Dnatacben Sopxis; Divonce; TABERSACLES, FEAST OF. Chazars, Map Showing the Disteibution of Religions in Europe in the Tenth Century, ¢.x., Indica- ting Extent of the Kingdom of the. a 2LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 19 VOLUME IV PAGE Cherubim, Assyrian, Byyptian, Phenician, and South Arabian Forms of... 15 Chess, Eminent Jewish Masters of. uv Aupxaxpnk. ALBERT ousseut, 16N32 FON. sreisira, Wouay. Gesanene, 16100K. Task, EMANUEL. ‘rannason, S1RcoENT. Honwir7. B. LawastiaL, 3. 3. ‘ugenron®, JU Saxowwskl. Dy Chicago, Jewish Training School, a — Michael Reese Hospital... a) — Standard Club 25 Childbirth, Feast at 20 — Reciting the *Ma-Matak ha-Go'd" Prayer atssseseseeeee 29 China: Bird's-Eyo View of the Temple Buildings at K'ai-Fung Foo, at — Interior of the Synagogue at Kal-Pung-Foo.. 2222+. 85 — Jews of Kai-Fung-Foo, 86 — * Tino Kin Klaou. 8B in Chinese Chanietevs (Term Applied tothe Jews by the Chinese). Cinmaceito, Aron Mendes, Hakam of Curugno. ++. aa Chowolson, Paniel Abramovich, Russian Orientals, Cincinnati, O., Bue Yeshuran Temple, — Hebrew Union College, Greameision, Articles Used in, the Patter Bearing as Inscription Gen. xi 4 — Cup of. Ta possession of Leopold de Rothschild, London —= Implements and Accessories of (Eighteenth Century), — Modern Implements of. Cleveland, O., Temple of Tifereth Israel Congreyation. —— The Jewish Orphan Asylum......eeeee-- Coats of Arms... T rontigpiece and 125-182 Anpata, Frasco, Monext. Anowsts uneos. Pas, DE deeane, Gounssio. Pines ‘azeveno. Gowen DE Sossa, Pinvwictr Basser vos TRECESFELD. HAD Rovuseutto, en manevie Sauonoxs. cous. Hinge vox GEREcTa. —— SaLvapon. Costs, Ds ESSE SAs8008- Distant. LorrzScasso-ba Foxstca. SUAss0. Etta MExpes. TarssiRA (AMSTERDAM). Bugay vos BLKASSRERG. —-MOCATTA ‘rerxeins (HOLLAND). ENmiacez. Mostace, WaSDSWORTH. FacbeL-PHILLrs, MoSTEPIORE. Worss, DE. — — see also Anois oF te TR e Jepan. Cookin, Bluck Jew of 5 SeNGroup of Jews of. - Jews of, Barly Nineteenth Century. — Jews of, Modern. Ea of the Jews of, Graating Priviloges to Josep Rabbaa, About 750 cx. Synagogue at : Canta Stee Bound ta'an Ancient Tomb at Lydda by M, Clermont Gunneat, = Ormamented, Found ix an Ancient Toni near Jerusalem, ..« — — se also Sancornaces. Cohen, Naphtali, Russo-German Rabbi... - Cohn Family (Saxe-Coburg-Gotha), Arms of —— Albert, French Philanthropist and Scholar — Ferdinand Jalins, German Botanist and Zoologist —— Tobias, Polish Physician....... oon rhe House of the Bory.” an AMlegorieal Design Gompiing the Orga of Body to the Divisions of a House, from * Ma'aseh Tobiyyah” of : Cologne, Hebrow Deed of Conveyanee by Jews of — Synagogue at.. 137 106 “Fig. 20 of plate between 208-299 + 185 2 1B 188 43 43 153LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME IV xvii Goloplion of Abraham Conat on the Last Pago of Levi ben Gerson's Commentary on the Bible, Before 1480... on the Last Page of “Tefliot Vaigar,” Mantua, 1501, Showing also the Printer’s Mar Ton the East Page of “Pur Orah Hayyim,” Printed by Abraham Conat, Mantua, 1476 Colorado: soe Dixvin. Columbia University Library: soe Kap wa-Kexam; Levr new Gensox; 9 ‘Vosoan Conut, Abraain, Colophon of, on the Last Page of Levi ben Gerson's Commentary on the Bible, Mantua, Before 1480... — Colophon on the Last Page of “Pur Oray Hayyim,” Printed at Mantua, 1476, by, Confession of Sins on the Day Before the Feast of Pentecost woes — — seo also Dearn-Be Sorxes. Confiscation: Polish Bishop Throwing Coufiseated Hebrew Books into the Flames, From Jacob Em- den's “Sefer Shinmush,” 1762. - an 223 Constance, Procession of Jews Meeting Pope Martin V. at the Council of — see also Costes. Constantinople, The Jewish Hospital at — Typography: Page from the Midrash Tilim, 1512 A Tite Page from Baya bon Asher’s “Kad ha-Kemah,” £820..... Gonsunpton: Map of New York City South of Fourteenth Stet, Showing Averige Death Rates Due to Consumption During 1897-09... Cookery, Egyptian: Showing Processes of Preparing Food. After Lepsius. Cordova, Bab al-Yahud or Gate of Almodovar, Formerly the Bntrance to the Juderi wt — Calle de Maimonides, Formerly the Principal Strect in the Juderia a, 5 — Decorations on the Walls of the Ancient Synagogue at Comacks: Map of Ukraine, Poland, and Wester Russia, Showing Chiet ‘Towns Where Outbreaks “Against the Jews Occurred During the Invasion by the Cossacks, 1618-56. Costa, Da, Family, Arms of. . Costume, Algeria. pees MIB : Frontiapieee ail Fig. Bt oF rite ete 28-20 + 801 — Caneasus, — Chia. ao = 36 — Cochin. B85, 186, cud Fig, 20 of plate Dcicen 208-299 — England. 206 — France "208, ain Figs. 1, 6 of plate Bettcen 208-209 : 801, 826-828 2, 8, 7, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18 of plate detecen 298-299 vesesee Figs. 10, 16 of plate Detieeen 208-209 Figs. 4, 5, 11 of plate between 208-209 11299, 300, and Fig. 26 of plate betieen 298-290 1130, 802, und Figs. 27, 28, 29, 80 of plate betccen 208-209 : JFig. 24 of plate Betiooen 298-209 205, and Figs. 8, 9, 12 of plate betccen 298-299 120, avid Pigs. 22, 28 af plate Detineen 298.209 800, and Figs. 19, 25 of plate betceen 298-209 Divorce. — Galicia. — switzertand. ae (Toe following is ast of sources fom which the ures shown on the plate Costumes of Jews" dave eon derived: Figs. 13,1, 12 21-—Hotionrodb, “Les Costames des Peuples Aucleus et Nodernes ”; ge 2 and T—Kreterbmer, "'Tracbien der Volker"; dg. 4a palnting by Sino de Pietro at Sienna ‘ig. 5a freeo im tho Hermitago at Padoas dg. a wanuseript In the Biblotkeque Nationale, Paris; figs. § and Oa tannscript chronicle of Ulrich you Reichtbal, nthe Town Hall at Basel; fg. 10—an IMluiinated misal of the Van Eyek Sebool, in tae Bibllthéyue de W'arsenal Paris: Nis. 18,1, Hote fenmeth, “Deutsche Votkstrachten oR. 16—Plearts Ags. 1) and 18—Kirehner, "Jodlsches Ceremonel.” YT; Mg. 19- Costumes of Turkey," London, 12; fs. %, 25 &—Macinets gs. 2, 2, 2, A Dbotographs: Age. 28.and 90" Les Pouples de a Russie." Couch, Egyptian, Showing Head-Rest and Steps. ..... Council of Constance (1417), Procession of Jews Meeting Pope Martin V. at the.» ol Four Lands, Leaf trom the lakes (Mintek) of the, with Avtogrph Signatures of Dele: gate plate between, 808-809 Cowen, Frederic Hiymen, Baglish Conductor and Composer. ceeceeeeees OOvill LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME IV Cracow, Interior of the Old Synagogue at — Page with the Kol Nidre Prayer, from a Jud — Phy Market at, in 1809. - —— Types of Jews of......