Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Reconstruction and The South
Reconstruction and The South
SOUTH
Presidential Reconstruction
after John Wilkes Booth assassinated
Abraham Lincoln on April 14, 1865, the
national mood hardened
however, in spite of the amount of blood
shed, the Civil War caused less
intersectional hatred than might have been
expected; animosity quickly subsided, and
most Confederate leaders were only mildly
punished
Republican Radicals
both radical and moderate Republicans
wanted to protect ex-slaves from
exploitation and to guarantee their basic
rights
radicals, however, demanded full
political equality; moderates were
unwilling to go so far
their agreement on a minimum set of
demands doomed Johnsonian
Reconstruction
Grant as President
Grant failed to live up to expectations as
president
the general was a poor executive; his
honest naivete made him the dupe of
unscrupulous friends and schemers
he failed to deal effectively with economic
and social problems, and corruption
plagued his administration
Grant did not cause or participate in the
scandals that disgraced his administration,
but he did nothing to prevent them
Congress Ascendant
a succession of weak presidents occupied
White House, and Congress dominated
government
within Congress, the Senate generally
overshadowed the House
critics called the Senate a rich mans club,
but its real source of influence derived from
the long tenure of many of its members
and the small number of senators
then, too, the House of Representatives
was one of the most disorderly and
inefficient legislative bodies in the world
Indian Wars
white encroachments led to the outbreak
of guerrilla warfare, in the course of which
both sides committed atrocities
in 1867, the government tried a new
strategy to replace the concentration
policy
all Indians would be confined to
reservations and forced to become
farmers
some Indians refused to yield to the new
policy and waged war against both the
U.S. Army and settlers
Open-Range Ranching
cattlemen began raising stock closer to
the railheads, eliminating the long drive
open-range ranching on the northern
plains required little more than the
possession of cattle and access to water
the open range made actual ownership of
much land unnecessary
ranchers often banded together to obtain
legal title to watercourses and grazed
their cattle in common on adjacent lands
AN INDUSTRIAL GIANT
Essentials of Industrial Growth
American manufacturing flourished in the
last quarter of the nineteenth century
new natural resources were discovered and
exploited, creating opportunities that
attracted the brightest and most energetic
Americans
the national market grew, protected from
foreign competition by tariffs, and foreign
capital entered the market freely
Working Women
with the shift from cottage industries to a
factory system, a growing number of women
worked outside of the home
while many women found work in textile mills
and sewing trades, at least half of all working
women were employed as domestic servants
the Cult of True Womanhood served to open
new employment opportunities for women
Farmers
long the mainstay of American society,
independent farmers found their relative share
of the nations wealth and their personal status
declining
loss of wealth and influence, along with an
increasing vulnerability to an economy
dominated by industrial trends, fostered
periodic waves of radicalism in the nations
farm belts
Working-Class Attitudes
surveys conducted among workers during the
1880s and 1890s revealed a broad spectrum of
responses regarding their employment
circumstances
while some workers expressed contentment
with their conditions, others called for the
nationalization of the means of production and
transportation
despite a general improvement in living
standards, the number of bitter strikes revealed
the discontent of many workers
Teeming Tenements
rapid rate of city growth severely taxed, and in
many cases overwhelmed, local infrastructures
problems of sewage and garbage disposal, fire
protection, law enforcement, and availability of
potable water supplies often reached crisis stage
overcrowding and substandard housing led to
epidemics, crime, juvenile delinquency, and, at
times, to the disintegration of family life
efforts to enact new building codes and to design
new modes of urban housing effected little real
improvement
slums bred crime; more affluent fled to suburbs
INTELLECTUAL AND
CULTURAL
TRENDS
The Knowledge Revolution
industrialization altered the way Americans thought as
well as the way they made a living
the new industrial society placed new demands on
education and gave rise to new ways of thinking about
education
Darwins theory of evolution influenced almost every
field of knowledge
America emerged from the intellectual shadow of
Europe, as Americans began to make significant
contributions to the sciences as well as the relatively new
social sciences, and American literature flourished
Magazine Journalism
by the turn of the century, more than five
thousand magazines were in publication
prior to the 1880s, a few staid publications, such
as Harpers and The Atlantic Monthly, dominated
the field of serious magazines
in the 1860s and 1870s, Frank Leslies
magazines appealed to a broader audience
after the mid-1880s, several new, serious
magazines adopted a hard-hitting, controversial,
and investigative style and inquired into the
