tuodxoow PRINCIPLES FOR | CREATING GRAPHICS THAT i— i PEOPLE UNDERSTANDFOR DESIGNERS PRINCIPLES FOR CREATING GRAPHICS THAT PEOPLE UNDERSTAND CONNIE MALAMED suodxo0u‘© 2009, 2011 by Rockport Publishers, Inc. and Connie Malamed {All rights reserved. No part ofthis book may be reproduced in any form without ‘ten permission ofthe copyright owners. All images in this book have been reproduced with the knowledge and prior consent ofthe artists concerned, and no responsibly is accepted by producer, uber, or printer for any infringement of Copyright or otherwise, arising from the contents of this publication. Every effort has been made to ensue that credits accurately comply with information supplied. We ‘apologize for any inaccuracies that may have occurted and will resolve inaccurate (or missing information in a subsequent reprinting ofthe book. First published in the United States of America by Rockport Publishers, a member of (Quayside Publishing Group 100 Cummings Center Suite 406-1 Bevery, Massachusetts 01915-6101 Telephone: (978) 282-9590, Fax: (978) 283.2742 ver tockpub.com Digtal edtion: 978-1-61673-619-4 Softcover edition: 978-1-59253-516-6 lication Data Library of Congress Cataloging Malamed, Connie. Visual language for designers : principles for creating graphics that people under- stand / Connie Malames. pcm, ISBN-13: 978-1.59253-515-6 ISBN-10; 1-59253-515-1 1. Commercial art. 2. Graphic ats 3. Visual communication. |. Tile. 1NC997.§24 2009 741.601'9-de22 2008052335 Cs ISBN-13: 978-1-59253-515-6 ISBN-10: 1-59253-515-1 10987654321 Design: Kathie Alexander Printed in SingaporeACKNOWLEDGMENTS My heartfelt thanks to the designers around the globe who contributed their exceptional work to this book and to all the professors and researchers who happily answered my stream of questions. Thanks to everyone at Rockport Publishers for their dedication and hard work. 4 Visual Language for DesignersDEDICATION To Tom for untiring support, Hannah for invaluable help, and Rebecca and Silas for sweet encouragement.R58 XXX Pils 33 as Ee Pea dE = eo 7 /, = a vv ae Bie =SECTION ONE SECTION TWO 1 Introduction . GETTING GRAPHICS {An explanation of haw we process visual information 19 PRINCIPLES Organize for Perception Features that Pop Out Texture Segregation Grouping Direct the Eyes . Postion Emphasis Movement Eye Gaze Visual Cues Reduce Realism Visual Noise Sihouettes leonie Forms Line Act Quantity 228 29 230 235 ography Glossary of Terms . Sources Cited Directory of Contributors 4 Make the Abstract Concrete Big Picture Views 40 Data Displays 1a Visualization of Information 150 More than Geography 156 Snapshots of Time 162 5 Clarify Complexity 168 Seginents and Sequences 178 Specialized Views tas Inherent Structure 196 © Charge i Up .. 203 Emotional Saienee 210 Narratives 214 Visual Metaphors 220 Novelty and Humor 224a 9900 HOHHHHHHOOY 9900 HHHHVOYD 9900 HHHHHHOOYD 9900 HHHHOOYD 9900 HHHHDOYD 00000 HHHOOOY 9900 HOHHHHHHVOY 9900 HHHHHHOOY 9900 HHHHDOYD 9900 HHHHHHVOD 0900 HHHHVOY 9900 HHHHHHOOD 0900 HHHHOOY 09000 HHHHOHOY 8 Visual Language for DesignersINTRODUCTION “Sight is swift, comprehensive, simultaneously analytic, and synthetic. It requires so little energy to function, as it does, at the speed of light, that it permits our minds to receive and hold an infinite number of items of information in a fraction of a second.” In the begining was the dot ‘Mazi Zand, 1M. Zand Studio, an ‘WE HAVE No CHOICE but to be drawn ta images. ur brains are beautifully wired for the visual exper tence. For thase with intact visual systems, vision Is the dominant sense for acquiting perceptual information, We have over ane millon nerve fibers sending signals ‘om the eye tothe brain, and an estimated 20 bilion reutons analyzing and integrating wsual information ‘at rapid speed. We have a surprisingly large capacity for picture memory, and can remember thousands of Images with few errors? We are also compelled to understand images. Upon viewing a visual, we immediately ask, “Whats 1?" and What does it mean?” Our minds need to make sense ofthe world, and we do so actively To understand something isto scan and search our memary stores, to call forth associations and emotions, and to use what we already know ta interpret and laf meaning CALEB GATTENGO, Towra Vivo Cut on the unknown. As we derive pleasure, satistacton, and competence fram understanding, we seek to Understand mare. ‘Acquiring a sense of our innate mental and visual capacities can enable graphic designers and ilustra- tors to express their message with accurate intent. For example if one’s goal i to visually explain a process, then understanding how humans comprehend and