+ : Graniometry: Cephalig Index of 1,071 Jews aud 345 Jewesses....- Creation, Stages of, From the Sarajevo Hagusuduh of the fourteenth century Creizenach, Michael, German Edueator and ‘Theologia Crémicus, Isiae Adolphe, French Statesman : —— — Part of the Autograph Letter of, Congratulating America on the Cronnvell, Oliver, Petition of the Jews of Engkuud to, Dated March 24, 1655. COMME pitvor Salver Bearing the * Arms of the Tribe of Judah,” Said to Have Been ‘Dy Manasselt ben Israel...+.+ Crowns of the Law, Various Forms of. Cruse, Fist Map of Rive Region, Showing Sites of Autt Jewish Outbreaks iu 1096, During the... 878 o-German Malszor Printed at, 1571 Cups of Sanctifieation ...-. — 385; 1.7, 0 Ritdush Cupay & Tabaiah Cups 3 and 8. Passover Cups; 4 and 5, Blijah Cups; 8, Circumcision Cup. Curacao, Interiorof the Synagogue at. = 888 — Temple Bmann-El, eee) Curtain for the Ark of the Law, froma Synage + 891 — — Probably from Asin Minor + 892 —— — Seventeenth Century, from Italy... 308, Cyrus, Portrait Sculpture of. 403 Dagon, Assyrian Representations of a 412, Damascus, Courtyard of a Jewish Residence at... fees 419 — Interior of a Synagogue at, Ss ves 418 — Plan of the Modern City of, Showing the Jewish Quarter ay Daniel, Traditional Tom of. ....-. ee) Darius, Cylinder Seal, with Name of, in Persian, S + — Scated on His Throne re Darmesteter, Arsdue, French Philo + 443 — James, French Orientalist. 24d David, Ferdinand, Violinist... 2402 David Praying, From a Passover Haggadaly, V +495 — Traditional Tomb of, at Jerusalem, : 452 Davwison, Boxumil, German Actor... amt Dead Sea, View of the. . Death-Bed Scenes... 1 Visiting the Sick. 8. Naking the Confession, 3. Lighting the Candles. 4. Mourning. Decalogue, Earliest Manuscript of, Probably of the Second Century ve = 498 Decorations on the Walls of the Ancient Synagogue at Cordova, 2 207 Deed of Conveyance by Cologne Jews; Thirteenth Century Joseph Solomon, Philosopher and Physician ‘ombstone of, at Prague. A ‘ho Nether World ia the Cluteies of a Demon Denver, Col.: Temple Emanuel Derenbourg, Hartwig, French Orientalist. — Joseph, French Orientalist, Dessatt, Graveyard of Ue Community of, mm, Plan of Ancient. Disputation Between Jewish and Christian Theologians, After Peter Sehyvarz, 14 — Religious, Between Jews and Christians. o Disraeli, Benjamin, English Statesman, After Millis, a at the Berlin Congress of 1878. From the painting by Anton von Werner. — Family, Arms of.. . Disraeli, Tsiae, English Author, Divorce, Hebrew Bill of, or Get, of the Eleventh Century. From the Cairo Genizat — Hebrew Bill of, or Get. After Bolenschatz, 1748.........06 sowing ‘Tombstone of Mendelsohn’ ‘FatherLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME IV xix vvorce Scene in Germany, After Kirchner, 1726. pe 626 Scenes at. After Bodenschatz, 1748, — . 637 Le Writing the Gef. 2 Reading Tt Aloud, 3. Throwing the Get to the Husband, 4. Husband ‘Throwing the Get to Wife Documents: see Maxuscurrts. Domus Conversorum, London, After Matthew Paris........+++ eis Rolls Chapel, Chancery Lave, London, Formerly Part of the, = Receipt for 45s. THd., Paid to Jacob Wolfgang by the, 1608.. Dress: see Costume. 636 636, oar Dreytus Case: Captain Alfred Dreyfus, From a statuette by Caccia.... 668 ee Phe Bordereau upon Whieh Dreyfus Was Convieted......- 1660, 661 Hagle-Headod Cherub, from an Assyrian Monument in the British Museum. . 1% Egypt: sce Cuenvnst; Cooxeny; Coven. Bichthal Family, Arms of. .....e+e+e2ee5- Elija Cups for Passover. conn Blkan vou Elkansberg Family, Arms of. England: see Cosruste; Cuoxwett; Dots CoxVERSORUS. Enriquez Family, Arms of......2.:+2++++ te Burope: sce CMAzZAns; COLOGNE; CoNsTANTINOPLE; Conpova; Cossacks; Cresape; Domus Coxvensone: 327 885 137 josreme; Onacow; ++ 198 29 05 pee 73) Faudel-Phillips Family, Arms of. 7 Feast at Childbirth. After Kirchner, 1726. First Editions: Page of “Pur Orah Hayyim,” Mantua, 1476... —- — Page of Levi ben Gerson’s Commentary ou the Bible, Mantua, Before 1480. —— Page from Midrash Tillim, Constantinople, 1512. mnseca Family, Atms of. ....ce2eeeeeeees France: see Costcme; Crusave; Duevrus Case. Franco Family, Arms of... _ pe Frunkfort-on-the-Main, Costume of Jews of (17th-18th Century)... Farth, Costume of Jows of, Eighteenth Century. pene t el 15 af plate eticeen 298-209 Figs. 17, 18 of plate between 298-299 Galicia: sve Cosrome; Cracow. Gate of Almodovar or Bab al-Yabiud, Formerly the Entrance to the Juderia at Cordova, = 265 Geuizab, Cairo, Hebrew Bill of Divorce of the Eleventh Century, from the. Seeeeess OE Germany: see Conoaxe; Costus; Dessau, Get: see Divouct cou Family, Arms of. seeseneee 198 les : see CostUuxte, Goldsmid Family, 5 : sos 128 Gomez de Sosa Family, Arms of. : + 8 Graveyard of the Dessatt Community, Showing Tombstone + 583 Gwusberg, Isidor, English Chess Master. 5 en a Habdalah Cup = 885 ‘amily, Arms of...... Family, Arms of. In th Hasid and Wife of the Early Nineteenth Century. Hats: see Costes. Hebrew: see Cincescrstox; Coats oF Ans; Conpova; Cops or Saxcriricatios; Cuntars; Deen; Divorce; Tomusroxe; Trocnarny. Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, 0. Hirsch von Gerenth, Arms of. .... Holland, Costume of Jews of....- fee lish Chess Master......+++2+++++ i: seo Cresco; Coxstaxtixori, : we 89 Cseeseeese sess oP ontigpiece 8. 10 and 16 of plate Between 208-2 7 Implements, Sacerdotal: see Cmcvstcrstox; Crowns or tHe Law; Cups oF SAXcriFteaTio3 ‘rary; KarFoxo-Foo,xs LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME IV Imprint: see Prixten’s Man, India; see Coes, Inseviptions: sev Coats OF ARMS; Conpova; Sasaxa; SEAL: Towustose Italy: see Cosreme; Maxtva. 