social issues of their day
Scientific Advances
Americans made enormous contributions in the
fields of pure science during the nineteenth
century
Josiah Willard Gibbs single-handedly created
the field of physical chemistry
Albert A. Michelson was the first man to
measure the speed of light accurately
Progressive Education
educators began to realize that traditional
education did not prepare their students for life
in industrial America
settlement house workers found that slum
children needed training in handicrafts,
citizenship, and personal hygiene as much as in
reading and writing
new theorists argued that good teaching called
for professional training, psychological insights,
enthusiasm, and imagination, not rote
memorization and corporal punishment
Realism in Literature
the majority of Americas pre-Gilded Age
literature was romantic in mood
however, industrialism, theories of evolution,
the new pragmatism in the sciences, and the
very complexities of modern life produced a
change in American literature
novelists began to examine social problems
such as slums, political corruption, and the
struggle between labor and capital
Mark Twain
while no man pursued modern materialism with
more vigor than Samuel L. Clemens, perhaps
no man could illustrate the foibles and follies of
Americas Gilded Age with greater exactitude
than his alter ego, Mark Twain
his keen wit, his purely American sense of
humor, and his eye for detail allowed Twain to
portray the best and the worst of his age
his works provide a brilliant and biting insight
into the society of his day
Henry James
a cosmopolitan born to wealth, Henry James
lived most of his adult life as an expatriate
James never gained the recognition of his
countrymen during his lifetime
his major themes concerned the clash between
American and European cultures and the
corrupt relationships found in high society
Realism in Art
Realism had a profound impact on American
painting as well as writing
foremost among realist artists was Thomas
Eakins, who was greatly influenced by the
seventeenth-century European realists
as an early innovator in motion pictures, Eakins
used film to study people and animals in motion
Winslow Homer, a watercolorist from Boston,
used all of the realists techniques for accuracy
and detail to enhance his sometimes romantic
land- and seascapes
City Bosses
stresses of rapid urban growth, strain on
infrastructures, and exodus of upper and middle
classes all led to a crisis in city government
this turmoil gave rise to urban political bosses
these bosses provided social services in
exchange for political support
money for these services (and to enrich
themselves) came from kickbacks and bribes
Lackluster Leaders
Americas presidents of the day demonstrated
little interest in dealing with the urgent issues
confronting the nation
Rutherford B. Hayes, president from 1877 to
1881, entered office with a distinguished
personal and political record
Hayes favored tariff reduction, civil service
reform, and better treatment for blacks in South
however, he made little progress in any of these
areas
Congressional Leaders
James G. Blaine, a Republican from Maine,
stands out among Congressional leaders, both
for his successes and for his shortcomings
Congressman William McKinley of Ohio
devoted his efforts to maintaining a protective
tariff
another Ohioan, John Sherman, held national
office from 1855 to 1898
although a financial expert, he proved all too
willing to compromise his personal beliefs for
political gain
Showdown on Silver
by early 1890s, discussion of federal monetary
policy revolved around the coinage of silver
traditionally, the United States issued gold and
silver coins
established ratio of roughly 15:1 undervalued
silver, so no one took silver to the Mint
when silver mines of Nevada and Colorado
flooded market with metal and depressed the
price of silver, it became profitable to coin
bullion; but miners found that the Coinage Act of
1873 had demonetized the metal
The Muckrakers
the popular press published articles on social,
economic, and political issues of the day
McClures published Ida Tarbells critical series
on Standard Oil and Lincoln Steffenss expose
on city machines
soon, other editors rushed to adopt McClures
formula
a veritable army of journalists published stories
exposing labor gangsterism, the adulteration of
foods and drugs, corruption in college athletics,
and prostitution
TRs Triumphs
Roosevelt easily defeated the Democratic
candidate, Alton B. Parker, in 1904
encouraged by his victory and aware of the
growing militancy of progressives, the president
pressed Congress for passage of the Hepburn
Act (1906), which allowed the ICC to inspect
the books of railroad companies and to fix
maximum rates
it also gave the ICC authority over other
interstate carriers and prohibited railroads from
issuing passes freely
Black Militancy
W. E. B. Du Bois, the first American black to
earn a Ph.D. from Harvard, called upon blacks to
reject Washingtons accommodationism
he urged them to take pride in their racial and
cultural heritage and demanded that blacks take
their rightful place in society without waiting for
whites to give it to them
he recognized that environment, not racial
factors, caused problems of poverty and crime
Du Bois was not, however, an admirer of the
ordinary black American
FROM ISOLATION TO
EMPIRE
Isolation or Imperialism?