learn helps the designer create a well-defined informa- tion graphic. If one's purpose isto evoke a passionate response, then an understanding of how emations are tied to memory enables the designer to create a poster that sizzles. If one's purpose is o visualize dat, then Understanding the constraints of short-term memory ‘enables the designer to create a graph or chart that is easily grasped,This book explores how the human brain processes visual information, It presents ways to leverage the stengths of aur cognitive architecture and ta com: pena fr its limitations. It propases principles for Creating graphics that are comprehensibe, It examines the unique ways we can provide cognitive and emotional meaning through visual language. Most important, this book is meant ble, and informatv inspire new and creative ways of designing to infor, We depend on visual language for its efficient and informative value. As the quantity of global informa tion grows exponential, communicating with visual allows us to comprehend large quantities of data. We often find that technological and scientif rand ¢ nly be represented through imagery. Using an informative approach information isson ple, it can to visual language allows the audience to perceive concepts and relationships that they had not previously realized 10 Visual Language for Designers ur neurons Seem tobe plugged in to the digital ream, having adjusted tothe continual barrage of vi ial information. With multiple w cling tet, personal digital assistant, new media, cial imager, video on demand, advertising banners, and pop-ups, the f ne time it takes fora viewer to understand and dows, 5 we have come to appreciat that visuals re duce respond fo information. The sheer quantity of visual ges relayed through new technology has led some to cal imagery “the new public language Visual communication i iting fr a multlingul, slobal culture Ws pos. ble to bypass differences in symbol perception and languae Using basic design element e to convey our message through imagery Gyorgy Kepes, influential designer and art educato envisioned this in 1944, when he wrote, “Visual com= munication limits of tongue, vocabulary, or grammar, an perceived by the iliterate as well s by the iterate universal and international t knows n apprehend concepts that tae aitfcut to explain. By izing tive layers of dloubies to express mo tion, the artist provides 2 _limpse of how each iter connected ayer ofthe body‘4 Visual language enables ls fo depict processes and systems in their entirety 50 tne can understand the Dig perspective. This aigron ofa campus enterprise system details each com ponent ofthe system while resenting the global view, Taylor Mark, XPLANE, United States Visual Language for Designers (Communication through imagery has other advantages ‘2s well To explain something hidden from vew, such 28 the mechanics of a machine or the human body, 2 cross section ofthe object ara transparent human figure works well When we need to describe an invis- ible process, such as how a mobile text message is transmitted, iconic forms interconnected with arrows can be used to representa system and its events. To communicate a dificult o abstract concept, we may ‘choose to depict it witha visual metaphor to make the idea concrete. Precise charts and tables help to ‘tucture information so audiences can easily absorb the facts. When we wish to instigate a cal ta action, we find that emotionally charged imagery is the most memorable. We see that a graphic with humor ar nov tly can capture our audience's attention and provide ‘motivation and interest, And when the tsk cals for an immediate response, we know that a graphic will provide quick comprehension. The power of visual ‘communication is immeasurable > this snapshot of social ‘media trends onthe Intemet was created for Business Week magaziae The clear and precise Pinel graph provides the coherency we need to make comparisons, find patos, ‘and appreciate the richness ofthe data, ‘Arno Ghelf, United StatesSocial Technographies Categories Percent of each generation in each Social Technographics category ae> omen “ea” “Soe “Seo” “Sea “ae” sabi “ae asta Introduction 13‘The Designer's Challenge The never-ending flood of facts and data in our con: ‘temporary word has caused a paradigm shift in how \we relate to infarmation. Whereas at one time infor: mation was community based, slow to retrieve, and often the domain of experts, information 's now global, instantaneous, and atten in the public domain. We row want infarmation and content in our avn hands {and on aur awn terms, We maintain an underying belief thats aur fundamental right to have access towellstructured and organized information. As a result, information design is exploding as organizations and individuals serambie to manage an overwtelming ‘quantity of content. Understanding the most effectve ‘ways to inform is now a principal concern. Accord ing to professor of information design Dino Karabeg, “informing can make the difference between the tech- nologically advanced cuture which wanders aimlessiy and often destructively, and a culture with vision and direction."