0 Tanowski, D., French Chess Master. . Jerusilem: see Corriy; Costeme; Davin, Jessel Family, Arms of, 0.45 Joseph Rabban, Sasanam of the Jews of Cochin Granting Privileges to, About 750 ¢.8. “Juddenschreinbuch,” Hebrew Deed of Conveyance by Cologne Jews, from the “Kad ha-Kemab,” Title-Page from Baljya ben Asher's, Printed at Constantinople, 1520. Kai-Fung-Foo, China, Bird’s-Bye View of the Temple Buildi ceteestees Interior of the Synngogue at... Jews of. Knives Used in Circumcision, . Koliseh, Ignaz vou, German Chess Master.» Kol Nidro Prayer, Page from a Judvo-Germau Ma vor Containing the. Printed at Cracow. 1571... 830 a7) im u Lasker, Emanuel, Chess Master, Levi ben Gerson, Last Page of His Commentary on te Bible, Mantua, Before 1480. Lion, Winged Human-Headed. From an Assyrian monument in the British Museum, Lithuania, Costume of a Jew of, Modern, «Fig. 29 of plate between 208-2 Liturgy: see Mazon; Terit.or Veuean. London: see Dons Coxvensonus. Lopez-Suasso-Da Fonseca Family, Arms of ..s.sess0+5 Lowenthal, J. J., English Chess Master... Prontisplece eee Mahzor: Page with the Kol Nidre Prayer, from a Judwo-German Mabzor. Printed at Cracow, 1571, 330 Maimonides, Culle de, Cordova 265 ‘Manasseh ben Israel, Petition of th ¢ Jews of England to Oliver Gromyvell, Dated Mareh 24, 1655, List of Petitioners Headed by. . 367 — — Silver Saiver Said to Have Been Presented to Oliver Cromwell by. + 366 ‘Mantua, Typography : Levi ben Gerson’s Commentary on the Bibl 173 ‘Teillot Vulgar,” 1561. a Manuscripts: see Bonpenzat; Cocxen of Foun Lape; Onis Decasoove; Deep; Divouce; Doms Coxvensoncn, Maps: see Cuazans; Cossacks; CRUSADE; Damascus; Dison; New Yous, 826 Market at Cracow in 1869 Martin V., Procession of Jews Meeting; at the Council of Constance, 1417. ‘Mendes Family, Arms of. Midrash Tim, Page from the First Edition of, Printed at Constantinople, 1912.-++ arn Mocatta Family, Arms of.. 5 semen 130 Montagu Family, Arms of... sees 180 Montefiore Family, Arms of. Frontispiece Morenn Family, Arms of, + 130 Nether World, The, in the Clutches of a Demon... 15 New York, Map of the City of, South of Fourteenth Street, Showing ‘verge Death-Rates Due to 7 Consumption During 1897-98......... ——— Poblie Library: see Coux, ‘Tomas; Coxrisoatio puratiox; Divorce, Hennew Brut, ov, ELEVENTH CENTURY. ‘Nuremberg, Costume of Jews of (Seventeenth-Eighteenth Century)....-...Fig. 14 af plate Between 298-299 Deusteptce, Josnew Sooxex; Dis Palestine: sce Corrix; Costume; Davin; Deap Sma, Pas, De, Family, Arms Of.....s.ece.sse0e cove we 180 Passover Cups... 2985; oe Pentecost, Feast of, Jews Confessing Their Sins on the Day Before the,LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME IV xxi Pace, Phenicia: see Cirenwnnst Pimentel Family, Arms of Frontispiece Phe Minute-Book), Lent from the, of the Gouuell of Pour Lands, with Autograph Signatures of : wo veseres plate betiegen 308-808 Delegates....-.++ Pirbright Family, Arms of...2...2.0+- od 181 Ditier Usa fn Ciroumeision, Beating as Tnscription Gen, xxi. 4. 100 Poland, Bishop of, Throwing Contacte Hebrew Books into the Flames — Costume of Jews of. 5 wee B01, 902, and Fig, 27 of plate Between 208-200 Portraits: see Auexaspne, Abra DaRMastErea, ARSENE. Goxsaeac, Is1p0R, Chuwactito, Anos MsxoEs. — DARUsteTE Ja3tTs. Horw1, B. ‘cuwoisox, Daxtn. DAviD, FaROINAS?, daxowsh ‘Coues, NAMHTALI. Davwisos, BOOT Rouisen, iasaz vox. Conn, Aton Drtatibito, JOsePH SOLOMOS. LasKen, BXaNDEL. Cons, Penoisasp Jes, DERESHOLRO, HaRrwi. LowaNtHaL, JJ ous, Tons. Dunssnocne, JOSEP Sruisire, Wiusias, owns, PRvRRIG HyMES. ——DISRARLI, BEXTAMIS ‘Tannaseu, Stacmeer. Craseacts CARL Diisnastt, tase. aoxeaTont, J. H. nfsies, Tease ADOLM: Prague, Tombstove of Joseph Solomon Delneligo at 509 Prisur’s Mark au Colophon on the Last Page of “Tet Volger,” Moatun, 1561 1 —— on Title-Page, from Bubyya ben Asher's “ Kad ha-Kemab,” Printed at Gonstantnon 1520.. 249 Procession of Jews Meeting Pope Martin V. at the Council of Constance, 1417. 235 Pralnns: seo Mipnasu Tita Rhino Region, Map of, Showing Sites of AntiJowish Outbreaks During the First Cruse, 2000.» - 88 . Prontispicee Rothschild Family, Arms of.....-...+++0+000 Russia: see Cuazans; Cosrose, Salomons Family, Arms of... Salonien, Jew of oe Salvador Family, Arms of... Salven, Silver, Seid Have Buon Presaated by Manasseh ben Israel to Oliver Cromwell. Sarcophagus of an Ancient Egyptian King Bearing Figures of Cherubs.. — see also CorFIN, Susuam of the Jews of Cochin, Granting Pevileges to Joseph Fubben, About 750 o.. Sassoon Family, Arms of, Seal of the Halevi Family Seminary: see Hinuew Ustos CoLLRo®, Shoes: see Cosrome, Smyrna, Curtain for the Arc of dhe Law from a Synagogue sh. cues ee Brontigpicee eevee B66 18 391 South Arabian Form of Cherub. 6 Standard Club, Chicago, 11. 25 Stelnita, William, Chess Master. nv Suasso Family, Arms of. . Prontiapiece “985, 905, and Figs. 8,0, 12 of plate Betieen 208-200 Switzerland, Costume of Tows of. we . ‘bj Cocttts; CoLoase; Convova; Onscow; CUR, Synagoyues: see Crnsa; Crnerxnart, CLEVER a0; Damascus; DENVER. ‘Tabernacles, Feast of, Jows of Constantinople, Bighteenth Century, Celebrating. 300 ‘Tarraseh, Biegbert, German Chess Master. uv ‘Todllot Vulgar,” Colophon and Printer's Mark on the ast Fase ‘of, Mantua, 1501, 2 ‘Teiscira Family (Amsterdam), Arms of bee a 192 —= (Holland), Arms of Frontispiece ‘Temple Buildings nt K'ai-Pung:Foo, Chia, Bird's Bye View of the...» seve BF “Tuo Kin Kiuou,” in Chinese Characters (Term applied to Jews by the Chinese)... 