Histology

Chapter 5
 Primary tissue:
• Epithelial tissues
• Connective tissues
• Nervous tissues
• Muscle tissues
Histology (microscopic anatomy)
• The study of tissues and how
they are arranged into organs.

• Tissue: a mass of similar cells

and cell products that arise
from the same region of the
embryo and perform a
particular function.

• Organ: a structure composed

of two or more tissue types
working together to carry out
a particular function.
 Composition of tissues
• Cells
• Extracellular matrix

• Tissues types differ in:

– Types and functions of cells
– Matrix characteristics
– Relative amount of space occupied by cells vs.
matrix
 Composition of matrix:
• Fibrous proteins
• Usually, a clear gel with a variety of names:
– Ground substance
– Tissue fluid
– Extracellular fluid (ECF)
– Interstitial fluid
– Tissue gel
• This may be rubbery or mineralized and hard
 Embryonic tissues

• Three primary germ layers

are formed first
– give rise to all
subsequent tissues

– Ectoderm
– Mesoderm
– Endoderm
• Ectoderm: forms
epidermis and nervous
tissue.

• Mesoderm: forms
mesenchyme which then
forms bone, muscle,
blood, etc.

• Endoderm: forms
mucous membranes of
the digestive and
respiratory tracts,
digestive glands, etc.
 The four primary tissues
• Epithelial: develops from all 3 germ layers

• Connective: develops from mesoderm

• Nervous: develops from ectoderm

• Muscular: most develops from mesoderm

Histological sections
 Epithelial tissue

• Forms sheets and glands.

• Sheets cover the surface of the body, line body

cavities, and form internal and external linings of
many organs.
• Glands produce secretions.
 2 types of epithelial tissue:
• 1) covering and lining epithelia:
– the epidermis of the skin
– the outer layer of some internal organs
– the inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, and body
cavities
– interior of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and
reproductive systems.
 
• 2) glandular epithelia: the secreting portions of glands
– the thyroid gland
– adrenal glands
– sweat glands etc.

(note-not all glands are epithelial)

 Epithelial Tissue
• One or more layers of closely adhering cells
– extracellular material is so thin it is not visible
– No blood vessels
• depends on underlying connective tissue for oxygen
– Sits on a basement membrane
• anchors epithelium to underlying connective tissue
 Components of epithelial tissue
• Basement membrane:
Separates the epithelium and the
connective tissue it lies upon.

• Basal surface (membrane) of

the cell rests on the basement
membrane.

• Apical surface (membrane) of

the cell faces away from the
basement membrane, often into
an open space.
 covering and lining epithelia

• Types are classified according to 2

characteristics: 

– the arrangement of cells into layers

– the shapes of the cells.

Epithelial cell shapes and
arrangements
 Simple epithelia
• Simple squamous epithelium

• Simple cuboidal epithelium

• Simple columnar epithelium

• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Figure 5.4
Figure 5.5
 Simple columnar
• Nonciliated: contains apical microvilli and goblet
cells.

• Ciliated: the apical surface has cilia.

Figure 5.6
 Pseudostratified columnar epithelia:

• not all cells reach the apical surface. Nuclei are at

different levels but all cells are attached to the
basement membrane.

• Ciliated and non-ciliated forms.

• Function: secretion, and (ciliated forms)

movement of mucus.
Figure 5.7
 Stratified epithelia
• Stratified squamous epithelium

• Stratified cuboidal epithelium

• Stratified columnar epithelium (rare)

• Transitional epithelium
Stratified squamous
 Stratified
squamous,
keratinized
Stratified squamous,
nonkeratinized
Figure 5.12
Figure 5.10
Transitional
epithelium
 Connective Tissue
• The most abundant and variable tissue type.

• Cells are not in direct contact with each other but are
surrounded by matrix.

• Volume of extracellular matrix is greater than the volume

occupied by cells.

• The unique properties of each type of connective tissue

come from the matrix.

• The matrix may be fluid, semifluid, calcified, etc.

 Functions of connective tissues
• Binding of organs
• Support
• Physical & immune protection
• Movement
• Storage of energy
• Heat production
• Transport of materials throughout body
 Cells of Fibrous Connective Tissue
• Fibroblasts produce fibers & ground substance of matrix.