* This has profound implications for graphic com munication. There isan inereasing demand forthe information-packed graphic, geater competion for ‘an audience's visual attention, and ever mote complex ‘sual problems requiring orignal solutions. There are requirements to design for pluralistic cultures and a Continuous need to design forthe latest technologies. ‘As part ofthis new path, visual communicators need sense of how the mind functions. Effective informative graphics focus on the audience. An increased aware: ness of how people process visual information can help the designer create meaningil messages that are Understood on bath a cognitive and emotional eve, [An informative image isnot only well designed; it cap- ‘ures bath the feeling of the content and facitates an 14 Visual Language for Designers Understanding oft. The final product affects how the audience perceives, organizes, interprets, and stores the message. The new rale of a graphic designer isto direc the cognitive and emotional processes of the au- dience. In shaping the information space ofa visually salurated world, efficient and accurate communication is of primary importance. Step Inside Visual Language for Designers ts based on research {om the interconnected fields of visual communica tion and graphic design, learning theory and instruc tional design, cognitive psychology and neuroscience, ‘and information visualization, The imagery incorpe- fates an expansive definition of wsual design, exem- pliying the diverse fields from which this research is — —- 3(=)-leJ= The human information pro cessing system s the model that cognitive scientists use to understand how people transform sensory data nto ‘mesningt information,Visual Perception: Where Bottom-Up Meets Top-Down We are able to see a picture because reflected or ‘emitted light focuses on the retina, composed of more ‘than 100 milion light-absorbing receptors. The jab of the retina isto conver this ight energy into electrical impulses forthe brain to interpret. One could say that the mechanics of sual perception center on the fo vea, the region of the retina that gives us sharpness of vision, The fovea allows us ta distinguish small objects, ‘etal, and cola. Because the fovea Is small, ust a limited part of our visual weld is imaged on It at any ‘moment in time. Most visual infarmation falls an the periaheral areas of the retina, whete the sharpness of vision and detail fal off rapidly from the fovea, ur eyes must repeatedly move to keep the object of ‘mast interest imaged on the fovea. These rapid eye mavements, called saccades, allow us to select what \we atlanta inthe visual world. The eye perfrns several saccades each second. In between saccades there are brief fuxations—around three per second — hen the eyes are neatly at rest. This is when we ‘extract visual data from a picture and process it. The visual system continuously combines image informa- tion from one ization to the next Unlike data streaming into a passive computer, we perceive objects energetically, as active participants. ‘though our visual awareness is driven by the external stimulus, known as bottom-up processing, our percep tions are also driven by our memories, expectations, and intentions, known as fop-down processing. Visual perception isthe result of complex interactions be- tween bottom-up and top-down processing, RETINA oven (OPTIC NERVE ‘A The fovea isthe port af ¥ Visul perception results the eye that gives us the trom the complex interac: greatest acuty af vision, ‘tons ofbttom-up and ‘op-iown processes Driven by an Driven by prot external stimulus knowledge, goals and expectations Getting Grophics 23ur visu ys highly attuned to wsua! ‘maps the many visual ofa primate bai, process distinct visual form, 20d color Published in Science ‘magazine for an article by David Van Essen, Charles Anderson, and Daniel Flleman > inthis visualy ich ‘explanation of Hind osmoigy 2 vewer wil bottom-up processes. T ‘Annie Bisset, Annie Bisset tusration, 24 Visual Language for DesignersBottom-up visual processing occurs early in the vision process without conscious attention or efor, propelled by the brains persistent need to find meaningful