3 ‘Title-Page: sco Kap wa-Kestart. Tombs, Traditional: see Dante; Davi, ‘Tombstone of Joseph Solomon Delmedigo at Prague —s¢0 also Dussav.xxill LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME IV 207, and Figs, 22, 28 of plate detireen 2 Turkey: see Coxeraxnixoria; Costexte “Pur Ora Hayyim,” Last Page of the First Edition of, Printed by Abratiam Conat, 1476, 205 ‘Types, Jewish: see Crna; Cocuin; Costes; Cracow, Typography: see Covornox; Coxar, ApkanaM; CoxstaxtixopLis; Cracow, ‘United States: sce Cmicaco; Cixcrsxari; CLEVELAND; Coxsturrioy; Dexter, ‘Wandsworth Family, Arms of... - 182 Warsaw Jew and Jewess of the Early Nineteenth Century. + 802 World, The Nether, in the Clutches of a Demon. & 2315 Worms, Costume of Jews of, Sixteenth Century a Fig 18 of plate detscen 298-250 De, Family, Arms of, a ea peeti79 Writing, Cursive: see Cocxen. or Foun L. Zukertort, J. H., Chess Master... Seeaeeneenseaes wvTHE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA [Nore: For topies beginning with @h, uot found in alphabetical onder, seo under HL] CHAZARS: A people of Turkish origin whose life and history are interwoven with the very be- ginniags of the history of tho Jows of Russia,” ‘The Kingdom of tho Chuzus was firmly established ia most of South Russia long before the foundation of the Russian monarehy by the Varangians (899) Jews have lived on the shores of the Black and Caspian seas since the first centuries of the com- mon er, Historical evitlence points to the region of the Ural as the home of the Chazars. Among the classical writers of the Middle Ages they were known as the *Chozars,” “Khazirs,” #Akntzirs,” and“ Akatirs,” and in the Russian chronicles as “Khwalisses” and “Ugry Byely ye.” ‘The Armenian writers of the ffeh and following, ceonturies furnish ample information concerning this people, Moses of Chorene refers to the invasion by the * Khazirs” of Armenia and Iberia at the begin ning of the third century: “The chaghan was the King of the North, the ruler of the Khazirs, and the quicen was the ehatoun " (“History of Armenia,” i 857), The Chazars first came to Armenia with the Basileans in 198, Though at first repulsed, the; subsequently hecame important factors in Armenia history for a period of 800 years. Driven onward by the nomadic tribes of the steppes and by their own desire for pluader and revenge, they male fr ‘quent invasions into Armenia, ‘The latter eountr was made the battle-ground in the Iong stragate bs tween the Romansand the Persians, ‘Thisstrugaic, which finally resulted in the loss by Armenia of her independence, paved the way for the political im- portance of the Chazars. ‘The conquest of eastern Armenia by the Persians in the fourth century ren- ered the latter dangerous to the Chazars, who, for their own protection, formed an alliance’ with’ the Byzantines, This alliance was renewed from time to time until the final conquest of the Chazars by the Russians, Their first aid was rendered to the Byzantine emperor Julian, in 863. About 434 they ‘were for atime tributary to Attila—Silonius Apol Tinaris relates that the Chazars followed the banners of Attila—and in 452 fonght on the Catalanian fields in company with the Black Huns and Alans. The Persian king Kobad (488-381) undertook the con struction of a line of forts through the pass between 1. A Derbent and the Caueasus, in order to guard against the Invasion of the Chazars, Turks, and other warlike tribes. His son Chos: Barly roes Anoshirvan (591-579) built the History. wallof Derbent, repeatedly mentioned by the Oriental geographers and his- torians as Baby al-Abwab (Justi, “Gesch, des Alten Persiens,” p. Inthesecond half of thesixth century the Chazars. moved westward. They established themselves in the tervitory bounded by the Sea of Azov, the Don and the lower Volga, the Caspian Sea, and the northern Caucasus, ‘The Caueasian Goths (Tetrax- ites) vere subjugated by the Chazars, probably about the seventh century (Lowe, “Die Reste der Ge manen am Schwarzen Mere,” p, 72, Halle, 1890). Early in that century the kingdom of the Chazars und hecome powerful enough to enable the chaghan ty send to the Byzantine emperor Hersclius anarmy: fof 40,000 men, by whose aid he conquered the Per- sians (620-627). ‘The Chuzars had already occupied the northeastern part of the Black Sea region. Ac: cording to the historian Moses Kalonkataci, tie Cha- zars, under their leader Jebu Chaghan (called * Zi bel Chaghan” by the Greck writers), penetrated into Persian territory as early as the second cam- paign of Teractius, on which oceasion they devas tated Albania (“Die Persischen Feldztige des Kuisers Herakleios,” in Byzantinische Zeitschrift," ii. 864). Niccphorus testifies that Heracliusrepeatedly showed marks of esteem to his ally, the chaghan of the Chazars, to whom he even promised his daughter in marriage. In the great hattle between the Cha- zars and the Arabs near Kiztiar 4,000 Moammedan soldiers and their leader were slain Tn the year 609 the Ugrians or Zabirs freed them- selves from the rule of the Obrians, settled between the Don and the Caucasus, and came under the do- minion of the Chazars, For this reason the Ugri- ans, who nd hitherto been called the White” or In- dependent” Ugrians, are deseribed in the chronicles ascribed to Nestor as the “ Black,” or“ Dependent,” Ugrians. ‘They were no longer governed by their own princes, but were ruled by the kings of the Chazars, Tu 785, when the Arab leader Mervan moved from Georgia against the Chazars, he at tacked the Uzrians also, In 679 the Chazars sub- jugated the Bulgars and extended their sway far- ther west between the Don and the Dnieper, as farChazars as the head-waters of the Donetz in the provinee of Lebeitia (K. Grot, * Monivia i Madyary,” St, Peters Durg, 1881; J, Danilerski and IK. Grot, “O Pati ‘Madyars Urala y Lebediyu,” in * Tzvyestiga Tmpont- torskuvo Russkavo Geogralicheskavo Obshehestya,” xix). It was probably about that time that the ‘chaghin of the Chazars and his gra- Embrace dees, together with a large minber Tudaism. of his heathen people, embraced the Jowish religion. According to A. Harkavy (*Meassef Niddahim,” 1), the conversion took piace in 620; according to others, in 740, King Joseph, in his letter to [asda iby Shaprut (about 960), “gives the following account of the conversion: Som evutures 0 King Bulan rome over the Chazars ‘To ul Gat appeareM tke and praise itn mgt ‘Bloc Encourige by tls reas, Bulan ene Wy Oe oad Uf Darian to the country of Aneli, Setene he gale tet vist res fover the Arts]. ‘rte Hezantine emperor ana the eal ‘he Ishnnelites see {im envoys wh presenta, and ses {o convert him to their respective ree Newnes uta te ted sso wise mer of ismieh atid fected t0 exnanine Then all. as eae ofthe cbampions be Hevea is reiston to