• Macrophages wander through connective tissue phagocytizing

foreign material & activating the immune system.

• Leucocytes (WBCs) wander in search of bacteria, toxins etc.

• Plasma cells synthesize antibodies.

• Mast cells secrete heparin that inhibits blood clotting and

histamine that dilates blood vessels.

• Adipocytes store triglycerides.

 Types of connective tissues
• Fibrous connective tissue
– Loose, dense
• Cartilage
– Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
• Bone
– Spongy, compact (dense)
• Blood
 Fibers of Connective Tissue
• Collagenous fibers (white fibers)
– tough, resist stretch but flexible
– Found in tendons, ligaments & deep layer of the skin
(dermis)

• Reticular fibers
– thin collagen fibers coated with glycoprotein
– form a spongelike framework for organs including the
spleen & lymph nodes.

• Elastic fibers (yellow fibers)

– thin branching fibers made of elastin
– stretch & recoil like a rubber band
– give skin, lungs & arteries ability to stretch & recoil
 Cells of connective tissues:
• -blasts: immature cells
– retain the capacity for cell division and secrete
the matrix.
 
• -cytes: mature, differentiated cells
– have reduced capacity for cell division and
matrix formation
– are mainly involved in maintaining the matrix.
 Fibrous connective tissues
• The most diverse type of
connective tissue.

• Contain very conspicuous

fibers
Types of fibrous connective tissues
• Loose connective tissue: largely ground
substance.
– Areolar tissue
– Reticular tissue
– Adipose tissue
• Dense connective tissue: fibers occupy most of
the space.
– Dense regular connective tissue
– Dense irregular connective tissue
 Areolar tissue
• Loosely organized
collagenous and elastic
fibers running in random
directions

• Abundant blood vessels

• Surrounds and forms

passageways for blood
vessels and nerves.

• Found under all epithelia,

fascia between muscles
 Reticular tissue
• A mesh of reticular fibers
and fibroblasts

• Forms the structural

framework (stroma) of
some organs and tissues.

• Many blood cells among

the fibers.

The spleen
 Adipose tissue
White fat: energy
storage, insulation.
• Subcutaneous fat
beneath skin;
surrounds organs

Brown fat: stores fat as

heat source
• Produces heat, no
ATP.
 Dense regular
connective tissue
• Fibers are closely packed.

• Collagen fibers are

parallel.

• Fibroblasts are the only

cell type.

• Few blood vessels.

• Found especially in
ligaments and tendons.
Dense regular connective tissue cont.
• Yellow Elastic tissue: a type of dense regular
connective tissue

• has in addition to parallel collagen fibers many

elastic fibers.

– Forms elastic sheets in arterial walls, vocal

cords, some ligaments
 Dense irregular
connective tissue
• Many collagen fibers
• Fibers run in random
directions.
– Withstands stress in
many directions

• Forms much of the dermis

and protective capsules or
sheaths around organs
including kidneys, nerves,
and bones.
 Cartilage
• A supportive connective tissue with a flexible
rubbery matrix.

• Chondroblasts form the matrix, become embedded

in it in spaces called lacunae.

– The cells are then called chondrocytes.

• Little blood supply, heals slowly.

• Major types of cartilage depend upon types of fiber
– hyaline, fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage
 Types of cartilage:
• Hyaline cartilage: very fine collagen fibers.
– Usually has a perichondrium (a sheath of dense
irregular connective tissue) where growth
occurs.

• Elastic cartilage: prominent elastic fibers.

– Always has a perichondrium.

• Fibrocartilage: prominent collagen fibers.

– Never has a perichondrium.
 Hyaline Cartilage
• Clear, glassy matrix; fine
dispersed collagen fibers;
chondrocytes in small clusters
enclosed in lacunae
• Supports airway, eases joint
movements
• Forms fetal skeleton
• Covers ends of bones at
movable joints; sternal ends of
ribs; supportive material in
larynx, trachea, and bronchi.
 Elastic Cartilage

• Hyaline cartilage with a weblike

mesh of elastic fibers amongst
the lacunae.
• Provides flexible, elastic
support
• External ear and epiglottis
 Fibrocartilage
• Cartilage containing extensive
parallel collagen fibers.
• Resists compression and
absorbs shock in some joints.
• Pubic symphysis, menisci &
intervertebral discs
 Osseous tissue
(bone)
• Spongy bone: looks like
sponge due to presence of
spaces.