pat tems in the visual environment. When we happen to gance ata cture or a scene, we de! ct motion, ede: 5 of shapes, color, bottom-up proc ntours, and contrasts through s9es withou! conscious awareness As our bran processes these primitive features, it discriminates foreground trom background, groups elements together, and organizes textures into basic forms. This occurs rapily, helping us to recognize and Identiy abjects. The output fem bottom-up process ing ls quickly passe onto ather areas ofthe brain and Influences where we pl phase of perception, top-down processing, is strongly influenced by what we know, what we expect, and ce our attention. This second the task at hand. We tend to disregard anything that 's not meaningful or useful a the moment. Top-down processing so affects our Events in aur information-processing system accur rapidly and are measured in millseconds or one thou sanath of a second. As we interact withthe world, we ontinualy process sensory data in parallel. Different regions ofthe brain that are attuned to specific visual atributes ofa picture, such as clot or shape, ae ac tivated simultaneously. Accordingly, visual perception produces @ network of activated neurons i the brain, rather than a single concentrated area of activated neurons. Massive parallel processing makes the act of perception fast and efficient. Perception and object ton would be quite slow if data were passed from neuron to neuron in a serial fashion Getting Graphics 2s> — — ‘Sensory Memory Long-term Memory Sensory Data exter Stimulus Sensory Memory: Fleeting Impressions When we process sensory data, an impression or brief recording ofthe orignal stimulus registers in sensory memory. Sensory memory is thought to have at least ‘wo components: an ianie memary for visual informa. tion and an echole memory for auditory information. ‘Although the impression fades after a few hundred millseconds, iis buffered long enough for some potion to persist for further processing In picture perception, the prominent features ofthe picture along with our conscious attention influence what wil be retained 26 Visual Language for Designers See Working Memory: Mental Workspace Because we are compelled to understand what we e6, we need a mental workspace to analyze, ma nipulate, and synthesize information. This occurs in working memory, where conscious mental wok is per: formed ta support cognition. In working memory, we maintain and manipulate information that i the focus of attention, piece together sensory infornation, and integrate new information with prior knowiedge. Like sensory memory, working memory processes informa- tion through two systems; visual working memory pro- ‘cesses visual information and verbal working memory processes verbal information. [A profound aspect of working memory is how it helps us make sense ofthe word. To understand some- thing, we have to compare it with what we already know. Thus, a8 new information streams into working ‘memory, we instantaneously Search through reiated information in our permanent store of knowledge to find a match, Hwe find a match, we recognize the ‘object or concept and identity it fit is unfamiliar, ‘we make inferences about i Both sensory memory and working memory are taught to process informa tion in separate channels sua) and ver.Getting Grophics 27bo ee | LEISURE AROUND THE WORLD ro cette mre ny es te et ee ene ren INTERNATIONAL LEISURE: A SAMPLING For example, upon viewing this map, we separate ‘igure from ground and immediately try to wentiy the shapes as objec. We rapidly search through our knawiedge base (longterm memory) to find a match for the shapes. This activates our associated know ‘of maps and geograpty. Ifthe external depiction ofthe map matches our generalized internal represen tation, we are able to recognize the landmass as “the world" and to understand the symbols from reading the legend. f we cannot identity the landmass or have no knowiedge of map reading, we will not under: stand the graphic. The comprehension of a parteular graphic is dependent on a viewer’ prior knowledge nd ability to retrieve that knowledge. 