ELECTRICAL DESIGNING

ECDL - KELTRON

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CONTENTS

1. Safety Rules
2. Basic Electrical
3. Measuring Instruments

4. Generation Transmission & Distribution of Electricity

5. Power Triangle & Power Factor
6. Illumination
7. Wiring Concepts
8. Transformers
9. Switch Gear & Protection
10. Generators & Inverters
11. Motor Starters
12. Cables & Bus Bars
13. Power Factor Improvement
14. Earthing
15. CCTV & Fire Alarm
16. Standards & Charts

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CHAPTER - 1
SAFETY RULES
Why Electricity Can Be Dangerous to You
Electricity always seeks the shortest path to the ground. It tries to find a
conductor, or something that it can pass through to get to the ground, like
metal, wet wood or water. Your body is about 70% water, so that makes you
a good conductor, too. For example, if you touch an energized bare wire or
faulty appliance while your feet are touching the ground, electricity will
automatically pass through you to the ground, causing a harmful, or even
fatal shock.
Shock
The minimum current a human can feel depends on the current type
(AC or DC) and frequency. A person can feel at least 1 mA (rms) of AC at
60 Hz, while at least 5 mA for DC. At around 10 mill amperes, AC current
passing through the arm of a 68 kg (150 lb) human can cause powerful
muscle contractions; the victim is unable to voluntarily control muscles and
cannot release an electrified object.[2] This is known as the "let go threshold"
and is a criterion for shock hazard in electrical regulations.
The current may, if it is high enough, cause tissue damage
or fibrillation which leads to cardiac arrest; more than 30 mA[3] of AC (rms,
60 Hz) or 300 500 mA of DC can cause fibrillation. A sustained electric
shock from AC at 120 V, 60 Hz is an especially dangerous source
of ventricular fibrillation because it usually exceeds the let-go threshold,
while not delivering enough initial energy to propel the person away from the
source. However, the potential seriousness of the shock depends on paths
through the body that the currents take.[4] If the voltage is less than 200 V,
then the human skin, more precisely the stratum corneum, is the main
contributor to the impedance of the body in the case of a macro shockthe
passing of current between two contact points on the skin. The
characteristics of the skin are non-linear however. If the voltage is above
450600 V, then dielectric breakdown of the skin occurs. The protection
offered by the skin is lowered by perspiration, and this is accelerated if
electricity causes muscles to contract above the let-go threshold for a
sustained period of time.

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Burns

SECOND-DEGREE
DEGREE BURN AFTER A HIGH TENSION LINE ACCIDENT

A person who was struck by lightning.

Heating due to resistance can cause extensive and deep burns. Voltage
levels of 500 to 1000 volts tend to cause internal burns due to the large
energy (which is proportional to the duration multiplied by the square of the
voltage divided by resistance) available from the source. Damage due to
current is through tissue heating.

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21 SAFETY RULES FOR WORKING WITH ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT

Posted dec. 12 2012 by Edvard in energy and power, protection
with 7 comments

A safe work environment is not always enough to control all potential

electrical hazards. You must be very cautious and work safely. Safety rules
help you control your and others risk of injury or death from workplace
hazards.
If you are working on electrical circuits or with electrical tools and
equipment, you need to use following golden safety rules:
21 Golden Safety Rules
Rule no. 1
Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits. Please dont make fun of this
rule if you already know this (and you probably already know if you are
reading these lines) and remember that if something bad occurs you
probably wont have second chance. Thats not funny.
Rule no. 2
Treat all electrical devices as if they are live or energized. You never know.
Rule no. 3
Disconnect the power source before servicing or repairing electrical
equipment. The only way to be sure.

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Rule no. 4
Use only tools and equipment with non-conducting handles when working
on electrical devices. Easy to check.
Rule no. 5
Never use metallic pencils or rulers, or wear rings or metal watchbands
when working with electrical equipment. This rule is very easy to forget,
especially when you are showing some electrical part pointing with metallic
pencil. Always be aware.
Rule no. 6
When it is necessary to handle equipment that is plugged in, be sure
hands are dry and, when possible, wear nonconductive gloves, protective
clothes and shoes with insulated soles. Remember: gloves, clothes and
shoes.

Safety clothes, gloves and shoes

Rule no. 7
If it is safe to do so, work with only one hand, keeping the other hand at
your side or in your pocket, away from all conductive material. This
precaution reduces the likelihood of accidents that result in current
passing through the chest cavity.
If you ever read about current passing through human body you will know,
so remember work with one hand only.
If you dont clue about electric current path through human body, read more
in following technical articles:

Do You Understand What Is Electric Shock?

What psychological effect does an electric shock?

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Rule no. 8
Minimize the use of electrical equipment in cold rooms or other areas
where condensation is likely. If equipment must be used in such areas,
mount the equipment on a wall or vertical panel.
Rule no. 9
If water or a chemical is spilled onto equipment, shut off power at the main
switch or circuit breaker and unplug the equipment.
Very logical. NEVER try to remove water or similar from equipment while
energized. After all, its stupid to do so.
Rule no. 10
If an individual comes in contact with a live electrical conductor, do not
touch the equipment, cord or person. Disconnect the power source from
the circuit breaker or pull out the plug using a leather belt.
Tricky situation, and you must be very calm in order not to make the
situation even worse. Like in previous rules Always disconnect the
power FIRST.

Always disconnect the power FIRST

Rule no. 11
Equipment producing a tingle should be disconnected and reported
promptly for repair.
Rule no. 12
Do not rely on grounding to mask a defective circuit nor attempt to correct
a fault by insertion of another fuse or breaker, particularly one of larger
capacity.

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Rule no. 13
Drain capacitors before working near them and keep the short circuit on
the terminals during the work to prevent electrical shock.
Rule no. 14
Never touch another persons equipment or electrical control devices
unless instructed to do so. Dont be too smart. Dont try your luck.
Rule no. 15
Enclose all electric contacts and conductors so that no one can
accidentally come into contact with them. If applicable do it always, if not
be very care full.
Rule no. 16
Never handle electrical equipment when hands, feet, or body are wet or
perspiring, or when standing on a wet floor. Remember: Gloves and shoes
Rule no. 17
When it is necessary to touch electrical equipment (for example, when
checking for overheated motors), use the back of the hand. Thus, if
accidental shock were to cause muscular contraction, you would not
freeze to the conductor.
Rule no. 18
Do not store highly flammable liquids near electrical equipment.
Rule no. 19
Be aware that interlocks on equipment disconnect the high voltage source
when a cabinet door is open but power for control circuits may remain on.
Read the single line diagram and wiring schemes know your switchboard.
Rule no. 20
De-energize open
unattended.

experimental

circuits

and

equipment

to

be

left

Rule no. 21
Do not wear loose clothing or ties near electrical equipment. Act like an
electrical engineer, you are not on the beach.

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CHAPTER - 2
BASIC ELECTRICAL

ELECTRIC CURRENT

VOLTAGE

CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

DIRECT CURRENT

ALTERNATING CURRENT

POWER & ENERGY

OHMS LAW
1. Electric Current
While a potential difference is applied across a conductor, electrical charge
flows through it and electrical current is the measure of the quantity of the
electrical charge transferred through the conductor per unit time.
Let's explain in little bit detail the definition of electric current.
The general concept of electric current is very simple. Every conducting
substance in this universe consists of some free electrons in side it. These
free electrons move with a random manner at room temperature. Whenever
a potential difference is applied across the substance, an electric field
appears inside the substance due to which the negatively charged free
electrons experience an attraction toward higher potential terminal or
relatively positive terminal of the substance. As a result the electrons start
drifting from lower potential terminal to higher potential terminal. Flow of
electrons means transfer of charge from one point to other in the substance.
Electric current is nothing but measure of rate of this transferring charge.
So it is measured as transferred charge per unit time. Mathematically it can
be represented as

Unit of Electric Current

As in the definition of electric current we have already told, that this is
nothing but transferring charge per unit time in other view it can be seen as

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amount of charge crossing the perpendicular cross section of a conductor

per unit time. So due to application of potential difference, if Q Coulomb
charge crosses a particular cross section of any conductor at t second
then,

Hence, unit of electric current is Coulomb per Second and it is named as

Ampere. After name of famous French mathematician Andre-Marie Ampere.
SI unit of electric current is Ampere and it abbreviated as A or Amp. In CGS
system its unit is biot and abbreviated as Bi. 1 Bi = 10 A.

Electric Current Formula

The most simple formula of electric current can be determined by Ohm's
law. As per this low,

Current Density
We can derive mathematical expression for electric current from current
density. Think about the movements of charge carriers in a conductor. They
have the same kind of random velocities as we explained in last paragraph.
So the drift velocity at any location in a conductor can be calculated. If we
consider a unit volume of space in the conductor where concentration of
charge carriers is n number of similar charge carriers and q is the charge
of each similar charge carrier, the rate of charge transferring to a particular
direction through the surface, (particular to the direction of drift velocity) of
the said space is nothing but product of n, q and the drift velocity Vd of
that location to the said direction. The rate of charge transferring through a

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surface, particular to the direction of drift velocity is known as current

density of that location to the said direction.

Let us again assume a small surface area of the space is dA. If the current
density of the space is J, then obviously current passing through this small
surface is J.dA. Therefore, total current through an area A is,

Explanation of electric current as a phenomenon

Current is associated with charge carried by charged particles. Electrical
current means the charge flows to one end from other by means of charged
particles. The phenomenon of transferring charge from one place to another
is referred as electric current.

Electric Current
It can be assumed that a beam of positively charged holes moving from one
side to another. If that beam of holes moving from left to right, the current
would be assumed, directed from left to right. As the holes are associated
with atoms generally they cannot move. Then what we mean by movement of
positive holes? Actually negatively charged free electrons move from right to
left, which is assumed as if positive holes are moving in opposite direction of
electrons movement that is from left to right. According to the general
agreement the direction of current is chosen to coincide with the direction in

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which positive charge carriers or holes move even the actual movable
carriers of charge are electrons and they move in opposite direction. So
direction of conventional current flow is in opposite of electrons movement.
So it can be concluded like this, if potential difference is applied across a
conductor, then due to electrical field, free electrons in the conductor start
moving toward positive or higher potential end of the conductor. The
direction of the electric current is considered to be flowing from higher
potential end to lower, as the relative motion of static positive charges is
assumed to be in that direction.
Explanation of current as a physical quantity
Let us consider a conductor and assume one surface across the cross section of the conductor. By definition, electrical current is the rate of
transferring electric charge through this surface in respect of time or
alternatively, current across a surface is defined as the rate at which charge
is transferred through this surface. Therefore, current

So, whenever we will think about current, we should always keep in mind
the surface of cross - section of the conductor and current is nothing but,
the amount of charge is transferred through this surface for unit time.
If 1 Coulomb of charge is transferred through any surface in 1 second, then
current would be

2. VOLTAGE
Charge moving in an electric circuit gives rise to a current, as stated in the
preceding section. Naturally, it must take some work, or energy, for the
charge to move between two points in a circuit, say, from point a to point b.
The total work per unit charge associated with the motion of charge between
two points is called voltage. Thus, the units of voltage are those of energy
per unit charge; they have been called volts in honor of Alessandro Volta.
Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move charge from
one point to the other, measured in volts (V). Voltage is denoted by the letter
v or V.

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3. CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
As we discussed in the Introduction, an element is the basic buildings block
of a circuit. An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of elements there
are two types of elements found in electric circuits: passive elements and
active elements. An active element is capable of generating energy while a
passive element is not. Our aim in this section is to gain familiarity with
some important passive and active elements.
Passive elements (loads)
A load generally refers to a component or a piece of equipment to the output
of an electric circuit. In its fundamental form, the load is represented by one
or a combination of the following circuit elements:
1. Resistor (R).
2. Inductor (L).
3. Capacitor (C).
A load can either be resistive, inductive or capacitive nature or a blend of
them. For example, a light bulb is a purely resistive load whereas a
transformer is both inductive and resistive.
Active elements
The most important active elements are voltage or current sources that
generally deliver power to the circuit connected to them. There are two kinds
of sources: independent and dependent sources.
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified
voltage or current that is completely independent of other circuit variables.
An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the
source quantity is controlled by another voltage or current.
It should be noted that an ideal voltage source (dependent or independent)
will produce any current required to ensure that the terminal voltage is as
stated; whereas an ideal current source will produce the necessary voltage
to ensure the stated current flow.

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Electrical Resistance
Electrical resistance may be defined as the basic property of any substance
due to which it opposes the flow of electric current through it While
an electric potential difference is applied across any substance, electric
current starts to flow through it. But if we observe carefully the current
flows through the all substances are not equal even when the same potential
difference is applied across each of the substances. This is because current
carrying capacities of all substances are not equal. Electric current is
defined as the quantity of charge transferred through a cross - section of
any substance per unit time. This change transferring depends upon the
number of electrons crosses the cross - section per unit time. Again this
number of electrons crossing the cross - section is dependable on the free
electrons available in the substances.
If free electrons are plenty in a substance the amount of current is more and
if the availability of free electrons is less then, the current through the
substance is less for same voltage applied across the substances. The

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current through a substance not only depends upon the number of free
electrons in it, but also depends upon the length of path an electron has to
travel to reach from lower potential end to higher potential end of the
substance. In addition to that every electron has collide randomly with other
atoms and electrons in numbers of times during its traveling. So, every
substance has a resistance against the electric current flows through it.
So as stated earlier that electrical resistance is a property of a substance
which opposes flow of current.
If one volt across a conductor produces one ampere of current through it
then, the resistance of the conductor is said to be one ohm ().
Laws of resistance
There are mainly two laws of resistance from which the resistivity or
specific resistance of any substance can easily be determined. One law is
related to cross - sectional area of the conductor and other law is related
with its length.
As stated earlier, the current through any conductor depends upon
numbers of electrons passes through a cross - section per unit time. So if
cross section of any conductor is large then more electrons can cross it that
means more current can flow through the conductor. For fixed voltage, more
current means less electrical resistance. So it can be concluded like that
resistance of any conductor is inversely proportional to its cross - sectional
area.
If length of the conductor is increased, the path traveled by the electrons is
also increased. If electrons travel long they collide more and consequently
the number of electron passing through the conductor becomes less hence
current through the conductor is reduced. In other word resistance of the
conductor increases with increase in length of the conductor.

Current flows through unit cube of material

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The laws of resistance state that, electrical resistance R of a conductor or

wire is
1) directly proportional to its length, l i.e. R l
2) inversely proportional to its area of cross - section, a i.e.

Combining these two laws we get,

Where (rho) is the proportionality constant and known as resistivity or

specific resistance of the material of the conductor or wire. Now if we put,
l = 1 and a = 1 in the equation,

We get, R = . That means resistance of a material of unit length having unit

cross - sectional area is equal to its resistivity or specific resistance.
Resistivity of a material can be alliteratively defined as the electrical
resistance between opposite faces of a unit cube of that material. Hence we
have seen that laws of resistance are very simple.
Unit of Resistivity
The unit of resistivity can be easily determined form its equation

The unit of resistivity is - m in MKS system and - cm in CGS system

and
1 - m = 100 - cm.
Capacitance
The property of an electric circuit or its element that permits it to store
charge, and is defined by the ratio of the stored charge to potential over that
element or circuit (q/v); is known as the capacitance of the given circuit.

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A capacitor is basically a component made of two or more sets of conductive

plates, placed within a thin insulator material between them and then its
wrapped in a ceramic or a plastic container. Whenever the capacitor receives
a direct current (DC), a positive charge builds up on one of the plates (or set
of plates) while an equal amount of negative charge builds up on the other.

Capacitor
Capacitance is one of the basic parameters of electric circuit. Any circuit
element showing the property of yielding a current which is directly
proportional to the rate of change of voltage across its terminal is called a
capacitor. It consists of two plates and the dielectrics in between.
In general capacitance can be characterized as that property of a circuit
element in which energy is capable of being stored in an electric field i.e the
ability to accumulate the charge from the circuit and give up charge back to
the circuit.
Physics of Capacitor
We know, when we apply a potential difference(V) across the two plates of a
capacitor, a concentrated field flux is generated between the plates, allowing
quite a significant difference in the numbers free electrons (or charge) to
develop between the two plates. This particular phenomenon is illustrated in
the diagram given below.

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As an electric field is established due to the voltage being applied, excess

free electrons are accumulated on the negatively charged conductor, while at
the same instance free electrons are essentially robbed from the positively
charged conductor, to compensate for the excess in its negative counterpart,
thus leaving the positive conductor deprived of charge. This difference in the
charge storage can be equated to storage of energy in the capacitor,
representing the potential of the electrons between the two charged
capacitor plates. The greater the difference of electrons on opposing plates of
a capacitor, the greater will be the field flux, and thus the value for energy
storage in the capacitor will also be more.
Capacitance in DC Circuit
Current will flow in a capacitive circuit only long enough to charge the
capacitor, as with a dc voltage source. The current that charges a capacitor
flows only for the first moment after the switch is closed. After this
momentary flow the current stops, since the plates of the capacitor are
separated by an insulator which does not allow the electrons to pass
through it. Thus, capacitor does not allow dc current to flow continuously
through a circuit.
Thus, Capacitance is manifested only when there exists a changing potential
difference across the terminals of the circuit element i.e in AC only.
Circuit View Point: Capacitance is introduced as the proportionality factor
relating the charge between two metals surfaces to the corresponding
potential difference existing between them.

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This expression shows the manner in which the current flowing through a
capacitance parameter is related to the potential difference appearing across
it.
Thus

When there is no initial voltage on the capacitor then,

Capacitor in series and parallel

Series capacitance formula

Parallel Capacitance formula

Energy View Point: The Capacitor absorbs the amount of energy which is
proportional to the capacitance parameter and the square of the
instantaneous value of the voltage appear across the capacitor. The
absorbed energy in turn is stored by the capacitor in an electric field existing
between its two plates. The energy delivered to the capacitor is given as
Phase relationship: In a pure capacitive circuit current leads voltage by 90o.
This property is used to improve the power factor using capacitor banks at
the sending end of the voltage. The capacitive reactance Xc is given as

In a pure capacitive circuit, the true power is Zero but the apparent power is
E x I.

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Geometrical View Point: The amount of charge that accumulates on the

plates of the capacitor is expressed as q = CV. By means of gauss theorem it
can also be expressed in terms of electric field intensity i.e q = kAE

k denotes permittivity or Dielectric Constant of the material between the

plates.
A denotes area of the plates; and E denotes electric field intensity

d is the distance between the plates

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Thus from the above expression we can conclude that changing the
Dielectric Material change s the capacitance. The dielectric constants and
the dielectric strengths of some common materials are listed in the table:
Single Phase Power
A single phase transmission system is practically not available but still we
should know first the basic concept of single phase power before going
through modern three phase power system.
Before going to details about single phase power, let's try to understand
different Parameters
Three basic parameters of electrical power system are resistance, inductance
and capacitance.
Resistance
The resistance of power circuit or simply resistor consumes ohmic energy.
While electric current flows through a resistor there will not be any phase
difference between the voltage and current, that means electric current and
voltage are in same phase the phase angle between them is zero. If I current
flows through an electrical resistance R for t seconds then total energy
consumed by the resistor is I2.R.t. This power is known as active power
Inductance
Inductance of the system or simply inductor stores magnetic field energy
during positive half cycle and gives away during negative half cycle of single
phase power supply. If a current 'I' flows through a coil of inductance L
Henri, the energy stored in the coil in form of magnetic field is given by

The power associated with an inductance is reactive power.

Capacitance
Capacitance of the system or simply capacitor, stores electric field energy
during positive half cycle and give away during negative half cycle of supply.
The energy stored between two parallel metallic plates of potential difference
V and capacitance across them C, is expressed as

This energy is stored in form of electric field. The power associated with a
capacitance is also reactive power.

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4. DIRECT CURRENT
Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow of electric charge. Direct
current is produced by sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar
cells, and commutator-type electric machines of the dynamo type. Direct
current may flow in a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through
semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion
beams. The electric current flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it
from alternating current (AC). A term formerly used for direct current was
galvanic current.
The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply Alternating
and direct, as when they modify current or voltage. [2][3]
Direct current may be obtained from an alternating current supply by use of
a current-switching arrangement called a rectifier, which contains electronic
elements (usually) or electromechanical elements (historically) that allow
current to flow only in one direction. Direct current may be made into
alternating current with an inverter or a motor-generator set.
The first commercial electric power transmission (developed by Thomas
Edison in the late nineteenth century) used direct current. Because of the
significant advantages of alternating current over direct current in
transforming and transmission, electric power distribution is nearly all
alternating current today. In the mid-1950s, HVDC transmission was
developed, and is now an option instead of long-distance high voltage
alternating current systems. For long distance under seas cables (e.g.
between countries, such as Nor Ned) is the only technical feasible option.
For applications requiring direct current, such as third rail power systems,
alternating current is distributed to a substation, which utilizes a rectifier to
convert the power to direct current. See War of Currents.
Direct current is used to charge batteries, and in nearly all electronic
systems, as the power supply. Very large quantities of direct-current power
are used in production of aluminum and other electrochemical processes.
Direct current is used for some railway propulsion, especially in urban
areas. High-voltage direct current is used to transmit large amounts of
power from remote generation sites or to interconnect alternating current
power grids.

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A direct current circuit is an electrical circuit that consists of any

combination of constant voltage sources, constant current sources, and
resistors.. In this case, the circuit voltages and currents are independent of
time. A particularr circuit voltage or current does not depend on the past
value of any circuit voltage or current. This implies that the system of
equations that represent a DC circuit do not involve integrals or derivatives
with respect to time.
If a capacitor or inductor is added to a DC circuit, the resulting circuit is
not, strictly speaking, a DC circuit. However, most such circuits have a DC
solution. This solution gives the circuit voltages and currents when the
circuit is in DC steady state.
state. Such a circuit is represented by a system of
differential equations.. The solution to these equations usually contains a
time varying or transient part as well as constant or steady state part. It is
this steady state part that is the DC solution. There are some circuits that
do not have a DC solution. Two simple examples are a constant current
source connected to a capacitor and a constant
constant voltage source connected to
an inductor.
In electronics, it is common to refer to a circuit that is powered by a DC
voltage source such as a battery or the output of a DC power supply as a DC
circuit even though what is meant is that the circuit is DC powered
5. ALTERNATING CURRENT
In alternating current (AC,
(
also ac), the flow of electric charge periodically
reverses direction. In direct current (DC, also dc),
), the flow of electric charge
is only in one direction.
The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating
and direct,, as when they modify
m
current or voltage.[1] [2]

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AC is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and

residences. The usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave. In
certain applications, different waveforms are used, such as triangular
or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also
examples of alternating current. In these applications, an important
impo
goal is
often the recovery of information encoded (or modulated)) onto the AC signal
AC voltage may be increased or decreased with a transformer.
transformer Use of a
higher voltage leads to significantly more efficient transmission of power.
The power losses in a conductor are a product of the square of the current
curre
and the resistance of the conductor,
conductor, described by the formula

This means that when transmitting a fixed power on a given wire, if the
current is doubled, the power loss will be four times greater.
The power transmitted is equal to the product of the current and the voltage
(assuming no phase difference); that is,
Thus, the same amount of power can be transmitted with a lower current by
increasing the voltage. It is therefore advantageous when transmitting large
amounts of power to distribute the power with high voltages (often hundreds
of kilovolts).

High voltage transmission lines deliver power from electric generation plants
over long distances using alternating current. These lines are located in
eastern Utah.
However, high voltages also have disadvantages, the main one being the
increased insulation required, and generally increased difficulty in their safe
handling. In a power plant,
plant, power is generated at a convenient voltage for
the design of a generator,
generator and then stepped up to a high voltage for
transmission. Near the loads, the transmission voltage is stepped down to
the voltages used by equipment. Consumer
Consumer voltages vary depending on the
country and size of load, but generally motors and lighting are built to use
up to a few hundred volts between phases.

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The utilization voltage delivered to equipment such as lighting and motor

loads is standardized, with an allowable range of voltage over which
equipment is expected to operate. Standard power utilization voltages and
percentage tolerance vary in the different mains power systems found in the
world.
Modern high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) electric power transmission
systems contrast with the more common alternating-current systems as a
means for the efficient bulk transmission of electrical power over long
distances. HVDC systems, however, tend to be more expensive and less
efficient over shorter distances than transformers.[citation needed] Transmission
with high voltage direct current was not feasible when Edison, Westinghouse
And Tesla were designing their power systems, since there was then no way
to economically convert AC power to DC and back again at the necessary
voltages.
Three-phase electrical generation is very common. The simplest case is three
separate coils in the generator stator that are physically offset by an angle of
120 to each other. Three current waveforms are produced that are equal in
magnitude and 120 out of phase to each other. If coils are added opposite
to these (60 spacing), they generate the same phases with reverse polarity
and so can be simply wired together.
In practice, higher "pole orders" are commonly used. For example, a 12-pole
machine would have 36 coils (10 spacing). The advantage is that lower
speeds can be used. For example, a 2-pole machine running at 3600 rpm
and a 12-pole machine running at 600 rpm produce the same frequency.
This is much more practical for larger machines.
If the load on a three-phase system is balanced equally among the phases,
no current flows through the neutral point. Even in the worst-case
unbalanced (linear) load, the neutral current will not exceed the highest of
the phase currents. Non-linear loads (e.g., computers) may require an
oversized neutral bus and neutral conductor in the upstream distribution
panel to handle harmonics. Harmonics can cause neutral conductor current
levels to exceed that of one or all phase conductors.
For three-phase at utilization voltages a four-wire system is often used.
When stepping down three-phase, a transformer with a Delta (3-wire)
primary and a Star (4-wire, center-earthed) secondary is often used so there
is no need for a neutral on the supply side.
For smaller customers (just how small varies by country and age of the
installation) only a single phase and the neutral or two phases and the
neutral are taken to the property. For larger installations all three phases

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and the neutral are taken to the main distribution panel. From the threephase main panel, both single and three-phase circuits may lead off.
Three-wire single-phase systems, with a single center-tapped transformer
giving two live conductors, is a common distribution scheme for residential
and small commercial buildings in North America. This arrangement is
sometimes incorrectly referred to as "two phase". A similar method is used
for a different reason on construction sites in the UK. Small power tools and
lighting are supposed to be supplied by a local center-tapped transformer
with a voltage of 55 V between each power conductor and earth. This
significantly reduces the risk of electric shock in the event that one of the
live conductors becomes exposed through an equipment fault whilst still
allowing a reasonable voltage of 110 V between the two conductors for
running the tools.
A third wire, called the bond (or earth) wire, is often connected between noncurrent-carrying metal enclosures and earth ground. This conductor
provides protection from electric shock due to accidental contact of circuit
conductors with the metal chassis of portable appliances and tools. Bonding
all non-current-carrying metal parts into one complete system ensures there
is always a low electrical impedance path to ground sufficient to carry
any fault current for as long as it takes for the system to clear the fault. This
low impedance path allows the maximum amount of fault current, causing
the over current protection device (breakers, fuses) to trip or burn out as
quickly as possible, bringing the electrical system to a safe state. All bond
wires are bonded to ground at the main service panel, as is the
Neutral/Identified conductor if present.
6. POWER AND ENERGY
Electric power is the mathematical product of two quantities: current and
voltage. These two quantities can vary with respect to time (AC power) or can
be kept at constant levels (DC power).
Most refrigerators, air conditioners, pumps and industrial machinery use AC
power whereas most computers and digital equipment use DC power (the
digital devices you plug into the mains typically have an internal or external
power adapter to convert from AC to DC power). AC power has the
advantage of being easy to transform between voltages and is able to be
generated and utilized by brushless machinery. DC power remains the only
practical choice in digital systems and can be more economical to transmit
over long distances at very high voltages.
The ability to easily transform the voltage of AC power is important for two
reasons: Firstly, power can be transmitted over long distances with less loss
at higher voltages. So in power networks where generation is distant from

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the load, it is desirable to step-up the voltage of power at the generation

point and then step-down the voltage near the load. Secondly, it is often
more economical to install turbines that produce higher voltages than would
be used by most appliances, so the ability to easily transform voltages
means this mismatch between voltages can be easily managed.
Solid state devices, which are products of the semiconductor revolution,
make it possible to transform DC power to different voltages,
build brushless DC machines and convert between AC and DC power.
Nevertheless, devices utilizing solid state technology are often more
expensive than their traditional counterparts, so AC power remains in
widespread use.
Electric power is usually produced by electric generators, but can also be
supplied by chemical sources such as electric batteries. Electric power is
generally supplied to businesses and homes by the electric power industry.
Electric power is usually sold by the kilowatt hour (3.6 MJ) which is the
product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours. Electric
utilities measure power using an electricity meter, which keeps a running
total of the electric energy delivered to a customer.
Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an electric
circuit, they are not sufficient by themselves. For practical purposes, we
need to know how much power an electric device can handle. We also know
that when we pay our bills to the electric utility companies, we are paying
for the electric energy consumed over a certain period of time. Thus power
and energy calculations are important in circuit analysis.
We write this relationship as: p = dwdt
Electric Power Formulas
P=VI
P = R I2
P = V2 / R
where
P = power (wattsW)
V = voltage (voltsV)
I = current(ampere)
R = resistance(ohm)

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Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is energy newly derived from electrical potential energy.
When loosely used to describe energy absorbed or delivered by an electrical
circuit (for example, one provided by an electric power utility) "electrical
energy" refers to energy which has been converted from electrical potential
energy. This energy is supplied by the combination of electric
current and electrical potential that is delivered by the circuit. At the point
that this electrical potential energy has been converted to another type of
energy, it ceases to be electrical potential energy. Thus, all electrical energy
is potential energy before it is delivered to the end-use. Once converted from
potential energy, electrical energy can always be described as another type
of energy (heat, light, motion, etc.).
The formula that links energy and power is:
Energy = Power x Time.
The unit of energy is the joule, the unit of power is the watt, and the unit of
time is the second.
If we know the power in watts of an appliance and how many seconds it is
used we can calculate the number of joules of electrical energy which have
been converted to sortie other form.
E.g. If a 40 watt lamp is turned on for one hour, how many joules of
electrical energy have been converted by the lamp?
Energy (w)

Power x Time

Energy

40 x 3600

14,400 joules

Note: if an appliance has a rating of one watt it means it converts one joule
of electrical energy to some other form every second.
Because the joule is such a small unit, quantities of energy are often given in
kilojoules. i.e, thousands of joules.
Therefore the above answer could be written as 14.4 kJ.

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The Kilowatt Hour (kWh)

Because the joule is so small, electrical energy supplied to consumers is
bought by the UNIT. The UNIT is the kilowatt hour (kWh). One kilowatt hour
is the amount of energy that would be converted by a one thousand watt
appliance when used for one hour
Example: A consumer uses a 6 kW immersion heater, a 4 kW electric stove
and three 100 watt lamps for 10 hours. How many units (kwh) of electrical
energy have been converted.
Total Power (kw) = 6+4+300 / 1000
= 10.3kw
Energy consumed (kwh) = Power in kw x time in hours
= 10.3 x 10
= 103 kwh
Electrical supply authorities use the kWh as the unit for measuring
electrical energy to householders.
Revision Exercise
1. How much heat energy is converted by a 1kw heater in half a minute?
2. An electric toaster is rated at 500 watts. Determine the amount of heat
energy it converts to heat in one minute.
In the calculations of energy so far the values of the power have been given.
However, if enough information is given the volume of the power can be
calculated first and then the value put into the energy formula.
Worked Example - Number 1
Calculate the heat produced by an electric iron, which has a resistance of
30 ohms and takes a current of 3 amperes when it is switched on for 15
seconds.
Power

= 12R
= 32 x 30

= 270 watts Energy = Power x Time

= 270 x 15 = 4050 joules

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Worked Example - Number 2

A d-c generator has an E.m.f of 200 volts and provides a current of 10 amps.
How much energy does it provide each minute?
Energy = Power x Time
Power

=VxI
= 200 x 10
= 2000 watts

Energy = 2000 x 60
= 120,000 Joules
7Ohm's law
The most basic quantities of electricity are voltage, current and
resistance. Ohm's law shows a simple relation between these three
quantities, hence this law can be considered as most basic law of electrical
engineering. This simple, easiest to remember three characters law of
electrical engineering helps to calculate and analyze, electrical quantities
related to power, efficiency and impedance.
Ohm's law first appeared in the book written by Georg Simon Ohm (German)
in 1827.
Statement of Ohm's Law

Georg Ohm
The statement of Ohms law is simple and it says that, whenever a
potential difference or voltage is applied across a resistor of a closed circuit,
current starts flowing through it. This current is directly proportional to the
voltage applied if temperature and all other factors remain constant. Thus
we can mathematically express it as,

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Now putting the constant of proportionality we get,

This particular equation essentially presents, the statement of this law

where I is the current through the resistor in unit of Ampere, when the
potential difference V is applied across the resistor in unit of volt, and
ohm(&Ohm;) is the unit of resistance of the resistor R.
Its important to note, that the resistance R, is the property of the conductor
and theoretically it has no dependence on the voltage applied, or on the flow
of current. The value of R changes only if the conditions (like temperature,
diameter, length etc.) of the material are changed by any means.
He performed his experiment with a simple electrochemical cell, as shown in
the figure below.
1. There were two copper made electrodes X and Y.
2. Reference electrodes A, B and C are partly immersed in electrolyte as
shown.
3. A glass made container is used for electrolyte, as shown.

Ohm's Law Experiment Setup

By observing, the results of this experiment, Georg Simon Ohm had defined
the fundamental interrelationship between current, voltage and resistance of
a circuit, which was later named as Ohm's law. Because of this law and his
excellence in the field of science and academics, he got Copley Medal award
in 1841. In 1872 the unit of electrical resistance was named as 'OHM" in his
honor.
Ohms law physics
To understand the physics behind Ohm's law in the most simplistic manner
possible. Let us have a look at this picture below and study it very closely.
From here we can draw the analogy that the person at the extreme left is the
cause or the external force due to which current (or the person in the

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middle) tends to flows across a particular circuit from one end to the other
in the direction of the applied voltage. Where as the one at the top is
resistance, as it increases the difficulty for the cause to be fulfilled, in
achieving end result. The more powerful the person at the top is, or greater
the resistance, more difficulty will be encountered by the current to flow
through as a result we will get lesser the amount than expected. Or for the
flowing of required amount of current in presence of resistance, greater
applied force or voltage needs to be applied. Thus from here we can reach
the conclusion that the resistance, which is an inherent property of the
conducting material, is an independent parameter. And depending on it are
the voltage and current, which are directly and inversely proportional to it
respectively.

Ohm's Law
This is the exact phenomena that occur even at the molecular level, where
the solid conductor contains free electrons as negative charge carriers. The
atoms and ions are heavier in weight compared to the electrons and
therefore have no contribution towards flow of current. In fact they are the
barriers, to the path of the electron flow. These barriers are the real cause
behind the resistance in a circuit. Let us look into it in details.
When we apply a voltage V, between the leads of a resistor, we can expect a
current, I = V/R to flow through it. The way the electrons move through the
solid material is a bit like the way toothpaste squeezes along a tube or as
shown in the comic picture above. The electrons keep being accelerated by

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the applied electric field or voltage. This means they acquire some kinetic
energy as they move towards the + Ve end of the piece of material (resistor).
However, before they get very far they collide with an atom or ion, lose some
of their kinetic energy and may bounce back. Again due to presence of
electric field the free electrons again accelerate. This keeps happening. As a
result they tend to "drift" towards the + Ve end, bouncing around from atom
to atom on the way. This is illustrated in figure below.

This process of drifting or diffusing of electrons in the presence of static

atoms and ions, is the exact reason why does material encounter resistance
to the electric current. This is the physics behind Ohm's Law. The average
drift velocity of the electrons is proportional to the applied electric field.
Hence the electric current, we get is also proportional to the applied voltage.
It thus explains why we need to constantly supply the energy to maintain
the current. The electrons need to be given the required kinetic energy to
move them along, as it keeps being 'lost' every time they interact with an
atom. Now from law of conservation of energy we know, that the energy of
electrons lost due to collision is not vanished forever, in fact it is taken up
by the atoms, as it makes them jiggle around and vibrate more furiously due
to increased energy level. Thus increasing the total internal energy of the
material and resulting in heat formation. As a result, we see here that
electrical energy is being converted into heat energy and dissipated as loss.
The rate of energy loss or the power dissipation, P, in the resistor can be
calculated from the equation P = VI. This equation makes sense since we
can expect a higher voltage to make the electrons speed up more swiftly;
hence they have more energy to lose when they strike an atom. Doubling the
voltage would double the rate at which each electron picks up kinetic energy
and loses it again by banging into the atoms.

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The current we get at any particular voltage depends upon the number of
free electrons that are, able to flow across, in response to the applied field.
Twice the number of electrons would give us twice the current. So it means
twice as many electrons requiring kinetic energy to move them and colliding
with atoms. So, the rate at which the resistor 'eats up' electrical energy and
converts it into heat is proportional to the current also. I.e. the power
dissipation (rate of energy loss) is P = VI.
Applications of Ohms law.
The applications of ohms law are that, it helps us in determining either of
voltage, current or resistance of a linear circuit, when the other two
quantities are known to us.
Apart from that, it makes Power calculation a lot more simpler, like when we
know the value of the resistance for a particular circuit we need not know
both the current and the voltage to calculate the power dissipation since P =
VI. Rather we can use Ohm's Law

To replace either the voltage or current in the above expression to produce

the result

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These are the applications of Ohms law as we can see from the results that
the rate of energy loss varies with the square of the voltage or current. When
we double the voltage applied to a circuit obeying Ohms law the rate at
which energy is supplied (or power) gets four times bigger. This phenomenon
occurs because increasing the voltage also makes the current rise by the
same amount as it has been explained above.
Limitation of Ohms law
The limitations of Ohms law are explained as under,
1) This law cannot be applied for unilateral network. The network consisting
of unilateral element like, diode, transistor etc, which do not have same
voltage current relation for both direction of current.
2) Ohms law also not applicable for non linear elements. Non linear
elements are those which do not give current through ii, is not exactly
proportional to the voltage applied, that means resistance value of those
element changes for different values of voltage and current. Examples of
non linear elements are thyristors, electric arc etc.