The Anti-Imperialists
the Spanish-American war produced a wave of
unifying patriotism that furthered sectional
reconciliation
however, victory raised new and divisive
questions
a diverse group of politicians, business and labor
leaders, intellectuals, and reformers spoke out
against annexing the Philippines
some based their opposition on legal and ethical
concerns; for others, racial and ethnic prejudice
formed the basis of their objections
Workers in Wartime
demands of a wartime economy, coupled with a
shortage of workers, lowered unemployment
immigration was reduced to a trickle; wages
rose; and unemployment disappeared
manpower shortages created new employment
opportunities for blacks, women, and other
disadvantaged groups
blacks left South for jobs in northern factories
while government did act to forestall strikes, its
actions also opened the way for unionization of
many previously unorganized industries
Wartime Reforms
Americas wartime experience was part and
product of the Progressive Era
the exigencies of war opened the way for
government involvement in many social and
economic areas
a new generation of professionally educated,
reform-minded individuals found employment in
the federal bureaucracy, and it appeared that the
war was creating a sense of common purpose
that might stimulate the public to cooperate to
achieve selfless goals
Demobilization
almost immediately after signing the Armistice,
the government removed its economic controls,
blithely assuming that the economy could
readjust itself without direction
millions of men were demobilized rapidly
these swift and unregulated changes in the
economy soon created problems
inflation spiraled; by 1920 the cost of living
stood at twice the level of 1913
Literary Trends
the horrors of World War I combined with the
antics of fundamentalists and red baiters led
intellectuals to abandon the hopeful
experimentation of the prewar period
intellectuals became critics of society
out of this alienation came a major literary
flowering
F. Scott Fitzgerald symbolized this lost
generation and captured its spirit in his novels,
This Side of Paradise and The Great Gatsby
Economic Expansion
despite the turmoil of the period and the
dissatisfaction of intellectuals, the 1920s was an
exceptionally prosperous era in America
business boomed, real wages rose, and
unemployment declined
perhaps as much as 40 percent of the worlds
wealth lay in American hands
Henry Ford
Henry Ford, the man most responsible for the
growth of the automotive industry, was not a
great inventor
his genius lay in the areas of production,
personnel, and business management
techniques
cost-efficient assembly lines allowed mass
production of inexpensive cars
The Airplane
internal combustion gasoline engines made
motorized flight possible
World War I speeded the advance of airplane
technology, and most planes built in the 1920s
were intended for military use
in the postwar years, wing walkers,
parachutists, and other barnstormers
expanded the publics fascination with the
airplane
moreover, the farm bloc, a coalition of midwestern Republicans and southern Democrats,
offset the Republican majority
Mellon nevertheless balanced the budget and
reduced the national debt by an average of over
$500 million a year
the business community heartily approved of
the policies of the Harding and Coolidge
administrations
Coolidge Prosperity
Vice-President Coolidge had no connection
with the Harding scandals and cleaned house on
taking office
his pro-business philosophy endeared him to
conservatives
in 1924, Coolidge easily won the Republican
nomination
the badly divided Democrats finally chose a
compromise candidate after 103 ballots
Economic Problems
the prosperity of the 1920s masked serious
flaws in the economy
not all sectors of the economy shared in the
prosperity; the coal and cotton industries lagged
behind the general economy
the trend toward consolidation of industries
continued throughout the period
voluntary trade associations, with government
backing, now practiced self-regulation
the weakest sector of economy was agriculture
The Unemployed
in 1934, at least 9 million Americans were still
unemployed, hundreds of thousands of whom