28 Visual Language for Designers Two well-known constraints of working memory are its limited capacity and short duration, Although the c pacity of working memory isnot fixed, it appears that ‘on average, a person can manipulate around theee to five chunks of information in awareness at ane tine.? Thus, working memory is considered a bottleneck in the information-processing system. One can easily sense the limits of working memory by performing a ‘sequential mental operation, such as multiplying two large numbers. At some point, more partial results are needed to perfor the multiplication problem than working memory can handle. That is when we typically reach for paper and pencil or a calculator This statistical map was created for @ Newsweok Education Program for highschool students to lear how to interpret and Eliot Bergman, JaponIn adaiton tots limited capacity, the short duration af working memory alsa affects our cognitive abies. New information in working memory decays rapidly Unless the information is manipulated or rehearsed For example, we must mentally repeat dictions uni we can write them down or they will quicky fade away. Individual factrs also affect the constraints of working ‘memory. Age isa factor, working memory capabilties increase with maturation but decline in old age. Work ing memory is also affected by the speed with which ‘an individual processes information. Speediar process. ing results in a greater capacity to handle information. Distractbilty is another factor, People who are adept at resisting distractions, which are known to overload ‘working memory, have a greater functional capacity Final, a person's level of expertise affects working ‘memory. With a great deal of domain-specific know- edge, an expert isnot as easly averwhelmed when performing associated tasks as is a novice * Conversely, the constraints of working memory can be considered advantageous. The transitory nature of in formation in working memory enables us to continually change cognitive direction, providing the flexibility to. shift the focus of our atention and processing to what ‘ever is most important inthe environment, In terms af picture perception, this allows a viewer to instantly perceive and consider a newly discovered area ofa pieture that may be easier to comprehend ar of greater Importance. The limited capacity of working memory creates a highly focused and uncluttered workspace that may be the perfect envionment for speedy and efficient processing of information ? ‘As portrayed inthis graphic for Elagance magazine, Information in working memory decays rapid ‘Ronald Blommestin, The Netherlands Getting Graphics 29All About Stem Cells ‘Stem celts are the origin fal cas in the body (every cell stems" from this ype). Under the right conditions, stem cells can become any ofthe body's 200 iflerent cel types. pamrowe, sou Seen eee mc a rast “ape - - ma ores cat at tarde eed - Se ae fo “Tiind 1008 seus atncese 10608 eat ne = ee = ed oe =) 1 OMOr f= SOsmnmvs Onna Qusxsumun Ormerod Orme as sanone on tne et nt pt nt ite a ee tn ind raat ©.gauruemnn nemeatee CEES) ommeresirunte [fucse 4 (© reads ea non mange bt ae EIEIO) O eno iat. es ead enna ere eres SE Saeaee una meenee meio a ‘er énom 5B Aten Q Stir teas 1) Cw 8.2 Moderne. henson 5.5 onic .25 30 Visual Language for Designers.‘4 chatorging content Inreases the cognitive load on working memory. This _raphic explaining stem cel research incorporates stvera effective techniques Tor reducing the load, such 35 icone ilusrations, sequencing, and arrows ‘gel Homes, United States > This stustration depicts ‘the memeries activated in ‘one man ashe obseres 3 pestoenic scene. Long term memory stores numer ous types of memories. Joanne Haderer Miller, aderor& Maller Biomedical at, United States Cognitive Load: Demands fon Working Memory While many of the cognitive tasks we perform, such as counting, make litle demand on working memory, ather tasks are quite taxing. Demanding tasks include such things as acquiring new information, solving problems, dealing with novel situations, consciously recalling prior knowledge, and inhibiting ielevant Information.!® The resources we use to satisfy the ‘demands placed on working memory are known as cognitive load, When a high cognitive lnad impinges on working mem- cry, we no longer have the capacity to adequatoly pro- cess information. This overioad effect atten results in @ fallure to understand information, a misinterpretation of information, or overlooking of important information, Mary challenging tasks associated wth complex visual Information make high demands on working memory. Designers af visual communication can reduce cogn- te load through various graphical techniques and approaches that are discussed throughout this book. Long-Term Memon Permanent Storage When we selectively pay attention to information in working memory, iis likely to get transformed and encoded into long-term memory. Long-term memory is a dynamée structure that retains everthing we know. It's capable of string an unlimited quantity of Information, making it functionally ifrite. Knowledge in long-term memory appears to be stored perma- renity—though we may have difculy accessing it Educational psychologist John Sweller describes its significance: "Because we are not conscious f the contents ofthe long-term memory except when they are brought into working memory, the importance of this store and the extent to which It dominates our cognitive activity tends tobe hidden from us."