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CHAPTER - 3
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

AMMETERS

VOLTMETERS
AMMETER & VOLTMETER
In our day today life, many times we require to measure different electrical
quantities like current, voltage, resistance, etc. While doing experiment,
there is necessity of multi meter. As we have already discussed about multi
meter, how it measures different electrical quantities like electrical current,
voltage, resistance, etc. But the basic instruments for the measurement of
electric current and voltage are ammeters and voltmeters respectively.
Let us discuss these instruments one by one, operating principle (working
principle) of ammeters and voltmeters, finally major differences between
ammeters and voltmeters.
Operating Principle:
Analog ammeters and voltmeters are classed together as there are no
fundamental differences in their operating principles. The action of all
ammeters and voltmeters, with the exception of electrostatic type of
instruments, depends upon a deflecting torque produced by an electric
current in an ammeter this torque is produced by a current to be measured
or by a fraction of it. In a voltmeter this torque is produced by a current
which is proportional to the voltage to be measured. Thus all analog
voltmeters and ammeters are essentially current measuring devices.
The essential requirement of measuring instruments are (i) that its
introduction into the circuit, where measurements are to be made, does not
alter the circuit conditions; (ii)the power consumed by them for their
operation is small.
Ammeters:
Ammeters are connected in the series with the circuit whose current is to be
measured. The power loss in an ammeter is (I^2.Ra) where I is the current to
be measured Ra is the resistance of the ammeter therefore ammeter should
have low electrical resistance so that they cause a small voltage drop and
consequently absorb small power.

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Voltmeters:
Voltmeters are connected in parallel with the circuit whose voltage is to be
measured .the power loss in voltmeter is (V^2/Rv), where V is the voltage to
be measured and Rv is the resistance of the voltmeter. Therefore voltmeters
should have a high electrical resistance, in order that the current drawn by
them is small and consequently the power consumed is small.

Difference between Ammeters and voltmeters:

Parameters

Ammeter

Voltmeter

Connection

It is to be connected in
series mode

It is to be connected in
parallel mode

Resistance

It has comparatively low

resistance

It has high resistance

Uses

It is used to find the

amount of current flowing
in the circuit

It is used to find the

potential difference in
the circuit

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Circuit

Accuracy

39

Circuit must be
disconnected in order to
attach the ammeter

Circuit does not need

to be disconnected

Considered as less
Accurate

Considered as more
accurate compared to
ammeter

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CHAPTER - 4
GENERATION, TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRICAL
ENERGY

THERMAL POWER STATION

HYDRO POWER PLANT

SOLAR POWER PLANT

SERIES AND PARALLEL BATTERY CELL

TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

DISTRIBUTION

1. GENERATING STATIONS
1.1 Thermal Power Station
Thermal power generation plant or thermal power station is the most
conventional source of electric power. Thermal power plant is also referred
as coal thermal power plant and steam turbine power plant. Before going
into detail of this topic, we will try to understand the line diagram of electric
power generation plant.
Theory of thermal power station
The theory of thermal power station is very simple. A power generation
plant mainly consists of alternator runs with help of steam turbine. The
steam is obtained from high pressure boilers. Generally in India, bituminous
coal, brown coal and peat are used as fuel of boiler. The bituminous coal is
used as boiler fuel has volatile matter from 8 to 33 % and ash content 5 to
16 %. To increase the thermal efficiency the coal is used in the boiler in
powder form.
In coal thermal power plant the steam is produced in high pressure in the
boiler due to burning of fuel (pulverized coal) in boiler furnaces. This steam
is further supper heated in a super heater. This supper heated steam then
enters into the turbine and rotates the turbine blades. The turbine is

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mechanically so coupled with alternator that its rotor will rotate with the
rotation of turbine blades. After entering in turbine the steam pressure
suddenly falls and corresponding volume of the steam increases. After
imparting energy to the turbine rotator the steam passes out of the turbine
blades into the condenser. In the condenser the cold water is circulated with
the help of pump which condenses the low pressure wet steam. this
condensed water is further supplied to low pressure water heater where the
low pressure steam increases the temperature of this feed water; it is again
heated in high pressure.
For better understanding we furnish every step of function of a thermal
power station as follows,
1) First the pulverized coal is burnt into the furnace of boiler.
2) High pressure steam is produced in the boiler.
3) This steam is then passed through the super heater, where it further
heated up.
4) This supper heated steam is then entered into a turbine at high speed.
5) In turbine this steam force rotates the turbine blades that means here
in the turbine the stored potential energy of the high pressured steam
is converted into mechanical energy.
6) After rotating the turbine blades, the steam has lost its high pressure,
passes out of turbine blades and enters into a condenser.
7) In the condenser the cold water is circulated with help of pump which
condenses the low pressure wet steam.
8) This condensed water is then further supplied to low pressure water
heater where the low pressure steam increases the temperature of this
feed water; it is then again heated in a high pressure heater where the
high pressure of steam is used for heating.
9) The turbine in thermal power station acts as a prime mover of the
alternator.

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The total scheme of a typical thermal power station along with different
circuits is illustrated below.

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1.2 Hydro Power Plant

Power system mainly contains three parts namely generation, transmission
and distribution. Generation means how to generate electricity from the
available source and there are various methods to generate electricity but in
this article we only focused on generation of electricity by the means of
hydro or water (hydro power plant). As we know that the power plant is
defined as the place where power is generated from a given source, so here
the source is hydro thats why we called it hydro power plant.

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Hydro Power Plant

In hydro power plant we use gravitational force of fluid water to run the
turbine which is coupled with electric generator to produce electricity. This
power plant plays an important role to protect our fossil fuel which is
limited, because the generated electricity in hydro power station is the use of
water which is renewable source of energy and available in lots of amount
without any cost. The big advantage of hydro power is the water which the
main stuff to produce electricity in hydro power plant is free, it not contain
any type of pollution and after generated electricity the price of electricity is
average not too much high.
Construction and Working of Hydro Power Plant
Fundamental parts of hydro power plant are
a) Area
b) Dam
c) Reservoir
d) Penstock
e) Storage tank
f) Turbines and generators

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1.3 SOLAR POWER PLANT

PV Array
A photovoltaic array is a linked collection of photovoltaic modules, which are
in turn made of multiple interconnected solar cells. By their modularity,
they are able to be configured to supply most loads.

A photovoltaic array is a linked assembly of PV modules.

The cells convert solar energy into direct current electricity via the
photovoltaic effect. The power that one module can produce is seldom
enough to meet requirements of a home or a business, so the modules are

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linked together to form an array. Most PV arrays use an inverter to convert

the DC power produced by the modules into alternating current that can
plug into the existing infrastructure to power lights, motors, and other
loads. The modules in a PV array are usually first connected in series to
obtain the desired voltage; the individual strings are then connected in
parallel to allow the system to produce more current. Solar arrays are
typically measured by the peak electrical power they produce, in watts,
kilowatts, or even megawatts.

Timber framed house with a photovoltaic array

Costs of production have been reduced in recent years for more widespread
use through production and technological advances. One source claims the
cost in February 2006 ranged $310/watt while a similar size is said to have
cost $810/watt in February 1996, depending on type. For example, crystal
silicon solar cells have largely been replaced by less expensive multi
crystalline silicon solar cells, and thin film silicon solar cells have also been
developed recently at lower costs of production yet. Although they are
reduced in energy conversion efficiency from single crystalline "siwafers",
they are also much easier to produce at comparably lower costs.
Applications

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The solar panels on this small yacht at sea can charge the 12 volt batteries at
up to 9 amperes in full, direct sunlight.
Urban uses
In urban and suburban areas, photovoltaic arrays are commonly used on
rooftops to supplement power use; often the building will have a connection
to the power grid, in which case the energy produced by the PV array can be
sold back to the utility in some sort of net metering agreement. Solar trees
are arrays that, as the name implies, mimic the look of trees, provide shade,
and at night can function as street lights. In agricultural settings, the array
may be used to directly power DC pumps, without the need for an inverter.
In remote settings such as mountainous areas, islands, or other places
where a power grid is unavailable, solar arrays can be used as the sole
source of electricity, usually by charging a storage battery.
There is financial support available for people wishing to install PV arrays.
In the UK, households are paid a 'Feedback Fee' to buy excess electricity at
a flat rate per kWh. This is up to 44.3p/kWh which can allow a home to
earn double their usual annual domestic electricity bill.
Note that the current UK feed in tariff system is due for review on 31st
March 2012, after this date the current scheme may be no longer available.

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A solar panel on top of a parking meter. Note that this particular installation is
shaded, and may not perform as desired.
Performance
At high noon on a cloudless day at the equator, the power of the sun is
about 1 kW/m, on the Earth's surface, to a plane that is perpendicular to
the sun's rays. As such, PV arrays can track the sun through each day to
greatly enhance energy collection. However, tracking devices add cost, and
require maintenance, so it is more common for PV arrays to have fixed
mounts that tilt the array and face due South in the Northern Hemisphere
(in the Southern Hemisphere, they should point due North). The tilt angle,
from horizontal, can be varied for season, but if fixed, should be set to give
optimal array output during the peak electrical demand portion of a typical
year.
Trackers and sensors to optimise the performance are often seen as
optional, but tracking systems can increase viable output by up to 100%. PV
arrays that approach or exceed one megawatt often use solar trackers.
Accounting for clouds, and the fact that most of the world is not on the
equator, and that the sun sets in the evening, the correct measure of solar
power is insulations the average number of kilowatt-hours per square
meter per day. For the weather and latitudes of the United States and
Europe, typical insulations ranges from 4kWh/m/day in northern climes to
6.5 kWh/m/day in the sunniest regions.
In 2010, solar panels available for customers can have a yield of up to 19%,
while commercially available panels can go as far as 27%. Thus, a
photovoltaic installation in the southern latitudes of Europe or the United
States may expect to produce 1 kWh/m/day. A typical "150 watt" solar
panel is about a square meter in size. Such a panel may be expected to

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produce 1 kWh every day, on average, after taking into account the weather
and the latitude.
In the Sahara desert, with less cloud cover and a better solar angle, one can
obtain closer to 8.3 kWh/m/day.
The unpopulated area of the Sahara desert is over 9 million km, which if
covered with solar panels would provide 630 terawatts total power. The
Earth's current energy consumption rate is around 13.5 TW at any given
moment (including oil, gas, coal, nuclear, and hydroelectric).
Other factors affect PV performance. Many Photovoltaic cells' electrical
output is extremely sensitive to shading. There are some non-traditional
solar cell manufacturers, thin-film a:Si, that have installed bypass diodes
between each cell that minimize the effects of shading and only lose the
power of the shaded portion of the array. When even a small portion of a
cell, module, or array is shaded, while the remainder is in sunlight, the
output falls dramatically due to internal 'short-circuiting' (the electrons
reversing course through the shaded portion of the p-n junction). Therefore
it is extremely important that a PV installation is not shaded at all by trees,
architectural features, flag poles, or other obstructions like continuously
parked cars. Sunlight can be absorbed by dust, fallout, or other impurities
at the surface of the module. This can cut down the amount of light that
actually strikes the cells by as much as half. Maintaining a clean module
surface will increase output performance over the life of the module. Module
output and life are also degraded by increased temperature. Allowing
ambient air to flow over, and if possible behind, PV modules reduces this
problem.
Effective module lives are typically 25 years or more.

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Electrical power is generated at different generating stations. These

generating stations are not necessarily situated at the load center. During
construction of generating station number of factors to be considered from
economical point of view. These all factors may not be easily available at
load center; hence generating stations are not normally situated very nearer
to load center. Load center is the place where maximum power is consumed.
Hence there must be some means by which the generated power must be
transmitted to the load center. Electrical Transmission system is the
means of transmitting power from generating station to different load
centers.
Factor to be considered for constructing a generating station
During planning of construction of generating station the following factors to
be considered for economical generation of electrical power.
1) Easy availability of water for Thermal Power Generating Station.
2) Easy availability of land for construction of power station including it's
staff township.
3) For Hydral Power station there must be a dam on river. So proper
place on the river must be chosen in such a way that the construction
of the dam can be done in most optimum way.
4) For thermal station easy availability of fuel is one of the most
important factors to be considered.
5) Better communication for goods as well as employees of the power
station also to be kept into consideration.
6) For transporting very big spare parts of turbines, alternators etc, there
must be wide road ways, rain communication, and deep and wide
river must pass away nearby the power station.

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7) For nuclear power plant, it must be situated in such a distance from

common location so that there may be any effect from nuclear
reaction the heath of common people.
many other factors also to be considered, but there are beyond the scope of
our discussion.
All the factors listed above are very difficult to be available at load center.
The power station or generating station must be situated where all the
facilities are easily available. This place may not be necessarily at the load
center. The power generated at generating station then transmitted to the
load center by means of electrical power transmission system as we said
earlier.

The power generated at generating station is in low voltage level as low

voltage power generation has some economical values. Low voltage power
generation is more economical than high voltage power generation. At low
voltage level, both weight and wide of insulation is less in the alternator, this
directly reduces the cost and size of alternator. But this low voltage level
power cannot be transmitted directly to the consumer end as because this
low voltage power transmission is not at all economical. Hence although low
voltage power generation is economical but low voltage electrical power
transmission is not economical. Electrical power is directly proportional to
the product of electrical current and voltage of system. So for transmitting
certain electrical power from one place to another, if the voltage of the power
is increased then associated electric current of this power is reduced.
Reduced current means less I2R loss in the system, less cross sectional area
of the conductor means less capital involvement and decreased current
causes improvement in voltage regulation of the system and improved
voltage regulation indicates quality power. Because of these three reasons
electrical power mainly transmitted at high voltage level.

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Again at distribution end for efficient distribution of the transmitted power,

it is stepped down to its desired low voltage level.
So it can be concluded that first the electrical power is generated at low
voltage level then it stepped up to high voltage for efficient transmission of
electrical energy. Lastly for distribution of electrical energy or power to
different consumers it is stepped down to desired low voltage level.
This brief discussion of electrical transmission system and network, but
now we will discussed little bit more details about transmission of electrical
energy.

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1.4 Series Parallel Battery Cells

Battery is an electrical element where electrical potential is produced due to
chemical reaction. Every electrochemical reaction has its limit of producing
potential difference between two electrodes.
Battery cells are those where these electrochemical reactions take place to
produce the limited potential difference. For achieving desired potential
difference across the battery terminals multiple numbers of cells to be
connected in series. Hence it can be concluded like that, a battery is
combination of several cells whereas a cell is a unit of a battery. For
example, Nickel Cadmium battery cells normally develop about 1.2 V per
cell while lead acid batteries develop about 2 V per cell. So a 12 volt battery
will have total 6 number of cells connected in series.
EMF of Battery
If anyone just measures the potential difference between two terminals of a
battery when, load is not connected with the battery, he or she will get the
voltage developed in the battery when there is no electric current flowing
through it. This voltage is generally referred as electromotive force or emf of
battery. It is also referred as no-load voltage of battery.
Terminal Voltage of Battery
Terminal voltage of battery is the potential difference across its terminals
when the current is being drawn from it. Actually when load is connected
with the battery, there will be load current flowing through it. As a battery is
electrical equipment, it must have some electrical resistance inside it.
Because of this internal resistance of battery, there will be some voltage
drop across it. So, if any one measures the terminal voltage of the load i.e.
terminal voltage of battery when load is connected, he or she will get the
voltage which is less than emf of the battery by internal voltage drop of the
battery.
If E is the emf or no load voltage of the battery and V is the terminal
voltage of load voltage of the battery, then E V = internal voltage drop of
the battery.
As per Ohms law this internal voltage drop is nothing but the product of
resistance offered by the battery and the current flows through it.

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Internal Resistance of Battery

The entire resistance encountered by a current as if it flows through a

battery from the negative terminal to the positive terminal is known as
internal resistance of battery.
Series Parallel Batteries
Battery cells can be connected in series, in parallel and as well as mixture
both series and parallel.
Series Batteries
When in a battery, positive terminal of one cell is connected with the
negative terminal of succeeding cell, then the cells are said to be series
connected or simply series batteries. Here, overall emf of the battery is
algebraic sum of all individual cells connected in series. But overall
discharge current of the battery does not exceed the discharge current of
individual cells.

Series connected Batteries

If E is the overall emf of the battery combined by n number cells and E1, E2,
E3, En are the emfs of individual cells.
Then E = E1 + E2 + E3 + + En.
Similarly, if r1, r2, r3, rn are the internal resistances of individual
cells. Then the internal resistance of the battery will be equal to the sum of
the internal resistance of the individual cells
i.e. r = r1 + r2 + r3 + + rn.

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Parallel Connected Batteries

Parallel Batteries
When positive terminal of all cells are connected together and similarly
negative terminals of these cells are connected together in a battery, then
the cells are said to be connected in parallel. These combinations are also
referred as parallel Batteries. If emf of each cell is identical then the emf of
the battery combined by n numbers of cells connected in parallel, is equal to
emf of each cell. The resultant internal resistance of the combination is
(r1 1 + r2 1 + r3 1 + + rn 1 ) 1. The current delivered by
the battery is sum of currents delivered by individual cells.
Mixed Grouping of Battery or Series Parallel Batteries
As we said earlier, the cells in a battery can also be connected in mixture of
both series and parallel. These combinations are some time referred
as series parallel batteries. A load can require both voltage and current more
than that of an individual battery cell. For achieving the required load
voltage the desired numbers of battery cells can be combined in series and
for achieving the required load current, desired numbers of these series
combination are connected in parallel. Let m, numbers of series, each
containing n numbers of identical cells, are connected in parallel.

Series Parallel Batteries

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Again assume emf of each cell is E and internal resistance of each cell is r.
As n numbers of cells are connected in each series, the emf of each series as
well as the battery will be nE. The equivalent resistance of the series is nr.
2. Transmission of Electrical Energy
Fundamentally there are two systems by which electrical energy can be
transmitted
(1) High Voltage DC Electrical Transmission System
(2) High voltage AC Electrical Transmission System
There are some advantages in using DC transmission system
i.

ii.

iii.

Only two conductor are required for Dc transmission system. It is

further possible to use only one conductor of DC transmission system
if earth is utilized as return path of the system.
The potential stress on the insulator of DC transmission system is
about 70% of same voltage AC transmission system. Hence less
insulation cost is involved in DC transmission system.
Inductance, capacitance, phase displacement and surge problems can
be eliminated in DC system.

Even having these advantages in DC system, generally electrical energy is

transmitted by three (3) phase AC transmission system.
i.
ii.
iii.

The alternating voltages can easily be stepped up & down, which is

not possible in DC transmission system.
Maintenance of AC substation is quite easy and economical compared
to DC syte.
The transforming in AC substation is much easier than motor generator sets in DC system

But AC transmission system also has some disadvantages like,

i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

The volume of conductor used in AC system is much higher than that

of DC
The reactance of the line, affects the voltage regulation of electrical
power transmission system
Problems of skin effects and proximity effects only found in AC
system.
AC transmission system is more likely to be affected by corona than
DC system.

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v.
vi.

Construction of AC electrical power transmission network is more

completed than DC system.
Proper synchronizing is required before inter connecting two or more
transmission lines together; Synchronizing can totally be omitted in
DC transmission system.

POWER SYSTEM
Power Engineering deals with the generation, transmission and distribution
of electricity as well as the design of a range of related devices. These
include transformers, electric
generators, electric
motors and
power
electronics.
The power grid is an electrical network that connects a variety of electric
generators to the users of electric power. Users purchase electricity from the
grid avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power
engineers may work on the design and maintenance of the power grid as
well as the power systems that connect to it. Such systems are called ongrid power systems and may supply the grid with additional power, draw
power from the grid or do both.
Power engineers may also work on systems that do not connect to the grid.
These systems are called off-grid power systems and may be used in
preference to on-grid systems for a variety of reasons. For example, in
remote locations it may be cheaper for a mine to generate its own power
rather than pay for connection to the grid and in most mobile applications
connection to the grid is simply not practical.
Today, most grids adopt three-phase electric power with alternating
current. This choice can be partly attributed to the ease with which this type
of power can be generated, transformed and used. Often, the power is split
before it reaches residential customers whose low-power appliances rely
upon single-phase electric power. However, many larger industries and
organizations still prefer to receive the three-phase power directly because it
can be used to drive highly efficient electric motors such as threephase induction motors.
Transformers play an important role in power transmission because they
allow power to be converted to and from higher voltages. This is important
because higher voltages suffer less power loss during transmission. This is
because higher voltages allow for lower current to deliver the same amount
of power, as power is the product of the two. Thus, as the voltage steps up,
the current steps down. It is the current flowing through the components
that result in both the losses and the subsequent heating. These losses,
appearing in the form of heat, are equal to the current squared times the

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electrical resistance through which the current flows, so as the voltage goes
up the losses are dramatically reduced.
For these reasons, electrical substations exist throughout power grids to
convert power to higher voltages before transmission and to lower voltages
suitable for appliances after transmission.
COMPONENTS
Power engineering is a network of interconnected components which convert
different forms of energy to electrical energy. Modern power engineering
consists of three main subsystems: the generation subsystem, the
transmission subsystem, and the distribution subsystem. In the generation
subsystem, the power plant produces the electricity. The transmission
subsystem transmits the electricity to the load centers. The distribution
subsystem continues to transmit the power to the customers.
2.1GENERATION
Generation of electrical power is a process whereby energy is transformed
into an electrical form. There are several different transformation processes,
among which are chemical, photo-voltaic, and electromechanical.
Electromechanical energy conversion is used in converting energy
from coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium, water flow, and wind into
electrical energy. Of these, all except the wind energy conversion process
take advantage of the synchronous AC generator coupled to a steam, gas or
hydro turbine such that the turbine converts steam, gas, or water flow into
rotational energy, and the synchronous generator then converts the
rotational energy of the turbine into electrical energy. It is the turbinegenerator conversion process that is by far most economical and
consequently most common in the industry today.
The AC synchronous machine is the most common technology for generating
electrical energy. It is called synchronous because the composite magnetic
field produced by the three stator windings rotate at the same speed as the
magnetic field produced by the field winding on the rotor. A simplified circuit
model is used to analyze steady-state operating conditions for a
synchronous machine. The phasor diagram is an effective tool for visualizing
the relationships between internal voltage, armature current, and terminal
voltage. The excitation control system is used on synchronous machines to
regulate terminal voltage, and the turbine-governor system is used to
regulate the speed of the machine.
The operating costs of generating electrical energy are determined by the
fuel cost and the efficiency of the power station. The efficiency depends on
generation level and can be obtained from the heat rate curve. We may also

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obtain the incremental cost curve from the heat rate curve. Economic
dispatch is the process of allocating the required load demand between the
available generation units such that the cost of operation is minimized.
2.2 TRANSMISSION
The electricity is transported to load locations from a power station to a
transmission subsystem. Therefore we may think of the transmission
system as providing the medium of transportation for electric energy. The
transmission system may be subdivided into the bulk transmission system
and the sub-transmission system. The functions of the bulk transmission
are to interconnect generators, to interconnect various areas of the network,
and to transfer electrical energy from the generators to the major load
centers. This portion of the system is called "bulk" because it delivers energy
only to so-called bulk loads such as the distribution system of a town, city,
or large industrial plant. The function of the sub-transmission system is to
interconnect the bulk power system with the distribution system.
Transmission circuits may be built either underground or overhead.
Underground cables are used predominantly in urban areas where
acquisition of overhead rights of way is costly or not possible. They are also
used for transmission under rivers, lakes and bays. Overhead transmission
is used otherwise because, for a given voltage level, overhead conductors are
much less expensive than underground cables.
The transmission system is a highly integrated system. It is referred to the
substation equipment and transmission lines. The substation equipment
contain the transformers, relays, and circuit breakers. Transformers are
important static devices which transfer electrical energy from one circuit
with another in the transmission subsystem. Transformers are used to step
up the voltage on the transmission line to reduce the power loss which is
dissipated on the way. A relay is functionally a level-detector; they perform a
switching action when the input voltage (or current) meets or exceeds a
specific and adjustable value. A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated
electrical switch designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage
caused by overload or short circuit. A change in the status of any one
component can significantly affect the operation of the entire system. There
are three possible causes for power flow limitations to a transmission line.
These causes are thermal overload, voltage instability, and rotor angle
instability. Thermal overload is caused by excessive current flow in a circuit
causing overheating. Voltage instability is said to occur when the power
required to maintain voltages at or above acceptable levels exceeds the
available power. Rotor angle instability is a dynamic problem that may occur
following faults, such as short circuit, in the transmission system. It may

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also occur tens of seconds after a fault due to poorly damped or un damped
oscillatory response of the rotor motion.
2.3 DISTRIBUTION
The distribution system transports the power from the transmission system
to the customer. The distribution systems are typically radial because
networked systems are more expensive. The equipment associated with the
distribution system includes the substation transformers connected to the
transmission systems, the distribution lines from the transformers to the
customers and the protection and control equipment between the
transformer and the customer. The protection equipment includes lightning
protectors, circuit breakers, disconnectors and fuses. The control equipment
includes voltage regulators, capacitors, relays and demand side
management equipment.
Electrical Transmission Tower types and design
The main supporting unit of overhead transmission line is transmission
tower. Transmission towers have to carry the heavy transmission conductor
at a sufficient safe height from ground. In addition to that all towers have to
sustain all kinds of natural calamities. So transmission tower designing is
an important engineering job where all three basic engineering concepts,
civil, mechanical and electrical engineering concepts are equally applicable.
Main parts of a transmission tower
A power transmission tower consists of the following parts,
1) Peak of transmission tower
2) Cross Arm of transmission tower
3) Boom of transmission tower
4) Cage of transmission tower
5) Transmission Tower Body
6) Leg of transmission tower
7) Stub/Anchor Bolt and Base plate assembly of transmission tower

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The main parts among these are shown in the pictures

Peak of transmission tower
The portion above the top cross arm is called peak of transmission tower.
Generally earth shield wire connected to the tip of this peak.
Cross Arm of transmission tower
Cross arms of transmission tower hold the transmission conductor. The
dimension of cross arm depends on the level of transmission voltage,
configuration and minimum forming angle for stress distribution.
Cage of transmission tower
The portion between tower body and peak is known as cage of transmission
tower. This portion of the tower holds the cross arms.

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Transmission tower body

The portion from bottom cross arms up to the ground level is called
transmission tower body. This portion of the tower plays a vital role for
maintaining required ground clearance of the bottom conductor of the
transmission line.

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Design of transmission tower

During design of transmission tower the following points to be considered in

mind,
a) The minimum ground clearance of the lowest conductor point above
the ground level.
b) The length of the insulator string.
c) The minimum clearance to be maintained between conductors and
between conductor and tower.
d) The location of ground wire with respect to outer most conductors.
e) The mid span clearance required from considerations of the dynamic
behavior of conductor and lightening protection of the line.

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CHAPTER - 5
POWER TRIANGLE AND POWER FACTOR

REAL POWER

REACTIVE POWER

APPARENT POWER

POWER FACTOR

The Power Factor Triangle: Real , Reactive and Apparent Power

Power Factor Formulas and the Power Factor Triangle, now that you
understand the terminology, are easily within your grasp. The key to the
Power Factor Triangle understands vectors. I'll make vectors easy and in a
few minutes you'll have it.
Vector Analysis
Vectors are simply another way to draw sine waves. You'll see its not
difficult and actually makes things easier. Vectors, as used in this
discussion, are representations of a sine wave of current relative to a sine
wave of voltage. Instead of showing the current as a sine wave, the vector
shows it as a straight line that point in a direction. The length of the line
represents the RMS value of the current (remember, peak value x 0.707) and
the direction of the line represents the phase angle of the current relative to
the voltage (this is the "offset" as discussed in the "Power Factor" section).
The direction of the arrow is simple. Its like a compass, 0 to 360 degrees.
Remember, this is the offset. The compass starts at 3 o'clock and rotates
counter-clockwise in a full circle. We establish that the voltage's sine wave
peaks at 0 degrees (this is the reference).
Lets look at cases where the currents leads or lags voltage by 45 degrees.
See the graphic below.

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Current B lags the voltage by 45 degrees so the vector points down and to
the right (see below). Current A leads by 45 degrees (it's happening 45
degrees ahead of voltage) so it points up and to the right. Since the peak
currents are 1 Amp, the RMS currents are 0.707 Amps.

Adding Vectors
This is almost as fun as connecting the dots (an EE's childhood pastime). To
add two RMS currents, simply put one vector at the end of the other
(remember to point in the correct direction, not 180 degrees out). The
resultant, a straight line from where you started to where you ended, is the
sum.

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Hopefully that makes sense to you. Now lets apply what you already
know....the load current in motors, which does the actual work, is in-phase
with the voltage and therefore the load current vector points at 0 degrees
(left to right). The magnetizing current in motors (and transformers), which
does no work and lags behind the voltage by 90 degrees, points straight
down. Oh yeah, capacitive current, which also does no work and leads
voltage by 90 degrees, points straight up. (See below)

Good news! Because the Power Factor Triangle is all about examining the
relationship between load currents and reactive currents, we will simply be
adding currents that are in-phase with voltage (vectors pointing at 0
degrees) to currents that are 90 degrees out of phase (magnetizing or
capacitive). See the graphic below, which only has load and magnetizing
currents.

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Back in the Power Factor Terminology section we learned that Load Current
multiplied by the system voltage yields Real Load, also called Real Power.
The units of Real Power are Watts (i.e. kW, MW, etc.)
When we multiply the Reactive Current by the system voltage we get the
Reactive Load or Reactive Power (also called Imaginary Load). The units of
Reactive Power are VARs, which stands for Volts-Amps-Reactive (i.e. kVAR,
MVARS, etc.).
If we multiply the Apparent Current by the system voltage we get the
Apparent Load or Apparent Power. The units for Apparent Power are VA, for
Volt-Amps (i.e. kVA, MVA, etc.).
Changing the above graphic into terms of Power yields the Power Factor
Triangle, also called the Power Triangle. The Power Factor Triangle (below)
shows that
(Real Power squared) + (Reactive Power squared) = (Apparent Power squared)
Yup! Pythagorean's Theorem....and you thought you were done with that in
high school geometry!

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Remember, the units are all in terms of RMS values and RMS values cannot
be simply added together unless the components have no phase difference.
We use vector addition to add RMS values because Real Power and Reactive
Power are 90 degrees apart.
The Power Factor Triangle yields some useful equations. This one is very
useful and easy to remember. Simply stated, the Power Factor is the
percentage of Apparent Power that does real work.
Apparent Power x PF = Real Power Or in terms of units, VA x PF = Watts
POWER FACTOR
In general power is the capacity to do work. In electrical domain, electrical
power is the amount of electrical energy that can be transferred to some
other form (heat, light etc) per unit time. Mathematically it is the product of
voltage drop across the element and current flowing through it.
Considering first the DC circuits, having only DC voltage sources, the
inductors and capacitors behave as short circuit and open circuit
respectively in steady state. Hence the entire circuit behaves as resistive
circuit and the entire electrical power is dissipated in the form of heat. Here
the voltage and current are in same phase and the total electrical power is
given by
Electrical Power = Voltage across the element X Current through the
element.
Its unit is Watt = Joule/sec.

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Now coming to AC circuits, here both inductor and capacitor offer certain
amount of impedance given by

The inductor stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy and
capacitor stores electrical energy in the form of electrostatic energy. Neither
of them dissipates it. Further there is a phase shift of 90-between voltage
and current. Hence when we consider the entire circuit consisting of
resistor, inductor and capacitor, there exists some phase difference between
the source voltage and current. The cosine of this phase difference is
called electrical power factor.
This factor (0 < cos < 1 ) represents the fraction of total power that is used
to do the useful work.
The other fraction of electrical power is stored in the form of magnetic
energy or electrostatic energy in inductor and capacitor respectively.
The total power in this case is
Total Electrical Power = Voltage across the element X Current through the
element
This is called Apparent power and its unit is VA (Volt Amp) and denoted by
S
A fraction of this total electrical power which actually does our useful work
is called as active power. It is denoted as P
P = Active power = Total Electrical Power. cos and its unit is watt.
The other fraction of power is called reactive power. This does no useful
work, but it is required for the active work to be done. It is denoted by Q
and mathematically is given by
Q = Reactive power = Total Electrical Power. sin and its unit is VAR (Volt
Amp Reactive).
This reactive power oscillates between source and load.
To help understand this better all these power are represented in the form of
triangle.

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Power Factor Triangle

Mathematically, S2 = P2 + Q2 and Electrical Power Factor is Active power /
Apparent power.
Power Factor Improvement
The term power factor comes into picture in AC circuits only.
Mathematically it is cosine of the phase difference between source voltage
and current. It refers to the fraction of total power (apparent power) which is
utilized to do the useful work called active power.

Need for Power Factor Improvement

Real power is given by P = VI cos. To transfer a given amount of

power at certain voltage, the electrical current is inversely
proportional to cos. Hence higher the pf lower will be the current
flowing. A small current flow requires less cross sectional area of
conductor and thus it saves conductor and money.

From above relation we saw having poor power factor increases the
current flowing in conductor and thus copper loss increases. Further
large voltage drop occurs in alternator, electrical transformer and
transmission & distribution lines which gives very poor voltage
regulation.

Further the KVA rating of machines is also reduced by having higher

power factor as

Hence, the size and cost of machine also reduced. So, electrical power
factor should be maintained close to unity.

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Methods of power factor improvement

Capacitors: Improving power factor means reducing the phase

difference between voltage and current. Since majority of loads are of
inductive nature, they require some amount of reactive power for them
to function. This reactive power is provided by the capacitor or bank of
capacitors installed parallel to the load. They act as a source of local
reactive power and thus less reactive power flows through the line.
Basically they reduces the phase difference between the voltage and
current.

Synchronous Condenser: They are 3 phase synchronous motor with

no load attached to its shaft. The synchronous motor has the
characteristics of operating under any power factor leading, lagging or
unity depending upon the excitation. For inductive loads,
synchronous condenser is connected towards load side and is
overexcited. This makes it behave like a capacitor. It draws the lagging
current from the supply or supplies the reactive power.

Phase Advancer: This is an ac exciter mainly used to improve pf

of induction motor. They are mounted on shaft of the motor and is
connected in the rotor circuit of the motor. It improves the power
factor by providing the exciting ampere turns to produce required flux
at slip frequency. Further if ampere turns are increased, it can be
made to operate at leading power factor.

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CHAPTER - 6
ILLUMINATION

QUANTITY OF ILLUMINATION

QUALITY OF ILLUMINATION

GLARE

LIGHT SOURCES

DEFINITION

CALCULATION OF ILLUMINATION LEVELS
ILLUMINATION
Quantity of Illumination
Quality of Illumination
Quantity of Illumination
Light Output
The most common measure of light output (or luminous flux) is the lumen.
Light sources are labeled with an output rating in lumens. For example, a
T12 40-watt fluorescent lamp may have a rating of 3050 lumens. Similarly,
a light fixture's output can be expressed in lumens. As lamps and fixtures
age and become dirty, their lumen output decreases (i.e., lumen
depreciation occurs). Most lamp ratings are based on initial lumens (i.e.,
when the lamp is new).
Light Level
Light intensity measured on a plane at a specific location is called
illuminance. Illuminance is measured in foot candles, which are work
plane lumens per square foot. You can measure illuminance using a light
meter located on the work surface where tasks are performed. Using simple
arithmetic and manufacturers' photometric data, you can predict
illuminance for a defined space. (Lux is the metric unit for illuminance,
measured in lumens per square meter. To convert foot candles to lux,
multiply foot candles by 10.76.)

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Brightness
Another measurement of light is luminance, sometimes called brightness.
This measures light "leaving" a surface in a particular direction, and
considers the illuminance on the surface and the reflectance of the surface.
The human eye does not see illuminance; it sees luminance. Therefore, the
amount of light delivered into the space and the reflectance of the surfaces
in the space affects your ability to see.
Refer to the GLOSSARY at the end of this document for more detailed
definitions.
Quantity Measures
Luminous flux is commonly called light output and is measured in
lumens (lm).
Illuminance is called light level and is measured in foot candles (fc).
Luminance is referred to as brightness and is measured in foot
lamberts (fL) or candelas/m2 (cd/m2).
Determining Target Light Levels
The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America has developed a
procedure for determining the appropriate average light level for a particular
space. This procedure (used extensively by designers and engineers
(recommends a target light level by considering the following:

the task(s) being performed (contrast, size, etc.)

the ages of the occupants
the importance of speed and accuracy

Then, the appropriate type and quantity of lamps and light fixtures may be
selected based on the following:

fixture efficiency
lamp lumen output
the reflectance of surrounding surfaces
the effects of light losses from lamp lumen depreciation and dirt
accumulation
room size and shape
availability of natural light (daylight)

When designing a new or upgraded lighting system, one must be careful to

avoid over lighting a space. In the past, spaces were designed for as much as
200 foot candles in places where 50 foot candles may not only be adequate,
but superior. This was partly due to the misconception that the more light

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in a space, the higher the quality. Not only does over lighting waste energy,
but it can also reduce lighting quality. Refer to Exhibit 2 for light levels
recommended by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America.
Within a listed range of illuminance, three factors dictate the proper level:
age of the occupant(s), speed and accuracy requirements, and background
contrast.
For example, to light a space that uses computers, the overhead light
fixtures should provide up to 30 fc of ambient lighting. The task lights
should provide the additional foot candles needed to achieve a total
illuminance of up to 50 fc for reading and writing. For illuminance
recommendations for specific visual tasks, refer to the IES Lighting
Handbook, 1993, or to the IES Recommended Practice No. 24 (for VDT
lighting).
Quality Measures
Visual comfort probability (VCP) indicates the percent of people who
are comfortable with the glare from a fixture.
Spacing criteria (SC) refers to the maximum recommended distance
between fixtures to ensure uniformity.
Color rendering index (CRI) indicates the color appearance of an object
under a source as compared to a reference source.
Quality of Illumination
Improvements in lighting quality can yield high dividends for US businesses.
Gains in worker productivity may result by providing corrected light levels
with reduced glare. Although the cost of energy for lighting is substantial, it
is small compared with the cost of labor. Therefore, these gains in
productivity may be even more valuable than the energy savings associated
with new lighting technologies. In retail spaces, attractive and comfortable
lighting designs can attract clientele and enhance sales.
Three quality issues are addressed in this section.
glare
uniformity of illuminance
color rendition
Glare
Perhaps the most important factor with respect to lighting quality is glare.
Glare is a sensation caused by luminances in the visual field that are too
bright. Discomfort, annoyance, or reduced productivity can result.
A bright object alone does not necessarily cause glare, but a bright object in
front of a dark background, however, usually will cause glare. Contrast is

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the relationship between the luminance of an object and its background.