be the best, Bulan separately ques: tioned the Mobsnt= evans andthe Christians as “to ‘whl of the other tio religions “ther fonsidered the et fer. When bath gave reference to tate of {he Jews, at Ria pervetved tae Tt Inst Bethe tre n= Tigh. He therefore auonted ft (see Tiarkas, "Soot heath 9 Chea rik in" Yerrels ‘kava Bwtek” vip oS ‘THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA | | | “Map Showing the Distribution of Religions im Bxrope 4 th 2 hiis son Moses (or Manassch IL); the latter by his son Nisi: and Nisi by his son Aaron IT, King Joseph himself wasst son of Aaron, and ascended the throne in accordance with the kw of the Chavats relating to secession. On the whole, King Joseph's ac- count agrees generally with the evidence given by the Arubie writers of the tenth century, but in de= tail it contains a few discrepancies, Aecordin Tin Fadl ita, and others, only the King and the grandes were followers of Judaism, ‘The rest of the CI Molammedans, and heathens; and the Jews were in a great minority (Prin, “De Chazaris,” pp, I-18, S830), Ae cording to Mus‘wli (“Les Prairies d'Or,” fi, 8), the King and the Chazars proper were Jews; but the arly consisted of Mohammedans, while the other Inhabitants, especially the Skavonians and Rus sians, were heathens. From the work “ Kitab al- Buidan.” written about the ninth century (p. 2215 cited by Chwol- son in “Tzvyes- ‘ao Chazae ” ete, p. 51), itappearsas fall the Chazars were Jews and that they had Been converted to Judaism only ‘a short time be- fore that book was written, But this work was probably in- spired by dai- ani; and it may bbe assumed that fn the ninth eon tury many Chae zat heathens be came Jews, owing (0 the re- ligious zeal of King Obadiah, [Spawn aroouee (once esos (Sagiews cnucara) [Svonnteace [toncme ‘Tenth CED, Cy This account Tnaleatine Bxtent of the Kingdom of the Chazars ppcbed in coaecrs of the conver. (ir Sen ae apie Hinge sion in great jon was con: masses," “says sidered to be of aI nature. Harkavy, how> | Chwolson (i, p. 58), “may have been the reason for ever(in * Bithasov * and“ Yerreiskaya Biblioteka”), proved from .\rahie and Slavonian sources that the Even the name of Sangari has been nd in a liturgy of Constantine the Philosopher (Cyril), Te was one of the successors of Bulan, mained Obadiah, who regenenated the kingdom and strengthened the Jewish religion, Me invited Jew ish scholars to settle in his dominfons, and founded synagogues and schools, ‘The poaple were in structed in the Bible, Mishnah, and Talmud, and in the “divine serviee of the haxzanim.” In'their writings the Chazars used the Hebrew Succession letters (Hurkavy, “Skazaniya,” el of Kings. p. 241). Obadiah was succeeded by his son Hezekiah; the latter by his, son Manasseh; Manasseh by Hanukkah, a brother of Obadiah; Hunukkal by his son Iswe; Iswe by the embassy of Christians fromthe lmd. of the Chazars to the Byzantine emperor Mielitel, ‘The report of the embsey reads us flaws: Quiomoddo nine Judi, mune Saraceni ad suam fclem eos mole rentur eonvertere'® Sehlizer, “ Nestor,” ii, 134), The history of the kingdom of the Chizars n= Aoubtedly presents one of the most remarkable fea tures of the Middle Ages. Surrounded by wild, nomadic peoples, andl themselves lead Internal ing partly a nomad life, the Chars Adminis- enjoyed all the privileges of civilized ‘tration nations, a well-constituted aud tolennt and government, a flourishing tide, and Commercial a well-diseiptined standing army, Tn Relations. « time when funiticism, ignorance, and anarchy reigned in western Bue rope, the kingslom of the Chazars could boast of its just and broad-minded administration; and all3 ‘THE JEWISIT who were perseonted on the score of their religion found refwge there, There was a supreme court of justice, composed of seven judges, of whom two ss, tivo Mobiammedans, and two Christians, ge of the interests of their respective fail fone heathen was appointed for the Slavonians, Russians, and other pagans Masud, fe. ii, S11). ‘The Jewish population in the entivedomain of the Chazurs, in the period belween the seventh sant enth centuries, must have been considerable There is no doubt that tho Caucasian and other Or ental Jews had lived and curried on business with the Chazas Jong before the arrival of the Jewish fugitives from Greece, who escaped (723) from th mania for conversion whieh possessed the Byzan tine emperor Leo the Isunrian, From the ¢orre spondence between King Joseph auc Hasilat it ix apparent that two Spanish Jows, Judah bet Met ben Nathan and Joseph Garis, hud succeeded in settling, jn tho land of the Chazars, aud that it wasa Germ Tew, Isaac ben Eliezer “from the land of Nyemetz, (Germany), who carried Hasdai’s letter to the king Suadia, who had a fair knowledge of the kivgdom of the Chazars, mentions a certain Isane ben Abra; Iran who had removed from Sura to Chavatria (Hay Kavy, in Koliut Memorial Volume, p. 249. Among the various routes enumerated by the Arabie geox- rapher Thn Klurdaudhbah (860-880) as being used by the Rabdanite Jewish merchants, there is one leading from Spain or France, via Allenania, through the Jand of the Slawvouians, elose by Atel, the capital of the Chazars, whence they erossed the Sea of the Cha- zars (Caspian Sea) and continued their voyage, via Balkh, Transosania, and the land of the Tagasza, to India and China. ‘These merchants, who spoke Arabic, Persian, Grock, Spanish, French, and Shi onic, * traveled contintiously from west to cast from ‘east to west by sea and by Iand.” ‘They carried ew nuchs, serving-maids, boys, silks, furs, swords, int ported nnusk, aloes, ewmplior, cinnamon, and other products of the Fur East (arkuvy, “Skazaniya AMustulmanskilsh Pisatelei o Slavyanaish i Russ pp. 48, 58; Journal Asiatique,” 1860. Husiai ibn Shaprut, who was foreign minister to “Abd al-Rahman, Sulu of Cordova, in his letter to King Joseph of the Chazars (about 960), relates that the first information about that kingdom was com municated to him by envoys from Khorasan, and that their statements were corroborated by the za dassadors from Byzautinm, ‘The latter