• Compact (dense) bone:

no spaces that are visible
without a microscope.
– Forms the outside of all
bones; covered by a
periosteum.
 Blood
• Cells and cell fragments (formed
elements) are surrounded by a
liquid ground substance (plasma).

• Erythrocytes: red blood cells;

transport oxygen and carbon
dioxide and help buffer the blood.

• Leukocytes: white blood cells;

fight disease.

• Platelets: fragments of cells that

function in clotting.
 Excitable tissues

• Muscle and nervous tissue produce action potentials:

rapid changes in the membrane potential.

• Muscle: action potentials lead to contraction.

• Neuron: action potentials lead to signal transmission.

 Nervous tissue

• Neurons: nerve cells; respond to

and transmit information.

• Neuroglia (glia): a variety of

smaller but more numerous cells
that support and protect the
neurons.
 Muscular tissue:

• Produces movement by
contracting.

• 3 types:

– Skeletal muscle: striated

– Cardiac muscle: striated

– Smooth muscle: smooth

 Skeletal muscle

•Cells are long and cylindrical;

called muscle fibers.
•Most skeletal muscle is
attached to bones, causing
movement.

•Characteristics:
•Striated
•Voluntary
•Neurogenic.
•Multinucleate
 Cardiac muscle
• Found only in the heart
• Cells are called myocytes.

• Characteristics:
• Striated
• Branched
• Involuntary
• Myogenic
• Uninucleate
• Electrically coupled at
intercalated discs.
 Smooth muscle

•Most is in viscera; this is

called visceral muscle.
•Lines much of the vascular
system.

•Characteristics:
•Not striated
•Short and fusiform
•Involuntary
•May be myogenic or
neurogenic.
 Intercellular junctions

serve one of 3 functions:

1) form fluid-tight seals
between cells.
2) anchor cells together
or to the extracellular
material.
3) Act as channels that
allow ions and molecules
to pass from cell to cell
within a tissue.
 Tight Junctions
• Tight junctions completely encircle the cell
– They form fluid-tight seals between cells. These
limit movement of material from one side of an
epithelium to the other.

Tight Junction.
enlarged
 Desmosomes
• A connection between two cells that helps keep them
from pulling apart.
– A mesh of filaments crosses the space between cells,
and terminates on a thick protein plaque on each cell.
– Within the cytoplasm, intermediate filaments also
attach to plaque
• Does not encircle the
cell
• Common in the uterus,
heart and epidermis

Desmosome
enlarged
 Gap Junctions
• Also known as communicating junctions.
• A ring of 6 transmembrane proteins forms a water-filled
channel.
• Small solutes pass directly from cell to cell, coupling cells
electrically.
• Found in embryos, cardiac &
smooth muscle

Gap Junction
 Glands and secretions
• A cell or organ that secretes substances.

• Exocrine glands: have a duct (an epithelial tube)

that connects them with an open space or surface.

• Endocrine glands: have no ducts, secrete their

products (called hormones) into the blood which
circulates them through the body.

• Unicellular glands: an exocrine cell found in a

non-secretory epithelium (such as goblet cells).
 Types of secretions:
• Serous glands: secrete thin, watery fluids.
– Perspiration, tears, milk, digestive juices etc.
• Mucous glands: secrete mucin that then forms
mucus when mixed with water.
• Mixed glands: contain serous and mucous cells.
– Salivary glands
• Cytogenic glands: release whole cells.
– Testes and ovaries
 Methods of secretion
• Merocrine (eccrine) glands:
release secretions by exocytosis.
– Tear glands, pancreas,
gastric glands etc.
– Apocrine glands: a type of
merocrine gland including
axillary sweat glands and
mammary glands.