Although the visual task generally becomes easier with increased contrast,
too much contrast causes glare and makes the visual task much more
difficult.
You can reduce glare or luminance ratios by not exceeding suggested light
levels and by using lighting equipment designed to reduce glare. A louver or
lens is commonly used to block direct viewing of a light source. Indirect
lighting, or up lighting, can create a low glare environment by uniformly
lighting the ceiling. Also, proper fixture placement can reduce reflected
glare on work surfaces or computer screens. Standard data now provided
with luminaire specifications include tables of its visual comfort
probability (VCP) ratings for various room geometries. The VCP index
provides an indication of the percentage of people in a given space that
would find the glare from a fixture to be acceptable. A minimum VCP of 70
is recommended for commercial interiors, while luminaires with VCPs
exceeding 80 are recommended in computer areas.
Uniformity of Illuminance on Tasks
The uniformity of illuminance is a quality issue that addresses how evenly
light spreads over a task area. Although a room's average illuminance may
be appropriate, two factors may compromise uniformity.

improper fixture placement based on the luminaire's spacing

criteria (ratio of maxim recommended fixture spacing distance to
mounting height above task height)
fixtures that are retrofit with reflectors that narrow the light
distribution

Non-uniform illuminance causes several problems:

inadequate light levels in some areas
visual discomfort when tasks require frequent shifting of view from
under lit to over lit areas
bright spots and patches of light on floors and walls that cause
distraction and generate a low quality appearance
Color Rendition
The ability to see colors properly is another aspect of lighting quality. Light
sources vary in their ability to accurately reflect the true colors of people
and objects. The color rendering index (CRI) scale is used to compare the
effect of a light source on the color appearance of its surroundings.
A scale of 0 to 100 defines the CRI. A higher CRI means better color
rendering, or less color shift. CRIs in the range of 75-100 are considered

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excellent, while 65-75 are good. The range of 55-65 is fair, and 0-55 is poor.
Under higher CRI sources, surface colors appear brighter, improving the
aesthetics of the space. Sometimes, higher CRI sources create the illusion of
higher illuminance levels.
The CRI values for selected light sources are tabulated with other lamp data
in Exhibit 3.
LIGHT SOURCES
Characteristics of Light Sources
Incandescent Lamps
Fluorescent Lamps
High-Intensity Discharge Lamps
Commercial, industrial, and retail facilities use several
sources. Each lamp type has particular advantages;
appropriate source depends on installation requirements,
color qualities, dimming capability, and the effect wanted.
lamps are commonly used:

different light
selecting the
life-cycle cost,
Three types of

incandescent
fluorescent
high intensity discharge
mercury vapor
metal halide
high pressure sodium
low pressure sodium

Before describing each of these lamp types, the following sections describe
characteristics that are common to all of them.
Characteristics of Light Sources
Electric light sources have three characteristics: efficiency, color
temperature, and color rendering index (CRI). Exhibit 4 summarizes these
characteristics.
Efficiency
Some lamp types are more efficient in converting energy into visible light
than others. The efficacy of a lamp refers to the number of lumens leaving
the lamp compared to the number of watts required by the lamp (and
ballast). It is expressed in lumens per watt. Sources with higher efficacy
require less electrical energy to light a space.

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Color Temperature
Another characteristic of a light source is the color temperature. This is a
measurement of "warmth" or "coolness" provided by the lamp. People
usually prefer a warmer source in lower illuminance areas, such as dining
areas and living rooms, and a cooler source in higher illuminance areas,
such as grocery stores.
Color temperature refers to the color of a blackbody radiator at a given
absolute temperature, expressed in Kelvins. A blackbody radiator changes
color as its temperature increases (first to red, then to orange, yellow, and
finally bluish white at the highest temperature. A "warm" color light source
actually has a lower color temperature. For example, a cool-white
fluorescent lamp appears bluish in color with a color temperature of around
4100 K. A warmer fluorescent lamp appears more yellowish with a color
temperature around 3000 K. Refer to Exhibit 5 for color temperatures of
various light sources.
Color Rendering Index
The CRI is a relative scale (ranging from 0 - 100). Indicating how perceived
colors match actual colors. It measures the degree that perceived colors of
objects, illuminated by a given light source, conform to the colors of those
same objects when they are lighted by a reference standard light source. The
higher the color rendering index, the less color shift or distortion occurs.
The CRI number does not indicate which colors will shift or by how much; it
is rather an indication of the average shift of eight standard colors. Two
different light sources may have identical CRI values, but colors may appear
quite different under these two sources.
Standard Incandescent Lamp
Incandescent lamps are one of the oldest electric lighting technologies
available. With efficacies ranging from 6 to 24 lumens per watt,
incandescent lamps are the least energy-efficient electric light source and
have a relatively short life (750-2500 hours).
Light is produced by passing a current through a tungsten filament, causing
it to become hot and glow. With use, the tungsten slowly evaporates,
eventually causing the filament to break.
These lamps are available in many shapes and finishes. The two most
common types of shapes are the common "A-type" lamp and the reflectorshaped lamps.

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Tungsten-Halogen Lamps
The tungsten halogen lamp is another type of incandescent lamp. In a
halogen lamp, a small quartz capsule contains the filament and a halogen
gas. The small capsule size allows the filament to operate at a higher
temperature, which produces light at a higher efficacy than standard
incandescent. The halogen gas combines with the evaporated tungsten, redepositing it on the filament. This process extends the life of the filament
and keeps the bulb wall from blackening and reducing light output.
Because the filament is relatively small, this source is often used where a
highly focused beam is desired. Compact halogen lamps are popular in retail
applications for display and accent lighting. In addition, tungsten-halogen
lamps generally produce a whiter light than other incandescent lamps, are
more efficient, last longer, and have improved lamp lumen depreciation.

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Incandescent A-Lamp
More efficient halogen lamps are available. These sources use an infrared
coating on the quartz bulb or an advanced reflector design to redirect
infrared light back to the filament. The filament then glows hotter and the
efficiency of the source is increased.
Fluorescent Lamps
Fluorescent lamps are the most commonly used commercial light source in
North America. In fact, fluorescent lamps illuminate 71% of the commercial
space in the United States. Their popularity can be attributed to their
relatively high efficacy, diffuse light distribution characteristics, and long
operating life.

Fluorescent lamp construction consists of a glass tube with the

following features:
filled with an argon or argon-krypton gas and a small amount of
mercury
coated on the inside with phosphors
equipped with an electrode at both ends

Fluorescent lamps provide light by the following process:

An electric discharge (current) is maintained between the electrodes

through the mercury vapor and inert gas.

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This current excites the mercury atoms, causing them to emit nonvisible ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
This UV radiation is converted into visible light by the phosphors
lining the tube.

Discharge lamps (such as fluorescent) require a ballast to provide correct

starting voltage and to regulate the operating current after the lamp has
started.

Full-Size Fluorescent Lamps

Full-size fluorescent lamps are available in several shapes, including
straight, U-shaped, and circular configurations. Lamp diameters range from
1" to 2.5". The most common lamp type is the four-foot (F40), 1.5" diameter
(T12) straight fluorescent lamp. More efficient fluorescent lamps are now
available in smaller diameters, including the T10 (1.25 ") and T8 (1").
Fluorescent lamps are available in color temperatures ranging from warm
(2700(K) "incandescent-like" colors to very cool (6500(K) "daylight" colors.
"Cool white" (4100(K) is the most common fluorescent lamp color. Neutral
white (3500(K) is becoming popular for office and retail use.
Improvements in the phosphor coating of fluorescent lamps have improved
color rendering and made some fluorescent lamps acceptable in many
applications previously dominated by incandescent lamps.
Performance Considerations
The performance of any luminaire system depends on how well its
components work together. With fluorescent lamp-ballast systems, light
output, input watts, and efficacy are sensitive to changes in the ambient
temperature. When the ambient temperature around the lamp is
significantly above or below 25C (77F), the performance of the system can
change. Exhibit 6 shows this relationship for two common lamp-ballast
systems: the F40T12 lamp with magnetic ballast and the F32T8 lamp with
electronic ballast.

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As you can see, the optimum operating temperature for the F32T8 lampballast system is higher than for the F40T12 system. Thus, when the
ambient temperature is greater than 25C (77F), the performance of the
F32T8 system may be higher than the performance under ANSI conditions.
Lamps with smaller diameters (such as T-5 twin tube lamps) peak at even
higher ambient temperatures.
Compact Fluorescent Lamps
Advances in phosphor coatings and reductions of tube diameters have
facilitated the development of compact fluorescent lamps.
Manufactured since the early 1980s, they are a long-lasting, energy-efficient
substitute for the incandescent lamp.
Various wattages, color temperatures, and sizes are available. The wattages
of the compact fluorescents range from 5 to 40 (replacing incandescent
lamps ranging from 25 to 150 watts (and provide energy savings of 60 to 75
percent. While producing light similar in color to incandescent sources, the
life expectancy of a compact fluorescent is about 10 times that of a standard
incandescent lamp. Note, however, that the use of compact fluorescent
lamps is very limited in dimming applications.
The compact fluorescent lamp with an Edison screw-base offers an easy
means to upgrade an incandescent luminaire. Screw-in compact
fluorescents are available in two types:

Integral Units. These consist of a compact fluorescent lamp and

ballast in self-contained units. Some integral units also include a
reflector and/or glass enclosure.
Modular Units. The modular type of retrofit compact fluorescent lamp
is similar to the integral units, except that the lamp is replaceable.

A Specifier Report that compares the performance of various name-brand

compact fluorescent lamps is now available from the National Lighting
Product Information Program ("Screw-Base Compact Fluorescent Lamp
Products," Specifier Reports, Volume 1, Issue 6, April 1993).

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High-Intensity Discharge Lamps

High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps are similar to fluorescents in that an
arc is generated between two electrodes. The arc in a HID source is shorter,
yet it generates much more light, heat, and pressure within the arc tube.
Originally developed for outdoor and industrial applications, HID lamps are
also used in office, retail, and other indoor applications. Their color
rendering characteristics have been improved and lower wattages have
recently become available (as low as 18 watts.
There are several advantages to HID sources:

relatively long life (5,000 to 24,000+ hrs)

relatively high lumen output per watt
relatively small in physical size

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However, the following operating limitations must also be considered. First,

HID lamps require time to warm up. It varies from lamp to lamp, but the
average warm-up time is 2 to 6 minutes. Second, HID lamps have a "restrike" time, meaning a momentary interruption of current or a voltage drop
too low to maintain the arc will extinguish the lamp. At that point, the gases
inside the lamp are too hot to ionize, and time is needed for the gases to cool
and pressure to drop before the arc will re-strike. This process of re-striking
takes between 5 and 15 minutes, depending on which HID source is being
used. Therefore, good applications of HID lamps are areas where lamps are
not switched on and off intermittently.
The following HID sources are listed in increasing order of efficacy:
mercury vapor
metal halide
high pressure sodium
low pressure sodium
Mercury Vapor
Clear mercury vapor lamps, which produce a blue-green light, consist of a
mercury-vapor arc tube with tungsten electrodes at both ends. These lamps
have the lowest efficacies of the HID family, rapid lumen depreciation, and a
low color rendering index. Because of these characteristics, other HID
sources have replaced mercury vapor lamps in many applications. However,
mercury vapor lamps are still popular sources for landscape illumination
because of their 24,000 hour lamp life and vivid portrayal of green
landscapes.

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The arc is contained in an inner bulb called the arc tube. The arc tube is
filled with high purity mercury and argon gas. The arc tube is enclosed
within the outer bulb, which is filled with nitrogen.
Color-improved mercury lamps use a phosphor coating on the inner wall of
the bulb to improve the color rendering index, resulting in slight reductions
in efficiency.

Metal Halide
These lamps are similar to mercury vapor lamps but use metal halide
additives inside the arc tube along with the mercury and argon. These
additives enable the lamp to produce more visible light per watt with
improved color rendition.
Wattages range from 32 to 2,000, offering a wide range of indoor and
outdoor applications. The efficacy of metal halide lamps ranges from 50 to
115 lumens per watt (typically about double that of mercury vapor. In short,
metal halide lamps have several advantages.

high efficacy
good color rendering
wide range of wattages

However, they also have some operating limitations:

The rated life of metal halide lamps is shorter than other HID sources;
lower-wattage lamps last less than 7500 hours while high-wattage
lamps last an average of 15,000 to 20,000 hours.
The color may vary from lamp to lamp and may shift over the life of
the lamp and during dimming.

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Because of the good color rendition and high lumen output, these lamps are
good for sports arenas and stadiums. Indoor uses include large auditoriums
and convention halls. These lamps are sometimes used for general outdoor
lighting, such as parking facilities, but a high pressure sodium system is
typically a better choice.

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High Pressure Sodium

The high pressure sodium (HPS) lamp is widely used for outdoor and
industrial applications. Its higher efficacy makes it a better choice than
metal halide for these applications, especially when good color rendering is
not a priority. HPS lamps differ from mercury and metal-halide lamps in
that they do not contain starting electrodes; the ballast circuit includes a
high-voltage electronic starter. The arc tube is made of a ceramic material
which can withstand temperatures up to 2372F. It is filled with xenon to
help start the arc, as well as a sodium-mercury gas mixture.
The efficacy of the lamp is very high (as much as 140 lumens per watt. For
example, a 400-watt high pressure sodium lamp produces 50,000 initial
lumens. The same wattage metal halide lamp produces 40,000 initial
lumens, and the 400-watt mercury vapor lamp produces only 21,000
initially.
Sodium, the major element used, produces the "golden" color that is
characteristic of HPS lamps. Although HPS lamps are not generally
recommended for applications where color rendering is critical, HPS color
rendering properties are being improved. Some HPS lamps are now available
in "deluxe" and "white" colors that provide higher color temperature and
improved color rendition. The efficacy of low-wattage "white" HPS lamps is
lower than that of metal halide lamps (lumens per watt of low-wattage metal
halide is 75-85, while white HPS is 50-60 LPW).
Low Pressure Sodium
Although low pressure sodium (LPS) lamps are similar to fluorescent systems
(because they are low pressure systems), they are commonly included in the
HID family. LPS lamps are the most efficacious light sources, but they
produce the poorest quality light of all the lamp types. Being a
monochromatic light source, all colors appear black, white, or shades of
gray under an LPS source. LPS lamps are available in wattages ranging from
18-180.
LPS lamp use has been generally limited to outdoor applications such as
security or street lighting and indoor, low-wattage applications where color
quality is not important (e.g. stairwells). However, because the color
rendition is so poor, many municipalities do not allow them for roadway
lighting.
Because the LPS lamps are "extended" (like fluorescent), they are less
effective in directing and controlling a light beam, compared with "point
sources" like high-pressure sodium and metal halide. Therefore, lower

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mounting heights will provide better results with LPS lamps. To compare a
LPS installation with other alternatives, calculate the installation efficacy as
the average maintained foot candles divided by the input watts per square
foot of illuminated area. The input wattage of an LPS system increases over
time to maintain consistent light output over the lamp life.
The low-pressure sodium lamp can explode if the sodium comes in contact
with water. Dispose of these lamps according to the manufacturer's
instructions.
Back to the Table of Contents
BALLASTS
Fluorescent Ballasts
HID Ballasts
All discharge lamps (fluorescent and HID) require an auxiliary piece of
equipment called ballast. Ballasts have three main functions:

provide correct starting voltage, because lamps require a higher

voltage to start than to operate
match the line voltage to the operating voltage of the lamp
limit the lamp current to prevent immediate destruction, because once
the arc is struck the lamp impedance decreases

Because ballasts are an integral component of the lighting system, they have
a direct impact on light output. The ballast factor is the ratio of a lamp's
light output using standard reference ballast, compared to the lamp's rated
light output on laboratory standard ballast. General purpose ballasts have a
ballast factor that is less than one; special ballasts may have a ballast factor
greater than one.
Fluorescent Ballasts
The two general types of fluorescent ballasts are magnetic and electronic
ballasts:
Magnetic Ballasts
Magnetic ballasts (also referred to as electromagnetic ballasts) fall into one
of the following categories:

standard core-coil (no longer sold in the US for most applications)

high-efficiency core-coil
cathode cut-out or hybrid

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Standard core-coil magnetic ballasts are essentially core-coil transformers

that are relatively inefficient in operating fluorescent lamps. The highefficiency ballast replaces the aluminum wiring and lower grade steel of the
standard ballast with copper wiring and enhanced ferromagnetic materials.
The result of these material upgrades is a 10 percent system efficiency
improvement. However, note that these "high efficiency" ballasts are the
least efficient magnetic ballasts that are available for operating full-size
fluorescent lamps. More efficient ballasts are described below.
"Cathode cut-out" (or "hybrid") ballasts are high-efficiency core-coil
ballasts that incorporate electronic components that cut off power to the
lamp cathodes (filaments) after the lamps are lit, resulting in an additional
2-watt savings per standard lamp. Also, many partial-output T12 hybrid
ballasts provide up to 10% less light output while consuming up to 17% less
energy than energy-efficient magnetic ballasts. Full-output T8 hybrid
ballasts are nearly as efficient as rapid-start two-lamp T8 electronic ballasts.
Electronic Ballasts
In nearly every full-size fluorescent lighting application, electronic ballasts
can be used in place of conventional magnetic "core-and-coil" ballasts.
Electronic ballasts improve fluorescent system efficacy by converting the
standard 60 Hz input frequency to a higher frequency, usually 25,000 to
40,000 Hz. Lamps operating at these higher frequencies produce about the
same amount of light, while consuming 12 to 25 percent less power. Other
advantages of electronic ballasts include less audible noise, less weight,
virtually no lamp flicker, and dimming capabilities (with specific ballast
models).
There are three electronic ballast designs available:
Standard T12 electronic ballasts (430 mA)
These ballasts are designed for use with conventional (T12 or T10)
fluorescent lighting systems. Some electronic ballast that is designed for use
with 4' lamps can operate up to four lamps at a time. Parallel wiring is
another feature now available that allows all companion lamps in the ballast
circuit to continue operating in the event of a lamp failure. Electronic
ballasts are also available for 8' standard and high-output T12 lamps.
T8 Electronic ballasts (265 mA)
Specifically designed for use with T8 (1-inch diameter) lamps, the T8
electronic ballast provide the highest efficiency of any fluorescent lighting
system. Some T8 electronic ballasts are designed to start the lamps in the
conventional rapid start mode, while others are operated in the instant start

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mode. The use of instant start T8 electronic ballasts may result in up to 25

percent reduction in lamp life (at 3 hours per start) but produces slight
increases in efficiency and light output. (Note: Lamp life ratings for instant
start and rapid start are the same for 12 or more hours per start.)
Dimmable electronic ballasts
These ballasts permit the light output of the lamps to be dimmed based on
input from manual dimmer controls or from devices that sense daylight or
occupancy.
Types of Fluorescent Circuits
There are three main types of fluorescent circuits:
rapid start
instant start
preheat
The specific fluorescent circuit in use can be identified by the label on the
ballast.
The rapid start circuit is the most used system today. Rapid start ballasts
provide continuous lamp filament heating during lamp operation (except
when used with a cathode cut-out ballast or lamp). Users notice a very short
delay after "flipping the switch," before the lamp is started.
The instant start system ignites the arc within the lamp instantly. This
ballast provides a higher starting voltage, which eliminates the need for a
separate starting circuit. This higher starting voltage causes more wear on
the filaments, resulting in reduced lamp life compared with rapid starting.
The preheat circuit was used when fluorescent lamps first became available.
This technology is used very little today, except for low-wattage magnetic
ballast applications such as compact fluorescents. A separate starting
switch, called a starter, is used to aid in forming the arc. The filament needs
some time to reach proper temperature, so the lamp does not strike for a few
seconds.
HID Ballasts
Like fluorescent lamps, HID lamps require a ballast to start and operate.
The purposes of the ballast are similar: to provide starting voltage, to limit
the current, and to match the line voltage to the arc voltage.
With HID ballasts, a major performance consideration is lamp wattage
regulation when the line voltage varies. With HPS lamps, the ballast must

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compensate for changes in the lamp voltage as well as for changes in the
line voltages.
Installing the wrong HID ballast can cause a variety of problems:
waste energy and increase operating cost
severely shorten lamp life
significantly add to system maintenance costs
produce lower-than-desired light levels
increase wiring and circuit breaker installation costs
result in lamp cycling when voltage dips occur
Capacitive switching is available in new HID luminaires with special HID
ballasts. The most common application for HID capacitive switching is in
occupancy-sensed bi-level lighting control. Upon sensing motion, the
occupancy sensor will send a signal to the bi-level HID system that will
rapidly bring the light levels from a standby reduced level to approximately
80% of full output, followed by the normal warm-up time between 80% and
100% of full light output. Depending on the lamp type and wattage, the
standby lumens are roughly 15-40% of full output and the input watts are
30-60% of full wattage. Therefore, during periods that the space is
unoccupied and the system is dimmed, savings of 40-70% are achieved.
Electronic ballasts for some types of HID lamps are starting to become
commercially available. These ballasts offer the advantages of reduced size
and weight, as well as better color control; however, electronic HID ballasts
offer minimal efficiency gains over magnetic HID ballasts.
Back to the Table of Contents
LUMINAIRES
Luminaire Efficiency
Directing Light
A luminaire, or light fixture, is a unit consisting of the following
components:
lamps
lamp sockets
ballasts
reflective material
lenses, refractors, or louvers
housing

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Luminaire
The main function of the luminaire is to direct light using reflective and
shielding materials. Many lighting upgrade projects consist of replacing one
or more of these components to improve fixture efficiency. Alternatively,
users may consider replacing the entire luminaire with one that I designed
to efficiently provide the appropriate quantity and quality of illumination.
There are several different types of luminaires. The following is a listing of
some of the common luminaire types:

general illumination fixtures such as 2x4, 2x2, & 1x4 fluorescent

troffers
down lights
indirect lighting (light reflected off the ceiling/walls)
spot or accent lighting
task lighting
outdoor area and flood lighting

Luminaire Efficiency
The efficiency of a luminaire is the percentage of lamp lumens produced that
actually exits the fixture. The use of louvers can improve visual comfort, but
because they reduce the lumen output of the fixture, efficiency is reduced.
Generally, the most efficient fixtures have the poorest visual comfort (e.g.
bare strip industrial fixtures). Conversely, the fixture that provides the
highest visual comfort level is the least efficient. Thus, a lighting designer
must determine the best compromise between efficiency and VCP when
specifying luminaires. Recently, some manufacturers have started offering
fixtures with excellent VCP and efficiency. These so-called "super fixtures"
combine state-of-the-art lens or louver designs to provide the best of both
worlds.
Surface deterioration and accumulated dirt in older, poorly maintained
fixtures can also cause reductions in luminaire efficiency. Refer to Lighting
Maintenance for more information.
Directing Light
Each of the above luminaire types consist of a number of components that
are designed to work together to produce and direct light. Because the
subject of light production has been covered by the previous section, the
text below focuses on the components used to direct the light produced by
the lamps.

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Reflectors
Reflectors are designed to redirect the light emitted from a lamp in order to
achieve a desired distribution of light intensity outside of the luminaire.
In most incandescent spot and flood lights, highly spectacular (mirror-like)
reflectors are usually built into the lamps.
One energy-efficient upgrade option is to install a custom-designed reflector
to enhance the light control and efficiency of the fixture, which may allow
partial de-lamping. Retrofit reflectors are useful for upgrading the efficiency
of older, deteriorated luminaire surfaces. A variety of reflector materials are
available: highly reflective white paint, silver film laminate, and two grades
of anodized aluminum sheet (standard or enhanced reflectivity). Silver film
laminate is generally considered to have the highest reflectance, but is
considered less durable.
Proper design and installation of reflectors can have more effect on
performance than the reflector materials. In combination with de-lamping,
however, the use of reflectors may result in reduced light output and may
redistribute the light, which may or may not be acceptable for a specific
space or application. To ensure acceptable performance from reflectors,
arrange for a trial installation and measure "before" and "after" light levels
using the procedures outlined in Lighting Evaluations. For specific namebrand performance data, refer to Specifier Reports, "Spectacular Reflectors,"
Volume 1, Issue 3, National Lighting Product Information Program.
Lenses and Louvers
Most indoor commercial fluorescent fixtures use either a lens or a louver to
prevent direct viewing of the lamps. Light that is emitted in the so-called
"glare zone" (angles above 45 degrees from the fixture's vertical axis) can
cause visual discomfort and reflections, which reduce contrast on work
surfaces or computer screens. Lenses and louvers attempt to control these
problems.
Lenses
Lenses made from clear ultraviolet-stabilized acrylic plastic deliver the most
light output and uniformity of all shielding media. However, they provide
less glare control than louvered fixtures. Clear lens types include prismatic,
batwing, linear batwing, and polarized lenses. Lenses are usually much less
expensive than louvers. White translucent diffusers are much less efficient
than clear lenses, and they result in relatively low visual comfort probability.
New low-glare lens materials are available for retrofit and provide high visual
comfort (VCP>80) and high efficiency.

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Louvers.
Louvers provide superior glare control and high visual comfort compared
with lens-diffuser systems. The most common application of louvers is to
eliminate the fixture glare reflected on computer screens. So-called "deepcell" parabolic louvers (with 5-7" cell apertures and depths of 2-4" ( provide a
good balance between visual comfort and luminaire efficiency. Although
small-cell parabolic louvers provide the highest level of visual comfort, they
reduce luminaire efficiency to about 35-45 percent. For retrofit applications,
both deep-cell and small-cell louvers are available for use with existing
fixtures. Note that the deep-cell louver retrofit adds 2-4" to the overall depth
of a troffer; verify that sufficient plenum depth is available before specifying
the deep-cell retrofit.
Distribution
One of the primary functions of a luminaire is to direct the light to where it
is needed. The light distribution produced by luminaires is characterized by
the Illuminating Engineering Society as follows:

Direct (90 to 100 percent of the light is directed downward for

maximum use.
Indirect (90 to 100 percent of the light is directed to the ceilings and
upper walls and is reflected to all parts of a room.
Semi-Direct ( 60 to 90 percent of the light is directed downward with
the remainder directed upward.
General Diffuse or Direct-Indirect (equal portions of the light are
directed upward and downward.
Highlighting (the beam projection distance and focusing ability
characterize this luminaire.

The lighting distribution that is characteristic of a given luminaire is

described using the candela distribution provided by the luminaire
manufacturer (see diagram on next page). The candela distribution is
represented by a curve on a polar graph showing the relative luminous
intensity 360 around the fixture (looking at a cross-section of the fixture.
This information is useful because it shows how much light is emitted in
each direction and the relative proportions of down lighting and up lighting.
The cut-off angle is the angle, measured from straight down, where the
fixture begins to shield the light source and no direct light from the source is
visible. The shielding angle is the angle, measured from horizontal, through
which the fixture provides shielding to prevent direct viewing of the light
source. The shielding and cut-off angles add up to 90 degrees.

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The lighting upgrade products mentioned in this document are described in

more detail in Lighting Upgrade Technologies.
4. Calculation of illumination levels
Lumen method
For a given room, predicted illumination levels for a given layout, or
alternatively the number of luminaires required to give a desired
illumination level can be calculated from tables of Utilisation Factors using
the "Lumen Method".
This method is fully outlined in CIBSE code for interior lighting. A quick
rule of thumb check method is presented here; this should not be used
without consulting the full procedures.
The illumination level for an empty room can be calculated using the
following formula:
N=ExA.
F x n x MF x UF
In which the symbols have the following meanings
E = Average Illuminance on working plane(lux).
N = Number of Luminaires.
A = Area of working plane (m).
F = Initial bare lamp luminous flux (lumens).
N = Number of lamps per luminaire.
MF = Maintenance Factor.
UF = Utilisation Factor for the working plane.
The utilization factor is not only dependant on the characteristics of the
luminaire itself, but also on the geometry of a room, and the reflectivity of its
walls, ceiling, and floor. So the designer is able to make allowance for this
utilization factor tables are produced which for a particular luminaire, give
utilization factors across a range of wall, ceiling and floor cavity reflectances
and a range of room indices.
The room index is a number calculated from the dimensions of a room and
is characteristic of the rooms geometry. The room index of a particular
rectangular room is twice its plan area, divided by its wall area, and is
calculated by the formula shown below.

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Room Index K = L.W .

hm (L+W)
Where:
hm = The mounting height of the luminaires above the working plane (m)
L

= Length of room (m)

W = Width of room (m)

An Example of a Lumen Method Calculation.
Consider a room 10m x 12m, with a ceiling height of 3.25m.
The room has ceiling, wall and floor reflectances of 0.50, 0.30, and 0.20
respectively.
It is proposed to install 3 x 36w Cat 3 recessed luminaires in the room
mounted flush with the ceiling surface. (The utilisation factor table for the
luminaire is shown below.)
How many luminaires would be required to achieve an illumination level of
400 lux, at desk top height of 0.85m?
i)

Calculate the room index.

L = 10m, W = 12m, hm = (3.25 - 0.85) = 2.4m
K = LxW = 10x12 hm (L + W) 2.4 x (10+12)
K = 2.27

ii)

Calculate the effective ceiling and floor cavity reflectances.

The ceiling has no cavity depth therefore its reflectance is 0.5.
For the floor cavity we need to calculate its effective reflectance.
a) Calculate Raf the average area weighted reflectance of the floor cavity.

Raf = (0.2x120) + 2(0.3x8.5) +2(0.3x10.2)

120+8.5+8.5+10.2+10.2 = 0.22
b) calculate floor cavity index.

CIf = K x hm = 2.27 X 2.4 = 6.41

h 0.8

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c) calculate effective floor cavity index.

approx. REf = Cif x Raf

Raf + 2(1- Raf )
= 6.41 x 0.22
1 + 2(1-0.22)
= 0.196
iii)

Obtain the Utilization Factor (UF)

Utilization factors for a room index of 2.27 are not published in a
standard CIBSE format utilization factor table. Within the room index
range of 0.75 to 5.00 it is acceptable to use the utilization factor for
the closest published room index, which in this case is RI = 2.50
On the Utilization factor table, we find a UF of 0.60 at the intersection
of the RI = 2.5 column, and the effective Reflectances = 0.50, 0.30,
0.20 row.

iv)

Calculate the number of luminaires required.

E = 400lux
A = 10mx12m = 120m
F = 3450 lumens for a 36w T8
n = 3 lamps
MF = Say 0.8
UF = 0.60
Number of fittings required:N = 400 x 120
3450 x 3 x 0.8 x 0.60
N = 9.66 (say 10 luminaires).
Perhaps two rows of five luminaires.

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Checking the Spacing to Height Ratio, we find this layout would not provide
an acceptably uniform distribution.
The maximum spacing being 5m, and the mounting height 2.4m, the SHR
would be:
SHR = 5 = 2.08
2.4
Which exceeds the SHR MAX of 1.96.
The designer now could now opt for an alternative luminaire, or a different
layout using the original luminaire.
As ten luminaires will not form a regular array other than 2 x 5, the
designer may consider using twelve (3 x 4) or nine (3 x 3), luminaires,
bearing in mind that as a consequence of changing the number of
luminaires the illumination level would rise or fall.
Considering the twelve luminaire option:

The maximum spacings would be 3.33m, in the axial, and 3.00m in the
transverse direction, and the height, as before, 2.4m, giving SHRs of:
In the axial direction:
SHRax = 3.33 = 1.39
2.4
And in the transverse direction:
SHRtr = 3.00 = 1.25
2.4
This time both SHRax and SHRtr are within the SHR MAX limit of 1.96, and
therefore acceptable.

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To finish the designer must check that the geometric mean spacing to height
ratio, lies within the range of the UF table used.
Standard UF tables are valid over an SHR range of 0.5 either side of SHR
NOM, in this case 1.75 0.5 (i.e. 1.25 2.25)
The geometric mean spacing to height ratio is determined using the formula:
(SHRax x SHRtr)
In this case:
( 1.39 x 1.25) = 1.32
1.32 lies inside the target range, and is therefore acceptable.
Point to point method
In cases where a luminaire approximates to a point source, (i.e. if its largest
dimension is less than one fifth of the distance from it to the point being
illuminated.) then the inverse square law may be applied to calculate the
direct illumination on a plane normal to the luminaire.
The illumination level would be calculated using the formula:
E = I.Cos
h
In which:
E = Illuminance (Lux)
I = Intensity, in the particular direction (candelas), this may be taken
from the polar curve.
h = Vertical distance between the luminaire and plane (in metres).
Example
Consider a typical 400w SON high bay luminaire, mounted at a height (h) of
10m, what illumination level would be expected at a spot on the floor below
at say 15 from the vertical.
From the Polar Curve at 15 from the vertical we read an intensity of say
600cd/1000 lm, (600 candelas per thousand lumens).

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The light output of the lamp is 52500 lm, (52.5 thousand lumens), the
intensity (I) at 15 would be:
600 x 52.5 = 31500 cd.
And the illuminance (E) would be:
31500 x Cosy 15
10
= 31500 x 0.901
100
= 283.8 lux

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CHAPTER - 7
WIRING CONCEPTS

SWITCH

TYPES OF CONNECTION

SITE EQUIPMENTS

DB CONNECTION (DISTRIBUTION BOX)

TYPES OF DB

SWITCH BOX

HOUSE WIRING PLAN

FLEMINGS LEFT HAND RULE

FARADAYS LAW

SWITCH
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break
an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one
conductor to another.
The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated Electromechanical
device with one or more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to
external circuits. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either
"closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between
them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is non
conducting. The mechanism actuating the transition between these two
states (open or closed) can be either a "toggle" (flip switch for continuous
"on" or "off") or "momentary" (push-for "on" or push-for "off") type.
A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a
system, such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a
circuit, such as a light switch. Automatically operated switches can be used
to control the motions of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage
door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a position
to accept another work piece. Switches may be operated by process
variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force,

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acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system.

For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control
a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is
called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive
mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power from a system,
providing a visible point of isolation that can be padlocked if necessary to
prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent
electric shock.
An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no
limits on voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time
during state changes, and would change state without "bouncing" between
on and off positions.
Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the
current and voltage they can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal
switch is often used in circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of
equations to be solved, but this can lead to a less accurate solution.
Theoretical treatment of the effects of non-ideal properties is required in the
design of large networks of switches, as for example used in telephone
exchanges
DESIGN
The switches may be single or multiple, designed for indoor or outdoor use.
Optional extras may include dimmer-controls, environmental protection,
and weather and security protection.
In the case of light switches, the circuit to be switched is within 10% of 230
volts at 5A 6A or 10A for all European and most of South American, African
and Asian countries, whereas Japan, North America and Liberia use a
supply between 100 and 127 volts with maximum circuit currents of up to
15 or 20 amperes so the overall power per circuit is similar. In the UK,
putting normal 13A BS1363 sockets on a lighting circuit is frowned upon
(though not explicitly prohibited), but 2A or 5A BS546 outlets are often put
on lighting circuits to allow control of free-standing lamps from the room's
light switches. In the U.S., this is very common in mobile homes. It is
common in American site-built housing for living rooms and bedrooms to
have a switched receptacle for a floor or table lamp.

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Internal operation

Internal operation of a toggle switch, explained

A switch is most vulnerable when the contacts are opening or closing. As the
switch is closed, the resistance of the switch changes from nearly infinite to
nearly zero. At infinite resistance, no current flows and no power is
dissipated. At zero resistance, there is no voltage drop and no power is
dissipated. When the switch changes state however, there is a brief instant
of partial contact when resistance is neither zero nor infinite and power is
dissipated. During that transition the contacts heat up. If the heating is
excessive, the contacts can be damaged or even weld themselves closed.
The switch is designed to make the transition as swiftly as possible. This is
achieved by the initial operation of the switch lever mechanism storing
potential energy, usually as stress in a spring. When sufficient energy is
stored, the mechanism in the switch "breaks over" driving the contacts
through the transition from open to close, or close to open, without further
input by the switch operator. This quick-break action of the switch is
essential to a long life for the switch contacts, as disclosed in Holmes' 1884
patent.
While the contacts are separating, the energy stored in the inductance of the
circuit is dissipated as an arc within the switch, prolonging the transition
and worsening the heating effect on the contacts. Switches are commonly
rated by the current they are designed to break, under specified voltage
and power factor conditions, as this is the most stringent constraint.
The arc that results when the switch operates erodes the switch contacts. A
switch therefore has a finite life, often rated at a given number of cycles of

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disconnection at a specified current. Operation outside its specified capacity

will shorten the switch life very drastically.
To combat contact corrosion a switch is usually designed to have a wipe
action so that the contacts are cleaned. Large switches may be designed
with a supplemental contact that closes and opens before the main contact,
protecting the main current-carrying contacts from wear due to arcing. The
contact area of the switch is constructed of materials that resist corrosion
and arcing.
Many higher current switch designs rely on the separation arc to assist in
dispersing contact corrosion. A switch designed for high current/high
voltage use may become unreliable if operated at very low currents and low
voltages because the contact corrosion builds up excessively without an arc
to disperse it.
There are two kinds of "sparks" which may be seen during switch operation.
On closure, a few sparks like those from a flint-and-steel may appear as a
tiny bit of metal is heated to incandescence, melted, and thrown off. On
opening, a bluish arc may occur with a detectable "electrical" (ozone) smell;
afterwards the contacts may be seen to be darkened and pitted. Damaged
contacts have higher resistance, rendering them more vulnerable to further
damage and causing a cycle in which the contacts soon fail completely.
To make a switch safe, durable, and reliable, it must be designed so that the
contacts are held firmly together under positive force when the switch is
closed. It should be designed so that regardless of how the person operating
the switch manipulates it, the contacts always close or open quickly.
The spring that stores the energy necessary for the snap action of the switch
mechanism, in many small switch designs is made of a beryllium copper
alloy, that is hardened to form a spring as part of the fabrication of the
contact. The same part often also forms the body of the contact itself, and is
thus the current path. Abusing the switch mechanism to hold the contacts
in a transition state, or severely overloading the switch, will heat and thus
anneal the spring, reducing or eliminating the "snap action" of the switch,
leading to slower transitions, more energy dissipated in the switch, and
progressive failure.