told i that the powerful Chazars were maintaining amica Iie relations with the Byzantine empire, with which they carried on hy seaa trade in tish, skins, and other swares, the voyage from Constantinople occupying fifteen days, Flasdai determined to avail himself of the services of the Byzantine embassy to transmit his letter to the king of the Chazurs, and with that view he despatched Isane ben Nathan with valuable gifts to the emperor, requesting him o aid Isaac in his joumey to Chazsiria, But the Greeksinterposed delays, and finally sent Fsaae back to Cordova. Has: ‘dai then decided to sent his mess by way of Fert salem, Nisibis, Armenia, and Bardaa, bt the envoys of the king of the Gebalim (Boleslav I. of Bobiemia), who had then just arrived in Cordova, and among whom were two Jows, Saul and Joseph, suggested NCYCLOPEDIA Chazars adifferent plan, ‘They offered to send the letter to Jows living in * Hungarin” (Ifungary), who, in their turn, would transmit it to “Russ” (Russia), and thence through * Bulgar” (probably the country of the Bulgarians on tle Kuban) to its destination (Atel, the capital of Chazaria). As the envoys waninteed the safe delivery of the message, Hasdai ieceptedt the propostl, He further expressed his thankfulness that God in His merey had not de: prived the Jews of a deliverer, but hud preserved the remnant of the Jewish race, Taking a kecw interest in everything relating to the kingdom of the Chazars, Hasdat begs the king: to communicate to him a detailed account of the geography of his country, of its internal constitu. tion, of the customs and o¢cupations of its inhabit ants, aud especially of the history of his ancestry andl of the state. In this letter Hasdai speaks of the tradition according to which the Chazars once dwelt near the Seir (Serir) Mountains; he refers to the narrative of Eldad ha-Davi, who thought he had discovered the Lost Ten Tribes; and inguires whether the Chazats know auything conceruing “the end of the miracles” (the coming of the Messiah). As to Fldad ha-Dani's unauthenticated account of the Lost ‘Ten Tribes on the River Sambation, ft may be inter. esting to note that, according to Tdrisi, the city of Sanmel Satkel-on-the-Don) wassituated on te River ‘ALSabt(Sambat), which is the River Dou. ‘The name for Kiev, ns given by Constantine Porphyrogenitus, is also Sambitas (SquSérac). ‘These appellations of the River Don and of the city of Kiev pointevidently to Jewish-Chazar influences (Westberg, “Ibrahim ibn Ya'kub’s Reiseberieht ber die Slavenlande aus dem Jabre 965," p. 134, St. Petersburg, 1898). ‘A complete account of the correspondence be- tween Hasdal and King Joseph has The Leon written by A. Harkavy (*Yevre- Chazarian iskaya Biblioteka,” viii, 195), one of Letters. the lending authorities on the history of the Chazars, from which the fol- lowing is, in substance. an extract arian cofmespondence wus frst published fa the eser" of Issac -Agrish (Constantlgople, 177), tds these documents came While on a voyage mt Faypt to Constantinople. He published thet with the iow of proving thi even after the destrction of Jerusalem rad their oven cOnntEY.{n-heeorMance With the ‘welinown passe in Gevess (ss. 10), "the seeptersball not ‘eprom dda ‘Riong Europes solar Jona Bustort, the son, was the rrgt to bene fteretet fn the Chazaran fetter. whieh be Printed together with the text of "ABrish fis Latin transl Hon of Cha (Base, 100 ‘hustort believed that te letters themselves and the entre Iustory ofthe Chavaram kibgdon Gere hut fable, for te reson the no seafarene mereiunts, or other travelers al bronght “any formation coveermm seh & ours Kingdon a tt St the Chavars was reputed 0 be. "The learned Creuse Driterbelot (= Bibllowitqne Oreste.” $55, Pars, 1). mis Ru byea evongeoneeiton of the Cuzart* and is relaion tothe tonversion of the Chzarst dudaen, 1eavee the wutbentiety of {he eorrespondeneo an open question. ‘one of the sirentest seola's of the 17th centurs. Same ‘ochart, in his erivtion af ersnof the Chazurs, croduoes| the aeeuant of doeplten Gorton Vosipon), and in his notes fone Yasin’ of Zaeuto gives ormation about the Chazae ‘ington and the Sen of the Chaztrs abated from the feograshia Nubensts™ of te Arabian weir Tals 2th cen turg'see "Geagraphia Sier4." 1646 p22). Boebar's views, thosever sre not fmportane boewise end no Knowledge ofthe Cnaari® op of the Chazarian Teter. All the skeptics of thatChazers timeand those mentioned bel concerning te Chee a Cha ‘vont Riustan snares or ortne "eta sametor feuses tuode se therefore not sirpising that the fist author of # euprebensive history of the gews, Basnage, Aho fs Histoiye es Dut” ¥ #4 Mosterdamy, 120, prints the charavian eters five the bones to dee fant only te kingdom or the chazas. bt ev te Clazarian poopie, whieh Nas avented, be considers, Wy ‘rsh bustles “About he sae tine Dox Aumustine Cale issued bis Mie rica reseatees, at of which teats of te country whither he ‘Tou Tribes were teary aid Where the sud tribes wow ive Caliyetrousklens Mes ear the Caspian se to be the cone ryan eat fe ei festa! wi the country of the Chie hiss one so et Ince Fale HN ‘Koning to then the ¢aue oF the Clas adopted the Jewish ‘esl fn the eign iscentiay, Cathet, However, considers the Mize story a dion. (Calin, " Bitieehe Untersiebungen, Tebersett Yon Moshvtnn” He abit, Bremen, 1). ‘Barris dhe roa child also considers the sory ofthe chizars tobe only pleasing hovel: But It may serve as fexeuse for is opin thae whet he sre Mis WOFE De was ‘Shoven gearsot tue uaratin, Vomte de onan Fis de Jona de Tula.” 285, argsverdam, 1790- “The Dantsh IMstoriograiierreterte ein ea 170. ynoce a ears bio worke Tor tat tine, oy the Chzars, ant who could not fhe hms from the vw ofthe lasts oF the the with Te {arco the letter af King Joseph, ns the Bt to give a dete nt favor of the geuineness of the letter of Tas (Gulu "Sainedeskntter"). ‘The ymmorance of these writers Aecttie fr byte ace thal atthe end ofthe eighteenth ‘Century were trielatons of the old arabe writers Masih Scant To Habs ee, on the Chivars ised, The Urst 0 fake nse of the teinony of the