! Long-term memory isnot a unitary structure because not al types of memories are the same. We remember facts and concepts, such as basic color theory; we remember chldhaed events, such as playing aur fst instrument, and we remember how ta perform a task, lke riding a bieyee. Accordingly, long-term memory appears to have multiple structures to accommodate different types of memaries. Semantic memory s a sociated with meaning: it stores the facts and concepts that compose our repository of general knowledge About the world, This includes the information we ‘tract from pictures. Episodic memory is autobio- raphical. I stores events and associated emations that relate to experiences. Procedural memory isthe storehouse of now to-do things. It holds the sks and procedures that enable us to accomplish a task. Getting Grophics 31BEd int Design Process cuide a Encoding. Although some information is automaticaly processed from working memory int long-term mem: ‘ary withaut conscious effon, encoding into long-term ‘memory generally invoives some form of conscious rehearsal or meaningful association. Maintenance re- hearsal is simply a matter of repeating new information untl its etained;elaborative rehearsal occurs when we analyze the meaning of new information and relate itta previously stored knowledge in long-term memory. Research suggests thatthe more ways we can connect new information with old information, the more likely its to be recalled, In addition, connecting information ‘om both the visual and verbal channels facilitates encoding to long-term memary. 32 Visual Language for Designers Depth of processing. Cognitive researchers think that depth of processing significantly affects how Iikely it is that information wil be eecalled from long-term memory. When a viewer focuses aly on the physical aspects of a word or graphic, the information isnot stored as deeply as when the viewer focuses on the semantic aspects, which are those that have mean ing, For example, fa viewer concentrates only on the shapes and colors ofa graph, the information wil not be processed as deeply a ifthe person studied the sg12ph, followed the flow of explanations, and under ‘stood its meaning. Encoding atthe semantic level is superior to encoding atthe perceptual level. The important point that cannot be overemphasized is that we have @ superioe memory for anything that is processed atthe level of meaning Depth of proessig can be understood by ooservng this chart that depicts the processes of print design. Following the horizontal path of each process for 2 coherent understanding results in deeper encoding than focusing only on the layout, colors, and shapes ofthe elements Gordon Cleplak, Schwartz Brand Gro, United StatesSCHEMAS: MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS. ‘To store a ifetime of knowiedge in long-term memory, \we need it in an accessible form. Not surprisingly, \we achieve this by classifying and storing information in terms of what t means tous. “New information is stored in memory—not by recording some literal copy ‘ofthat information but, rather, by interpreting that Information in terms of what we alteady know. New Items of information are itn’ to memory, soto speak, in terms oftheir meaning,” write researchers Elizabeth ‘and Robert Bark." Cognitive scientists theorize that the knowledge in long.-term memory is organized in mental structures ‘called schemas. Schemas form an extensive and elaborate network of representations that embody our Understanding ofthe world. They are the context for interpreting new information and the framework for in ‘grating new knowledge. We rapidly activate schemas ta conduct mental processes, such as problem solving ‘and making inferences. Unlike a perceptual experience that focuses on unique features, a schema isan abstract or generalized rep- resentation. There are schemas that represent abjects ‘and scenes and schemas that represent concepts and the relationships between concepts. When we see a house, we natice is architectural syle, the materials from which itis bull, ts cols and textures, an the surrounding environment. Although each houses unique, each ime we encounter one ofthese struc- tures we are able to identify it asa house, whether i is @ hut constructed of mud and straw, a farmhouse, ‘ora townhouse. This is because we have a general- laed schema of what