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TWO LAMP CONTROLLED BY ONE SWITCH

TWO LAMP CONTROLLED BY TWO SWITCH

SERIES CONNECTION

STAIRCASE WIRING

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GODOWN WIRING

LAMP CONTROLLED BY INDIVIDUAL SWITCHES

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CONDUIT PARTS

LIGHTING ACCESSORIES

ANGLE BATTEN

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BATTEN HOLDER

PENDANT HOLDER

CEILING ROSE

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MODULAR SWITCH

PUSH BUTTON SWITCHES

SITE EQUIPMENTS

DB CONNECTION

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SPDB

TPNDB

TPNDB

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VDB

SWITCH BOX

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SWITCH BOX

SWITCH BOX

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HOUSE WIRING PLAN

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As, m numbers of series connected in parallel equivalent internal resistance

of that series and parallel battery is nr/m.
Fleming Left Hand Rule
Whenever a current carrying conductor comes under a magnetic field, there
will be a force acting on the conductor and on the other hand, if a conductor
is forcefully brought under a magnetic field there will be an induced current
in that conductor. In both of the phenomenon there is an relation between
magnetic field, electric current and force. This relation directionally
determined by Fleming Left Hand rule and Fleming Right Hand rule
respectively. 'Directionally' means these rules do not show the magnitude
but show the direction of any of the three parameters (magnetic field,
electric current, force) if the direction of other two are known. Fleming Left
Hand rule is mainly applicable for electric motor and Fleming Right Hand
rule is mainly applicable for electric generator. In late 19th century, John
Ambrose Fleming introduced these both rules and as per his name the rules
are well known as Fleming left and right hand rule.

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It is found that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed inside a

magnetic field, a force acts on the conductor, in a direction, perpendicular
perpen
both to the direction of the electric current and the magnetic field. In the
figure it shown that a portion of a conductor of length L placed vertically in a
uniform horizontal magnetic field of strength
strength H, produced by two magnetic
poles N and S. If i is the electric current flowing through this conductor, the
magnitude of the force acts on the conductor is,
F = BiL

F = Bil
Hold out your left hand with forefinger, second finger and thumb at right
angle to one another. If the fore finger represents the direction of the field
and the second finger that of the current, then thumb gives the direction of
the force.
While electric current flows through a conductor one magnetic field is
induced around it. This can be imagined by considering numbers of closed
magnetic lines of force around the conductor. The direction of magnetic lines

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of force can be determined by Maxwell's corkscrew rule or right-hand grip

rule. As per these rules the direction of the magnetic lines of force (or flux
lines) is clockwise if the current is flowing away from the viewer that is if the
direction of current through the conductor is inward from the reference
plane as shown in the figure.
Now if a horizontal magnetic field is applied externally to the conductor,
these two magnetic fields i.e. field around the conductor due to current
through it and the externally applied field will interact each other. We
observe in the picture, the magnetic lines of force of external magnetic field
are form N to S pole that is from left to right. The magnetic lines of force of
external magnetic field and magnetic lines of force due to current in the
conductor are in same direction, above the conductor and they are in
opposite direction below the conductor. Hence there will be larger numbers
of co-directional magnetic lines of force above the conductor than that of
below the conductor. Consequently, there will be a larger concentration of
magnetic lines of force in a small space above the conductor. As magnetic
lines of force are no longer straight lines, they are under tension like
stretched rubber bands. As a result there will be a force which tends to
move the conductor from more concentrated magnetic field to less
concentrated magnetic field that is from present position to downwards. Now
if you observe the direction of current, force and magnetic field in the above
explanation, you will find that the directions are according to Fleming left
hand rule.

Interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors

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Fleming Right Hand Rule

As per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor

moves inside a magnetic field, there will be an induced current in it. If this
conductor is forcefully moved inside the magnetic field, there will be a
relation between the direction of applied force, magnetic field and the
electric current. This relation among these three directions is determined by
by Fleming Right Hand Rule.
This rule states "Hold out the right hand with the first finger, second finger
and thumb at right angles to each other. If forefinger represents the
direction of the line of force, the thumb points in the direction of motion or
applied force, then second finger points in the direction of the induced
current.
Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity is a basic property of material. Due to this property
one material can conduct electricity. Some materials are good conductor of
electricity that means electric current can pass through them very easily;
again some materials do not allow electric current to flow through them. The
material through which current passes easily, called good conductor of
electricity in other words, the electrical conductivity of these materials is
high. On the other hand the materials do not allow the electrical current to
flow through them are called electrical insulators. There are some materials
whose electrical conductivity is not as high as conductor and also not as
poor as insulator, they have an intermediate conductivity and these type of
materials are known as semiconductors.
As per Ohm's law current through a conductor is proportional to applied
voltage across the conductor provided other all condition of conductor
remains same.

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But other conditions of the conductor including temperature vary, the

current through it also varies for fixed applied voltage.
If the cross section of the conductor is increased, the current through the
conductor increases as it gets wider free path to flow. Hence current through
the conductor is directly proportional to its cross - sectional area.
If length of the conductor increases, the potential stress per unit length or
voltage gradient along the conductor is decreased as a result current
through it reduces. Hence current through the conductor is inversely
proportional to its cross - sectional area.
Now, if current through the conductor is I, applied voltage across it V, length
and cross - sectional area of the conductor are l and a respectively, then,

Where, is a constant. This sigma () is known as electrical conductivity of a

material with which the conductor is made of. Depending upon the value of
conductivity, different currents flow through different conductors, for same
dimensions and applied voltage. That means for certain applied voltage, how
much current will flow through a particular conductor depends upon the
electrical conductivity of the material by which the conductor is made of. It
is considered that temperature is fixed.
Faradays Law

In 1831, Micheal Faraday formulated two laws on the bases of experiments.

These laws are called Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction.
FIRST LAW
First Law of Faraday's Electromagnetic Induction state that whenever a
conductor are placed in a varying magnetic field emf are induced which is
called induced emf, if the conductor circuit are closed current are also
induced which is called induced current.
Or

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Whenever a conductor is rotated in magnetic field emf is induced which are

induced emf.
SECOND LAW
Second Law of Faraday's Electromagnetic Induction state that the induced
emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages (flux linkages is the
product of turns, n of the coil and the flux associated with it).
FARADAY'S LAW'S EXPLANATION
Let
Initial flux linkages = N1
Final flux linkages = N2
Change in flux linkages= N2 N1
= N((2-1)
If (2-1) =
Then change in flux linkages = N
Rate of change of flux linkages = N/t wb/sec
Taking derivative of right hand side we get
Rate of change of flux linkages = Nd/dt wb/sec
Rut according to Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction, the rate of
change of flux linkages equal to the induced emf, hence we can write
= Nd/dt volt
Generally Faraday's laws is written as
e = -Nd/dt volt
Where negative sign represents the direction of the induced current in the
conductor will be such that the magnetic field produced by it will oppose the
verb because producing it.

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INDUCED EMF
Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, EMF is induced
in the conductor and this EMF is called induced EMF.
Induced EMF is of two types INDUCED EMF
I.

Dynamically induced EMF

When the conductor is in motion and the field is in stationary so the
EMF is induced in the conductor, this type of EMF is called
dynamically induced EMF.

II.

Statically induced EMF

When the conductor is in stationary and the field is changing (varying)
then in this case EMF is also induced in the conductor, which is
called statically induced EMF.

Statically induced EMF is of two types

1. Self induced EMF
Self-induced EMF is that EMF which is induced in the conductor by
changing in its own. When current is changing the magnetic field is
also changing around the coil and hence Faraday law is applied here
and EMF are induced in the coil to it self which called self induced
EMF.

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CHAPTER - 8
TRANSFORMERS

WORKING PRINCIPLE

TRANSFORMER CONNECTION

TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS

LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER

Transformer Working Principle

A transformer can be defined as a static device which helps in the
transformation of electric power in one circuit to electric power of the same
frequency in another circuit. The voltage can be raised or lowered in a
circuit, but with a proportional increase or decrease in the current ratings.
The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance
between two circuits which is linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic
transformer consists of two coils that are electrically separate and inductive,
but are magnetically linked through a path of reluctance. The working
principle of the transformer can be understood from the figure below.

Transformer Working

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As shown above the transformer has primary and secondary windings. The
core laminations are joined in the form of strips in between the strips you
can see that there are some narrow gaps right through the cross-section of
the core. These staggered joints are said to be imbricated. Both the coils
have high mutual inductance. A mutual electro-motive force is induced in
the transformer from the alternating flux that is set up in the laminated
core, due to the coil that is connected to a source of alternating voltage.
Most of the alternating flux developed by this coil is linked with the other
coil and thus produces the mutual induced electro-motive force. The so
produced electro-motive force can be explained with the help of Faradays
laws of Electromagnetic Induction as
e = M*dI/dt
If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and thus electrical
energy is transferred magnetically from the first to the second coil.
The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and hence it can be
called as the primary winding. The energy is drawn out from the second coil
and thus can be called as the secondary winding.
In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:
1)
2)
3)
4)

Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.

Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.
Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.

Transformer Construction
For the simple construction of a transformer, you must need two coils
having mutual inductance and a laminated steel core. The two coils are
insulated from each other and from the steel core. The device will also need
some suitable container for the assembled core and windings, a medium
with which the core and its windings from its container can be insulated.
In order to insulate and to bring out the terminals of the winding from the
tank, apt bushings that are made from either porcelain or capacitor type
must be used.
In all transformers that are used commercially, the core is made out of
transformer sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous
magnetic path with minimum of air-gap included. The steel should have
high permeability and low hysteresis loss. For this to happen, the steel
should be made of high silicon content and must also be heat treated. By
effectively laminating the core, the eddy-current losses can be reduced. The
lamination can be done with the help of a light coat of core plate varnish or

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lay an oxide layer on the surface. For a frequency of 50 Hertz, the thickness
of the lamination varies from 0.35mm to 0.5mm for a frequency of 25 Hertz.
Types of Transformers
The types of transformers differ in the manner in which the primary and
secondary coils are provided around the laminated steel core. According to
the design, transformers can be classified into two:
1. Core- Type Transformer
In core-type transformer, the windings are given to a considerable part of
the core. The coils used for this transformer are form-wound and are of
cylindrical type. Such a type of transformer can be applicable for small sized
and large sized transformers. In the small sized type, the core will be
rectangular in shape and the coils used are cylindrical. The figure below
shows the large sized type. You can see that the round or cylindrical coils
are wound in such a way as to fit over a cruciform core section. In the case
of circular cylindrical coils, they have a fair advantage of having good
mechanical strength. The cylindrical coils will have different layers and each
layer will be insulated from the other with the help of materials like paper,
cloth, micarta board and so on. The general arrangement of the core-type
transformer with respect to the core is shown below. Both low-voltage (LV)
and high voltage (HV) windings are shown.

Core Type Transformer Cruciform Section

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The low voltage windings are placed nearer to the core as it is the easiest to
insulate. The effective core area of the transformer can be reduced with the
use of laminations and insulation.
2. Shell-Type Transformer
In shell-type transformers the core surrounds a considerable portion of the
windings. The comparison is shown in the figure below.

The coils are form-wound but are multi layer disc type usually wound in the
form of pancakes. Paper is used to insulate the different layers of the multilayer discs. The whole winding consists of discs stacked with insulation
spaces between the coils. These insulation spaces form the horizontal
cooling and insulating ducts. Such a transformer may have the shape of a
simple rectangle or may also have a distributed form. Both designs are
shown in the figure below:

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A strong rigid mechanical bracing must be given to the cores and coils of the
transformers. This will help in minimizing the movement of the device and
also prevents the device from getting any insulation damage. A transformer
with good bracing will not produce any humming noise during its working
and will also reduce vibration.
A special housing platform must be provided for transformers. Usually, the
device is placed in tightly-fitted sheet-metal tanks filled with special
insulating oil. This oil is needed to circulate through the device and cool the
coils. It is also responsible for providing the additional insulation for the
device when it is left in the air.
There may be cases when the smooth tank surface will not be able to
provide the needed cooling area. In such cases, the sides of the tank are
corrugated or assembled with radiators on the sides of the device. The oil
used for cooling purpose must be absolutely free from alkalis, sulphur and

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most importantly moisture. Even a small amount of moistures in the oil will
cause a significant change in the insulating property of the device, as it
lessens the dielectric strength of the oil to a great extent. Mathematically
speaking, the presence of about 8 parts of water in 1 million reduces the
insulating quality of the oil to a value that is not considered standard for
use. Thus, the tanks are protected by sealing them air-tight in smaller units.
When large transformers are used, the air tight method is practically
difficult to implement. In such cases, chambers are provided for the oil to
expand and contract as its temperature increases and decreases. These
breathers form a barrier and resist the atmospheric moisture from contact
with oil. Special care must also be taken to avoid sledging. Sledging occurs
when oil decomposes due to over exposure to oxygen during heating. It
results in the formation of large deposits of dark and heavy matter that clogs
the cooling ducts in the transformer.
The quality, durability and handling of these insulating materials decide the
life of the transformer. All the transformer leads are brought out of their
cases through suitable bushings. There are many designs of these, their size
and construction depending on the voltage of the leads. Porcelain bushings
may be used to insulate the leads, for transformers that are used in
moderate voltages. Oil-filled or capacitive-type bushings are used for high
voltage transformers.
The selection between the core and shell type is made by comparing the cost
because similar characteristics can be obtained from both types. Most
manufacturers prefer to use shell-type transformers for high-voltage
applications or for multi-winding design. When compared to a core type, the
shell type has a longer mean length of coil turn. Other parameters that are
compared for the selection of transformer type are voltage rating, kilo-volt
ampere rating, weight, insulation stress, heat distribution and so on.
Three Phase Transformer
It is found that generation, transmission and distribution of electrical power
are more economical in three phase system than single phase system. For
three phase system three single phase transformers are required. Three
phase transformation can be done in two ways, by using single three phase
transformer or by using a bank of three single phase transformers. Both are
having some advantages over other. Single 3 phase transformer costs around
15% less than bank of three single phase transformers. Again former
occupies less space than later. For very big transformer, it is impossible to
transport large three phase transformer to the site and it is easier to
transport three single phase transformers which is erected separately to form
a three phase unit. Another advantage of using bank of three single phase

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transformers is that, if one unit of the bank becomes out of order, then the
bank can be run as open delta.
Connection of Three Phase Transformer
A Verity of connection of three phase transformer are possible on each side of
both a single 3 phase transformer or a bank of three single phase
transformers.
Marking or labeling the different terminals of transformer.
Terminals of each phase of HV side should be labeled as capital letters, A, B,
C, and those of LV side should be labeled as small letters, a, b, c. Terminal
polarities are indicated by suffixes 1 & 2. Suffix 1s indicate similar polarity
ends and so do 2s.
Star Star Transformer

Star Star Transformer is formed in a 3 phase transformer by connecting one

terminal of each phase of individual side, together. The common terminal is
indicated by suffix 1 in the figure below. If terminal with suffix 1 in both
primary and secondary are used as common terminal, voltages of primary
and secondary are in same phase. That is why this connection is called zero
degree connection or 0o - connection.
If the terminals with suffix 1 are connected together in HV side as common
point and the terminals with suffix 2 in LV side are connected together as
common point, the voltages in primary and secondary will be in opposite
phase. Hence, Star Star Transformer connection is called 180o - Connection,
of three phase transformer.
Delta Detla Transformer

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In delta delta transformer, 1 suffixed terminals of each phase primary

winding will be connected with 2 suffixed terminal of next phase primary
winding.
If primary is HV side, then A1 will be connected to B2, B1 will be connected
to C2 and C1 will be connected to A2. Similarly in LV side 1 suffixed
terminals of each phase winding will be connected with 2 suffixed terminals
of next phase winding. That means, a1 will be connected to b2, b1 will be
connected to c2 and c1 will be connected to a2. If transformer leads are taken
out from primary and secondary 2 suffixed terminals of the winding, then
there will be no phase difference between similar line voltages in primary
and secondary. This delta delta transformer connection is zero degree
connection or 0o - Connection.
But in LV side of transformer, if, a2 is connected to b1, b2 is connected to
c1 and c2 is connected to a1. The secondary leads of transformer are taken
out from 2 suffixed terminals of LV windings, and then similar line voltages
in primary and secondary will be in phase opposition. This connection is
called 180o - Connection, of three phase transformer.
Star Delta Transformer
Here in star delta transformer, star connection in HV side is formed by
connecting all the 1 suffixed terminals together as common point and
transformer primary leads are taken out from 2 suffixed terminals of
primary windings.

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The delta connection in LV side is formed by connecting 1 suffixed terminals

of each phase LV winding with 2 suffixed terminal of next phase LV winding.
More clearly, a1 is connected to b2, b1 is connected to c2 and c1 is connected
to a2. The secondary (here it considered as LV) leads are taken out from 2
suffixed ends of the secondary windings of transformer. The transformer
connection diagram is shown in the figure beside. It is seen from the figure
that the sum of the voltages in delta side is zero. This is a must as otherwise
closed delta would mean a short circuit. It is also observed from the phasor
diagram that, phase to neutral voltage (equivalent star basis) on the delta
side lags by 30o to the phase to neutral voltage on the star side; this is
also the phase relationship between the respective line to line voltages. This
star delta transformer connection is therefore known as 30o - Connection.
Star Delta + 30o connection is also possible by connecting secondary
terminals in following sequence. a2 is connected to b1, b2 is connected to
c1 and c2 is connected to a1. The secondary leads of transformer are taken
out from 2 suffixed terminals of LV windings,

Delta Star Transformer

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Delta star transformer connection of three phase transformer is similar to

star delta connection. If anyone interchanges HV side and LV side of star
delta transformer in diagram, it simply becomes delta star connected 3
phase transformer. That means all small letters of star delta connection
should be replaced by capital letters and all small letters by capital in delta
star transformer connection.
THE BASICS OF DRY TYPE TRANSFORMERS
Transformers change voltages from one level to another. Most commonly,
that change involves very high power line transmission voltages (500 kV)
being reduced to the much lower levels used in heavy industry (as much as
30 kV) and households (120-240 V). Dry type, or air-cooled, transformers
accomplish this function so safely and efficiently that they are commonly
used for indoor applications where other transformer types are considered
too risky. Electric Service Company (ELSCO) is the leading manufacturer of
and repair facility for dry type transformers.
HOW DRY TYPE TRANSFORMERS WORK
A dry type transformer, like all transformers, uses basic physical principles
of electricity and magnetic coupling to produce any desired voltage level:
1. When a fluctuating electric current flows through a wire, it generates
a fluctuating magnetic field or "magnetic flux" all around it.
2. When a magnetic field fluctuates around a piece of wire, it generates
an electric current in the wire.
So, if a second wire is placed next to the first charged wire, within that
fluctuating magnetic flux field, electric current is induced to flow in the
second wire. Thus, electricity is passed from the first wire to the second
without the two wires actually touching.
In all transformers, including dry type transformers, the first wire, or
primary coil winding, is connected to an alternating current (AC) voltage
source while wrapped around a magnetic core, producing a fluctuating
current in the wire coil. That fluctuating current magnetizes the core. The
second wire coil, or secondary winding, is wrapped around another part of
the core. The fluctuating magnetic field in the core induces a current in the
secondary coil. The relative number of turns each winding makes around
the core determines how much voltage is produced in the secondary. Most
commonly, transformers step voltage down from high to low; but turns
ratios can also be arranged to step up voltage if necessary, for instance, to
allow 240-V foreign appliances to work in the US where the voltage supplied
is 120 V.

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Basic Transformer Core Layout

This electromechanical linkage in a transformer makes it possible for the
same megavoltage source, like a dam, wind farm, or coal-powered generator,
to supply power for both a high-demand steel mill and a low-demand
kitchen toaster. The particular application will determine what size
equipment is needed and which kind a dry type transformer or some other
technology. ELSCO can provide products, service and information covering
many different transformer types, all of which contain copper windings, the
most efficient coil wire material.
Note that while power sources are rated in kilovolts (kV) -- the potential
difference measured between two electrical points -- transformers are rated
in kilovolt-amperes, or kVA -- the product of current and voltage, signifying
the actual, or apparent, power consumed by an electrical load, that is, the
energy required to actually run a device. Electric Service Company
supplies dry type transformers from 500 kVA the power necessary to run a
school or small industrial building -- to 5000 kVA, enough for a power plant.
PRACTICAL DRY TYPE TRANSFORMER CONSIDERATIONS
But whatever specific transformer equipment is needed, major limiting
factors to consider include heat, maintenance, and safety. Dry type
transformers are especially valued for their stellar performance via these
three important factors.
An intrinsic byproduct of the transformation process is heat, specifically, the
I2R (I=Current, R=Resistance) heating that occurs when current runs
through a conductive wire. Heat breaks down transformer composition
materials and insulation, resulting in less efficiency and shorter service life.
Transformer heat is best controlled by the oil used in oil filled transformers,
which conducts the heat away from the heat-producing parts while
protecting other internal transformer workings. That is why these
transformers are used in the highest voltage applications like high-voltage
transmission.
But with proper sizing and placement, as well as fans when appropriate, dry
type transformers, which cool by air ventilation, provide excellent, low-heat
service in tight enclosures and indoor situations where oil leakage could

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cause a fire or significant environmental hazard. Clearly, a system without

these threats offers enhanced safety for indoor applications. A dry type
transformer will typically incorporate a design with greater internal
clearances to allow for better heat dissipation. No fireproofing, oil catch
basins or venting of toxic gasses are required, and the transformer can be
close to the load, minimizing secondary line losses. But a dry type
transformer also reduces maintenance with no need to replace transformer
oil while avoiding the contaminant and composition checks necessary for
proper oil insulation and cooling.

INDOOR TYPE TRANSFORMER

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INDOOR TYPE TRANSFORMER

OIL TYPE TRANSFORMER

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CAST RESIN TRANSFORMER

UNITISED SUBSTATION

Losses In Transformer
As the electrical transformer is a static device, mechanical loss in
transformer normally does not come into picture. We generally consider

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only electrical losses in transformer. Loss in any machine is broadly

defined as difference between input power and output power.
When input power is supplied to the primary of transformer, some
portion of that power is used to compensate core losses in transformer
i.e. Hysteresis loss in transformer and Eddy Current loss in transformer core
and some portion of the input power is lost as I2R loss and dissipated as
heat in the primary and secondary winding, as because these windings have
some internal resistance in them. The first one is called core loss or iron loss
in transformer and later is known as ohmic loss or copper loss in
transformer. Another loss occurs in transformer, known as Stray Loss, due
to Stray fluxes link with the mechanical structure and winding conductors.
Copper loss in transformer
Copper loss is I2R loss, in primary side it is I12R1 and in secondary side it is
I22R2 loss, where I1 & I2 are primary & secondary current of transformer and
R1 & R2 are resistances of primary & secondary winding. As the both
primary & secondary currents depend upon load of transformer, so copper
loss in transformer vary with load.
Core losses in transformer
Hysteresis loss and eddy current loss, both depend upon magnetic
properties of the materials used to construct the core of transformer and its
design. So these losses in transformer are fixed and do not depend upon the
load current. So core losses in transformer which is alternatively known
as iron loss in transformer and can be considered as constant for all range of
load.
Hysteresis loss in transformer
Hysteresis loss in transformer can be explained in different ways. We will
discuss two of them, one is physical explanation other is mathematical
explanation.
Physical explanation of Hysteresis loss
The magnetic core of transformer is made of Cold Rolled Grain Oriented
Silicon Steel. Steel is very good ferromagnetic material. This kind of
materials are very sensitive to be magnetized. That means whenever
magnetic flux passes through, it will behave like magnet. Ferromagnetic
substances have numbers of domains in their structure. Domain are very
small region in the material structure, where all the dipoles are paralleled to
same direction. In other words, the domains are like small small permanent
magnet situated randomly in the structure of substance. These domains are
arranged inside the material structure in such a random manner, that net

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resultant magnetic field of the said material is zero. Whenever external

magnetic field or mmf is is applied to that substance, these randomly
directed domains are arranged themselves in parallel to the axis of applied
mmf. After removing this external mmf, maximum numbers of domains
again come to random positions, but some few of them still remain in their
changed position. Because of these unchanged domains the substance
becomes slightly magnetized permanently. This magnetism is called "
Spontaneous Magnetism". To neutralize this magnetism some opposite mmf
is required to be applied. The magneto motive force or mmf applied in the
transformer core is alternating. For every cycle, due to this domain reversal
there will be extra work done. For this reason, there will be a consumption
of electrical energy which is known as Hysteresis loss of transformer.
Eddy Current loss
In transformer we supply alternating current in the primary, this alternating
current produces alternating magnetizing flux in the core and as this flux
links with secondary winding there will be induced voltage in secondary,
resulting current to flow through the load connected with it. Some of the
alternating fluxes of transformer may also link with other conducting parts
like steel core or iron body of transformer etc. As alternating flux links with
these parts of transformer, there would be a locally induced emf. Due to
these emfs there would be currents which will circulate locally at those parts
of the transformer. These circulating current will not contribute in output of
the transformer and dissipated as heat. This type of energy loss is called
eddy current loss of transformer. This was a broad and simple explanation
of eddy current loss. The detail explanation of this loss is not in the scope of
discussion in that chapter.
Maximum Demand:
 Maximum demand (often referred to as MD) is the largest current
normally carried by circuits, switches and protective devices. It does not
include the levels of current flowing under overload or short circuit
conditions.


Assessment of maximum demand is sometimes straightforward. For

example, the maximum demand of a 240 V single-phase 8 kW shower
heater can be calculated by dividing the power (8 kW) by the voltage (240
V) to give a current of 33.3 A. This calculation assumes a power factor of
unity, which is a reasonable assumption for such a purely resistive load.

There are times, however, when assessment of maximum demand is less

obvious. For example, if a ring circuit feeds fifteen 13 A sockets, the
maximum demand clearly should not be 15 x 13 = 195 A, if only because
the circuit protection will not be rated at more than 32 A. Some 13 A

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sockets may feed table lamps with 60 W lamps fitted, whilst others may
feed 3 kW washing machines; others again may not be loaded at all.


Lighting circuits pose a special problem when determining MD. Each

lamp-holder must be assumed to carry the current required by the
connected load, subject to a minimum loading of 100 W per lamp holder
(a demand of 0.42 A per lamp holder at 240 V). Discharge lamps are
particularly difficult to assess, and current cannot be calculated simply
by dividing lamp power by supply voltage. The reasons for this are:
1) Control gear losses result in additional current,
2) the power factor is usually less than unity so current is greater, and
3) Chokes and other control gear usually distort the waveform of the
current so that it contains harmonics which are additional to the
fundamental supply current.

So long as the power factor of a discharge lighting circuit is not less than
0.85, the current demand for the circuit can be calculated from:

current (A) = (lamp power (W) x 1.8) / supply voltage (V)

For example, the steady state current demand of a 240 V circuit

supplying ten 65 W fluorescent lamps would be: I = 10X65X1.8A / 240 =
4.88A

Switches for circuits feeding discharge lamps must be rated at twice the
current they are required to carry, unless they have been specially
constructed to withstand the severe arcing resulting from the switching of
such inductive and capacitive loads.

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CHAPTER - 9
SWITCH GEAR & PROTECTION

GENERAL

FUSES

SWITCH FUSE UNIT (SFU)

CIRCUIT BREAKER (CB)

OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER (OCB)

AIR CIRCUIT BREAKER (ACB)

SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER (SF6 CB)

VACCUM CIRCUIT BREAKER (VCB)

MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER (MCB)

MOLDED CASE CIRCUIT BREAKER (MCCB)

EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER (ELCB)

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

LOW VOLTAGE SWITCH GEAR
A switchgear or electrical switchgear is a generic term which includes all the
switching devices associated with mainly power system protection. It also
includes all devices associated with control, metering and regulating
of electrical power system. Assembly of such devices in a logical manner
forms a switch gear. This is very basic definition of switchgear.
Switchgear and Protection

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We all familiar with low voltage switches and re-wirable fuses in our home.
The switch is used to manually open and close the electrical circuit in our
home and electrical fuse is used to protect our household electrical circuit
from over current and short circuit faults. In same way every electrical
circuit including high voltage electrical power system needs switching and
protective devices. But in high voltage and extra high voltage system, this
switching and protective scheme becomes complicated one for high fault
current interruption in safe and secure way. In addition to that from
commercial point of view every electrical power system needs measuring,
control and regulating arrangement. Collectively the whole system is
called Switchgear and Protection of power system. The electrical switchgear
have been developing in various forms.
Switchgear protection plays a vital role in modern power system network,
right from generation through transmission to distribution end. The current
interruption device or switching device is called circuit breaker
in Switchgear protection system. The circuit breaker can be operated
manually as when required and it is also operated during over current and
short circuit or any other faults in the system by sensing the abnormality of
system. The circuit breaker senses the faulty condition of system through
protection relay and this relay is again actuated by faulty signal normally
comes from current transformer or voltage transformer.

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What is Fuses
 A fuse is a device that protects a circuit from an over current condition
only. It has a fusible link directly heated and destroyed by the current
passing through it. A fuse contains a current- carrying element sized
so that the heat generated by the flow of normal current through it does
not cause it to melt the element; however, when an over current or
short-circuit current flows through the fuse, the fusible link will melt
and open the circuit.


A device that protects a circuit by fusing opens its current-responsive

element when an over-current passes through it. An over-current is
either due to an overload or a short circuit condition.

The Underwriter Laboratories (UL) classifies fuses by letters e.g. class CC,
T, K, G, J, L, R, and so forth. The class letter may designate interrupting
rating, physical dimensions, and degree of current limitation.

As per NEC and ANSI/IEEE standard 242 [2] A current limiting fuse is
a fuse that will interrupt all available currents above its threshold current
and below its maximum interrupting rating, limit the clearing time at
rated voltage to an interval equal to or less than the first major or
symmetrical loop duration, and limit peak let-through current to a value
less than the peak that would be possible with the fuse replaced by a
solid conductor of the same impedance.

Fuse Construction:
 The typical fuse consists of an element which is surrounded by filler and
enclosed by the fuse body. The element is welded or soldered to the fuse
contacts (blades or ferrules).

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The element is a calibrated conductor. Its configuration, mass and the

materials employed are selected to achieve the desired electrical and
thermal characteristics.

The element provides the current path through the fuse. It generates heat
at a rate dependent on its resistance and the load current.

The heat generated by the element is absorbed by the filler and passed
through the fuse body to the surrounding air. The filler material, such as
quartz sand, provides effective heat transfer and allows for the small
element cross-section typical in modern fuses.

The effective heat transfer allows the fuse to carry harmless overloads
.The small element cross section melts quickly under short-circuit
conditions. The filler also aids fuse performance by absorbing arc energy
when the fuse clears an overload or short circuit.

When a sustained overload occurs, the element will generate heat at a

faster rate than the heat can be passed to the filler. If the overload
persists, the element will reach its melting point and open. Increasing the
applied current will heat the element faster and cause the fuse to open
sooner. Thus, fuses have an inverse time current characteristic: that is,
the greater the over current, the less time required for the fuse to open
the circuit.

This characteristic is desirable because it parallels the characteristics of

conductors, motors, transformers, and other electrical apparatus. These
components can carry low-level overloads for relatively long periods
without damage. However, under high-current conditions, damage can
occur quickly. Because of its inverse time current characteristic, a
properly applied fuse can provide effective protection over a broad current
range, from low-level overloads to high-level short circuits.

Commonly used terms for Fuse

 I2t (Ampere Square second): A measure of the thermal energy
associated with current flow.I2t is equal to (I RMS) 2 X t, where is the
duration of current flow in seconds. A measure of thermal energy
associated with current flow. It can be expressed as melting I2t, arcing
I2t or the sum of them as Clearing I2t. Clearing I2t is the total I2t passed
by a fuse as the fuse clears a fault, with t being equal to the time elapsed
from the initiation of the fault to the instant the fault has been cleared.
Melting I2t is the minimum I2t required to melt the fuse element


Interrupting Rating (Abbreviated I.R.)Same as breaking capacity or

short circuit rating. The maximum current a fuse can safely interrupt at

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rated voltage. Some special purpose fuses may also have a Minimum
Interrupting Rating. This defines the minimum current that a fuse can
safely interrupt. Safe operation requires that the fuse remain intact.
Interrupting ratings may vary with fuse design and range from 35
amperes AC for some 250V metric size (5 x 20mm) fuses up to 200,000
amperes AC for the 600V industrial fuses (for example, ATDR series).


Clearing I2t: The total I2t passed by a fuse as the fuse clears a fault,
with being equal to the time elapsed from the initiation of the fault to the
instant the fault has been cleared.

Melting I2t: The minimum I2t required melting the fuse element.

Ampere Rating: The continuous current carrying capability of a fuse

under defined laboratory conditions. The ampere rating is marked on
each fuse.

Available Fault Current: The maximum short-circuit current that can

flow in an unprotected circuit.

Coordination: The use of over current protective devices that will isolate
only that portion of an electrical system that has been overloaded or
faulted.

Current limiting Range: currents a fuse will clear in less than cycles,
thus limiting the actual magnitude of current flow.

Element: A calibrated conductor inside a fuse that melts when subjected

to excessive current. The element is enclosed by the fuse body and may
be surrounded by an arc quenching medium such as silica sand. The
element is sometimes referred to as a link.

Fast acting Fuse: This is a fuse with no intentional time-delay designed

into the overload range. It is sometimes referred to as a single-element
fuse or non-delay fuse.

Fault Current: Short-circuit current that flows partially or entirely

outside the intended normal load current path of a circuit component.
Values may be from hundreds to many thousands of amperes.

1. Ferrule: copper mounting terminals of fuses with amp ratings up to 60

amperes. The cylindrical terminals at each end of a fuse fit into fuse clips.


Current limiting Fuse: A fuse that meets the following three conditions:

1. 1. interrupts all available over currents within its interrupt rating.

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1. 2. Within its current limiting range, limits the clearing time at rated
voltage to an interval equal to, or less than, the first major or symmetrical
current loop duration.
1. 3. Limits peak let-through current to a value less than the available peak
current. The maximum level of fault current that the fuse has been tested
to safely interrupt.


Arcing time The amount of time from the instant the fuse link has
melted until the over current is interrupted, or cleared.

Clearing time The total time between the beginning of the over current
and the final opening of the circuit at rated voltage by an over current
protective device. Clearing time is the total of the melting time and the
arcing time.

Fast acting fuse A fuse which opens on overload and short circuits very
quickly. This type of fuse is not designed to withstand temporary overload
currents associated with some electrical loads. UL listed or recognized
fast acting fuses would typically open within 5 seconds maximum when
subjected to 200% to 250% of its rated current.IEC has two categories of
fast acting fuses:

1. F= quick acting, opens 10x rated current within 0.001 seconds to 0.01
seconds
1. FF = very quick acting, opens 10x rated current in less than 0.001
seconds


Overload Can be classified as an over current which exceeds the normal

full load current of a circuit by 2 to 5 times its magnitude and stays
within the normal current path.

Resistive load An electrical load which is characterized by not drawing

any significant inrush current. When a resistive load is energized, the
current rises instantly to its steady state value, without first rising to a
higher value.

RMS Current The R.M.S. (root mean square) value of any periodic
current is equal to the value of the direct current which,flowing through a
resistance, produces the same heating effect in the resistance as the
periodic current does.

Short circuit An over current that leaves the normal current path and
greatly exceeds the normal full load current of the circuit by a factor of
tens, hundreds, or thousands times.

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Time delay fuse A fuse with a built-in time delay that allows temporary
and harmless inrush currents to pass without operating, but is so
designed to open on sustained overloads and short circuits. UL listed or
recognized time delay fuses typically open in 2 minutes maximum when
subjected to 200% to 250% of rated current. IEC has two categories of
time delay fuses:

1. T= time lag, opens 10x rated current within 0.01 seconds to 0.1 seconds
1. TT = long time lag, opens 10x rated current within 0.1 seconds to 1
second


Voltage rating A maximum open circuit voltage in which a fuse can be

used, yet safely interrupt an over current. Exceeding the Voltage rating of
a fuse impairs its ability to clear an overload or short circuit safely.

Over current A condition which exists in an electrical circuit when the

normal load current is exceeded. Over currents take on two separate
characteristics-overloads and short circuits.

Threshold Current: The magnitude of symmetrical RMS available

current at the threshold of the current-limiting range, where the fuse
becomes current-limiting when tested to the industry standard.

Threshold ratio: A threshold ratio is a relationship of threshold current

to a fuses continuous current rating.

Threshold Ratio = Fuse Threshold Current / Fuse Continuous Current.