Arab writers to coreborate the accounts of te Jewish riers on the Chairs was the Htnuawian hiecerin alewes Cesext who had the aavancase ‘tushy copies ofthe Atubie mameseipa Melating to te subject Me the Eibeney ot Panis repre aac” pp be WH ‘Rath Mvesan sori arama tls nade wee of Mase Ars tagormation, given ia the chrestonahy "of silvestre de Saeyeand of Abfeta's researc published inthe th rotome ff Behn’ " Mstoriea Stagazine.” "The Russian acseilan Ch. Fon and the Swedish scholar Droissuneofieered and putusied, the Orst quarter of the Dinetwenth century all the Arable testimony onthe stject of The Chaar Knovgn at that dine. "The autuentieny ot the liter fof King: Josey hase however inee been fully estab Uy fe very Iuateral whieh those sebolars al a thelr disposal Frit acsnovwledgrs the genuinewess of Hat's letter, bat not iat of Ring Josepn, in those Way D'olsson, althonst he found the information of the Arabic and Byantine writers tn fSnformity with the contents of the Chazar letters, could not felp doubting its genutuenees C*Peuples du Cateas.” p 2 ‘This ay te explained the fact thik as they dk not under. Sand Hebrew fey dh not-care to commit theaselves om ‘uestion white lay ouside of thee eld or investaion. hut the Jewish scholars Talo doubts ehntever a5 to the genuineness of the Chiara doeunnents, especially since the Eegannins of the evita scout of Rapoport and Zumz. They ‘erento nse of i ay seriters su Spain in the twelfth ene Torys weforttumee, hy Sts Lae CHO}, who disayed how ecquntance ith He contents of King Joseph's epistie {Gaels ae ue usar” pp }S-14. Legs, 18H). an hy the Dotorian -Abrabna thn Daw of Toledo (1), who distinctly efor totve same leter "Sefer t-Kubbatab," p40, Atnstere fam, Unter om, With the persecutions which ended with the expul son of the Jews from Spain, tne Chazarian documents. toaether Seitb man other teasunes of woedieval Jesh erature, were Feat to te leameds and were not recovered unt the end of the iIstecnth century, when thes were found ta Rypt ty Tac SXfrans the Jews of that tne took Ite interest, however fie histry of the Pas, hei snore the ebgereas events Stair oxen epoch. The het reference, eaters fs uy eb Baharaes of Worms proofs ofthe gentinenest of Halas tre na fom wii served ns a preface, and whieh reads as follows Eagan sono Ene, son of Fara ben Shaprat™ (se ™ ‘naShani" ps 10h, Prunifor-an te Main 17s “puis sensiie, however. again remains unnoticed tnt was reiseoveret by Frensdort independent of Bacharaeb, i Yeoh ee zestannit thy sbdisehe Pheologes” Hi 3). Four sears ater (1810) the genuineness of Hasdal's letler wis absotutely 4 proved by Joveph Zeer. He also acknowledged the wuthen- Fier ofthe cghian's Teter, itd. not subst prooty twa itstoriseer StUeke aise? sehen Tera,” pps 2 Biehiertin, Tein, At the samo tine Solomon SuBK sve bis tpinfon I favor of the genuinenes of both letters (Orient, Tels p Bibs" anges de y. siee ten iis vies elading Febreh, Teily Mitel Sten, TSI; 8. D. Lar oi ey 8 ont, TS: telnstineer begins with TSb1 ‘Rewasian isuo2 D. Ravn, 187 and any cn of devsish withthe souees, espera ‘ere them hn nist be ered his work wit ratesde ln Terre Sante,” set ae works ere prevented by Puli Cass ( Magyarlslie Riertntiners” pp IR-21, Bev 18S" Dor Chzarische KO- ihgatried ans dnt 1 dahudert™ Bertin 187). "Pe results of these vestigations were aceepied sy tie 0 towing erst seholars? Grigneyev, 181; Sehafariky 1885 Toleveh Iebtsy Shien de Sot! Magan, 012 Sy Soto yor, ISL SHY hyelogte 180: Brn 800-7: tasox. 18-71; Run Isttand Ise; andsmany oers SU tre were some writers ‘rho were ante by the eater options, and on the strength of i apeke skeptical af te documents: as tacob Goldent ‘Hourvesor 8); snd even the histor ovals piers eo ‘wi arabic, Curly Saris soure pleted in Ist fen 1). 80 Tn 960 Atel (or Iti}, at tat time the capital of the kingdom of the Chazars, was situated about eight niles from the modern Astrakhan, on theright bankot the lower Volist, which river was also called * Atel” or “Tul” ‘The meaning of “Atl” ‘The _ in the Gothic language is * futher” or Capital of “Tittle futher,” that of “Tul” im the Chazaria, Turanian language is “river”; iv fs dificult to decide whieh of these two words gave the river its mame, ‘The western part Gf the city was surrounded by a wall pierced by four gates, o€ wliick one led to the river, and the thers to the steppes. Tere was situated the king's pakice, which was the only brick building in the City. Acconting to Mus'wdi, the efty was divided into three parts, the palnee of tho ehaghan standing onanisland, ‘Phe king had twenty-five wives, all Of reyal blond, and sixty concubines, all famous Teauties, Buch one dwelt ina separate tent and was watched by a cunuch, The authority of the chaghan was so absolute that during his’ absence from the capital, even his viceroy, or coregent (called “isha,” or *bek,” ox pech ”), was powerless, ‘The viceroy had to enter the chashan’s apartments hurefooted and with the greatest reverence, He t hand a chip of wood, whieh he lit xl the chaghan, wheretpon hie took his seat to the right of the latter, om the throne. which was of gold, ‘The walls of the palace were also gilded, aid a golden gate ornamented the palaee. "AIL the other dwellings of the then populons eit were iusigniticant mud hutsor felt tents. ‘The posi tion of the chaghan of the Chazars was evidently similar to that of the former mikados of Japan while the bek, his military eoregent, corresponded “Fue qanmtation of te letters given by Harkay from a. rmaaiiseript in the St Peeersburg Putte Library. ‘The sent fess of te St. Peters nanuseript has been demonstrate bY tunatnst P. Cassel, Watney eu, tho Hussecie Res fd Ia Measset Niddublnh, he No. 10, pp. 149 et sea.5 to tho shoguns of the latter. Emperor Herelins in 626 concluded a treaty with the claghan of the Chazars, and Constantine Copronymus, in his de niption of the embassy of He Chazars (824), states that it was sent by the “ chaglaon and the peeh.” bn Fadlan relates that the king of the Chazars was called the * great ebaghan,” and his deputy *cha- ghan-bhoa” (*bey,® “beg,” or “bek"), ‘The bek Ted the army, administered the affairs of the coun- try, and appeared among the people; and to him the neighboring kivgs paid allegiance,” Tt will thus be seen that the extent of the powers of the bel varied with the times, When the chaghan wanted to punish any one, he sail, “Go and commit sui cide” —a method resembling the Japanese eastom of hara-kiri, ‘Pho mother of the chaghan resided in the western part of the city, whose eastern part, called “Chi Zaran,” was inhabited by merchants of various: fionalities. ‘The eity and its cuvirons were heavily shaded by tees, ‘The Turkish and the Chazar lay guages predominated, The entourage of the chi ghan, numbering 4,000 meu, cousisted of representa. tivesof different nationalities. The White Chazars were renowned for thelr beauty: aml according: to Demidov, the mountaineers of the Crimea eon: inasted very favorably with the Noguy ‘Tatars, be eanse they were considerably intermixed with th Chavarsand with the equally flne mace of the Kn- White Chazars, there were algo ars (who were almost as dlark as the Hindus), ‘Turkish Immigrants, Slavonians, Tumno: Bulgars, Jews, who lived mostly in the cities, and various Ganeasian tribes, stich us the Abghases, Ki ardines, Osseres, AAvares, Lesuliians, ere. "Phe Chavars cultivated rice, millet, frait, grains, and the vine. ‘They lad important fisheries on the ‘Caspian Sea, and the sturgeon constituted the main article of food, ‘The -\rabie writer Al-Makdisi re- marks: “In Chavatria, there are many ‘Trade and si Commerce. (“ Bibl, Genuraph, Arabic.” ih, Le sen, 1877). From the upper Volga the Drought down from the Mordvines and Russiatis honey and valuable furs, which they exported to ‘Arica, Spain, and France, ‘They supplied the mar: ket of Constantinople with hides, furs, fish, Indian goods, and articles of luxury. ‘Phe chaghan and his Suite resided in the capital only during the winter months,» From the month of Nisan (April they led a homadie fife in the steppes, returning to the city about the Feast of Hiuntkkat (December). ‘The es: tatesand vineyardsoF the chaghan wereon the island fon which his paluce was situated. Another eity of the Chazars, Sementer, between Atel and Bab all Abwab, was surrounded by 40.000 vines, Tt was jdentical with the modern Tarku, near Petrovsk, which is now inhabited hy Jews and Kunyks, ‘The latter are supposed to be descended trom the Cha zaars (Kclapnath.” Mémoiresur les Khivzars,” in Jour nal Asiatique,” 1823, if.) ‘At the Byzantine court the chaghan was held in igh esteem, In diplomatie correspondence with Ihim the seal of three solidi was used, whieh marked him as potentate of the first rank, above éven the pone and. the Carlovingian monarchs. Emperor and Jews, and much honey” ‘THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Chasers ‘Justinian IL, after his flight from Kherson te Doros, took refuge during his exile with the chaghan, and ‘married the chaghan’s daughter Irene, Relations who was famous for her beauty (708) with By- (Nicephorus, “Breviarium,” ed. Bonn, vantium. 1837, p, 40). Emperor Leo IV., “the Chazar” '30), the son of Con- stantine, was thus a grindson of the king of the Chavars) From his mother he inherited bis mild, amiable disposition. Justinian’s rival, Bardanes, Tikewige sought an asylum in Chazaria.” Chazarian troops were among the body-guurd of the Byzantine imperial eourt; and they fought for Leo VI against Sinseon of Bulgaria in 888, King Joseph in his letter to Hlasdai gives the fol- owing account of his kingdom: ‘he county wp te rivers within afonr montis Journey to | myerrentsetted hy the following naons who pas tributeto the ‘Cazares Burtas Hulgar, saver, Aros Tat Chazarian ls Veit, syever, und Siavivun. ‘Thence the Territories. bonngary tine rang to Buarasnas fur es te Sondian, All dae nba of tho sence hacitvesehtiin a month's distance pay eta to the Chazars ‘Tote som Seniender,BakeTadin, ad the gates of the Bab atabwabare situated on dhe seashore. ‘Sener the : ive extends tothe ionntain of At, Haka ia, Siuula, Susan, anise, Ckioser, Rindusse sikh wich ary Fer high peaks. and to the Alan tocar of ts Rass Kaden, Taka Geb ana the Coe nina Sea, ‘To. the sen, Sarkel, Samir stata, ar ai kip ie a, ks of te Constaatinian ack) eae Thence he bout Ti extend to tho north raversiog tv land of Dasa, wie i ie chines Vases, nee om the plains tive, nomadtiee, ‘whieh extend to the fennte of the Gares. as innumerable s3 Thesamis of the sen tink. thes all pay bite to the Cavars. Ut te Cran Masel hae esablstied his residence {iv of the iver onder to guard ite entrance and (0 esse front resehing theCasplat Sead th 2 The sane a of ab abba.” ro, Sa Drevent ‘i Denesrating 0 he Tat tthe Tsanael he Chazass br eves from the ea Even the Russian Slavonians of Kiev had, in the ninth century, to pay as yearly tax to the Chazars a swond and the skin of a Squirrel for each house. ‘At the end of the eighth eeutury, when the Cri- mean Goths rebelled against the sovereignty of the Chazars, the latter occupied the Gothic “capital, Doros, ‘The Chazairs were at first repulsed by the Gothic bishop Tonnes: but when he ‘War with lid surrendered, the Goths submitted Goths. to the rule of the Chazars (Bram, “Die Lotzten Sebicksale der Krimgo= then? p. Hi, St. Petersburg. 1800; ‘Tomascher, “Dic Gothen in Taurien,” View, 1881). Tn the second quarter of the ninth eentury, when the Chazars were often annoyed by the irruptions fof the Petchenegs, Emperor Theophilus, fearing for the safety of the Byzantine trade with the neigh nations, despatched his brother-in-law, Petron eros, with materials and workmen to build for the Chazars the fortress Sarkel on the Don (834). Sarkel (*Sar-kel.” the white abode; Russian, “Byelaya Vyeria") served as a military post and asa commercial depot for the north. Tn the second half of the ninth century the apostle of the Slavonians, Constantine (Cvxrt), went to the Crimea to spread Christianity: among the Chazars (Fomasehek, fe. p. 25). At this time the kingdom fof the Chazars stood at the height of {ts power, and twas constantly at War with the Arabian califs and