were in desperate need
nevertheless, the Democrats increased their
majorities in Congress
Roosevelts unemployment policies accounted, at
least in part, for Democratic successes at the
polls
Roosevelt appointed Harry L. Hopkins to head
the Federal Emergency Relief Administration
(FERA) in 1933
Germany Overwhelmed
on D-Day, June 6, 1944, the Allied forces
launched a massive attack on the Normandy
coast
in the East, millions of Soviet troops slowly
pushed back the Axis lines
while Eisenhower prepared for a general
advance, the Germans launched a counterattack
Allies turned back Germans at the Battle of the
Bulge, which cost Germans their last reserves
Island Hopping
American forces ejected the Japanese from the
Solomon Islands in a series of battles around
Guadalcanal in which American air power
proved decisive
American forces advanced steadily, and by
mid-1944, American land-based bombers were
within range of Tokyo
in February 1945, MacArthur liberated the
Philippines
Wartime Diplomacy
hopes of world peace and harmony failed to
materialize, largely because of a split between
the Soviet Union and the western allies
during the war, American propaganda spared no
effort to persuade Americans that the Soviet
Union was a devoted, peace-loving ally
Joseph Stalin was portrayed as a kindly father
figure
Americans representing viewpoints as diverse as
Douglas A. MacArthur and Henry A. Wallace
adopted pro-Soviet positions
McCarthyism
in February 1950, Joseph R. McCarthy, an
obscure senator from Wisconsin, charged that
the State Department was infested with
communists
although he offered no evidence to support his
claims, many Americans believed him
McCarthy went on to make more fantastic
accusations
Dwight D. Eisenhower
the Republican party selected Eisenhower as
their candidate in 1952
aside from his popularity as a war hero,
Eisenhowers genial tolerance made a welcome
change from Truman
his ability as a leader was amply demonstrated
by his military career, and his campaign promise
to go to Korea was a political masterstroke
Eisenhower easily defeated his Democratic
opponent, Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois
McCarthy Self-Destructs
even after it came under the control of his own
party, McCarthy did not moderate his attacks on
the State Department
partly in an effort to blunt McCarthys charges,
Dulles sanctioned the dismissal of nearly five
hundred State Department employees
early in 1954, McCarthy finally overreached
himself by leveling allegations at the army
FROM CAMELOT TO
WATERGATE
John Fitzgerald Kennedys image of youth and
vigor
his administration prided themselves on being
the best and the brightest
in reality, however, neither the president nor his
administration lived up to the image
Nixon in Triumph
Nixon won a landslide victory over Democratic
nominee, George McGovern, in 1972
McGoverns campaign had been hampered by
factionalism within his party, his bumbling
oratorical style, and his tendency to advance
poorly thought out proposals
Nixon blew huge holes in Democratic coalition
he won in the South and among northern bluecollar workers
SOCIETY IN FLUX
A Society on the Move
this period saw the population grow dramatically
and shift from the North and the East to the South
and the West
at the same time, people moved from cities to
suburban peripheries
these shifts in population were made possible by
advances in transportation, technology, and
communication
Native-Born Ethnics
Mexican-Americans had similar grievances to
those of black Americans
in the 1960s, they began to organize to demand
equal rights and equal access to the advantages
of American society
like the black movement, Chicanos stressed
cultural pride and demanded citizenship rights
also like the black movement, the Chicano
movement gave rise to nationalist and separatist
groups
Students in Revolt
students in the 1960s became less and less
tolerant of the failure of government to regulate
the economy in the general interest and to protect
the civil rights of all citizens
the persistence of racism and of poverty in the
richest country in the world seemed immoral
hard-line anticommunism, in the age of atomic
weapons, seemed suicidal