Maximum threshold ratio for various types of fuses:

Fuse Class

Ratio

CLASS RK5

65

CLASS RK1

30

CLASS J

30

CLASS CC

30

CLASS L

30 (601-1200 Amps)

CLASS L

35(1201-2000 Amps)

CLASS L

40 (2001-4000 Amps)

A current limiting fuse may be current limiting or may not be current

limiting. The current limiting characteristic depends on the threshold
ratio and available fault current.

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Lets consider an example of 1500 kVA radial service feeding a fusible

switchboard with 2000 amps class L fuses. As per ANSI C 57 [3]
standard, a typical impedance value for this size of a transformer is
5.75%; this value is a key factor in calculating the short circuit current.

All utilitys network provides a specific fault current at a specific location

which depends on various factors, e.g.; cable lengths, cable size, X/R
ratio and etc. If we ignore this limitation and assume that there is an
unlimited fault current available from a utility, then lets calculate short
circuit current from a 1500 kVA transformer at 480 volts

The formula to calculate short circuit current (Isc)

ISC = (KVA X 10,000) / (1.732 X VOLT X %Z).

ISC = 1500 X 10,000 / 1.732 X 480 X 5.75

ISC = 31378.65 Amp.

Type of Fuse:

A fuse unit essentially consists of a metal fuse element or link, a set of
contacts between which it is fixed and a body to support and isolate
them. Many types of fuses also have some means for extinguishing the
arc which appears when the fuse element melts. In general, there are two
categories of fuses.
1) Low voltage fuses.
2) High voltage fuses.


Usually isolating switches are provided in series with fuses where it is

necessary to permit fuses to be replaced or rewired with safety.

In absence of such isolation means, the fuses must be so shielded as to

protect the user against accidental contact with the live metal when the
fuse is being inserted or removed.

LOW VOLTAGE FUSES

 Low voltage fuses can be further divided into two classes namely
1) Semi-enclosed or Rewire able type.
2) Totally enclosed or Cartridge type.
(1) Re Wire able Fuse:


The most commonly used fuse in house wiring and small current circuit
is the semi-enclosed or rewire able fuse. (also sometime known as KITKAT type fuse). It consist of a porcelain base carrying the fixed contacts
to which the incoming and outgoing live or phase wires are connected

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and a porcelain fuse carrier holding the fuse element, consisting of one
or more strands of fuse wire, stretched between its terminals.

The fuse carrier is a separate part and can be taken out or inserted in the
base without risk, even without opening the main switch. If fuse holder or
carrier gets damaged during use, it may be replaced without replacing the
complete unit.

The fuse wire may be of lead, tinned copper, aluminum or an alloy of tin
lead.

The actual fusing current will be about twice the rated current. When two
or more fuse wire are used, the wires should be kept apart and a de
rating factor of 0.7 to 0.8 should be employed to arrive at the total fuse
rating.

The specification for re wire able fuses are covered by IS: 2086-1963.
Standard ratings are 6, 16, 32, 63, and 100A.

A fuse wire of any rating not exceeding the rating of the fuse may be used
in it that is a 80 A fuse wire can be used in a 100 A fuse, but not in the
63 A fuse. On occurrence of a fault, the fuse element blows off and the
circuit is interrupted. The fuse carrier is pulled out, the blown out fuse
element is replaced by new one and the supply can is resorted by reinserting the fuse carrier in the base.

Though such fuses have the advantage of easy removal or replacement

without any danger of coming into the contact with a lie part and
negligible replacement cost but suffers from following disadvantages:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Unreliable Operations.
Lack of Discrimination.
Small time lag.
Low rupturing capacity.
No current limiting feature.
Slow speed of operations.

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(2) Totally Enclosed Or Cartridges Type Fuse:



The fuse element is enclosed in a totally enclosed container and is

provided with metal contacts on both sides. These fuses are further
classified as
1) D-type.
2) Link type.

Link type cartridges are again of two types viz. Knife blade or bolted type.

A) D- Type Cartridges Fuses



It is a non interchangeable fuse comprising s fuse base, adapter ring,

cartridge and a fuse cap. The cartridge is pushed in the fuse cap and the
cap is screwed on the fuse base. On complete screwing the cartridge tip
touches the conductor and circuit between the two terminals is
completed through the fuse link. The standard ratings are 6, 16, 32, and
63 amperes.

The breaking or rupturing capacity is of the order of 4k A for 2 and 4

ampere fuses the 16k A for 63 A fuses.

D-type cartridge fuse have none of the drawbacks of the re wire able
fuses. Their operation is reliable. Coordination and discrimination to a
reasonable extent and achieved with them.

B) Link type Cartridge or High Rupturing Capacity (HRC)



Where large numbers of concentrations of powers are concerned, as in

the modern distribution system, it is essential that fuses should have a
definite known breaking capacity and also this breaking capacity should
have a high value. High rupturing capacity cartridge fuse, commonly
called HRC cartridge fuses, have been designed and developed after
intensive research by manufactures and supply engineers in his
direction.

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The usual fusing factor for the link fuses is 1.45. the fuses for special
applications may have as low as a fusing factor as 1.2.

The specification for medium voltage HRC link fuses are covered under
IS: 2202-1962.

(A) Knife Blade Type HRC Fuse:



It can be replaced on a live circuit at no load with the help of a special

insulated fuse puller.

(B) Bolted Type HRC Link Fuse:

it has two conducting plates on either ends. These are bolted on the
plates of the fuse base. Such a fuse needs an additional switch so that
the fuse can be taken out without getting a shock.

Preferred ratings of HRC fuses are 2, 4, 6, 10, 16, 25, 30, 50, 63, 80, 100,
125, 160, 200, 250, 320, 400, 500, 630,800, 1000 and 1,250 amperes.

SFU

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SFU

Definition of Circuit Breaker:

Electrical Circuit Breaker is a switching device which can be operated
manually as well as automatically for controlling and protection of electrical
power system respectively. As the modern power system deals with huge
currents, the special attention should be given during designing of circuit
breaker to safe interruption of arc produced during the operation of circuit
breaker. This was the basic definition of circuit breaker.
Introduction to Circuit Breaker
The modern power system deals with huge power network and huge
numbers of associated electrical equipment. During short circuit fault or
any other types of electrical fault these equipment as well as the power
network suffer a high stress of fault current in them which may damage the
equipment and networks permanently. For saving these equipments and the
power networks the fault current should be cleared from the system as
quickly as possible. Again after the fault is cleared, the system must come to
its normal working condition as soon as possible for supplying reliable
quality power to the receiving ends. In addition to that for proper controlling
of power system, different switching operations are required to be
performed. So for timely disconnecting and reconnecting different parts of
power system network for protection and control, there must be some
special type of switching devices which can be operated safely under huge
current carrying condition. During interruption of huge current, there would
be large arcing in between switching contacts, so care should be taken to
quench these arcs in safe manner. The circuit breaker is the special device
which does all the required switching operations during current carrying
condition. This was the basic introduction to circuit breaker.

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Working Principle of Circuit Breaker

The circuit breaker mainly consists of fixed contacts and moving contacts.
In normal "on" condition of circuit breaker, these two contacts are physically
connected to each other due to applied mechanical pressure on the moving
contacts. There is an arrangement stored potential energy in the operating
mechanism of circuit breaker which is realized if switching signal given to the
breaker. The potential energy can be stored in the circuit breaker by
different ways like by deforming metal spring, by compressed air, or by
hydrolic pressure. But whatever the source of potential energy, it must be
released during operation. Release of potential energy makes sliding of the
moving contact at extremely fast manner. All circuit breaker have operating
coils (tripping coils and close coil), whenever these coils are energized by
switching pulse, the plunger inside them displaced. This operating coil
plunger is typically attached to the operating mechanism of circuit breaker,
as a result the mechanically stored potential energy in the breaker
mechanism is released in forms of kinetic energy, which makes the moving
contact to move as these moving contacts mechanically attached through a
gear lever arrangement with the operating mechanism. After a cycle
of operation of circuit breaker the total stored energy is released and hence
the potential energy again stored in the operating mechanism of circuit
breaker by means of spring charging motor or air compressor or by any
other means. Till now we have discussed about mechanical working principle
of circuit breaker. But there are electrical characteristics of a circuit breaker
which also should be considered in this discussion of operation of circuit
breaker.
What is arc?
During opening of current carrying contacts in a circuit breaker the medium
in between opening contacts become highly ionized through which the
interrupting current gets low resistive path and continues to flow through
this path even the contacts are physically separated. During the flowing of
current from one contact to other the path becomes so heated that it glows.
This is called arc
Arc in Circuit Breaker
Whenever, on load current contacts of circuit breaker open there is an arc in
circuit breaker, established between the separating contacts. As long as this
arc is sustained in between the contacts the current through the circuit
breaker will not be interrupted finally as because arc is itself a conductive
path of electricity.

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For total interruption of current the circuit breaker it is essential to quench

the arc as quick as possible. The main designing criteria of a circuit breaker
is to provide appropriate technology of arc quenching in circuit breaker to
fulfill quick and safe current interruption. So before going through different
arc quenching techniques employed in circuit breaker, we should try to
understand "e; what is arc"e; and basic theory of arc in circuit breaker, lets
discuss.
Thermal Ionization of gas
There are numbers of free electrons and ions present in a gas at room
temperature due to ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays and radioactivity of the
earth. These free electrons and ions are so few in number that they are
insufficient to sustain conduction of electricity. The gas molecules move
randomly at room temperature. It is found an air molecule at a temperature
of 300oK (Room temperature) moves randomly with an approximate average
velocity of 500 meters/second and collides other molecules at a rate of
1010 times/second. These randomly moving molecules collide with each
other in very frequent manner but the kinetic energy of the molecules is not
sufficient to extract an electron from atoms of the molecules. If the
temperature is increased the air will be heated up and consequently the
velocity on the molecules increased. Higher velocity means higher impact
during intermolecular collision. During this situation some of the molecules
are disassociated in to atoms. If temperature of the air is further increased
many atoms are deprived of valence electrons and make the gas ionized.
Then this ionized gas can conduct electricity because of sufficient free
electrons. This condition of any gas or air is called plasma. This
phenomenon is called thermal ionization of gas.
Oil Circuit Breaker
Mineral oil has better insulating property than air. In oil circuit breaker the
fixed contact and moving contact are immerged inside the insulating oil.
Whenever there is a separation of current carrying contacts in the oil, the
arc is initialized at the moment of separation of contacts, and due to this arc
the oil is vaporized and decomposed in mostly hydrogen gas and ultimately
creates a hydrogen bubble around the arc. This highly compressed gas
bubble around the arc prevents re-striking of the arc after current reaches
zero crossing of the cycle. The Oil Circuit Breaker is the one of the oldest type
of circuit breakers.

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Operation of Oil Circuit Breaker

The operation of oil circuit breaker is quite simple lets have a discussion.
When the current carrying contacts in the oil are separated an arc is
established in between the separated contacts. Actually, when separation of
contacts has just started, distance between the current contacts is small as
a result the voltage gradient between contacts becomes high. This high
voltage gradient between the contacts ionized the oil and consequently
initiates arcing between the contacts. This arc will produce a large amount
of heat in surrounding oil and vaporizes the oil and decomposes the oil in
mostly hydrogen and a small amount of methane, ethylene and acetylene.
The hydrogen gas cannot remain in molecular form and its is broken into its
atomic form releasing lot of heat. The arc temperature may reach up to
5000oK. Due to this high temperature the gas is liberated surround the arc
very rapidly and forms an excessively fast growing gas bubble around the
arc. It is found that the mixture of gases occupies a volume about one
thousand times that of the oil decomposed. From this figure we can assume
how fast the gas bubble around the arc will grow in size. If this growing gas
bubble around the arc is compressed by any means then rate of de
ionization process of ionized gaseous media in between the contacts will
accelerate which rapidly increase the dielectric strength between the
contacts and consequently the arc will be quenched at zero crossing of the
current cycle. This is the basic operation of oil circuit breaker. In addition to
that cooling effect of hydrogen gas surround the arc path also helps, the
quick arc quenching in oil circuit breaker.
Arc quenching in bulk oil circuit breaker

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AIR CIRCUIT BREAKER

This type of circuit breakers, is those kind of circuit breaker which operates
in air at atmospheric pressure. After development of oil breaker, the medium
voltage air circuit breaker (ACB) is replaced completely by oil circuit
breaker in different countries. But in countries like France and Italy, ACBs
are still preferable choice up to voltage 15 KV. It is also good choice to avoid
the risk of oil fire, in case of oil circuit breaker. In America ACBs were
exclusively used for the system up to 15 KV until the development of new
vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers.
Working principle of Air Circuit Breaker

The working principle of this breaker is rather different from those in

any other types of circuit breakers. The main aim of all kind of circuit
breaker is to prevent the reestablishment of arcing after current zero
by creating a situation where in the contact gap will withstand the
system recovery voltage. The air circuit breaker does the same but in
different manner. For interrupting arc it creates an arc voltage in
excess of the supply voltage. Arc voltage is defined as the minimum
voltage required maintaining the arc. This circuit breaker increases
the arc voltage by mainly three different ways. It may increase the arc
voltage by cooling the arc plasma. As the temperature of arc plasma is
decreased, the mobility of the particle in arc plasma is reduced; hence
more voltage gradient is required to maintain the arc. It may increase
the arc voltage by lengthening the arc path. As the length of arc path
is increased, the resistance of the path is increased, and hence to
maintain the same arc current more voltage is required to be applied
across the arc path. That means arc voltage is increased. Splitting up
the arc into a number of series arcs also increases the arc voltage.
Types of ACB
There are mainly two types of ACB are available.
1) Plain air circuit breaker
2) Air blast Circuit Breaker.
Operation of ACB
The first objective is usually achieved by forcing the arc into contact with as
large an area as possible of insulating material. Every air circuit breaker is
fitted with a chamber surrounding the contact. This chamber is called 'arc
chute'. The arc is driven into it. If inside of the arc chute is suitably shaped,
and if the arc can be made conform to the shape, the arc chute wall will help
to achieve cooling. This type of arc chute should be made from some kind of

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refractory material. High temperature plastics reinforced with glass fiber and
ceramics are preferable materials for making arc chute.
The second objective that is lengthening the arc path, is achieved
concurrently with fist objective. If the inner walls of the arc chute is shaped
in such a way that the arc is not only forced into close proximity with it but
also driven into a serpentine channel projected on the arc chute wall. The
lengthening of the arc path increases the arc resistance.
The third technique is achieved by using metal arc slitter inside the arc
chute. The main arc chute is divided into numbers of small compartments
by using metallic separation plates. These metallic separation plates are
actually the arc splitters and each of the small compartments behaves as
individual mini arc chute. In this system the initial arc is split into a
number of series arcs, each of which will have its won mini arc chute. So
each of the split arcs has its won cooling and lengthening effect due to its
won mini arc chute and hence individual split arc voltage becomes high.
These collectively, make the over all arc voltage, much higher than the
system voltage.
This was working principle of air circuit breaker now we will discuss in details
the operation of ACB in practice.
The air circuit breaker, operated within the voltage level 1KV, does not
require any arc control device. Mainly for heavy fault current on low voltages
(low voltage level above 1 KV) ABCs with appropriate arc control device, are
good choice. These breakers normally have two pairs of contacts. The main
pair of contacts carries the current at normal load and these contacts are
made of copper. The additional pair is the arcing contact and is made of
carbon. When circuit breaker is being opened, the main contacts open first
and during opening of main contacts the arcing contacts are still in touch
with each other. As the current gets, a parallel low resistive path through
the arcing contact during opening of main contacts, there will not be any
arcing in the main contact. The arcing is only initiated when finally the
arcing contacts are separated. The each of the arc contacts is fitted with an
arc runner which helps, the arc discharge to move upward due to both
thermal and electromagnetic effects as shown in the figure. As the arc is
driven upward it enters in the arc chute, consisting of splitters. The arc in
chute will become colder, lengthen and split hence arc voltage becomes
much larger than system voltage at the time of operation of air circuit
breaker, and therefore the arc is quenched finally during the current zero.

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Although this type of circuit breakers has become obsolete for medium
voltage application, but they are still preferable choice for high current
rating in low voltage application.

ACB

SF6 Circuit Breaker

A circuit breaker in which the current carrying contacts operate in Sulphur
Hexafluoride or SF6 gas is known as an SF6 Circuit Breaker.
SF6 has excellent insulating property. SF6 has high electro-negativity. That
means it has high affinity of absorbing free electron. Whenever a free
electron collides with the SF6 gas molecule, it is absorbed by that gas
molecule and forms a negative ion.

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These negative ions obviously much heavier than a free electron and
therefore over all mobility of the charged particle in the SF6 gas is much less
as compared other common gases. We know that mobility of charged
particle is majorly responsible for conducting current through a gas.

Hence, for heavier and less mobile charged particles in SF6 gas, it acquires
very high dielectric strength. Not only the gas has a good dielectric strength
but also it has the unique property of fast recombination after the source
energizing the spark is removed. The gas has also very good heat transfer
property. Due to its low gaseous viscosity (because of less molecular
mobility) SF6 gas can efficiently transfer heat by convection. So due to its
high dielectric strength and high cooling effect SF6 gas is approximately 100
times more effective arc quenching media than air. Due to these unique
properties of this gas SF6 Circuit Breaker is used in complete range of
medium voltage and high voltage electrical power system. These circuit
breakers are available for the voltage ranges from 33KV to 800KV and even
more.
Disadvantages of SF6 CB
The SF6 gas is identified as a greenhouse gas, safety regulation are being
introduced in many countries in order to prevent its release into
atmosphere.
Puffer type design of SF6 CB needs a high mechanical energy which is
almost five times greater than that of oil circuit breaker.

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Types of SF6 Circuit Breaker

There are mainly three types of SF6 CB depending upon the voltage level of
application
1) Single Interrupter SF6 CB applied for up to 245KV(220KV) system
2) Two Interrupter SF6 CB applied for up to 420KV(400KV) system
3) Four Interrupter SF6 CB applied for up to 800KV(715KV) system
Working of SF6 Circuit Breaker

The working of SF6 CB of first generation was quite simple it is some

extent similar to air blast circuit breaker. Here SF6 gas was
compressed and stored in a high pressure reservoir. During operation
of SF6 circuit breaker this highly compressed gas is released through
the arc and collected to relatively low pressure reservoir and then it
pumped back to the high pressure reservoir for reutilize.
The working of SF6 circuit breaker is little bit different in moder time.
Innovation of puffer type design makes operation of SF6 CB much
easier. In buffer type design, the arc energy is utilized to develop
pressure in the arcing chamber for arc quenching.

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Here the breaker is filled with SF6 gas at rated pressure. There are two fixed
contact fitted with a specific contact gap. A sliding cylinder bridges these to
fixed contacts. The cylinder can axially slide upward and downward along
the contacts. There is one stationary piston inside the cylinder which is fixed
with other stationary parts of the SF6 circuit breaker, in such a way that it
can not change its position during the movement of the cylinder. As the
piston is fixed and cylinder is movable or sliding, the internal volume of the
cylinder changes when the cylinder slides.
During opening of the breaker the cylinder moves downwards against
position of the fixed piston hence the volume inside the cylinder is reduced
which produces compressed SF6 gas inside the cylinder. The cylinder has
numbers of side vents which were blocked by upper fixed contact body
during closed position. As the cylinder move further downwards, these vent
openings cross the upper fixed contact, and become unblocked and then
compressed SF6 gas inside the cylinder will come out through this vents in
high speed towards the arc and passes through the axial hole of the both
fixed contacts. The arc is quenched during this flow of SF6 gas.
During closing of the SF6 circuit breaker, the sliding cylinder moves
upwards and as the position of piston remains at fixed height, the volume of
the cylinder increases which introduces low pressure inside the cylinder
compared to the surrounding. Due to this pressure difference SF6 gas from
surrounding will try to enter in the cylinder. The higher pressure gas will
come through the axial hole of both fixed contact and enters into cylinder
via vent and during this flow; the gas will quench the arc.
VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER
A vacuum circuit breaker is such kind of circuit breaker where the arc
quenching takes place in vacuum. The technology is suitable for mainly
medium voltage application. For higher voltage Vacuum technology has been
developed but not commercially viable. The operation of opening and closing
of current carrying contacts and associated arc interruption take place in a
vacuum chamber in the breaker which is called vacuum interrupter. The
vacuum interrupter consists of a steel arc chamber in the centre
symmetrically arranged ceramic insulators. The vacuum pressure inside a
vacuum interrupter is normally maintained at 10 - 6 bar. The material used
for current carrying contacts plays an important role in the performance of
the vacuum circuit breaker. CuCr is the most ideal material to make VCB
contacts. Vacuum interrupter technology was first introduced in the year of
1960. But still it is a developing technology. As time goes on, the size of the
vacuum interrupter is being reducing from its early 1960s size due to
different technical developments in this field of engineering. The contact

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geometry is also improving with time, from butt contact of early days it
gradually changes to spiral shape, cup shape and axial magnetic field
contact. The vacuum circuit breaker is today recognized as most reliable
current interruption technology for medium voltage system. It requires
minimum maintenance compared to other circuit breaker technologies.
Advantages of vacuum circuit breaker or VCB
Service life of Vacuum Circuit Breaker is much longer than other types of
circuit breakers. There is no chance of fire hazard as oil circuit breaker. It is
much environment friendly than SF6 Circuit breaker. Beside of that
contraction of VCB is much user friendly. Replacement of Vacuum
Interrupter (VI) is much convenient.
Operation of Vacuum Circuit Breaker
The main aim of any circuit breaker is to quench arc during current zero
crossing, by establishing high dielectric strength in between the contacts so
that reestablishment of arc after current zero becomes impossible. The
dielectric strength of vacuum is eight times greater than that of air and four
times greater than that of SF6 gas. This high dielectric strength makes it
possible to quench a vacuum arc within very small contact gap. For short
contact gap, low contact mass and no compression of medium the drive
energy required in vacuum circuit breaker is minimum. When two face to
face contact areas are just being separated to each other, they do not be
separated instantly, contact area on the contact face is being reduced and
ultimately comes to a point and then they are finally de-touched. Although
this happens in a fraction of micro second but it is the fact. At this instant
of de-touching of contacts in a vacuum, the current through the contacts
concentrated on that last contact point on the contact surface and makes a
hot spot. As it is vacuum, the metal on the contact surface is easily
vaporized due to that hot spot and create a conducting media for arc path.
Then the arc will be initiated and continued until the next current zero.

At current zero this vacuum arc is extinguished and the conducting metal
vapor is re-condensed on the contact surface. At this point, the contacts are
already separated hence there is no question of re-vaporization of contact
surface, for next cycle of current. That means, the arc cannot be

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reestablished again. In this way vacuum circuit breaker prevents the

reestablishment of arc by producing high dielectric strength in the contact
gap after current zero.
There are two types of arc shapes. For interrupting current up to 10kA, the
arc remains diffused and the form of vapour discharge and cover the entire
contact surface. Above 10kA the diffused arc is constricted considerably by
its own magnetic field and it contracts. The phenomenon gives rise over
heating of contact at its center. In order to prevent this, the design of the
contacts should be such that the arc does not remain stationary but keeps
travelling by its own magnetic field. Specially designed contact shape of
vacuum circuit breaker make the constricted stationary arc travel along the
surface of the contacts, thereby causing minimum and uniform contact
erosion.
MCB
Nowadays we use more commonly Miniature Circuit Breaker or MCB in low
voltage electrical network instead of fuse.
The MCB has some advantages compared to fuse.
1) It automatically switches off the electrical circuit during abnormal
condition of the network means in over load condition as well as faulty
condition. The fuse does not sense but Miniature Circuit Breaker does it
in more reliable way. MCB is much more sensitive to over current than
fuse.
2) Another advantage is, as the switch operating knob comes at its off
position during tripping, the faulty zone of the electrical circuit can easily
be identified. But in case of fuse, fuse wire should be checked by opening
fuse grip or cutout from fuse base, for confirming the
blow of fuse
wire.
3) Quick restoration of supply cannot be possible in case of fuse as because
fuses have to be rewired or replaced for restoring the supply. But in the
case of MCB, quick restoration is possible by just switching on operation.
4) Handling MCB is more electrically safe than fuse. Because of to many
advantages of MCB over fuse units, in modern low voltage electrical
network, Miniature Circuit Breaker is mostly used instead of backdated
fuse unit.
Only one disadvantage of MCB over fuse is that this system is more costlier
than fuse unit system.

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Miniature Circuit Breaker

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Miniature Circuit Breaker Working Principle

There are two arrangement of operation of miniature circuit breaker.

One due to thermal effect of over current and other due to
electromagnetic effect of over current. The thermal operation of
miniature circuit breaker is achieved with a bimetallic strip whenever
continuous over current flows through MCB; the bimetallic strip is
heated and deflects by bending. This deflection of bimetallic strip
releases mechanical latch. As this mechanical latch is attached with
operating mechanism, it causes to open the miniature circuit breaker
contacts. But during short circuit condition, sudden rising of electric
current, causes electromechanical displacement of plunger associated
with tripping coil or solenoid of MCB. The plunger strikes the trip lever
causing immediate release of latch mechanism consequently open the
circuit breaker contacts. This was a simple explanation of miniature
circuit breaker working principle.

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Molded Case Circuit Breaker.

The main difference between the two is their capacity with the MCB rated
under 100 amps with an interrupting rating of under 18,000 amps.
Consequently, their trip characteristics may not be adjusted since they
basically cater to low circuits.
On the other hand, an MCCB comes with an adjustable trip characteristic
for the higher models. Usually, this type of circuit breaker would provide
amps as high as 2,500 or as low as 10 depending on what is necessary.
Their interrupting rating can be around 10,000 amps to 200,000 amps.
Judging from their power capacities, the MCB is mainly used for low-energy
requirements like home wiring or small electronic circuits. On the other
hand, the MCCB is more suited in providing energy for high-power
equipment.
Although an MCCB has a higher capacity than an MCB, both are classified
under low voltage circuit breakers and should, therefore, respond to
standards set by the IEC 947. For conveniences sake, some MCCB units
have electrical motor operators which means that they can be tripped using
only a remote control. For industrial or commercial use, they may be utilized
as standby power that runs on an automatic transfer switch.
Both are installed in special niches on the wall that would make it easy to
install or uninstall without interrupting the whole system or damaging the
switchgear. Both are specially made to handle direct current and are usually
laid out in tiers for space efficiency.
Circuit breakers are usually reset after they have been tripped. Both MCB
and MCCB are highly durable and could last for years depending on the
manufacturer.
When choosing between using an MCB and an MCCB, it is important to
consider the amount of power that would be coursing through the device. As
mentioned above, MCCB is more suited for higher energy because of its
better capacity. Of course, when it comes to home use, the MCB is usually
the circuit breaker of choice. For heavier power requirements that go beyond
the 2,500 amps ceiling of the MCCB, medium or high-voltage circuit
breakers would be the next best possible choices.
Circuit breakers are installed in any structure that requires power for safety
reasons. They are made to ensure that fire hazards or electrical problems
would not occur in a home by cutting of electricity flow. This is usually done
when the system experiences a short circuit or an overload.

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For this reason, an MCB or MCCB should both be installed by professionals.

This would minimize the chance of problems throughout use. At the same
time, choosing the right MCB or MCCB brand to install in a building is
necessary as some brands are actually better than others. Ideally, the
location of circuit breakers should provide easy access and known to all the
individuals residing in a building.

Summary:
1) An MCB has less than 100 amps while an MCCB goes as high as
2,500 amps.
2) The interrupting rating for an MCB is 18,000 amps up to 200,000
amps for an MCCB.
3) MCBs are mostly installed for home use while an MCCB is generally
utilized for commercial or industrial purposes.
4) Both are low-voltage circuit breakers created to respond to IEC 947
standards.
5) Some MCCB units are specially made to respond to remote control
signals usually as standby power.
6) Circuit breakers are installed for safety reasons.
7) The location of circuit breakers in every structure should be known to
the people who reside in it.

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MCCB

Working Principle of ELCB and RCB:



An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a device used to directly

detect currents leaking to earth from an installation and cut the power
and mainly used in TT earthing systems.

There are two types of ELCBs,

1) Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (voltage-ELCB)
2) Current Earth Leakage Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
(Current-ELCB).

Voltage-ELCBs were first introduced about sixty years ago and CurrentELCB was first introduced about forty years ago. For many years, the
voltage operated ELCB and the differential current operated ELCB were
both referred to as ELCBs because it was a simpler name to remember.
But the use of a common name for two different devices gave rise to
considerable confusion in the electrical industry. If the wrong type was
used on an installation, the level of protection given could be
substantially less than that intended. To ignore this confusion, IEC
decided to apply the term Residual Current Device (RCD) to differential
current operated ELCBs. Residual current refers to any current over and
above the load current.

Voltage Base ELCB.



Voltage-ELCB is a voltage operated circuit breaker. The device will

function when the Current passes through the ELCB. Voltage-ELCB
contains relay Coil which it being connected to the metallic load body at
one end and it is connected to ground wire at the other end.

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If the voltage of the Equipment body is rise (by touching Phase to metal
Part or Failure of Insulation of Equipment) which could cause the
difference between earth and load body voltage, the danger of electric
shock will occur. This voltage difference will produce an electric current
from the load metallic body passes the relay loop and to earth. When
voltage on the equipment metallic body rose to the danger level which
exceed to 50Volt, the flowing current through relay loop could move the
relay contact by disconnecting the supply current to avoid from any
danger electric shock.

The ELCB detects fault currents from live to the earth (ground) wire
within the installation it protects. If sufficient voltage appears across the
ELCBs sense coil, it will switch off the power, and remain off until
manually reset. A voltage-sensing ELCB does not sense fault currents
from live to any other earthed body.

These ELCBs monitored the voltage on the earth wire, and disconnected
the supply if the earth wire voltage was over 50 volts.

These devices are no longer used due to its drawbacks like if the fault is
between live and a circuit earth, they will disconnect the supply.
However, if the fault is between live and some other earth (such as a
person or a metal water pipe), they will NOT disconnect, as the voltage on
the circuit earth will not change. Even if the fault is between live and a
circuit earth, parallel earth paths created via gas or water pipes can
result in the ELCB being bypassed. Most of the fault current will flow via
the gas or water pipes, since a single earth stake will inevitably have a
much higher impedance than hundreds of meters of metal service pipes
buried in the ground.

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The way to identify an ELCB is by looking for green or green and yellow
earth wires entering the device. They rely on voltage returning to the trip
via the earth wire during a fault and afford only limited protection to the
installation and no personal protection at all. You should use plug in
30mA RCDs for any appliances and extension leads that may be used
outside as a minimum.
Advantages

ELCBs have one advantage over RCDs: they are less sensitive to fault
conditions, and therefore have fewer nuisance trips.

While voltage and current on the earth line is usually fault current from a
live wire, this is not always the case, thus there are situations in which
an ELCB can nuisance trip.

When an installation has two connections to earth, a nearby high current

lightning strike will cause a voltage gradient in the soil, presenting the
ELCB sense coil with enough voltage to cause it to trip.

If the installations earth rod is placed close to the earth rod of a

neighboring building, a high earth leakage current in the other building
can raise the local ground potential and cause a voltage difference across
the two earths, again tripping the ELCB.

If there is an accumulated or burden of currents caused by items with

lowered insulation resistance due to older equipment, or with heating
elements, or rain conditions can cause the insulation resistance to lower
due to moisture tracking. If there is a some mA who is equal to ELCB
rating than ELCB may give nuisance Tripping.

If either of the earth wires become disconnected from the ELCB, it will no
longer trip or the installation will often no longer be properly earthed.

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Some ELCBs do not respond to rectified fault current. This issue is

common for ELCBs and RCDs, but ELCBs are on average much older
than RCB so an old ELCB is more likely to have some uncommon fault
current waveform that it will not respond to.

Voltage-operated ELCB are the requirement for a second connection, and

the possibility that any additional connection to earth on the protected
system can disable the detector.

Nuisance tripping especially during thunderstorms.

Disadvantages:


They do not detect faults that dont pass current through the CPC to the
earth rod.

They do not allow a single building system to be easily split into multiple
sections with independent fault protection, because earthing systems are
usually use common earth Rod.

They may be tripped by external voltages from something connected to

the earthing system such as metal pipes, a TN-S earth or a TN-C-S
combined neutral and earth.

As electrically leaky appliances such as some water heaters, washing

machines and cookers may cause the ELCB to trip.

ELCBs introduce additional resistance and an additional point of failure

into the earthing system.

Can we assume whether Our Electrical System is protected against Earth

Protection or not by only Pressing ELCB Test Switch?


Checking the health of the ELCB is simple and you can do it easily by
pressing TEST Push Button Switch of ELCB. The test push-button will
test whether the ELCB unit is working properly or not. Can we assume
that If ELCB is Trip after Pressing TEST Switch of ELCB than your
system is protected against earth protection? Then you are wrong.

The test facility provided on the home ELCB will only confirm the health
of the ELCB unit, but that test does not confirm that the ELCB will trip
when an electric shock hazard does occur. It is a really sad fact that all
the while this misunderstanding has left many homes totally unprotected
from the risk of electric shocks.

This brings us or alarming us to think over second basic requirement for

earth protection. The second requirement for the proper operation of a
home shock protection system is electrical grounding.

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We can assume that the ELCB is the brain for the shock protection, and
the grounding as the backbone. Therefore, without a functional
grounding (Proper Earthing of Electrical System) there is totally no
protection against electrical shocks in your house even if You have
installed ELCB and its TEST switch show proper result. Looking after the
ELCB alone is not enough. The electrical Earthing system must also be in
good working order for the shock protection system to work. In addition
to routine inspections that should be done by the qualified electrician,
this grounding should preferably be inspected regularly at shorter
intervals by the homeowner and need to pour Water in Earthing Pit at
Regular interval of Time to minimize Earth Resistance.

Current-operated ELCB (RCB):

 Current-operated ELCBs are generally known as Residual-current devices
(RCD). These also protect against earth leakage. Both circuit conductors
(supply and return) are run through a sensing coil; any imbalance of the
currents means the magnetic field does not perfectly cancel. The device
detects the imbalance and trips the contact.


When the term ELCB is used it usually means a voltage-operated device.

Similar devices that are current operated are called residual-current
devices. However, some companies use the term ELCB to distinguish high
sensitivity current operated 3 phase devices that trip in the milliamp
range from traditional 3 phase ground fault devices that operate at much
higher currents.

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Typical RCB circuit:

The supply coil, the neutral coil and the search coil all wound on a
common transformer core.

On a healthy circuit the same current passes through the phase coil, the
load and return back through the neutral coil. Both the phase and the
neutral coils are wound in such a way that they will produce an opposing
magnetic flux. With the same current passing through both coils, their
magnetic effect will cancel out under a healthy circuit condition.

In a situation when there is fault or a leakage to earth in the load circuit,

or anywhere between the load circuit and the output connection of the
RCB circuit, the current returning through the neutral coil has been
reduced. Then the magnetic flux inside the transformer core is not
balanced anymore. The total sum of the opposing magnetic flux is no
longer zero. This net remaining flux is what we call a residual flux.

The periodically changing residual flux inside the transformer core

crosses path with the winding of the search coil. This action produces an
electromotive force (e.m.f.) across the search coil. An electromotive force
is actually an alternating voltage. The induced voltage across the search
coil produces a current inside the wiring of the trip circuit. It is this
current that operates the trip coil of the circuit breaker. Since the trip
current is driven by the residual magnetic flux (the resulting flux, the net
effect between both fluxes) between the phase and the neutral coils, it is
called the residual current devise.

With a circuit breaker incorporated as part of the circuit, the assembled

system is called residual current circuit breaker (RCCB) or residual
current devise (RCD). The incoming current has to pass through the
circuit breaker first before going to the phase coil. The return neutral

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path passes through the second circuit breaker pole. During tripping
when a fault is detected, both the phase and neutral connection is
isolated.


RCD sensitivity is expressed as the rated residual operating current,

noted In. Preferred values have been defined by the IEC, thus making
it possible to divide RCDs into three groups according to their In
value.

High sensitivity (HS): 6- 10- 30 mA (for direct-contact / life injury

protection)

Standard IEC 60755 (General requirements for residual current

operated protective devices) defines three types of RCD depending on
the characteristics of the fault current.

Type AC: RCD for which tripping is ensured for residual sinusoidal
alternating currents

Sensitivity of RCB:



Medium sensitivity (MS): 100- 300- 500- 1000 mA (for fire protection)
Low sensitivity (LS): 3- 10- 30 A (typically for protection of machine)

Type of RCB:
Type A: RCD for which tripping is ensured
 for residual sinusoidal alternating currents
 for residual pulsating direct currents
 For residual pulsating direct currents superimposed by a smooth direct
current of 0.006 A, with or without phase-angle control, independent of
the polarity.
Type B: RCD for which tripping is ensured


as for type A

for residual sinusoidal currents up to 1000 Hz

for residual sinusoidal currents superposed by a pure direct current

for pulsating direct currents superposed by a pure direct current

for residual currents which may result from rectifying circuits





three pulse star connection or six pulse bridge connection

two pulse bridge connection line-to-line with or without phase-angle
monitoring, independently of the polarity
There are two groups of devices:

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Break time of RCB:

1. G (general use) for instantaneous RCDs (i.e. without a time delay)

Minimum break time: immediate

Maximum break time: 200 ms for 1x In, 150 ms for 2x In, and 40
ms for 5x In

2. S (selective) or T (time delayed) for RCDs with a short time delay (typically
used in circuits containing surge suppressors)

Minimum break time: 130 ms for 1x In, 60 ms for 2x In, and 50 ms

for 5x In
Maximum break time: 500 ms for 1x In, 200 ms for 2x In, and 150
ms for 5x In.