• Holocrine glands: the entire

cell disintegrates releasing
product.
– Oil producing glands of scalp
 Membranes
• Epithelial membranes
– Mucous membranes
– Cutaneous membranes
– Serous membranes
– Endothelium and mesothelium

• Non-epithelial membranes
– Synovial membranes
 Mucous membranes:
• (mucosae): line passageways opening to the
exterior.
– Produce mucus.
– Absorption, secretion, and protection.
 Cutaneous membrane (skin)
stratified squamous
epithelium resting on
layer of connective
tissue (the dermis)

relatively dry, waterproof

Protection
 Serous membranes:
• line some body cavities
and form the outer
surface of some organs.

– A simple squamous
epithelium on a thin
layer of areolar
connective tissue.

– Produce serous fluid-

similar to blood serum
• Endothelium: a simple squamous epithelium
lining the circulatory and lymphatic systems.
– Forms the:
• Tunica interna of blood vessels
• Endocardium of heart

• Mesothelium: a simple squamous epithelium

lining the pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal
cavities
 Synovial membranes:
• Connective tissue
membranes that line
some joints.
• Do not include an
epithelium.
• Secrete synovial fluid
into the joint
– A slippery fluid.
 Changes in tissue
• Changes in Tissue Type
– Differentiation: development of a cell or tissue from an unspecialized
form to a specialized form.

– Metaplasia: a change from one type of mature tissue to another.

• Tissue growth
– Hyperplasia: tissue growth due to cell division.

– Hypertrophy: tissue growth due to increase in cell size.

– Neoplasia: development of a tumor of abnormal, nonfunctioning

tissue
 Stem cells
• Undifferentiated cells that give rise to other cell types.
• Embryonic stem cells
– Totipotent: can develop into any fully differentiated
cell.
– Pluripotent: can form any cell of the embryo but
cannot form the accessory organs of pregnancy.

• Adult stem cells

– Multipotent: may form 2 or more cell types.
– Unipotent: can only produce one mature cell type.
 Tissue shrinkage and death
• Atrophy: shrinkage due to loss of cell number or
cell size.
• Necrosis: premature, pathological death of tissue.
• Apoptosis: normal, programmed cell death. Occurs
without release of cell contents.
• Gangrene: any tissue necrosis due to inadequate
blood supply.
• Gas gangrene: necrosis of a wound due to infection
by bacteria.
• Infarction: death of tissue when its blood supply is
cut off.
 Damaged tissues are repaired in 2 ways:
• Regeneration: Replacement of dead or damaged cells with
functioning cells of the original cell type.
– Restores normal function to the tissue.
– skin and liver injuries regenerate readily.

• Fibrosis: Replacement of damaged cells with scar tissue

(collagen)
– helps hold the organ together, but function is not
restored
– healing of muscle or brain injuries, scarring of lung
tissue in TB, or healing of severe cuts & burns of the
skin.
 New cells originate by cell division from:
• the stroma: the supporting connective tissue

• the parenchyma: the cells that make up the tissue or

organ’s functioning part.

– Cell division in the stroma forms scar tissue- loss

of function

– Cell division in the parenchyma forms functioning

cells.
• Epithelial cells: are continuously replacing themselves.

• Connective tissues: capacity varies. Bone readily renews

itself. Others such as cartilage or fibrous connective tissue
renew themselves much more slowly.

• Muscle tissue: pretty poor capacity. Smooth muscle is not bad

at it, there is some renewal possible in skeletal muscle, but
cardiac muscle cells do not divide to form new fibers.

• Nerve tissue: the poorest capacity for renewal. Damaged or

destroyed neurons are not replaced. Some brain regions form
new cells throughout life but most regions do not.
 Skin wound healing.
• 2 kinds of wound-healing processes can occur,
depending on the depth of the injury.

• Epidermal wound healing occurs following wounds

that affect only the epidermis.

• Deep wound healing occurs following wounds that

penetrate the dermis or subcutaneous layers.
Epidermal wound healing
Deep wound healing:

Stages:

1.Bleeding into the wound

2. Blood clot formation,
arrival of macrophages.
3. New capillaries grow,
granulation tissue
forms.
4. Epithelial regeneration
and connective tissue
fibrosis