such sentiments drew students to SDS, the goals
of which were set forth in its Port Huron
Statement of 1962
The Counterculture
some young people, generally known as
hippies, rejected the modern world
they found refuge in communes, crash pads,
mystical religions, and drugs
their culture was opposite, or counter, to that of
their parents
although the counterculture was generally
apolitical or even anti-political, there were
points of juncture with the New Left
yippies, led by Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin,
combined elements of both
Womens Liberation
sexual freedom, womens increasing role in the
work force, and the experiences of women in
the civil rights movement and New Left gave
rise to demands by women for greater equality
for themselves
the publication of Betty Friedans The Feminine
Mystique signaled a revival of feminism in the
United States
Friedan and other middle class and professional
women formed organizations such as NOW
Ford as President
after being appointed, rather than elected, vicepresident, Gerald Ford assumed the presidency
on Nixons resignation in August of 1974
he seemed unimaginative and less than brilliant,
but he was hardworking and untouched by
scandal
an open and earnest person, Ford seemed
unlikely to venture beyond conventional
boundaries
A National Malaise
Carter alienated public opinion by making a
television address in which he described a
moral and spiritual crisis that sapped the
nations energies
sermons on the emptiness of consumption rang
hollow to those who had lost their jobs or seen
inflation shrink their paychecks
the economic downturn, though triggered by
the energy crisis, had more fundamental causes
Reagan as President
Reagan demanded reductions in federal spending
and the deficit
his calls for cuts in federal programs focused
chiefly on social services, which he wanted
returned to the states
Reagan eliminated many government regulations
affecting business
in addition, he requested tax cuts to stimulate the
economy and generate new jobs
Reagan pursued a hard-line anticommunist
foreign policy and engaged in a huge military
buildup to meet the threat of the Soviet Union
AIDS
during the 1980s, the nation confronted its most
serious health crisis in decades
in the early 1980s, scientists identified acquired
immune-deficiency syndrome (AIDS), disease
caused by the human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV), which destroyed the bodys defenses
against infection
the disease spread when an infected persons
bodily fluids came into contact with another
persons
Bush as President
Bush announced his intention to make kinder
the face of the nation and gentler the face of the
world
he displayed a more traditional command of the
workings of government than had his
predecessor
he appeased conservatives by opposing abortion
and gun control as well as by his support for a
constitutional amendment prohibiting the
desecration of the flag
his standing in the polls soared
A Racial Divide
many believed that the cultural chasm between
whites and blacks was widening
some worried that educated Americans of both
races had given up on integration
Louis Farrakhans Million Man March
excluded whites
inequality of income persisted, and the gap
between blacks and whites in educational
performance widened
affirmative action programs fell out of favor
Clinton Impeached
Clinton responded to allegations of womanizing
by denying them
he was required to testify in a lawsuit brought
by Paula Corbin Jones alleging that Clinton
made improper sexual advances to her
in an attempt to support their case, Joness
lawyers subpoenaed a former White House
intern, Monica Lewinsky
both Clinton and Lewinsky denied that they had
had an affair
Clintons Legacy
remarkable period of prosperity
globalization of economy
Clintons mixed results in foreign policy
Terrorism Intensifies
terrorism became an increasing concern for
Americans in the 1980s and 1990s
a series of attacks on American individuals and
institutions abroad coupled with bomb attacks
on the World Trade Center in 1993 and the
federal building in Oklahoma City in 1995 left
Americans feeling less secure than they had
once been