Instrument transformers
Instrument transformers means current transformer & voltage transformer
used in electrical power system for stepping down currents and voltages of
the system for metering and protection purpose. Actually relays and meters
used for protection and metering, are not designed for high currents and
voltages.
High currents or voltages of electrical power system can not be directly fed
to relays and meters. CT steps down rated system current to 1 Amp or 5
Amp similarly voltage transformer steps down system voltages to 110V.
The relays and meters are generally designed for 1 Amp, 5 Amp and 110V.
Definition of current transformer (CT)
A CT is an instrument transformer in which the secondary current is
substantially proportional to primary current and differs in phase from it by
ideally zero degree.
CT Accuracy Class or Current Transformer Class
A CT is similar to a electrical power transformer to some extent, but there
are some difference in construction and operation principle. For metering
and indication purpose, accuracy of ratio, between primary and secondary
currents are essential within normal working range. Normally accuracy
of current transformer required up to 125% of rated current; as because
allowable system current must be below 125% of rated current. Rather it is
desirable the CT core to be saturated after this limit since the unnecessary
electrical stresses due to system over current can be prevented from the
metering instrument connected to the secondary of the CT as secondary
current does not go above a desired limit even primary current of the CT
rises to a very high value than its ratings. So accuracy within working range

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is main criteria of a CT used for metering purpose. The degree of accuracy of

a Metering CT is expressed by CT Accuracy Class or simply Current
Transformer Class or CT Class.

But in the case of protection, the CT may not have the accuracy level as
good as metering CT although it is desired not to be saturated during high
fault current passes through primary. So core of protection CT is so
designed that it would not be saturated for long range of currents. If
saturation of the core comes at lower level of primary current the proper
reflection of primary current will not come to secondary, hence relays
connected to the secondary may not function properly and protection
system losses its reliability.
Suppose you have one CT with current ratio 400/1A and its protection core
is situated at 500A. If the primary current of the CT becomes 1000A the
secondary current will still be 1.25A as because the secondary current will
not increase after 1.25A because of saturation. If actuating current of the
relay connected the secondary circuit of the CT is 1.5A, it will not be
operated at all even fault level of the power circuit is 1000A.
The degree of accuracy of a Protection CT may not be as fine as Metering CT
but it is also expressed by CT Accuracy Class or simply Current Transformer
Class or CT Class as in the case of Metering Current Transformer but in
little bit different manner.

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Theory of Current Transformer or CT

A CT functions with the same basic working principle of electrical power
transformer, as we discussed earlier, but here is some difference. If
a electrical power transformer or other general purpose transformer,
primary current varies with load or secondary current. In case of CT,
primary current is the system current and this primary current or system
current transforms to the CT secondary, hence secondary current or burden
current depends upon primary current of the current transformer.
In a power transformer, if load is disconnected, there will be only
magnetizing current flows in the primary. The primary of the power
transformer takes current from the source proportional to the load
connected with secondary. But in case of CT, the primary is connected in
series with power line. So current through its primary is nothing but the
current flows through that power line. The primary current of the CT, hence
does not depend upon whether the load or burden is connected to the
secondary or not or what is the impedance value of burden. Generally CT
has very few turns in primary where as secondary turns are large in
number. Say Np is number of turns in CT primary and Ip is the current
through primary. Hence the primary AT is equal to NpIp AT.

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If number of turns in secondary and secondary current in that current

transformer are Ns and Is respectively then Secondary AT is equal to NsIs AT.
In an ideal CT the primary AT is exactly is equal in magnitude to secondary
AT.
So from the above statement it is clear that if a CT has one turn in primary
and 400 turns in secondary winding, if it has 400 A current in primary then
it will have 1A in secondary burden. Thus the turn ratio of the CT is
400/1A.
Error in Current Transformer or CT
But in an actual CT, errors with which we are connected can best be
considered through a study of phasor diagram for a CT,

Is - Secondary Current
Es - Secondary induced emf
Ip - primary Current
Ep - primary induced emf
KT - turns ratio = numbers of secondary turns/number of primary turns
Io - Excitation Current
Im - magnetizing component of Io
Iw - core loss component of Io
m - main flux.
Let us take flux as reference. EMF Es and Ep lags behind the flux by 90o.
The magnitude of the passers Es and Ep are proportional to secondary and
primary turns. The excitation current Io which is made up of two

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components Im and Iw. The secondary current Io lags behind the secondary
induced emf Es by an angle s. The secondary current is now transferred to
the primary side by reversing Is and multiplied by the turns ratio KT. The
total current flows through the primary Ip is then vector sum of KT Is and Io.
The Current Error or Ratio Error in Current Transformer or CT
From above passer diagram it is clear that primary current Ip is not exactly
equal to the secondary current multiplied by turns ratio, i.e. KTIs. This
difference is due to the primary current is contributed by the core excitation
current. The error in current transformer introduced due to this difference is
called current error of CT or sometimes Ratio Error in Current Transformer.

Phase Error or Phase Angle Error in Current Transformer

For a ideal CT the angle between the primary and reversed secondary
current vector is zero. But for an actual CT there is always a difference in
phase between two due to the fact that primary current has to supply the
component of the exiting current. The angle between the above two phases
in termed as Phase Angle Error in Current Transformer or CT. Here in the
pharos diagram it is the phase angle error is usually expressed in
minutes.
Cause of error in current transformer
The total primary current is not actually transformed in CT. One part of the
primary current is consumed for core excitation and remaining is actually
transformers with turns ratio of CT so there is error in current transformer

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means there are both Ratio Error in Current Transformer as well as a Phase
Angle Error in Current Transformer.
How to reduce error in current transformer
It is desirable to reduce these errors, for better performance. For achieving
minimum error in current transformer, one can follow the following,
1) Using a core of high permeability and low hysteresis loss magnetic
materials.
2) Keeping the rated burden to the nearer value of the actual burden.
3) Ensuring minimum length of flux path and increasing cross sectional
area of the core, minimizing joint of the core.
4) Lowering the secondary internal impedance.
Low Voltage Switchgear or LV Switchgear
Generally electrical switchgear rated up to 1 KV is termed as low voltage
switchgear. The term LV Switchgear includes low voltage circuit breakers,
switches, off load electrical isolators, HRC fuses, earth leakage circuit
breaker, miniature circuit breakers (MCB) and molded case circuit breakers
(MCCB) etc i.e. all the accessories required to protect the LV system.

Low Voltage Switchgear

The most common use of LV switchgear is in LV Distribution Board. This
system has the following parts
1) Incomer
The incomer feeds incoming electrical power to the incomer bus. The switch
gear used in the incomer should have a main switching device. The switch
gear devices attached with incomer should be capable of withstanding
abnormal current for a short specific duration in order to allow downstream

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devices to operate. But it also be cable of interrupting maximum value of the

fault current generated in the system. It must have interlocking
arrangement with downstream devices. Generally Air Circuit Breakers are
preferably used as interrupting device. Low voltage air circuit breaker is
preferable for this purpose because of the following features
i) Simplicity
ii) Efficient performance
iii) High normal current rating up to 600 A
iv) High fault withstanding capacity upto 63 Ka
Although Air Circuit Breakers have long tripping time, big size, high cost but
still they are most suitable for low voltage switchgear for the above
mentioned features.
2) Sub - Incomer
Next downstream part of the LV Distribution board is sub - incomer. These
sub - incomers draw power from main incomer bus and feed this power to
feeder bus. The devices installed as parts of a sub - incomer should have the
following features
i)
ii)

Ability to achieve economy without sacrificing protection and safety

Need for relatively less number of inter - locking since it cover limited
are of network.

ACBs and switch fuse units are generally used as sub - incomers along with
molted case circuit breakers (MCCB).
3) Feeders
Different feeders are connected to the feeder bus to feeds different loads like,
motor loads, lighting loads, industrial machinery loads, air conditioner
loads, transformer cooling system loads etc. All feeders are primarily
protected by switch fuse unit and in addition to that, depending upon the
types of load connected to the feeders, the different switchgear devices are
chosen for different feeders. Let's discuss in details
a) Motor feeder Motor feeder should be protected against over load, short
circuit, over current up to locked rotor condition and single phasing.
b) Industrial Machinery load feeder Feeder connected industrial machinery
load like oven, electroplating bath etc are commonly protected by MCCBs
and switch fuse units

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c) Lighting load feeder This is protected similar to industrial machinery load

but additional earth leakage current protection is provided in this case to
reduce any damage to life and property that could be caused by harmful
leakages of electric current and fire.
In LV switchgear system, electrical appliances are protected against short
circuit and over load conditions by electrical fuses or electrical circuit
breaker. However, the human operator is not adequately protected against
the faults occurs inside the appliances. The problem can be overcome by
using earth leakage circuit breaker. This operates on low leakage current.
The earth leakage circuit breaker can detect leakage current as low as 100
mA and is capable of disconnecting the appliance in less than 100 msec.

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A typical diagram of low voltage switchgear is shown above. Here the main
incomer comes from LV side of an electrical transformer. This incomer
through an electrical isolator as well as an MCCB (not shown in the figure)
feeds the incomer bus. Two sub-incomers are connected to the incomer bus
these sub incomers are protected by means of either switch fuse unit or Air
Circuit Breaker. These switches are so interlocked along with bus section
switch or bus coupler that only one incomer switch can be put on if bus
section switch is in on position and both sub incomer switches can be put
on only if bus section switch is at off position. This arrangement is fruitful
for preventing any mismatch of phase sequence between the subs incomers. The different load feeders are connected to any of the both
sections of the feeder bus. Here motor feeder is protected by thermal
overload device along with conventional switch fuse unit. Heater feeder is
protected only by conventional switch fuse unit. The domestic lighting and
AC loads are separately protected by miniature circuit breaker along with
common conventional switch fuse unit. This is most basic and simple
scheme for low voltage switchgear or LV distribution board.
For star delta stater, the motor connection must have 6 cables from control
panel and 6 terminals at induction (U1,U2,V1,V2,W1,W3). To wiring the
motor connection for star delta starter, the important thing that we must
fully understand is about the basic of STAR DELTA MAGIC TRIANGLE.
For detail about star delta stater please read my last post about it. From this
triangle diagram, we can determine the correct phase, cable termination for
right terminal and the rotation. As we know, the star delta stater is so tricky
if we not fully understand the concept and their method. This time i want
share my technique when perform wiring task and connected to the star
delta stater for induction motor.
Don`t worry, it simple and easy if we understand the basic concepts. I
explains detail step by step how to do it : D

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CHAPTER - 10
GENERATORS AND INVERTERS

DIESEL GENERATION

BATTERY

INVERTOR
DIESEL GENERATOR
A diesel generator is the combination of a diesel engine with an electric
generator (often an alternator) to generate electrical energy.
Diesel generating sets are used in places without connection to the power
grid, as emergency power-supply if the grid fails, as well as for more complex
applications such as peak-lopping, grid support and export to the power
grid. Sizing of diesel generators is critical to avoid low-load or a shortage of
power and is complicated by modern electronics, specifically non-linear
loads.
Diesel generator set
The packaged combination of a diesel engine, a generator and various
ancillary devices (such as base, canopy, sound attenuation, control systems,
circuit breakers, jacket water heaters and starting system) is referred to as a
"generating set" or a "genset" for short.
Set sizes range from 8 to 30 kW (also 8 to 30 kVA single phase) for homes,
small shops and offices with the larger industrial generators from 8 kW (11
kVA) up to 2,000 kW (2,500 kVA three phase) used for large office
complexes, factories. A 2,000 kW set can be housed in a 40 ft (12 m) ISO
container with fuel tank, controls, power distribution equipment and all
other equipment needed to operate as a standalone power station or as a
standby backup to grid power. These units, referred to as power modules
are gen sets on large triple axel trailers weighing 85,000 pounds (38,555 kg)
or more. A combination of these modules are used for small power stations
and these may use from one to 20 units per power section and these
sections can be combined to involve hundreds of power modules. In these
larger sizes the power module (engine and generator) are brought to site on
trailers separately and are connected together with large cables and a
control cable to form a complete synchronized power plant.
Diesel generators, sometimes as small as 200 kW (250 kVA) are widely used
not only for emergency power, but also many have a secondary function of

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feeding power to utility grids either during peak periods, or periods when
there is a shortage of large power generators.
Ships often also employ diesel generators, sometimes not only to provide
auxiliary power for lights, fans, winches etc., but also indirectly for main
propulsion. With electric propulsion the generators can be placed in a
convenient position, to allow more cargo to be carried. Electric drives for
ships were developed prior to World War I. Electric drives were specified in
many warships built during World War II because manufacturing capacity
for large reduction gears was in short supply, compared to capacity for
manufacture of electrical equipment.[1] Such a diesel-electric arrangement is
also used in some very large land vehicles such as railroad locomotives.

Generator size
Generating sets are selected based on the electrical load they are intended to
supply, the electrical loads total characteristics kWe, kVA, var and harmonic
content including starting currents (normally from motors) and non-linear
loads. The expected duty, for example, emergency, prime or continuous
power
as
well
as
environmental
conditions
such
as altitude,
temperature and emissions regulations must be taken into account as well.
Most of the larger generator set manufacturers offer software that will
perform the complicated sizing calculations by simply inputting site
conditions and connected electrical load characteristics.

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BATTERY
In modern era electrical energy is normally converted from mechanical
energy, solar energy, and chemical energy etc. A battery is such a device
which converts chemical energy to electrical energy. The first battery was
developed by Alessandro Volta in the year of 1800. In the year 1836, John
Frederic Daniell, a British chemist developed Daniell cell as an improved
version of voltaic cell. From that time to till date battery is most popular
source of electricity in many daily life applications.
In our daily life we generally use two types of batteries one is which use and
through type means it can be used once before it totally discharged. Another
type of batteries is rechargeable that means it can be reused multiple time
by recharging it externally. The former is called primary battery and latter is
called secondary battery.
The battery can be found in different sizes. A battery may be as small as a
shirt button or may be such big in size that a total room is required to
install a battery bank. For this variation of sizes the battery is used
anywhere from small wrist watch to large ship.

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Battery Symbol
We often see this symbol in many diagrams electrical and electronics
network. This is the most popularly used symbol of battery. The bigger lines
represent positive terminal of the cells and smaller lines represent negative
terminal of the cells connected in the battery.
We are often confused about the terms, battery cell and battery. We
generally refer a battery as a single electrochemical cell. But literally battery
does not mean that. Battery means a number of electrochemical cells
connected together to meet up certain voltage and current level. Although
there may single cell battery but literally battery and cell are different.
History of Battery

Parthian Battery
In the year of 1936 during middle of summer an ancient tomb was
discovered during construction of a new railway line near Bagdad city in
Iraq. The relics found in that tomb were about 2000 years old. Among these
relics there were some clay jars or vessels which were sealed at the top with
pitch. An iron rod, surrounded by a cylindrical tube made of wrapped
copper sheet was projected from this sealed top. When these pots were filled
with an acidic liquid, they produced a potential difference of around 2 volts
between the iron and copper. These clay jars were suspected to be 2000
years old battery cells.

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Luigi Galvani experiment frogs legs

In 1786, Luigi Galvani, an Italian anatomist and physiologist, was surprised
to see that when he touched a dead frogs leg by two different metals the
muscles of the legs contract. He could not understand the actual reason of
that otherwise he would be known as the first inventor of battery cell. He
thought the reaction might be due to a property of the tissues.

Voltaic Pile
After that, Alessandro Volta realized that same phenomenon could be
occurred by using cardboard soaked in salt water instead of frog's leg. He
sandwiched a copper disc and a zinc disc with a piece of cardboard soaked
in salt water in between them and found a potential difference between the
copper and zinc. After that in 1800 he developed the first Voltaic Pile
(battery) constructed of alternating copper and zinc discs with pieces of
cardboard soaked in brine between them. This system could produce
measurable electrical current. Alessandro Volta's voltaic pile was considered
as first "wet battery cell" History of battery began.

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Daniell Cell
The main problem of Voltaic pile was that it could not deliver current for
long time. This problem was solved by a British inventor John F. Daniell in
1836, he invented more developed version of battery cell which is known as
Daniell cell. Here in this cell one zinc rod is immersed in zinc sulfate in one
container and one copper rod is immersed in copper (II) sulfate in another
container. The solutions of these two containers are bridged by a U shaped
salt bridge. A Daniell cell could produce 1.1 volt and this type of battery last
much longer than Voltaic pile.
In 1839, fuel cell was planned by Sir William Robert Grove, a discoverer and
man of science. He mixed hydrogen and oxygen within an electrolyte
solution, and created electricity and water. The fuel cell, did not deliver
enough electricity but it is helpful.
Bunsen (1842) and Grove (1839) created enhancements to batteries that
used liquid electrodes to supply electricity.

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Lead Acid Battery

In the year of 1859, Gaston Plante first developed lead acid battery cell. This
was the first form rechargeable secondary battery. Lead acid battery is still
in use for many industrial purposes. It is still most popularly used as car
battery.
In 1866 the battery was again developed by a French engineer, Georges
Leclanche. It is a carbon-zinc wet cell battery which known as Leclanche
cell. Crushed manganese dioxide mixed with a bit of carbon forms positive
electrode and a zinc rod is used as negative electrode. Ammonium chloride
solution is used as liquid electrolyte. After some years Georges Leclanche
himself improved his own design by replacing liquid ammonium chloride
solution by the ammonium chloride. This was the invention of first dry cell.
In 1901 Thomas Alva Edison discovered the alkaline accumulator. Thomas
Edison's basic cell had iron as the anode material (-) and nickel oxide as the
cathode material (+). This was a portion of endless history of battery.
Working principle of battery
For understanding properly the basic principle of battery, we first should
have some basic concept of electrolyte and electrons affinity. Actually when
two dissimilar metals or metallic compounds are immersed in an electrolyte,
there will be a potential difference produced between these metals or
metallic compounds.
It is found that when some specific compounds are added to water, they are
dissolved and produce negative and positive ions. This type of compound is
called electrolyte. The popular examples of electrolyte are almost all kind of
salts, acids, and bases etc.

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The energy released during accepting an electron by a neutral atom is

known as electron affinity. As the atomic structure for different materials
are different, the electron affinity of different materials will differ. If two
different kinds of metals or metallic compounds are immersed in same
electrolyte solution, one of them will gain electrons and other will release
electrons. Which metal (or metallic compound) will gain electrons and which
will lose it depends upon the electron affinities of these metals or metallic
compounds. The metal with low electron affinity will gain electrons from the
negative ion of the electrolyte solution. On other hand metal with high
electron affinity will release electrons and these electrons come out to the
electrolyte solution and are being added to positive ions of the solution. In
this way one of these metals or compound gains electrons and another one
losses electrons. As a result there will be a difference in electron
concentration between these two metals. This difference of electron
concentration causes a potential difference developed between the metals.
This potential difference or emf can be utilized as a source of voltage in any
electronics or electrical circuits. This is what most general and basic
principle of battery.
All the battery cells are based on this only basic principle. Lets discuss one
by one. As we said earlier Alessandro Volta developed the first battery cell
and this cell is popularly known as simple voltaic cell. This type of simple
cell can be created very easily. Take one container and fill it with diluted
sulfuric acid as electrolyte. Now immerse zinc and one copper rod in the
solution and connect them externally by an electric load. Now your simple
voltaic cell is completed. Current will start flowing through the external load.
Zinc in dilute sulfuric acid give up electrons as below:
Zn Zn + + + 2e These Zn + + ions pass into electrolyte and their concentration is very high
near the zinc electrode. As a result of the above oxidation reaction, zinc
electrode is left negatively charged and hence it acts as cathode. The dilute
sulfuric acid and water disassociate into hydronium ions as given below:
H2SO4 + 2H2O 2H3O+ + SO4 - Due to high concentration of Zn + + ions near the cathode, the H3O+ ions are
repelled towards the copper electrode and get discharged by removing
electrons from the copper atoms. The following reaction takes place at the
anode:
2H3O+ + 2e - 2H2O + H2

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As a result of the reduction reaction taking place at copper electrode, copper

is left positively charged and hence it cats as anode.
Denial Battery Cell: Denial cell consists of a copper vessel containing copper
sulfate solution. The copper vessel itself acts as the positive electrode. A
porous pot containing dilute sulfuric acid is placed in the copper vessel. An
amalgamated zinc rod dipping inside the sulfuric acid acts as negative
electrode.
When the circuit is completed, dilute sulfuric acid in porous pot reacts with
zinc so as to liberate hydrogen gas.
The reaction takes place as below:
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
The formation of ZnSO4 in porous pot does not affect the working of the cell,
until crystals of ZnSO4 are deposited.
The hydrogen gas passes through the porous pot and reacts with
CuSO4 solution as below:
H2 + CuSO4 H2SO4 + Cu
Copper so formed gets deposited on the copper vessel.

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INVERTER
An inverter is an electric apparatus that changes direct current (DC)
to alternating current (AC). It is not the same thing as an alternator, which
converts mechanical energy (e.g. movement) into alternating current.
Direct current is created by devices such as batteries and solar panels.
When connected, an inverter allows these devices to provide electric power
for small household devices. The inverter does this through a complex
process of electrical adjustment. From this process, AC electric power is
produced. This form of electricity can be used to power an electric light,
a microwave oven, or some other electric machine.
An inverter usually also increases the voltage. In order to increase the
voltage, the current must be decreased, so an inverter will use a lot of
current on the DC side when only a small amount is being used on the AC
side.
Inverters are made in many different sizes. They can be as small as
150 watts, or as large as 1 megawatt (1 million watts).

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CHAPTER - 11
MOTOR STARTER

STAR DELTA CONNECTION

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF STAR DELTA STARTER.

D O L STARTERS

WORKING OF D O L STARTERS
STAR DELTA CONNECTION
Star delta magic triangle

When we refer to this diagram, We can see correct terminal for the winding
for each phase :*CAUTION: Please refer to the name plate of motor to
confirm the winding numbering (U1,U2,V1,V2,W1,W2 ) and the motor
connection of winding.
Why it very important?? Because each manufacturing have their own style
for numbering and winding motor connection.
Star Delta phase and terminals
RED PHASE : U1 and W2 YELLOW PHASE : U2 and V1 BLUE PHASE : V2
and W1 So from this formula, we must wiring the motor follow the phase
color code.
See my example below:-

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We can refer the complete wiring for star delta starter diagram below. If you
want change their rotation for clock-wise or anti clock-wise, you need
change two of phase (RED or BLUE) at delta contactor. I share the
technique how to change rotation in my next post.
If you want motor rotation for clock-wise, the phase colors are RED,
YELLOW, and BLUE. But if you want anti clock-wise rotation, the phase
colors are BLUE, YELLOW, and RED. For star delta control wiring diagram,
please refer to my post about star delta diagram control.

This is a starting method that reduces the starting current and starting
torque. Star delta starter design normally consists of three contactors, an
overload relay and a timer for setting the time in the star-position (starting
position).

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For the star delta starter, a motor must be in delta connected during a
normal run and the main purpose is to be able to use star delta starter.
Star delta starter received the starting current is about 30 % of the starting
current during direct on line start and the starting torque is reduced to
about 25 % of the torque available at a D.O.L start.
Star delta starter only works when the application is light loaded during the
start. If the motor is too heavily loaded, there will not be enough torque to
accelerate the motor up to speed before switching over to the delta position.
Description of Star Delta Starter Operation

For star delta starter, the basic function is to enable the motor to start and
the motor windings are configured in a star formation to the supply voltage.
The voltage applied for star delta starter to the individual motor winding is
therefore reduced by a factor of 13 = 0.58 this connection amounts to
approximately 30% of the delta values. The starting current is reduced to
one third of the direct starting current.

Due to the reduced starting torque, the star-delta-connection is suitable for

drives with a high inertia mass but a resistance torque which is low or only

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increases with increased speed. It is preferably used for applications where

the drive is only put under a load after run-up.
After motor run-up, in most cases an automatic timing relay controls the
switch-over from star to delta. The run-up using star connection should last
until the motor has reached the approximate operational speed.
so that after switching to delta, as little post acceleration as possible is
required. Post-acceleration in delta connection will instigate high currents
as seen with direct on-line starting.

The duration of start in star connection depends on the motor load. During
delta connection, the full mains voltage is applied to the motor windings.
To enable a switch-over from star to delta, the six ends of the motor winding
are connected onto terminals. The contactors of a star-delta starter switch
over the windings accordingly.
Working Principal of Star-Delta Starter:


This is the reduced voltage starting method. Voltage reduction during

star-delta starting is achieved by physically reconfiguring the motor
windings as illustrated in the figure below. During starting the motor
windings are connected in star configuration and this reduces the voltage
across each winding 3. This also reduces the torque by a factor of three.
After a period of time the winding are reconfigured as delta and the motor
runs normally.

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Star/Delta starters are probably the most common reduced voltage

starters. They are used in an attempt to reduce the start current applied
to the motor during start as a means of reducing the disturbances and
interference on the electrical supply.

Traditionally in many supply regions, there has been a requirement to fit

a reduced voltage starter on all motors greater than 5HP (4KW). The
Star/Delta (or Wye/Delta) starter is one of the lowest cost
electromechanical reduced voltage starters that can be applied.

The Star/Delta starter is manufactured from three contactors, a timer

and a thermal overload. The contactors are smaller than the single
contactor used in a Direct on Line starter as they are controlling winding
currents only. The currents through the winding are 1/root 3 (58%) of the
current in the line.

There are two contactors that are close during run, often referred to as
the main contractor and the delta contactor. These are AC3 rated at 58%
of the current rating of the motor. The third contactor is the star
contactor and that only carries star current while the motor is connected
in star. The current in star is one third of the current in delta, so this
contactor can be AC3 rated at one third (33%) of the motor rating.

Star-delta Starter Consists following units:

1) Contactors (Main, star and delta contactors) 3 Nos (For Open State
Starter) or 4 Nos (Close Transient Starter).
2) Time relay (pull-in delayed) 1 No.
3) Three-pole thermal over current release 1No.
4) Fuse elements or automatic cut-outs for the main circuit 3 Nos.
5) Fuse element or automatic cut-out for the control circuit 1No.
Power Circuit of Star Delta Starter:


The main circuit breaker serves as the main power supply switch that
supplies electricity to the power circuit.

The main contactor connects the reference source voltage R, Y, B to the

primary terminal of the motor U1, V1, W1.

In operation, the Main Contactor (KM3) and the Star Contactor (KM1) are
closed initially, and then after a period of time, the star contactor is
opened, and then the delta contactor (KM2) is closed. The control of the
contactors is by the timer (K1T) built into the starter. The Star and Delta

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are electrically interlocked and preferably mechanically interlocked as

well. In effect, there are four states:

The star contactor serves to initially short the secondary terminal of the
motor U2, V2, W2 for the start sequence during the initial run of the
motor from standstill. This provides one third of DOL current to the
motor, thus reducing the high inrush current inherent with large
capacity motors at startup.

Controlling the interchanging star connection and delta connection of an

AC induction motor is achieved by means of a star delta or wye delta
control circuit. The control circuit consists of push button switches,
auxiliary contacts and a timer.

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Control Circuit of Star--Delta Starter (Open Transition):

The ON push button starts the circuit by initially energizing Star

Contactor Coil (KM1) of star circuit and Timer Coil (KT) circuit.

When Star Contactor Coil (KM1) energized, Star Main and Auxiliary
contactor change its position from NO to NC.

When Star Auxiliary Contactor (1) (which is placed on Main Contactor coil
circuit )became NO to NC its complete The Circuit of Main contactor Coil
(KM3) so Main Contactor Coil energized and Main Contactors Main and
Auxiliary Contactor Change its Position from NO To NC. This sequence
happens in a friction of time.

After pushing the ON push button switch, the auxiliary contact of the
main contactor coil (2) which is connected in parallel across the ON push
button will become NO to NC, thereby providing a latch to hold the main

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contactor coil activated which eventually maintains the control circuit

active even after releasing the ON push button switch.


When Star Main Contactor (KM1) close its connect Motor connects on
STAR and its connected in STAR until Time Delay Auxiliary contact KT
(3) become NC to NO.

Once the time delay is reached its specified Time, the timers auxiliary
contacts (KT)(3) in Star Coil circuit will change its position from NC to NO
and at the Same Time Auxiliary contactor (KT) in Delta Coil Circuit(4)
change its Position from NO To NC so Delta coil energized and Delta
Main Contactor becomes NO To NC. Now Motor terminal connection
change from star to delta connection.

A normally close auxiliary contact from both star and delta contactors
(5&6)are also placed opposite of both star and delta contactor coils, these
interlock contacts serves as safety switches to prevent simultaneous
activation of both star and delta contactor coils, so that one cannot be
activated without the other deactivated first. Thus, the delta contactor
coil cannot be active when the star contactor coil is active, and similarly,
the star contactor coil cannot also be active while the delta contactor coil
is active.

The control circuit above also provides two interrupting contacts to

shutdown the motor. The OFF push button switch break the control
circuit and the motor when necessary. The thermal overload contact is a
protective device which automatically opens the STOP Control circuit in
case when motor overload current is detected by the thermal overload
relay, this is to prevent burning of the motor in case of excessive load
beyond the rated capacity of the motor is detected by the thermal
overload relay.

At some point during starting it is necessary to change from a star

connected winding to a delta connected winding. Power and control
circuits can be arranged to this in one of two ways open transition or
closed transition.

What is Open or Closed Transition Starting

(1) Open Transition Starters.

Discuss mention above is called open transition switching because there

is an open state between the star state and the delta state.

In open transition the power is disconnected from the motor while the
winding are reconfigured via external switching.

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When a motor is driven by the supply, either at full speed or at part

speed, there is a rotating magnetic field in the stator. This field is rotating
at line frequency. The flux from the stator field induces a current in the
rotor and this in turn results in a rotor magnetic field.

When the motor is disconnected from the supply (open transition) there is
a spinning rotor within the stator and the rotor has a magnetic field. Due
to the low impedance of the rotor circuit, the time constant is quite long
and the action of the spinning rotor field within the stator is that of a
generator which generates voltage at a frequency determined by the speed
of the rotor. When the motor is reconnected to the supply, it is reclosing
onto an unsynchronized generator and this result in a very high current
and torque transient. The magnitude of the transient is dependent on the
phase relationship between the generated voltage and the line voltage at
the point of closure can be much higher than DOL current and torque and
can result in electrical and mechanical damage.

Open transition starting is the easiest to implement in terms or cost and

circuitry and if the timing of the changeover is good, this method can
work well. In practice though it is difficult to set the necessary timing to
operate correctly and disconnection/reconnection of the supply can
cause significant voltage/current transients.

In Open transition there are Four states:

1. OFF State: All Contactors are open.
2. Star State: The Main [KM3] and the Star [KM1] contactors are closed
and the delta [KM2] contactor is open. The motor is connected in star
and will produce one third of DOL torque at one third of DOL current.
3. Open State: This type of operation is called open transition switching
because there is an open state between the star state and the delta
state. The Main contractor is closed and the Delta and Star contactors
are open. There is voltage on one end of the motor windings, but the
other end is open so no current can flow. The motor has a spinning
rotor and behaves like a generator.
4. Delta State: The Main and the Delta contactors are closed. The Star
contactor is open. The motor is connected to full line voltage and full
power and torque are available.

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(2)

Closed Transition Star/Delta Starter.

There is a technique to reduce the magnitude of the switching transients.
This requires the use of a fourth contactor and a set of three resistors.
The resistors must be sized such that considerable current is able to flow
in the motor windings while they are in circuit.
The auxiliary contactor and resistors are connected across the delta
contactor. In operation, just before the star contactor opens, the auxiliary
contactor closes resulting in current flow via the resistors into the star
connection. Once the star contactor opens, current is able to flow round
through the motor windings to the supply via the resistors. These
resistors are then shorted by the delta contactor. If the resistance of the
resistors is too high, they will not swamp the voltage generated by the
motor and will serve no purpose.
In closed transition the power is maintained to the motor at all
time. This is achieved by introducing resistors to take up the current
flow during the winding changeover. A fourth contractor is required to
place the resistor in circuit before opening the star contactor and then
removing the resistors once the delta contactor is closed. These resistors
need to be sized to carry the motor current. In addition to requiring more
switching devices, the control circuit is more complicated due to the need
to carry out resistor switching

In Close transition there are Four states:

1. OFF State. All Contactors are open
2. Star State. The Main [KM3] and the Star [KM1] contactors are closed
and the delta [KM2] contactor is open. The motor is connected in star
and will produce one third of DOL torque at one third of DOL current.
3. Star Transition State. The motor is connected in star and the
resistors are connected across the delta contactor via the aux [KM4]
contactor.
4. Closed Transition State. The Main [KM3] contactor is closed and the
Delta [KM2] and Star [KM1] contactors are open. Current flows
through the motor windings and the transition resistors via KM4.
5. Delta State. The Main and the Delta contactors are closed.
The transition resistors are shorted out. The Star contactor is open.
The motor is connected to full line voltage and full power and torque.

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Wiring Diagram of DOL Starter:

Working of DOL Starter:



The main heart of DOL starter is Relay Coil. Normally it gets one phase
constant from incoming supply Voltage (A1).when Coil gets second Phase
relay coil energizes and Magnet of Contactor produce electromagnetic
field and due to this Plunger of Contactor will move and Main Contactor
of starter will closed and Auxiliary will change its position NO become NC
and NC become (shown Red Line in Diagram) .

Pushing Start Button:



When We Push the start Button Relay Coil will get second phase from
Supply Phase-Main contactor(5)-Auxiliary Contact(53)-Start button-Stop

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button-96-95-To Relay Coil (A2).Now Coil energizes and Magnetic field

produce by Magnet and Plunger of Contactor move. Main Contactor
closes and Motor gets supply at the same time Auxiliary contact become
(53-54) from NO to NC .


Release Start Button:

Relay coil gets supply even though we release Start button. When We
release Start Push Button Relay Coil gets Supply phase from Main
contactor (5)-Auxiliary contactor (53) Auxiliary contactor (54)-Stop
Button-96-95-Relay coil (shown Red / Blue Lines in Diagram).

In Overload Condition of Mo

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CHAPTER - 12
CABLES AND BUS BAR

CABLES

XLPE CABLE

PVC CABLE

PILC CABLE

CABLE GLANDS

BUS BAR
CABLES
A cable is two or more wires running side by side and bonded, twisted, or
braided together to form a single assembly. The term originally referred to a
nautical line of specific length where multiple ropes, each laid clockwise, are
then laid together anti-clockwise and shackled to produce a strong thick
line, resistant to water absorption, that was used to anchor large ships.
In mechanics, cables, otherwise known as wire ropes, are used for lifting,
hauling, and towing or conveying force through tension. In electrical
engineering cables are used to carry electric currents. An optical cable
contains one or more optical fibers in a protective jacket that supports the
fibers.
Electrical wiring in general refers to insulated conductors used to carry
electricity, and associated devices. This article describes general aspects of
electrical wiring as used to provide power in buildings and structures,
commonly referred to as building wiring. This article is intended to describe
common features of electrical wiring that may apply worldwide. For
information regarding specific national electrical codes, refer to the articles
mentioned in the next section. Separate articles cover long-distance electric
power transmission and electric power distribution.

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Electrical cables [edit]

Electrical cable cross section

Electrical cable is an assembly consisting of one or more conductors with
their own insulations and optional screens, individual covering(s), assembly
protection and protective covering(s). Electrical cables may be made more
flexible by stranding the wires.
wires. In this process, smaller individual wires are
twisted or braided together to produce larger wires that are more flexible
than solid wires of similar size. Bunching small wires before concentric
stranding adds the most flexibility. Copper wires in a cable may be bare, or
they may be plated with a thin layer of another metal, most often tin but
sometimes gold, silver or some other material. Tin, gold, and silver are much
less prone to oxidation than copper, which may lengthen wire life, and
makes soldering easier. Tinning is also used to provide lubrication between
strands. Tinning was used to help removal of rubber insulation.
insulation. Tight lays
during stranding makes the cable extensible (CBA as in telephone handset
cords).
Cables can be securely fastened and organized, such as by using trunking,
cable trays, cable ties or cable lacing. Continuous-flex or flexible cables used
in moving applications within cable carriers can be secured using strain
relief devices or cable ties.
At high frequencies, current tends to run along the surface
surface of the conductor.
This is known as the skin effect.
effect
Cables and electromagnetic fields

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Coaxial cable.

Twisted pair cabling

Any current-carrying
carrying conductor, including a cable, radiates an
electromagnetic field. Likewise, any conductor or cable will pick up energy
from any existing electromagnetic field around it. These effects are often
undesirable, in the first case amounting to unwanted transmission of energy
which may adversely affect nearby equipment or other
other parts of the same
piece of equipment; and in the second case, unwanted pickup of noise which
may mask the desired signal being carried by the cable, or, if the cable is
carrying power supply or control voltages, pollute them to such an extent as
to cause equipment malfunction.
The first solution to these problems is to keep cable lengths in buildings
build
short, since pick up and transmission are essentially proportional to the
length of the cable. The second solution is to route cables away from
trouble. Beyond this, there are particular cable designs that minimize
electromagnetic pickup and transmission.
transmission. Three of the principal design
techniques are shielding,
shielding coaxial geometry, and twisted-pair geometry.
Shielding makes use of the electrical principle of the Faraday cage.
cage The
cable is encased for its entire length in foil or wire mesh. All wires running
inside this shielding layer will be to a large extent decoupled from external
electric fields, particularly if the shield is connected to a point of constant
voltage, such as earth. Simple
Simple shielding of this type is not greatly effective
against low-frequency
frequency magnetic fields, however - such as magnetic "hum"
from a nearby power transformer.
transformer. A grounded shield on cables operating at
2.5 kV or more gathers leakage current and capacitive current, protecting
people from electric shock and equalizing stress on the cable insulation.
Coaxial design helps to further reduce low-frequency
low frequency magnetic transmission
and pickup. In this design the foil or mesh shield has a circular cross
section and the inner conductor is exactly at its center. This causes the
voltages induced by a magnetic field between the shield and the core
conductor to consist of two nearly equal magnitudes which cancel
can
each
other.
A twisted pair has two wires of a cable twisted around each other. This can
be demonstrated by putting one end of a pair of wires in a hand drill and
turning while maintaining moderate tension on the line. Where the
interfering signal has a wavelength that is long compared to the pitch of the
twisted pair, alternate lengths of wires develop opposing voltages, tending to
cancel the effect of the interference.

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Fire protection [edit]

In building construction, electrical cable jacket material is a potential source
of fuel for fires. To limit the spread of fire along cable jacketing, one may use
cable coating materials or one may use cables with jacketing that is
inherently fire retardant. The plastic covering on some metal clad cables
may be stripped off at installation to reduce the fuel source for fires.
Inorganic coatings and boxes around cables safeguard the adjacent areas
from the fire threat associated with unprotected cable jacketing. However,
this fire protection also traps heat generated from conductor losses, so the
protection must be thin.
There are two methods of providing fire protection to a cable:
1. Insulation material is deliberately added with fire retardant materials
2. The copper conductor itself is covered with mineral insulation (MICC
cables)
Earthed System:


Earlier the generators and transformers were of small capacities and

hence the fault current was less. The star point was solidly grounded.
This is called earthed system.

In Three phases earthed system, phase to earth voltage is 1.732 times

less than phase to phase voltage. Therefore voltage stress on cable to
armor is 1.732 times less than voltage stress between conductors to
conductor.

Where in unearthed system, (if system neutral is not grounded) phase to

ground voltage can be equal to phase to phase voltage. In such case the
insulation level of conductor to armor should be equal to insulation level
of conductor to conductor.

In an earthed cable, the three phase of cable are earthed to a ground.

Each of the phases of system is grounded to earth.
Examples: 1.9/3.3 KV, 3.8/6.6 KV system

Unearthed System:


Today generators of 500MVA capacities are used and therefore the fault
level has increased. In case of an earth fault, heavy current flows into the
fault and this lead to damage of generators and transformers. To reduce
the fault current, the star point is connected to earth through a
resistance. If an earth fault occurs on one phase, the voltage of the faulty

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phase with respect to earth appears across the resistance. Therefore, the
voltage of the other two healthy phases with respect to earth rises by 1.7
times. If the insulation of these phases is not designed for these increased
voltages, they may develop earth fault. This is called unearthed system.


In an unearth system, the phases are not grounded to earth .As a result
of which there are chances of getting shock by personnel who are
operating it.
Examples : 6.6/6.6 KV, 3.3/3.3 KV system.

Unearthed cable has more insulation strength as compared to earthed

cable. When fault occur phase to ground voltage is 3 time the normal
phase to ground voltage. So if we used earthed cable in unearthed
System, It may be chances of insulation puncture. So unearthed cable
are used. Such type of cable is used in 6.6 KV systems where resistance
type earthing is used.

3.5 CORE XLPE CABLE

SINGLE CORE XLPE CABLE

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3 CORE XLPE CABLE

3 CORE XLPE CABLE

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INTERNAL PARTS OF XLPE

4 CORE XLPE CABLE

XLPE
Cross-linked polyethylene, commonly abbreviated PEX or XLPE, is a form
of polyethylene with cross-links. It is formed into tubing, and is used
predominantly in building services pipe work systems, hydronic radiant
heating and cooling systems, domestic water piping, and insulation for high
tension (high voltage) electrical cables. It is also used for natural gas and
offshore oil applications, chemical transportation, and transportation
of sewage and slurries.

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In the 21st century, PEX has become a viable alternative to polyvinyl

chloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC) or copper tubing for
use as residential water pipes. PEX tubing ranges in size from imperial sizes
of 1/4-inch to 4-inch, but 1/2-inch, 3/4-inch, and 1-inch are by far the
most widely used.[1] Metric PEX is normally available in 16 mm, 20 mm,
25 mm, 32 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm and 63 mm sizes.
Properties
Almost all PEX is made from high density polyethylene (HDPE). PEX
contains cross-linked bonds in the polymer structure, changing the
thermoplastic to athermoset. Cross-linking is accomplished during or after
the extrusion of the tubing. The required degree of cross-linking, according
to ASTM Standard F 876-93, is between 65 and 89%. A higher degree of
cross-linking could result in brittleness and stress cracking of the material.
The high-temperature properties of the polymer are improved. Adequate
strength to 120150 C is maintained by reducing the tendency to flow.
Chemical resistance is enhanced by resisting dissolution. Low temperature
properties are improved. Impact and tensile strength, scratch resistance,
and resistance to brittle fracture are enhanced.
PEX- or XLPE-insulated cables have a rated maximum conductor
temperature of 90 C and an emergency rating up to 140 C, depending on
the standard used. They have a conductor short-circuit rating of 250 C.
XLPE has excellent dielectric properties, making it useful for medium
voltage - 10 to 50 kV AC, and high voltage cables - up to 380 kV AC-voltage,
and several hundred kV DC.
Numerous modifications in the basic polymer structure can be made to
maximize productivity during the manufacturing process. For medium
voltage applications, reactivity can be boosted significantly. This results in
higher line speeds in cases where limitations in either the curing or cooling
processes within the continuous vulcanization (CV) tubes used to cross-link
the insulation. PEX insulations can be modified to limit the amount of byproduct gases generated during the cross-linking process. This is
particularly useful for high voltage cable and extra-high voltage cable
applications, where degassing requirements can significantly lengthen cable
manufacturing time.
Benefits
Benefits of using PEX in plumbing include:

Flexibility. PEX has become a contender for use in residential water

plumbing because of its flexibility.[7] It can bend into a wide-radius turn
if space permits, or accommodate turns by using elbow joints. In

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addition, it can handle short-radius turns, sometimes supported with a

metal brace; in contrast, PVC, CPVC and copper all require elbow joints.
A single length of PEX pipe cannot handle a sharp 90-degree turn,
however, so in those situations, it is necessary to connect two PEX pipes
with a 90-degree PEX elbow joint.

Direct routing of pipes. PEX can run straight from a distribution point
to an outlet fixture without cutting or splicing the pipe. This reduces the
need for potentially weak and costly joints and reduces the drop in
pressure due to turbulence induced at transitions. Since PEX is flexible,
it is often possible to install a supply line directly from the water source
to an appliance using just one connection at each end.[2]
Greater water pressure at fixtures. Since PEX pipes typically have
fewer sharp turns, there is greater water pressure at the sinks and
showers and toilets where it is needed.
Less materials cost. Cost of materials is approximately 25% of
alternatives. One account suggested that the price of copper had
quadrupled from 2002 to 2006.
Easier installation. Installing PEX is much less labor intensive than
copper pipes, since there is no need to use torches to solder pipes
together, or to use glue to attach pipes to fittings.[8] One home inspector
wrote that "Once you've worked with PEX, you'll never go back to that
other stinky glue stuff."[10] Builders putting in radiant heating systems
found that PEX pipes "made installation easy and operation problemfree". PEX connections can be made by pushing together two matching
parts using a compression fitting, or by using an adjustable wrench or a
special crimping tool Generally, fewer connections and fittings are
needed in a PEX installation.
Reliable. It neither corrodes nor develops so-called "pinhole" leaks.
No fire risk during installation. Copper piping required soldering using
torches, and there was a risk of flame and heat causing a fire; but with
PEX there is virtually no danger from fire. However, there was an
unfortunate counter-incident in 2011 in which authorities suspect that
six firefighters were injured when a fire melted the plastic PEX pipes,
causing water to soak into ceiling insulation, adding greater weight,
which caused the ceiling to collapse; but the PEX tubing was not blamed
as the cause of the fire. [11] Overall PEX piping is much safer to install.

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Acceptance by plumbers. There are routinely advertisements for

plumbers specifically seeking ones with PEX experience.
Ability to merge new PEX with existing copper and PVC systems.
Manufacturers make fittings allowing installers to join a copper pipe on
one end with a PEX line at the other,[2] as well as have options to reduce
or expand the diameter of the pipes.
Longevity. The advantageous properties of PEX also make it a candidate
for progressive replacement of metal and thermoplastic pipes, especially
in long-life applications, because the expected lifetime of PEX pipes
reaches 50 years. However, the longest warranty offered by any PEX
producer is 25 years.
Suitable for hot and cold pipes. A convenient arrangement is to use
color-coding to lessen the possibility of confusion.[10] Typically, red PEX
tubing is used for hot water while blue PEX tubing is used for cold
water.[3]
Less likely to burst from freezing. The general position is that PEX
plastic materials are slower to burst than copper or PVC pipes, but that
they will burst eventually since freezing causes water to expand.[12] One
account suggested that PEX water-filled pipes, frozen over time, will swell
and tear; in contrast, copper pipe "rips" and PVC "shatters".[13] Home
expert Steve Maxwell suggested in 2007 that PEX water-filled pipes could
endure "five or six freeze-thaw cycles without splitting" while copper
would split apart promptly on the first freeze.[14] In new unheated
seasonal homes, it is still recommended to drain pipes during an
unheated cold season or take other measures to prevent pipes from
bursting because of the cold. In new construction, it is recommended
that all water pipes be sloped slightly to permit drainage, if necessary.[14]
No corrosion. Copper and iron pipes can experience corrosion leaks but
PEX does not have these problems.
Environmental benefits. One account suggested that PEX used in
radiant heating was better for the environment than a copper choice,
although it noted that the pipes were based on petroleum products.
Pipe insulation possible. Conventional foam wrap insulation materials
can be added to PEX piping to keep hot water hot, and cold water cold,
and prevent freezing, if necessary.[15]

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Drawbacks

Degradation from sunlight. PEX tubing cannot be used in applications

exposed to sunlight, as it degrades fairly rapidly.[16] Prior to installation it
must be stored away from sunlight, and needs to be shielded from
daylight after installation. Leaving it exposed to direct sunlight for as
little as 30 days may result in premature failure of the tubing due to
embrittlement.
Perforation by insects. PEX tubing is vulnerable to being perforated by
the mouthparts of plant-feeding insects; in particular, the Western
conifer seed bug (Leptoglossus occidental is) is known to sometimes
pierce through PEX tubing, resulting in leakage.
Problems with yellow brass fittings. There have been some claimed
PEX systems failures in the U.S., Canada and Europe resulting in several
pending class action lawsuits. The failures are claimed to be a result of
the brass fittings used in the PEX system. Generally, builders and
manufacturers have learned from these experiences and have found the
best materials for use in fittings used to connect pipe with connectors,
valves and other fittings. But there were problems reported with a
specific type of brass fitting used in connection with installations
in Nevada that caused a negative interaction between its mineralrich hard water[18] and so-called "yellow brass" fittings.[6] Zinc in the
fittings leached into the pipe material in a chemical reaction known
as dezincification, causing some leaks or blockages.[18] A solution was to
replace the yellow brass fittings, which had 30% zinc, with red brass
fittings, which had 5% to 10% zinc. It led California building authorities
to insist on fittings made from "red brass" which typically has a lower
zinc content, and is unlikely to cause problems in the future since
problems with these specific fittings have become known.
Initial adjustment to a new plumbing system. There were a few
reported problems in the early stages as plumbers and homeowners
learned to adjust to the new fittings, and when connections were poorly
or improperly made, but home inspectors have generally not noticed any
problems with PEX since 2000.[19]
Can't use adhesives for pipe insulation. One source suggested that
pipe insulation, applied to PEX using certain adhesives, could have a
detrimental effect causing the pipe to age prematurely; however, other
insulating materials can be used, such as conventional foam wrap
insulation, without negative effects.

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Fittings somewhat more expensive. Generally, PEX fittings,

particularly the do-it-yourself compression ones, are more expensive
than copper ones, although there is no soldering required.[2] Due to the
flexibility of PEX, it generally requires fewer fittings, which tends to offset
the higher cost per fitting.
Potential problems for PEX radiant heating with iron-based
components. If PEX tubing is used in a radiant heating system that
has ferrous radiators or other parts, meaning they are made out
of iron or its alloys, then there is the possibility of rust developing over
time; if this is the case, then one solution is to have an "oxygen barrier"
in these systems to prevent rust from developing. However, in new
installations PEX pipes and iron-based components are not intermixed.

Possible health effects. There was controversy in California during the

2000s about health concerns. Several groups blocked adoption of PEX
for concerns about chemicals getting into the water, either from
chemicals outside the pipes, or from chemicals inside the pipes such
as methyl tertiary butyl ether and tertiary butyl alcohol. These concerns
delayed statewide adoption of PEX for almost a decade. After substantial
"back-and-forth legal wrangling", which was described as a "judicial
rollercoaster", the disputing groups came to a consensus, and California
permitted use of PEX in all occupancies. An environmental impact
report and subsequent studies determined there were no causes for
concerns about public health from use of PEX piping.
PVC

Poly (vinyl chloride), commonly abbreviated PVC, is the third-most widely

produced plastic, after polyethylene and polypropylene. PVC is used in
construction because it is more effective than traditional materials such as
copper, iron or wood in pipe and profile applications. It can be made softer
and more flexible by the addition of plasticizers, the most widely used
being phthalates. In this form, it is also used in clothing and upholstery,
electrical cable insulation, inflatable products and many applications in
which it replaces rubber.[5
Mechanical properties
PVC has high hardness and mechanical properties. The mechanical
properties enhance with the molecular weight increasing, but decrease with
the temperature increasing. The mechanical properties of rigid PVC (uPVC)
is very good, the elastic modulus can reach to 1500-3,000 MPa. The soft
PVC (Flexible PVC) elastic is 1.5-15 MPa. However, elongation at break is up

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to 200% -450%. PVC friction is ordinary, the static friction factor is 0.4-0.5,
the dynamic friction factor is 0.23.[17]
Thermal properties
The heat stability of PVC is very poor, when the temperature reaches 140 C
PVC starts to decompose. Its melting temperature is 160 C. The linear
expansion coefficient of the PVC is small and has flame retardancy, the
oxidation index is up to 45 or more. Therefore, the addition of a heat
stabilizer during the process is necessary in order to ensure the product's
properties.
Electrical properties
PVC is a polymer with good insulation properties but because of its higher
polar nature the electrical insulating property is inferior to non polar
polymers such as polyethylene and polypropylene.
As the dielectric constant, dielectric loss tangent value and volume
resistivity are high; the corona resistance is not very good; it is generally
suitable for medium or low voltage and low frequency insulation materials.
Electric cables
PVC is commonly used as the insulation on electrical cables; PVC used for
this purpose needs to be plasticized.
In a fire, PVC-coated wires can form hydrogen chloride fumes; the chlorine
serves to scavenge free radicals and is the source of the material's fire
retardance. While HCl fumes can also pose a health hazard in their own
right, HCl dissolves in moisture and breaks down onto surfaces, particularly
in areas where the air is cool enough to breathe, and is not available for
inhalation.[23] Frequently in applications where smoke is a major hazard
(notably in tunnels and communal areas) PVC-free cable insulation is
preferred, such as low smoke zero halogen (LSZH) insulation. Any metal
parts must not be mixed together during the raw material stage, as it may
lead to EMI

PVC CABLE

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PILC CABLE

PILC CABLE

Cable Glands


A device designed to permit the entry of cable in to electrical equipment

which provide sealing, retention and earthing, bonding, grounding,
insulation, strain relief or combination of all these.

Gland should maintain overall integrity of enclosure in to which it is to be

fitted.

Gland Selection


Gland should be selected on following Points

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Type of Cable
Gland Size
Entry Type/Thread Specification of application
Ingress Protection required.
Material

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Type of Cable:


Unarmored: Unarmored Cable will require outer seal within Gland to not
only Provide ingress protection but also degree of retention.

Armored: Gland that required clamping mechanism to terminate the

armored both mechanically and electrically.

The Gland will usually be required to provide ingress protection by

sealing outer sheath and retention by clamping amour.

Type of Glands:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Brass Indoor Type Gland

Brass Outdoor Type Gland
Brass Straitening Unarmored Cable Gland
Brass Weather Proof Gland
PG Threaded Gland:
Industrial Type Gland

1) Brass Indoor Type Gland



This Gland is quite handy in use with various types of cable whether
plastic, rubberized, metal or any other.

Application: Dry indoor, for use with all type of SWA cables, plastic or
rubber sheathed cable.

Brass indoor gland suitable for single wire armored, plastic or rubber
sheathed cable. Recommended to use with shroud for additional ingress
protection.

Cable Type: Steel Wire Amour.

Amour Clamping: Two Part Amour Lock.

2) Brass Outdoor Type Gland



This come in stunning high quality material for use in outdoor or indoor
application with various types of cables sheathed or unsheathed.

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Brass indoor and outdoor gland popularly used with single wire armored.

Plastic or rubber sheathed cable. Terminates and secure cable armoring

and outer seal grips sheath of cable thus ensuring mechanical strength
and earth continuity.

CW brass glands are also supplied with integral earth facilities.

Recommended to use PVC shroud for additional ingress protection

Application:
a) Outdoor or indoor, for use with all type of SWA cables, plastic or
rubber sheathed cable.
b) Most suitable for SWA, plastic of rubber (Elastomeric) sheathed
cables.
c) Used in dry indoor conditions.
d) No loose parts and easy to install.
e) Save times & money.


Gland size: 20 mm to 75 mm (S & L)

Accessories : Earth Tag, PVC Shroud, Neo prime Rubber & LSF Rubber,
PVC Washer, Brass Lock Nut.

Cable Type: Wire Braid Armor.

Armor Clamping: Three Parts (With Lock Nut).

(3) Brass Straitening Unarmored Cable Gland



Nickel plated or natural brass A2 type cable glands are used with variety
of unarmored or rubber sheathed cables.

Brass indoor and outdoor cable gland suitable for all types of unarmored
cables, plastic or rubber sheathed cables.

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Application:
1. For use with unarmored elastomeric and plastic insulated cables.
2. Indoor & Outdoor whenever it is required to provide sealing on cable
outer sheath.

Size : Metric 20mm to 75mm (S/L)

Accessories: Earth Tag, PVC Shroud, Neo prime Rubber & LSF Rubber,
PVC Washer, Brass Lock Nut.

Cable Type : Unarmored

4) Brass Weather Proof Gland



Unlike other types of cable glands, This type cable gland is used precisely
with single armored various types of swa cables whether plastic or rubber
sheathed ones. this type cable gland is known for its uninterrupted
services once the gland is fixed to the desired wires and wire components.

Suitable for SWA or rubber sheathed cables.

Outer seal grips bedding layer of cable for use in most climatic
conditions.

Weather proof and water proof.

Design has separate armor lock rings. Can be supplied with integral
earth facility.

Gland size: 20 mm to 75 mm (S & L)

Application :

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1. Outdoor or indoor, for use with single armored, all type of SWA cable,
plastic or rubber sheathed cable.
2. E1W Gland is Weatherproof & Waterproof Cable Gland


Cable Type : Steel Wire Armour

Armour Clamping: Three Part Armour Lock

Sealing Technique: Compression & Displacement Type

Sealing Area(s): Inner & Outer Sheath

5) PG Threaded Gland:


Nickel chrome plated PG threaded cable gland is a custom made threaded

gland to meet the needs from the meet industries. Apart from the round
headed PG threaded cable gland, we also offer hexagonal gland or any
other like spherical rectangular or any other dimensional PG threaded
cable gland as per the specification of the customer.

6) Industrial Cable Gland:



Brass gland suitable for wire braid armored, plastic or rubber sheathed
cable. Terminates and secure cable armoring and outer seal grips sheath
of cable thus ensuring mechanical strength and earth continuity.
Recommended to use PVC shroud for additional ingress protection

Cable Type: Wire Braid Armour

Armour Clamping : Three Part (With Lock Nut)

Sealing Technique: Compression Type.

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Brass gland suitable for steel tape armored, plastic or rubber sheathed
cables. Terminates and secure cable armoring and outer seal grips
sheath of cable thus ensuring mechanical strength and earth continuity.

Recommended to use PVC shroud for additional ingress protection

Cable Type : Steel Tape Armour

Armour Clamping : Three Part (With Lock Nut)

Sealing Technique: Compression Type.

CABLE GLAND

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GLANDED CABLE

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BUSBAR
In electrical power distribution, a busbar (also spelled bus bar, or sometimes
incorrectly as buss bar or busbar, with the term bus being a contraction of
the Latin omnibus - meaning for all) is a strip or bar of copper, brass or
aluminum that conducts electricity within a switch board, distribution
board, substation, battery bank or other electrical apparatus. Its main
purpose is to conduct electricity, not to function as a structural member.
The cross-sectional size of the busbar determines the maximum amount
of current that can be safely carried. Busbars can have a cross-sectional
area of as little as 10 mm2 but electrical substations may use metal tubes of
50 mm in diameter (20 cm2) or more as busbars. An aluminum smelter will
have very large busbars used to carry tens of thousands of amperes to
the electrochemical cells that produce aluminium from molten salts.
Design and placement
Busbars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes as these shapes
allow heat to dissipate more efficiently due to their high surface area to
cross-sectional area ratio. The skin effect makes 5060 Hz AC busbars more
than about 8 mm (1/3 in) thickness inefficient, so hollow or flat shapes are
prevalent in higher current applications. A hollow section has higher
stiffness than a solid rod of equivalent current-carrying capacity, which
allows a greater span between busbar supports in outdoor switchyards.

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A busbar may either be supported on insulators, or else insulation may

completely surround it. Busbars are protected from accidental contact either
by a metal earthed enclosure or by elevation out of normal reach. Power
Neutral busbars may also be insulated. Earth (safety grounding) busbars are
typically bare and bolted directly onto any metal chassis of their enclosure.
Busbars may be enclosed in a metal housing, in the form of bus duct or
busway, segregated-phase bus, or isolated-phase bus.
Busbars may be connected to each other and to electrical apparatus by
bolted, clamp, or welded connections. Often joints between high-current bus
sections have matching surfaces that are silver-plated to reduce the contact
resistance. At extra-high voltages (more than 300 kV) in outdoor buses,
corona around the connections becomes a source of radio-frequency
interference and power loss, so connection fittings designed for these
voltages are used.
Busbars are typically contained inside switchgear, panel boards, or busway.
Distribution boards split the electrical supply into separate circuits at one
location. Busways, or bus ducts, are long busbars with a protective cover.
Rather than branching the main supply at one location, they allow new
circuits to branch off any where along the route of the busway.

COPPER BUSBAR

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CABLE CONNECTED TO BUSBAR

BUSBAR TRUNKING

STEEL CASE BUSBAR TRUNKING

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CHAPTER - 13
POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

APFC PANEL
AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
What is Power Factor


Power Factor Definition: Power factor is the ratio between the KW and
the KVA drawn by an electrical load where the KW is the actual load
power and the KVA is the apparent load power. It is a measure of how
effectively the current is being converted into useful work output and
more particularly is a good indicator of the effect of the load current on
the efficiency of the supply system.

All current flow causes losses both in the supply and distribution system.
A load with a power factor of 1.0 results in the most efficient loading of
the supply. A load with a power factor of, say, 0.8, results in much higher
losses in the supply system and a higher bill for the consumer. A
comparatively small improvement in power factor can bring about a
significant reduction in losses since losses are proportional to the square
of the current.

When the power factor is less than one the missing power is known as
reactive power which unfortunately is necessary to provide a magnetizing
field required by motors and other inductive loads to perform their
desired functions. Reactive power can also be interpreted as wattles,
magnetizing or wasted power and it represents an extra burden on the
electricity supply system and on the consumers bill.

A poor power factor is usually the result of a significant phase difference

between the voltage and current at the load terminals, or it can be due to
a high harmonic content or a distorted current waveform.

A poor power factor is generally the result of an inductive load such as an

induction motor, a power transformer, and ballast in a luminary, a
welding set or an induction furnace. A distorted current waveform can be
the result of a rectifier, an inverter, a variable speed drive, a switched
mode power supply, discharge lighting or other electronic loads.

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A poor power factor due to inductive loads can be improved by the

addition of power factor correction equipment, but a poor power factor
due to a distorted current waveform requires a change in equipment
Design or the addition of harmonic filters.

Some inverters are quoted as having a power factor of better than 0.95
when, in reality, the true power factor is between 0.5 and 0.75. The figure
of 0.95 is based on the cosine of the angle between the voltage and
current but does not take into account that the current waveform is
discontinuous and therefore contributes to increased losses.

An inductive load requires a magnetic field to operate and in creating

such a magnetic field causes the current to be out of phase with the
voltage (the current lags the voltage). Power factor correction is the
process of compensating for the lagging current by creating a leading
current by connecting capacitors to the supply.

P.F (Cos ) = K.W / KVA Or

P.F (Cos ) = True Power / Apparent Power.

KW is Working Power (also called Actual Power or Active Power or Real

Power).

It is the power that actually powers the equipment and performs useful
work.

KVAR is Reactive Power.

It is the power that magnetic equipment (transformer, motor and relay)

needs to produce the magnetizing flux.

KVA is Apparent Power.

It is the vectorial summation of KVAR and KW.

Displacement Power Factor Correction.

An induction motor draws current from the supply that is made up of
resistive components and inductive components. The resistive components
are:
1) Load current.
2) Loss current.
3) And the inductive components are:
4) Leakage reactance.
5) Magnetizing current.

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The current due to the leakage reactance is dependent on the total

current drawn by the motor, but the magnetizing current is independent
of the load on the motor. The magnetizing current will typically be
between 20% and 60% of the rated full load current of the motor. The
magnetizing current is the current that establishes the flux in the iron
and is very necessary if the motor is going to operate.
The magnetizing current does not actually contribute to the actual work
output of the motor. It is the catalyst that allows the motor to work
properly. The magnetizing current and the leakage reactance can be
considered passenger components of current that will not affect the
power drawn by the motor, but will contribute to the power dissipated in
the supply and distribution system.

Take for example a motor with a current draw of 100 Amps and a power
factor of 0.75 The resistive component of the current is 75 Amps and this
is what the KWh meter measures. The higher current will result in an
increase in the distribution losses of (100 x 100) /(75 x 75) = 1.777 or a
78% increase in the supply losses.

In the interest of reducing the losses in the distribution system, power

factor correction is added to neutralize a portion of the magnetizing
current of the motor. Typically, the corrected power factor will be 0.92
0.95

Power factor correction is achieved by the addition of capacitors in

parallel with the connected motor circuits and can be applied at the
starter, or applied at the switchboard or distribution panel. The resulting
capacitive current is leading current and is used to cancel the lagging
inductive current flowing from the supply.

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Displacement Static Correction (Static Compensation).

 As a large proportion of the inductive or lagging current on the supply is
due to the magnetizing current of induction motors, it is easy to correct
each individual motor by connecting the correction capacitors to the
motor starters.


With static correction, it is important that the capacitive current is less

than the inductive magnetizing current of the induction motor. In many
installations employing static power factor correction, the correction
capacitors are connected directly in parallel with the motor windings.

When the motor is Off Line, the capacitors are also Off Line. When the
motor is connected to the supply, the capacitors are also connected
providing correction at all times that the motor is connected to the
supply. This removes the requirement for any expensive power factor
monitoring and control equipment.

In this situation, the capacitors remain connected to the motor terminals

as the motor slows down. An induction motor, while connected to the
supply, is driven by a rotating magnetic field in the stator which induces
current into the rotor. When the motor is disconnected from the supply,
there is for a period of time, a magnetic field associated with the rotor. As
the motor decelerates, it generates voltage out its terminals at a
frequency which is related to its speed.

The capacitors connected across the motor terminals, form a resonant

circuit with the motor inductance. If the motor is critically corrected,
(corrected to a power factor of 1.0) the inductive reactance equals the
capacitive reactance at the line frequency and therefore the resonant
frequency is equal to the line frequency. If the motor is over corrected, the
resonant frequency will be below the line frequency. If the frequency of
the voltage generated by the decelerating motor passes through the
resonant frequency of the corrected motor, there will be high currents
and voltages around the motor/capacitor circuit. This can result in
severe damage to the capacitors and motor. It is imperative that motors
are never over corrected or critically corrected when static correction is
employed.

Static power factor correction should provide capacitive current equal to

80% of the magnetizing current, which is essentially the open shaft
current of the motor.

The magnetizing current for induction motors can vary considerably.

Typically, magnetizing currents for large two pole machines can be as low
as 20% of the rated current of the motor while smaller low speed motors

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can have a magnetizing current as high as 60% of the rated full load
current of the motor


Where the open shaft current cannot be measured, and the magnetizing
current is not quoted, an approximate level for the maximum correction
that can be applied can be calculated from the half load characteristics of
the motor. It is dangerous to base correction on the full load
characteristics of the motor as in some cases, motors can exhibit a high
leakage reactance and correction to 0.95 at full load will result in over
correction under no load, or disconnected conditions.

Static correction is commonly applied by using on e contactor to control

both the motor and the capacitors. It is better practice to use two
contactors, one for the motor and one for the capacitors. Where one
contactor is employed, it should be up sized for the capacitive load. The
use of a second contactor eliminates the problems of resonance between
the motor and the capacitors.

How Capacitors Work

 Induction motors, transformers and many other electrical loads require
magnetizing current (kvar) as well as actual power (kW). By representing
these components of apparent power (kVA) as the sides of a right triangle,
we can determine the apparent power from the right triangle rule: kVA2 =
kW2 + kVAR2.


To reduce the kva required for any given load, you must shorten the line
that represents the kvar. This is precisely what capacitors do. By
supplying kvar right at the load, the capacitors relieve the utility of the
burden of carrying the extra kvar. This makes the utility transmission/
distribution system more efficient, reducing cost for the utility and their
customers. The ratio of actual power to apparent power is usually
expressed in percentage and is called power factor.

What Causes Low Power Factor?

 Since power factor is defined as the ratio of KW to KVA, we see that low
power factor results when KW is small in relation to KVA. Inductive loads.
Inductive loads (which are sources of Reactive Power) include:
1.
2.
3.
4.


Transformers
Induction motor
Induction generators (wind mill generators)
High intensity discharge (HID) lighting

These inductive loads constitute a major portion of the power consumed

in industrial complexes.

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Reactive power (KVAR) required by inductive loads increases the amount

of apparent power (KVA) in your distribution system .This increase in
reactive and apparent power results in a larger angle (measured
between KW and KVA). Recall that, as increases, cosine (or power
factor) decreases.

Why Should I Improve My Power Factor?

 You want to improve your power factor for several different reasons.
Some of the benefits of improving your power factor include:
(1) Lower utility fees by:
a) Reducing peak KW billing demand:


Inductive loads, which require reactive power, caused your low power
factor. This increase in required reactive power (KVAR) causes an
increase in required apparent power (KVA), which is what the utility is
supplying. So, a facilitys low power factor causes the utility to have to
increase its generation and transmission capacity in order to handle this
extra demand.

By lowering your power factor, you use less KVAR. This results in less
KW, which equates to a dollar savings from the utility.

b) Eliminating the power factor penalty:



Utilities usually charge customers an additional fee when their power

factor is less than 0.95. (In fact, some utilities are not obligated to deliver
electricity to their customer at any time the customers power factor falls
below 0.85.) Thus, you can avoid this additional fee by increasing your
power factor.

(2) Increased system capacity and reduced system losses in your

electrical system


By adding capacitors (KVAR generators) to the system, the power factor is

improved and the KW capacity of the system is increased.

For example, a 1,000 KVA transformer with an 80% power factor provides
800 KW (600 KVAR) of power to the main bus.

By increasing the power factor to 90%, more KW can be supplied for the
same amount of KVA.

1000 KVA = (900 KW)2 + (? KVAR)2

KVAR = 436

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The KW capacity of the system increases to 900 KW and the utility

supplies only 436 KVAR.

Uncorrected power factor causes power system losses in your distribution

system. By improving your power factor, these losses can be reduced.
With the current rise in the cost of energy, increased facility efficiency is
very desirable. And with lower system losses, you are also able to add
additional load to your system.

(3) Increased voltage level in your electrical system and cooler, more
efficient motors


As mentioned above, uncorrected power factor causes power system

losses in your distribution system. As power losses increase, you may
experience voltage drops. Excessive voltage drops can cause overheating
and premature failure of motors and other inductive equipment. So, by
raising your power factor, you will minimize these voltage drops along
feeder cables and avoid related problems. Your motors will run cooler
and be more efficient, with a slight increase in capacity and starting
torque.

Automatic Power Factor Correction (APFC) Panel

Power Factor Improving:
1. Please check if required kVAr of capacitors are installed.
2. Check the type of capacitor installed is suitable for application or the
capacitors are de rated.
3. Check if the capacitors are permanently ON. The Capacitor are not
switched off
4. when the load is not working, under such condition the average power
factor is found to be lower side.
5. Check whether all the capacitors are operated in APFC depending upon
the load operation.
6. Check whether the APFC installed in the installation is working or not.
Check the CT connection is taken from the main incomer side of
transformer, after the fix compensation of transformer.
7. Check if the load demand in the system is increased.
8. Check if power transformer compensation is provided.
Thumb Rule if HP is known.

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The compensation for motor should be calculated taking the details from
the rating plate of motor Or

the capacitor should be rated for 1/3 of HP

Kvar Required For Transformer Compensation:

Transformer
 <= 315 kVA T.C
 315kVA To 1000 kVA
 >= 1000 kVA

236

Required Kva
= 5% of KVA
= 6% of KVA
= 8% of KVA

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Where to connect capacitor:

 Fix compensation should be provided to take care of power transformer.
Power and distribution transformers, which work on the principle of
electro-magnetic induction, consume reactive power for their own needs
even when its secondary is not connected to any load. The power factor
will be very low under such situation. To improve the power factor it is
required to connect a fixed capacitor or capacitor bank at the LT side of
the Transformer. For approximate kVAr of capacitors required

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If the installation is having various small loads with the mixture of large
loads then the APFC should be recommended. Note that APFC should
have minimum step rating of 10% as smaller step.

If loads are small then the capacitor should be connected parallel to load.
The connection should be such that whenever the loads are switched on
the capacitor also switches on along with the load.

Note that APFC panel can maintain the power factor on L.T side of
transformer and it is necessary to provide fix compensation for Power
transformer.

In case there is no transformer in the installation, then the C.T for

sensing power factor should be provided at the incoming of main switch
of the plant.

Calculation of required capacitor:


Suppose Actual P.F is 0.8, Required P.F is 0.98 and Total Load is
516KVA.


Power factor = kwh / kvah

kW = kVA x Power Factor

= 516 x 0.8 = 412.8

Required capacitor = kW x Multiplying Factor

= (0.8 x 516) x Multiplying Factor

= 412.8 x 0.547 (See Table to find Value according to P.F 0.8 to P.F of
0.98)

= 225.80 kVar

Multiplying factor for calculating kVAr

Target PF
Testing of Capacitor at Site:
Measurement of Voltage:
 Check the voltage using multi meter at capacitor terminals.


Please note that the current output of 440 volt capacitor connected to a
system of 415 volt will be lesser than rated value.

Table no -1 & 2give you the resultant kVAr output of the capacitor due to
variation in supply voltage.

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The kVAr of capacitor will not be same if voltage applied to the capacitor
and frequency changes. The example given below shows how to calculate
capacitor current from the measured value at site.

Example:


1. Name plate details 15kVAr, 3 phases, 440v, and 50Hz capacitor.

Measured voltage 425v , Measured frequency 48.5Hz

Kvar = (fM / fR) x (VM / VR)2 x kvar

Kvar = (48.5/50) x (425 / 440)2 x 15

= 13.57kVAr.

2. Name plate details 15kVAr, 3 phases, 415v, and 50Hz capacitor.

Measured voltage 425v, Measured frequency 48.5Hz

Kvar = (fM / fR) x (VM / VR)2 x kVAr

Kvar = (48.5/50) x (425 / 415)2 x 15

= 15.26kVAr
THREE PHASE 440V CAPACITOR
kVAr
440V

Line
current
440V

kVAr
at
415V

Line
Current
at 415V

Measured capacitance
Across two terminals
with
third terminal open.
(Micro farad) 440V

6.56

4.45

6.188

41.10

7.5

9.84

6.67

9.28

61.66

10

13.12

8.90

12.38

82.21

12.5

16.4

11.12

15.47

102.76

15

19.68

13,34

18.56

123.31

20

26.24

17.79

24.75

164.42

25

32.80

22.24

30.94

205,52

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THREE PHASE 415V CAPACITOR

kVAr
415V

Line
current
415V

kVAr at
440V

Line
Current at
415V

Measured capacitance
across two terminals
with third terminal
open. (Micro farad)
415V

6.55

5.62

7.38

46.21

7.5

10.43

8.43

11.06

69.31

10

13.91

11.24

14.75

92.41

12.5

17.39

14.05

18.44

116.51

15

20.87

16.86

22.13

138.62

20

27.82

22.48

29.50

184.82

25

34.78

38.10

36.88

231.03

Measurement of Current:
 The capacitor current can be measured using Multi meter.


Make a record of measurement data of individual phase and other

parameter.

Check whether the current measured is within the limit value with
respect to supply voltage & data given in the name plate of capacitor
Refer formula for calculation

Formula for calculating rated current of capacitor with rated supply

voltage and frequency.

l = kvar x 103 / ( 3 X V ) L L

Example:


15kVAr, 3 phase, 440v, 50Hz capacitor.

l = kVAr x 103 / ( 3 X V ) L L

l = (15 x 1000) / (1.732 x 440) L

l = 19.68AMPs L

15kVAr, 3 phases, 415v, 50Hz capacitor

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l = kVAr x 103/ ( 3 X V ) L L

l = (15 x 1000) / (1.732 x 415) L

l = 20.87 Amps

Discharge of Capacitor:


L.T power capacitors are provided with discharge resistor to discharge the
capacitor which is limited to one min. The resistor are provided as per
clause No-7.1 of IS 13340-1993.

Switch off the supply to the capacitor and wait for 1 minute and then
short the terminals of capacitor to ensure that the capacitor is completely
discharged.

This shorting of terminals ensures the safety while handling the capacitor

Discharge of capacitor also becomes necessary for the safety of meter

used for capacitance measurement.

Termination and Mounting:



Use suitable size lugs for connecting the cable to the terminals of
capacitor.

Ensure that there is no loose connection: As loose connection may lead to

failure of capacitor / insulation break down of cable.

Use proper tools for connection / tightening.

Ensure that the capacitor is mounted vertically.

The earthing of capacitor should be done before charging.

The applied voltage should not exceed more than 10%. Refer technical
specification of capacitor.

The capacitor should be provided with the short circuit protection device
as indicated in following Table

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KVAr

HRC Fuse

Cable Amps

12 Amps

12 Amps

7.5

25 Amps

25 Amps

10

32 Amps

32 Amps

12.5

32 Amps

32 Amps

15

50 Amps

50 Amps

20

50 Amps

50 Amps

25

63 Amps

63 Amps

50

125 Amps

125 Amps

75

200 Amps

200 Amps

100

200 Amps

250 Amps

Use of capacitor in APFC panel



The capacitor should be provided with suitable designed inrush current

limiting inductor coils or special capacitor duty contactors. Annexure d
point no d-7.1 of IS 13340-1993

Once the capacitor is switched off it should not be switched on again

within 60 seconds so that the capacitor is completely discharged. The
switching time in the relay provided in the APFC panel should be set for
60 seconds for individual steps to discharge. Clause No-7.1 of IS 133401993

If the capacitor is switched manually or if you are switching capacitors

connected in parallel with each other then ON delay timer (60sec)
should be provided and in case of parallel operation once again point No
1 should be taken care. Clause No-7.1 of IS 13340-1993

The capacitor mounted in the panel should have min gap of 25-30 mm
between the capacitor and 50 mm around the capacitor to the panel
enclosure.

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In case of banking a min gap of 25mm between the phase to phase and
19mm between the phases to earth should be maintained. Ensure that
the banking bus bar is rated for 1.8 times rated current of bank.

The panel should have provision for cross ventilation, the louver / fan
can be provided in the care Annexure d point No d-3.1 IS 13340-1993

For use of reactor and filter in the panel fan should be provided for
cooling.

Short circuit protection device (HRC fuse / MCCB) should not exceed 1.8
x rated current of capacitor.

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CHAPTER - 14
EARTHING

NECESSITY OF EQUIPMENT EARTHING

PLATE EARTHING

PIPE EARTHING
EARTHING
Equipment Earthing is a connection done through a metal link between the
body of any electrical appliance, or neutral point, as the case may be, to the
deeper ground soil. The metal link is normally of MS flat, CI flat, GI wire
which should be penetrated to the ground earth grid.
Equipment Earthing based on IS:3043-1987 Standard

Classification of Electrical Equipment IS: 9409-1980

Important Rules for Safety and Earthing practice is based on IE Rules

1956

Guide on effects of current passing through Human body IS:84371997

Protection of Buildings and Structures from Lightning IS:2309-1969

Earth: The conductive mass of the earth, whose Electric Potential at

any point is conventionally assumed and taken as ZERO.

Earth Electrode: A Conductor or group of Conductors in Intimate

contact with and providing as electrical connection to earth.

Earth Electrode Resistance: The resistance of an earth electrode to the

general mass of earth.

Earthing Conductor: A protective conductor connecting the main

earthing terminal to an earth electrode or other means of earthing.

Equipotential Bonding: Electrical connection putting various exposed

conductive parts and extraneous conductive parts at a substantially
equal potential.

Example:

Inter

connect

protective

conductor,

conductors and risers of AC/HV Systems if any.

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earth

continuity

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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Potential Gradient: The Potential Difference per unit length measured

in the direction in which it is max.

Touch Voltage: The P.D. between a grounded metallic structure and a

point on the earths surface separated by a horizontal reach of one
Metre.

Step Voltage: The P.D. between two points on the earths surface
separated by a distance one pace (Step) assumed to be one Metre.

Earth

grid:

System

of

grounding

electrodes

consisting

of

Interconnected Connectors buried in the earth to provide a common

ground fro electrical devices and metallic structures.

Earth mat: A grounding system formed by a grid of horizontally buried

conductors - Serves to dissipate the earth fault current to earth and
also as an equipotential bonding conductor system.

Necessity of Equipment Earthing Protection

a) Safety of personnel
b) Safety of Equipment
Prevent or at least minimize damage to equipment as a result of flow of
heavy currents.
c) Improvement of the reliability of the Power System.
Classification of Earthing
The earthing is broadly divided as
a) System earthing (Connection between part of plant in an operating
system like L V neutral of a power Transformer winding) and earth.
b) Equipment earthing (Safety grounding) Connecting bodies of equipment
(like motor body, Transformer tank, Switch gear box, operating rods of air
break switches, LV breaker body, HV breaker body, Feeder breaker
bodies etc) to earth.
Permissible values of earth resistance
a) Power stations - 0.5 ohms
b) EHT Stations - 1.0 ohms
c) 33KV SS - 2 ohms

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ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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d) DTR Structures - 5 ohms

e) Tower foot resistance - 10 ohms
What is the Basics for arriving at permissible earth resistances
As per IE rules One has to have a definite base for that As per IE rules one
has to keep touch potential less than

a)

Recommended safe value 523 volts

b)

Ifault = maximum current in fault conditions,

c)

Maximum fault current is 100 KVA the current in 100 KVA is

about 100 A; where percentage impedance is 4%

d)

For a Substation of 100 KVA Transformer

0.26 ohms being quite low, Quality work is to be done during

construction, to obtain such a value of earthing system, and the
expenditure for that will be very high. Hence the electrical
inspectors are insisting about 1.0 ohms. This seems justifying
for the urban areas This value may be 2ohms in case of Rural
areas, which is recommended by most of the authorities.
e)

The earth electrode resistance value also carries importance in

view of full protection by lightning arrestors against lightning.
The earth electrode resistance value in that case is given by the
formula

Flash over voltage of 11KV = 75 KV

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Lightning Arrestor Displacement = 40 KA.

TYPE OF EARTHING
Plate Type Earthing
In this, cast Iron plate of size 600 mm X 600 mm X 6.3 mm thick plate is
being used as earth plate. This is being connected with Hot dip GI main
earth strip of size 50mm X 6mm thick X 2.5 meter long by means of nut,
bolts & washers of required size. The main earth strip is connected with hot
dip GI strip of size 40mm X 3mm of required length as per the site location
up to the equipment earth / neutral connection. The earth plate is back
filled & covered with earthing material (mixture of charcoal & salt) by
150mm from all six sides. The remaining pit is back filled with excavated
earth. Along with earth plate, rigid PVC pipe of 2.5 meter long is also
provided in the earth pit for watering purpose for to keep the earthing
resistance within specific limit.
Pipe Type Earthing
In this Hot dip GI pipe of size 40mm dia X 2.5 meter is being used for
equipment earthing. This pipe is perforated at each interval of 100mm and
is tapered at lower end. A clamped is welded with this pipe at 100mm below
the top for making connection with hot dip GI strip of size 40mm X 3mm of
required length as per the site location up to the equipment earth / neutral
connection. On its open end funnel is being fitted for watering purpose. The
earth pipe is placed inside 2700 mm depth pit. A 600mm dia farma of GI
sheet or Cement pipe in two halves is are placed around the pipe. Then the
angular space between this farma and earth pipe is back filled with
alternate layer of 300mm height with salt and charcoal. The remaining
space outside farma will be backfilled by excavated earth. The farma is
gradually lifted up as the backfilling up progresses. Thus the pit is being
filled up to the 300mm below the ground level. This remaining portion is
covered by constructing a small chamber of brick so that top open end of
pipe and connection with main earth pipe will be accessible for attending
when necessary. The chamber is closed by wooden / stone cover. Water is
poured into the pipe through its open end funnel to keep the earthing
resistance within specific limit.

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CHAPTER - 15
CCTV AND FIRE ALARM

EXTRA LOW VOLTAGE SYSTEMS

CCTV

FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS
CCTV
Closed-circuit television (CCTV) is the use of video cameras to transmit a
signal to a specific place, on a limited set of monitors. It differs from
broadcast television in that the signal is not openly transmitted, though it
may employ point to point (P2P), point to multipoint, or mesh wireless links.
Though almost all video cameras fit this definition, the term is most often
applied to those used for surveillance in areas that may need monitoring
such as banks, casinos, airports, military installations, and convenience
stores. Video telephony is seldom called "CCTV" but the use of video
in distance education, where it is an important tool, is often so called.
In industrial plants, CCTV equipment may be used to observe parts of a
process from a central control room, for example when the environment is
not suitable for humans. CCTV systems may operate continuously or only
as required to monitor a particular event. A more advanced form of CCTV,
utilizing digital video recorders (DVRs), provides recording for possibly many
years, with a variety of quality and performance options and extra features
(such as motion-detection and email alerts). More recently, decentralized IPbased CCTV cameras, some equipped with megapixel sensors, support
recording directly to network-attached storage devices, or internal flash for
completely stand-alone operation. Surveillance of the public using CCTV is
particularly common in many areas around the world including the United
Kingdom, where there are reportedly more cameras per person than in any
other country in the world.[3] There and elsewhere, its increasing use has
triggered a debate about security versus privacy
CAMERA
Video camera
A couple of CS-mount lenses for surveillance cameras. The left one is
designed to be hidden behind a wall.

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Video cameras are either analogue or digital, which means that they work
on the basis of sending analogue or digital signals to a storage device such
as a video tape recorder or desktop computer or laptop computer.
Analogue
Can record straight to a video tape recorder which are able to record
analogue signals as pictures. If the analogue signals are recorded to tape,
then the tape must run at a very slow speed in order to operate
continuously. This is because in order to allow a three hour tape to run for
24 hours, it must be set to run on a time lapse basis which is usually about
four frames a second. In one second, the camera scene can change
dramatically. A person for example can have walked a distance of 1 meter,
and therefore if the distance is divided into four parts, i.e. four frames or
"snapshots" in time, then each frame invariably looks like a blur, unless the
subject keeps relatively still.
Analogue signals can also be converted into a digital signal to enable the
recordings to be stored on a PC as digital recordings. In that case the
analogue video camera must be plugged directly into a video capture card in
the computer, and the card then converts the analogue signal to digital.
These cards are relatively cheap, but inevitably the resulting digital signals
are compressed 5:1 (MPEG compression) in order for the video recordings to
be saved on a continuous basis.
Another way to store recordings on a non-analogue media is through the use
of a digital video recorder (DVR). Such a device is similar in functionality to
a PC with a capture card and appropriate video recording software. Unlike
PCs, most DVRs designed for CCTV purposes are embedded devices that
require less maintenance and simpler setup than a PC-based solution, for a
medium to large number of analogue cameras.
Some DVRs also allow digital broadcasting of the video signal, thus acting
like a network camera. If a device does allow broadcasting of the video, but
does not record it, then it's called a video server. These devices effectively
turn any analogue camera (or any analogue video signal) into a network TV.
Digital

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These cameras do not require a video capture card because they work using
a digital signal which can be saved directly to a computer. The signal is
compressed 5:1, but DVD quality can be achieved with more compression
(MPEG-2 is standard for DVD-video, and has a higher compression ratio
than 5:1, with a slightly lower video quality than 5:1 at best, and is
adjustable for the amount of space to be taken up versus the quality of
picture needed or desired). The highest picture quality of DVD is only
slightly lower than the quality of basic 5:1-compression DV.
Saving uncompressed digital recordings takes up an enormous amount of
hard drive space, and a few hours of uncompressed video could quickly fill
up a hard drive. Holiday uncompressed recordings may look fine but one
could not run uncompressed quality recordings on a continuous basis.
Motion detection is therefore sometimes used as a work around solution to
record in uncompressed quality.
However, in any situation where standard-definition video cameras are used,
the quality is going to be poor because the maximum pixel resolution of the
image chips in most of these devices is 320,000 pixels (analogue quality is
measured in TV lines but the results are the same); they generally capture
horizontal and vertical fields of lines and blend them together to make a
single frame; the maximum frame rate is normally 30 frames per second.
That said, multi-megapixel IP-CCTV cameras are coming on the market. Still
quite expensive, but they can capture video images at resolutions of 1, 2, 3,
5 and even up to 11 Mpix. Unlike with analogue cameras, details such as
number plates are easily readable. At 11 Mpix, forensic quality images are
made where each hand on a person can be distinguished. Because of the
much higher resolutions available with these types of cameras, they can be
set up to cover a wide area where normally several analogue cameras would
have been needed.

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Network
IP cameras or network cameras are analogue or digital video cameras, plus
an embedded video server having an IP address, capable of streaming the
video (and sometimes, even audio).
Because network cameras are embedded devices, and do not need to output
an analogue signal, resolutions higher than CCTV analogue cameras are

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possible. A typical analogue CCTV camera has a PAL (768576 pixels)

or NTSC (720480
pixels),
whereas
network
cameras
may
have VGA (640480 pixels), SVGA (800600 pixels) or quad-VGA (1280960
pixels, also referred to as "megapixel") resolutions.
An analogue or digital camera connected to a video server acts as a network
camera, but the image size is restricted to that of the video standard of the
camera. However, optics (lenses and image sensors), not video resolution,
are the components that determine the image quality.
Network cameras can be used for very cheap surveillance solutions
(requiring one network camera, some Ethernet cabling, and one PC), or to
replace entire CCTV installations (cameras become network cameras, tape
recorders
become DVRs,
and
CCTV monitors become
computers
with TFT screens and specialised software. Digital video manufacturers
claim that turning CCTV installations into digital video installations is
inherently better).
There continues to be much debate over the merits and price-forperformance of Network cameras as compared to analog cameras. Many in
the CCTV industry claim that many analog cameras can outperform network
cameras at a lower price.
Digital still cameras
These cameras can be purchased in any high street shop and can take
excellent pictures in most situations.
The pixel resolution of the current models has easily reached 7 million pixels
(7-mega pixels). Some point and shoot models like those produced
by Canon or Nikon boast resolutions in excess of 10 million pixels.
At these resolutions, and with high shutter speeds like 1/125th of a second,
it is possible to take jpg pictures on a continuous or motion detection basis
that will capture not only anyone running past the camera scene, but even
the faces of those driving past.
These cameras can be plugged into the USB port of any computer (most of
them now have USB capability)and pictures can be taken of any camera
scene. All that is necessary is for the camera to be mounted on a wall
bracket and pointed in the desired direction.
Modern digital still cameras can take 500 kb snapshots in the space of 1
second, and these snapshots are then automatically downloaded by the
camera software straight to the computer for storage as timed and
dated JPEG files. The images themselves don't need to stay on the computer
for long. If the computer is connected to the Internet, then the images can

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automatically be uploaded to any other computer anywhere in the world, as

and when the pictures are taken.
The user does not need to lift a finger except to simply plug the camera in
and point it in the desired direction. The direction could just as easily be the
street outside a house, or the entrance to a bank or underground station.
Digital still cameras are now being made with in-built wireless connectivity,
so that no USB cable is required; images are simply transmitted
wirelessly through walls or ceilings to the computer.
Types
There are three main types of cameras. After reading the descriptions, click
to look at pictures of these cameras.
1. Dome cameras - These are usually placed inside a dark dome, and can't
be seen from outside, so the thief will not know whether the camera is
pointing his way or not. These cameras may turn or may be fixed, but
what is important is that when looking at it, no one can tell

2. Wall cameras - These are big visible cameras. They may be simple, or
have a lot of options, such as a waterproof or bulletproof shell, infrared
light, or zoom

3. Hidden cameras - These small and covert cameras are hidden inside
other objects and are not easily detectable

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Networking CCTV cameras

The city of Chicago operates a networked video surveillance system which
combines CCTV video feeds of government agencies with those of the private
sector, installed in city buses, businesses, public schools, subway stations,
housing projects etc. Even home owners are able to contribute footage. It is
estimated to incorporate the video feeds of a total of 15,000 cameras.
The system is used by Chicago's Office of Emergency Management in case of
an emergency call: it detects the caller's location and instantly displays the
real-time video feed of the nearest security camera to the operator, not
requiring any user intervention. While the system is far too vast to allow
complete real-time monitoring, it stores the video data for later usage in
order to provide possible evidence in criminal cases.[53]
London also has a network of CCTV systems that allows multiple authorities
to view and control CCTV cameras in real time. The system allows
authorities including the Metropolitan Police Service, Transport for
London and a number of London boroughs to share CCTV images between
them. It uses a network protocol called Television Network Protocol to allow
access to many more cameras than each individual system owner could
afford to run and maintain.
The Glynn County Police Department uses a wireless mesh-networked
system of portable battery-powered tripods for live megapixel video
surveillance and central monitoring of tactical police situations. The systems
can be used either on a stand-alone basis with secure communications to
nearby police laptops, or within a larger mesh system with multiple tripods
feeding video back to the command vehicle via wireless, and to police
headquarters via 3G.

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WALL MOUNTED

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FIRE ALARM SYSTEM

An automatic fire alarm system is designed to detect the unwanted presence
of fire by monitoring environmental changes associated with combustion. In
general, a fire alarm system is classified as either automatically actuated,
manually actuated, or both. Automatic fire alarm systems are intended to
notify the building occupants to evacuate in the event of a fire or other
emergency, report the event to an off-premises location in order to summon
emergency services, and to prepare the structure and associated systems to
control the spread of fire and smoke.

A medium-sized control panel with touchpad for alarm and trouble silence and
system reset is shown above. Referring to the installation manual, you can
use the touchpad to program the systems many options.

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The modern fire alarm system is capable of detecting smoke and heat from a
small flame, water flow in a sprinkler system or an activated pull station,
and reporting this information to on-site personnel via dedicated phone line
to any location in the world. Although a seemingly straightforward device
from an installation standpoint, fire alarm work can be quite complex,
especially when you consider the enormous moral and legal responsibilities
involved. There have also been some recent updates to the technology over
the last few years worth noting.
Recent advances. The latest major development in the fire alarm system
arena has been the introduction of the addressable head. Before these
updates, in the event of an alarm, the alphanumeric display at the control
panel indicated which zone was affected something like Fire Alarm
Zone 6, East Wing Third Floor. With an addressable head system; however,
the exact location is pinpointed. Moreover, the addressable head system has
enhanced diagnostic capabilities. This is a great advantage because when a
system goes down, time is of the essence in restoring fire protection to the
building.
To upgrade to addressable heads, it's not usually necessary to do a complete
system replacement. Typically, installers must put in new heads, pull some
extra wire, and insert new printed circuit cards into the existing control
panel. Each new head possesses an address, which conveys its exact
location. You may be asking yourself if this means a spare head has to be
kept in inventory for each location. No, each initiating device has on its back
a set of DIP switches by means of which you enter a binary number that
comprises the address prior to installation. If replacement is necessary, use
a small screwdriver to set the DIP switches on the new device.
The option to upgrade with addressable heads or to completely replace a
legacy system has to be carefully considered by building owners with the
input of in-house electricians and outside consultants. For a large set of
buildings, the expense to upgrade can be formidable.
For example, besides addressable and non-addressable heads, there are
high- and low-impedance initiating devices, 2- and 4-wire circuitry, and
various operating protocols. These are reflected in the different states a
control panel can be in as reported by the alphanumeric display. A system
may also be power limited, or, less commonly, non-power limited.
In addition to familiarizing yourself with the most recent technology trends
as outlined above, it's also important for electrical contractors to realize how
sensitive these devices are to certain design, installation, and operational
issues all of which can result in lost revenue, unplanned downtime, and

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unhappy customers. Here's a good example. Say an expensive commercial

building is all but finished; however, the fire alarm doesn't pass inspection,
meaning the facility cannot legally be used. As a few rattled electricians
work feverishly to get the bugs out of the system, the owners lose thousands
of dollars every day. Another potentially problematic scenario might involve
slightly creased conductors coming out of a conduit connector at the
detector head base. Although this situation would pose no problem in
ordinary power or telephone circuits, it could throw one of these systems
into false alarm.
Realizing that these types of unforeseen circumstances can throw a wrench
into even the best conceived plans, it makes sense for contractors to review
fundamental design, installation, and operational considerations for fire
alarm systems to keep their skills sharp.
Design considerations. Typically, a fire alarm system is made up of the
following components:

Initiating devices, capable of placing the system in the alarm state. These
can be photoelectric smoke and heat detectors, ionization smoke
detectors, heat detectors, in-duct smoke detectors, manually operated
pull stations and sprinkler water flow sensors.
Indicating appliances, whose purpose is to announce building occupants
or at a remote location when the system enters the alarm state, such as
horns, strobe lights, chimes, bells, or combination units. They are also
available in weatherproof and hazardous location versions.
A control panel, containing programming and operating electronics and
user interface, is fed by standard branch-circuit wiring and contains
replaceable circuit cards one for each zone. This includes an
alphanumeric display, showing the state of the system and providing
troubleshooting information, and a touchpad so that onsite personnel
can silence an alarm or trouble signal, reset the system following an
event, and reprogram if necessary (Photo on page C10).
Sealed batteries similar to emergency light batteries, but listed for fire
alarm systems. These are usually 6V batteries wired in series to make up
24VDC for a power-limited system. The batteries can be contained in the
control panel or in a separate enclosure. When AC power fails, the
batteries take over with no interruption in fire protection. Of course,
there is also a charger.
Auxiliary devices, including remote annunciators with LEDs showing the
state of the system, an alarm silence switch, and visual LED indication of

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the zone from which a fire alarm is initiated. Electromagnetic door

holders (floor- or wall-mounted) are available. In case of alarm, the
magnet is de-energized, allowing the door to swing shut. Later, it is
reopened manually.
Initiating devices are connected to the control panel by a 2- or 4-wire
initiating device circuit. In the case of a power-limited system, 24VDC is
applied to two wires going to a string of initiating devices, which are
wired in parallel. Neither wire is grounded, nor are they isolated from
EMT or other raceways, which are grounded through the connector at the
control panel. Polarity is also critical. This voltage is used to power the
solid-state circuitry within each detector. It's also used by the control
panel to monitor the state (alarm or no alarm) of the initiating devices
and zone wiring.
A typical fire alarm system has numerous initiating devices divided among
separate zones each connected via an initiating device circuit to a central
control panel. The control panel performs supervisory functions over the
initiating devices, indicating appliances, all associated field wiring,
telephone ties, and its own internal wiring and circuit cards.
Installation tips. During initial setup, all zone wiring, initiating device, and
indicating appliance installation should be completed before the telephone
tie is hooked up, typically by means of a ribbon connector. This is so that
the monitoring agency won't receive false alarms.
The control panel should be located where it can be responded to as
necessary either around the clock or during operating hours. This can be at
building security headquarters, adjacent to a telephone switchboard or in a
maintenance office - whichever location offers maximum coverage.
It should also be positioned in a fairly central location because if the system
goes into alarm, a person needs to be able to race to the location and verify
fire status before the alarm is silenced.
Operational issues. A fire alarm system operates in one of three (or more)
states: normal, alarm, and trouble. The state is reported at all times on the
alphanumeric display. If the system goes into alarm, the indicating
appliances throughout the building go off. These could be very loud horns
for some occupancies, or softer chimes in others, such as a nursing home.
The control panel monitors the initiating device circuits at all times for
shorts and open wiring by means of the applied DC voltage. The initiating
devices are normally open. In the event of a fire they become conductive at
close to zero ohms. How, then, is it possible for the control panel to

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differentiate between a non-alarm state and an open wiring fault? This is

accomplished by means of an end-of-line resistor.
A 4.7 kilohm (typically) resistor is placed across the line after the final
device. When this resistance is seen by the control panel, normal status is
maintained. If the resistance increases, it means that an open has
developed, and the panel goes into the trouble state. A buzzer sounds to
alert maintenance personnel but the much louder horns throughout the
building do not go off. The alphanumeric display will read something like
Open Circuit in Zone Three. The trouble alert can be silenced by pressing a
touchpad location under the trouble alert LED.
The control panel also monitors the functionality of its own wiring and zone
cards, and trouble is reported in the display.
A low-level voltage is applied to the indicating appliance circuits when the
system is normal. This voltage is not sufficient to set off the horns, but it is
monitored as part of the control panel's supervisory function. If current
ceases to flow, the trouble alert buzzer sounds, and the display indicates the
presence of an open circuit.
Several troubleshooting techniques are appropriate when the system enters
the trouble state. Initially, you can unhook a zone in the control panel (after
disabling the system) and place an end-of-line resistor across the output
terminals. This will simulate a zone in place and the actual field wiring
(including devices) can be worked on while the rest of the system is
operational. Another approach is to break the zone at the middle of the run
and insert an end-of-line resistor. Using the half-splitting troubleshooting
method, as discussed in Maintenance Facts on page 16 of the November
issue, you can easily pinpoint a fault either short or open.
Another capability of the fire alarm system is to call out in case of alarm.
Two dedicated phone lines are connected, and the system performs test calls
periodically in accordance with programmed instructions. If either phone
line won't connect, the system goes into the trouble state, so repairs can be
made.
The essence of a fire alarm system, as opposed to individual smoke
detectors, even if they are wired to indicate in concert, is that it is
supervised from a central location. The whole notion of supervision is
critical. It does not mean that a person sits at the console and watches it at
all times. What it means is that a supervisory voltage is applied to all
circuitry, and current flow is monitored electronically to verify that
equipment and wiring are intact.

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If the system goes into alarm and won't silence due to touchpad
malfunction, for example, it can be disarmed after the zone is checked for
fire by cutting off the power. First, unhook one side of the battery array,
then unhook the black-white-green incoming power connector. If a fire
alarm system is disabled, maintenance and security personnel should
initiate fire patrols throughout the building. The telephone monitoring
agency should be informed, and the insurance company contacted to verify
that coverage is not voided.
Sidebar: Regulatory Mandates At a Glance
The following regulatory documents apply to the fire alarm system as
opposed to individual smoke alarms of the residential type, even when they
are AC powered and used for group operation.
NFPA 101 Life Safety Code denotes which occupancies are required to
have fire alarm systems.
NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm Code lays out overall system design
parameters, such as location and spacing of heads and pulls stations,
testing and maintenance procedures, minimum performance requirements
and operational protocols.
NFPA 70 National Electric Code Article 760 covers the equipment and
wiring of the fire alarm system, both power to the control console and zone
wiring to initiating devices and to annunciators, as well as any phone lines
for automatic calling. Also included are other fire alarm functions, such as
guard's tour, sprinkler water flow, sprinkler supervisory equipment, elevator
capture and shutdown, door release, smoke doors and damper control, fire
doors and fan shutdown only where these functions are actually
controlled by the fire alarm system. Article 725, Class 1, Class 2 and Class 3
Remote Control, Signaling and Power-Limited Circuits, covers wiring
emanating from the control panel. Where these circuits are power-limited,
alternative requirements take effect for minimum wire sizes, derating
factors, over current protection, insulation requirements, and wiring
methods and materials.
Underwriters Laboratory or other inspecting agencies List all
components such as control panel, smoke detecting heads, horns, pull
stations, and any other equipment.

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ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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CHAPTER - 16
STANDARDS AND CHARTS
ACRONYMS
ac
ACB
ALF

Alternative Current
Air Circuit Breaker
Aluminium Conductor
Steel Reinforced
Accuracy Limit Factor

AMF

Auto Mains Failure

ACSR

AVR
BDV
BIS
CBCT
CEB
CFL
COS

MCB
MCC
MCCB

Main Switch Board

MTA

Maximum Torque Angle

MV

Medium Voltage

MVA

Mega Volt Ampere

NEC

National Electric Code

Neutral Ground
Resistor
Neutral Grounding
Transformer
Oil Circuit Breaker

NGR
NGT

DB
dc

Direct Current

OTI

DCP

PCC

EHT

Dry Chemical Powder

Dough Moulded
Compound
Direct Online
Directorate of Radiation
Safety
Extra High Tension

EHV

Extra High Voltage

CT
CTRC

DMC
DOL
DRS

OCB
OCR

Over Current Relay

OH

Over Head

OLTC

PE

On Load Tap Changer

Oil Temperature
Indicator
Power Control Centre
Power Distribution
Board
Protective Earthing

PF

Power Factor

PL

Polarisation Index
Programmable Logic
Control
Power &Motor Control
Centre
Potential Transfer
Poly Vinyl Chloride
Residential Current
Circuit Breaker
Restricted Earth Fault
Radio Frequency
Resistance
Temperature Device

PDB

PLC

ELR
FBA

Earth Leakage Circuit

Breaker
Earth Leakage Rely
Factor Built Assembly

FDB

Fuse Distribution Board

RCCB

FRP
FSD

Fibre Reinforced Plastic

Fuse Switch Disconnector

REF
RF

GCP

Generator Control Panel

RTD

ELCB

Low Tension
Low Voltage
Miniature Circuit
Breaker
Motor Control Centre
Moulded Case Circuit
Breaker

MSB

Central Power Research

Institute
Current Transformer
Central Tariff Regulatory
Commission
Distribution Board

CPRI

262

Automatic Voltage
Regulator
Break Down Voltage
Bureau of Indian
Standards
Core Balance Current
Transformer
Central Electricity Board
Compact Flourescent
Lamp
Change Over Switch

LT
LV

PMCC
PT
PVC

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Switch Disconnector
Fuse
Specific Energy
Consumption

GI

Galvanized Iron

SDF

GLS

Generator Lighting Service

SEC

HBC

High Breaking Capacity

SHF/S
F6

Sulpher Hexa Flouride

HRC

High Rupturing Capacity

SMC

Sheet Moulded
Compound

Inverse Definite Minimum

Time Lag
Indian Electricity Rules
Ingress Protection
Indian Standard
Institution

SSB

Sub Switch Board

SWG
TSM

Standard Wire Gauge

Time Setting Multiplier

TOD

Time of Day

KV

Kilo Volt

TRC

KVA

Kilo Volt Ampere

UG

KVAR

Kilo Volt Ampere Reactive

UPS

KW
KWH

Kilo Watt
Kilo Watt Hour

USS
VA

LA

Lightning Arrestor

VCB

LDB

Lighting Distribution
Board

VVVF

OLR

Over Load Rely

WTI

LED

Light Emitting Diode

XLPE

IDMT
IER
IP
ISI

263

Tariff Regulatory
Commission
Under Ground
Uninterrupted Power
Supply
Unitised Sub Station
Voltage Ampere
Vacuum Circuit
Breaker
Variable Voltage
Variable Frequency
Winding Temperature
Indicator
Cross Linked
Polyethylene

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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SYMBOLS

264

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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265

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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266

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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267

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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268

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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269

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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270

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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271

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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272

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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273

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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CAPACITORS IN KVAR FOR REQUIRED POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Initial power
factor

0.85

0.50
0.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.64
0.65
0.66
0.67
0.68
0.69
0.70
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.79
0.80
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.90
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.97
0.98
0.99

1.112
1.066
1.024
1.980
0.939
0.899
0.860
0.822
0.785
0.748
0.714
0.679
0.645
0.613
0.580
0.549
0.518
0.488
0.459
0.429
0.400
0.372
0.343
0316
0.289
0.262
0.235
0.209
0.183
0.156
1.130
0.104
0.178
0.052
0.026
-

274

Correction
to
0.90
1.248
1.202
1.160
1.116
1.075
1.035
0.996
0.958
0.921
0.884
0.849
0.815
0.781
0.749
0.716
0.685
0.654
0.624
0.595
0.565
0.536
0.508
0.479
0.452
0.425
0.425
0.398
0.371
0.345
0.319
0.292
0.266
0.250
0.214
0.188
0.162
0.136
0.109
0.083
0.054
0.028
-

0.95

0.98

1.00

1.403
1.357
1.315
1.271
1.230
1.190
1.151
1.113
1.076
1.039
1.005
0.970
0.936
0.904
0.871
0.840
0.809
0.779
0.750
0.720
0.691
0.663
0.634
0.607
0.580
0.535
0.526
0.500
0.473
0.447
0.421
0.395
0.369
0.343
0.317
0.291
0.264
0.238
0.209
0.183
0.155
0.124
0.097
0.066
0.034
-

1.529
1.483
1.441
1.397
1.356
1.316
1.277
1.239
1.202
1.165
1.131
1.096
1.062
1.030
0.997
0.966
0.935
0.905
0.876
0.840
0.811
0.753
0.754
0.727
0.700
0.673
0.652
0.620
0.594
0.567
0.541
0.515
0.489
0.463
0.437
0.417
0.390
0.364
0.335
0.309
0.251
0.250
0.223
0.192
0.160
0.126
0.089
0.47
-

1.732
1.686
1.344
1.600
1.559
1.519
1.450
1.442
1.405
1.368
1.334
1.299
1.265
1.233
1.200
1.169
1.138
1.108
1.076
1.049
1.020
0.992
0.963
0.863
0.909
0.882
0.855
0.829
0.833
0.776
0.750
0.725
0.698
0.672
0.645
0.620
0.593
0.567
0.538
0.512
0.484
0.453
0.426
0.395
0.363
0.239
0.292
0.25
0.203
0.143

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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ELECTRICAL LAYOUT IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS IS 6648 -1968

(REAFFIRMED 1997)
1. Energy meter shall be at such a place which is readily accessible to both
consumer and supplier.
2. Energy meter shall not be installed below 1 meter from ground.
3. Isolating device shall be placed immediately after the energy meter and
should be readily accessible to consumer.
4. Fuses or other protective devices shall have adequate breaking capacity.
5. Insulated conductors connected to live lines shall be red, yellow or blue
color. Neutral shall be black.
6. All switches shall be on live lines and never on neutral.
7. Earthing conductors may be un-insulated. If insulated the covering shall
be finished to show a green color.
8. After the main switch there shall be a Distribution board.
9. "there shall be separate circuits for power and lighting.
10. There shall be minimum two sub circuits for lighting.
11. Total load on a lighting sub circuit shall be 800 Watts. Number of points
shall not Exceed 10.
12. Total load on a power sub circuit shall be 3000 Watts. There shall not be
more than 2 outlets in a power sub circuit.
13. A switch shall be provided adjacent to normal entrance to any area for
controlling the general lighting in that area.
14. Two way switching is recommended for halls and staircases.
15. Switches and bell pushes should be self i l l u m i n a t i ng where they are
often operated in dark.
16. Local light fittings in kitchen should be so placed that all working surfaces
are well illuminated.
17. In bedroom it is recommended that some lighting be controlled from the bed
location.

275

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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18. It is recommended to use ceiling lighting with the switch located outside
for bathroom.
19. Waterproof light fitting shall only be used for outdoor lighting.
20.All socket outlets shall be three pin types.
21.Only 3 pin, 15A socket outlets shall be used in power circuits.
22.All socket outlets shall be controlled by a switch located adjacent to it.
23.(Drily shuttered type sockets shall be provided at location accessible to
children.
24.For socket outlets of rating more than 16A double pole switch shall be
provided.
25.No socket outlets shall be provided in bathroom at a height not less than
130cm.
26.All ceiling fans shall be provided with a switch beside its regulator.
27.Ceiling fan shall be hung not less than 2.75m above floor.
28.Flexible cords shall be used only in the following cases.

276

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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CABLE CODE
Constituent
Aluminum Conductor

Code Letter
A

XLPE insulation

2X

PVC insulation

Steel round wire armored

Non magnetic round wire armored

Wa

Steel strip armored

Non-magnetic strip armored

Fa

Double steel strip armored

FF

Double steel wire armored

WW

PVC outer sheath

Note: for copper conductor no code letter.

E.g.: AYFY aluminum conductor PVC insulated Steel strip armored PVC
insulated cable.
CURRENT RATING OF AYFY CABLES
(IS 1554 PART -1,1964 & IS 3961 PART II ,1967)
Corresponding current rating (A)
Nominal area of conductor(mm2)

277

1.5

16

2.5

21

28

35

10

46

16

50

25

76

35

93

50

110

70

135

95

165

120

185

150

210

185

235

240

275

300

305

400

335

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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Note: (1) Derating Factors

For single laying

- 0.9

For 2 Nos. of cable grouping

- 0.71

For 3 Nos. of cable grouping

- 0.62

For 4 Nos. of cable grouping

- 0.56

(2) Short circuit current carrying capacity of AYFY cables can be calculated
from the formula.
A

= 13.1 x Is xt

Where A = Area of conductor in mm2

Is

= short circuit current - kA

= Duration of fault current in seconds

CURRENT RATING OF AYFY FEEDER CABLES

Feeder rating in

Size in sq.mm

278

Feeder rating in

Size in sq.mm

16

150

150

25

160

185

32

10

200

240

40

16

250

400

50

25

320

2 x 185

63

35

400

2 x 240

80

50

500

2 x 400

100

70

630

3 x 400

120

95

800

4 x 400

125

120

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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VOLTAGE DROP & RESISTANCE OF AYFY CABLES

Installation method (clipped direct)

Conductor cross
sectional Areas

mm2
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
400
2 x 185
2 x 240
2 x 300
2 x 400
3 x 185
3 x 240
3 x 300
3 x 400
4 x 400

279

Single Phase
Current Volt Drop/A
Carrying /m
Capacity
A
mV
16
21
29
28
18.2
35
12.1
46
7.3
60
4.5
76
2.9
92
2.1
110
1.6
135
1.1
165
0.79
185
0.65
210
0.53
235
0.45
275
0.36
305
0.31
335
0.26
423
495
549
603
620
726
805
884
-

Three Core Phase

Current
Volt Drop/
Carrying A/m
Capacity
A
mV
19
25.1
25
15.8
32
10.5
43
6.3
58
3.9
74
2.5
90
1.8
115
1.3
135
0.93
165
0.68
190
0.54
215
0.45
250
.37
295
0.30
340
0.25
415
0.225
-

Backup
Fuse

AC
resistance at
200C

A
10
16
16
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
120
125
150
160
200
225
250
320
400
425
450
450
500
630
630
800

Ohm/km(app)
14.491
9.122
6.062
3.637
2.252
1.443
1.039
0.751
0.537
0.393
0.312
0.250
0.214
0.173
0.144
0.090
-

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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280

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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NOTES

281

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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282

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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283

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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284

ELECTRICAL DESIGNING
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285