constitutes a house. A general schema for house might include a place where people lve; a structure with rooms, windows, dears and root ‘and a place ta sleep eat, and bathe. Our schemas are constantly changing, adapting, and accommodating new information, contributing tothe ‘dynamic nature of long-term memory. Every time we encounter new information and connect ito prior knowledge, we are adapting a schema to assimilate ‘this new information. When schemas change or new schemas are constructed through analogy, we cal this occurrence fearning. And when a person becomes very skiled in a parieular area, having constructed thousands of complex schemas in a particular domain, we consider the person an exper. Retrieval. Our sole purpose in encoding information into long-term memory i o retrieve the information when we need it. Unfortunately, as we have al exper: fenced, this is not always a straightforward process. According tothe Bjorks, “The retrieval process is erratic, highy fallible, and heavily cue dependent."!> Information recall is accomplished by a retrieval cue, which isthe plece of information that activates assoc!- ated knowledge stored in long-term memory. Retrieval {cues can be of any form—an image, a fact, an idea, an ematon, a stimulus inthe envionment, or a ques- tion we ask ourselves. When long-term memory is cued to retrieve stored ‘memories, the cue activates associated schema, Activation quickly spreads to other schemas inthe network. A common experience occurs, for example, ‘when a person hears an old song and tries to remem- ber the band that recorded it. The song isthe cue that retrieves associated schemas from long-term memory. Ifthe right schemas are retrieved, the person wil remember the band's name. failure to remember something is offen the result ofa poor retrieval cue rather than a lack of stored knowledge. Getting Graphics 33‘Automaticity. Many schemas, such as word recogni tion, become automatic through practice. Over time ‘and with repeated use, mare complex mental opera tions also become automated with practice. When this happens, the procedure i processed with less Cconsciaus effort. Since warking memory isthe space where conscious work is performed, automaticity ‘decreases the lead on working memary.* ‘A good example ofthis occurs as someone learns to read. Upon one's frst encounter with the word cat, thre letters or three perceptual units are hela in working memary while the word is deciphered. AS 2 reader gains experience, the word catls chunked inta one perceptual unt until eventually, recogniz- ing the ward cat becomes an automatic process with little imposition on working memory It's not uncom. ‘mon for people with expertise ina fet to perform a ‘ask without needing to pay deliberate attention to it ‘As the automaticity ofthe schema frees up cognitive resources, the expert can use working memory to ‘competently deal with more complex tasks, such as solving probloms or handiing novel situations. This ean be observed in experienced athletes, master teachers, and expert designers.® Mental models. Whereas schemas form the underb ing structure of memory, mental models are broader Conceptualzations of how the word works. Mental models explain cause and effect and how changes in one objector phenomenon can cause changes in another. For example, users of graphic software have ‘2 mental model of how layers operate. The mental ‘model contains knowledge of how a layer is alected 34 Visual Language for Designers by maving it above or below anather layer and the ef {ect of increasing or decreasing ts opacity. This mental model i easly transferred to any graphic sofware that uses the same paradigm. Thus, mental models help us knaw what sults to expect ‘ith an understanding of schemas and mental mad- cls, graphic designers can begin to consider how an audience might understand a visual form of communi catian. When someone looks ata graphic, the objects, shapes, and the overall scene activate associated schemas and mental made's that enable the viewer ta make inferences about the visual and construct an interpretation of it. 4 created forthe WRC Handelebod, this eraphic suggests the automaticity of ‘many of our actions ‘Rhonaid Bionmestin, The Netherlands > this graphic portrays a novel way of seeing the Interlationshios arent In cognitive processes, “Lane Hall, United StatesGetting Graphics 38DUAL CODING: THE VISUAL AND THE VERBAL Yerba and visual information appear to be processed through separate channels, refered to as dual coding. (One channel processes visual information that retains the perceptual features of an abject or picture and fone channel processes verbal information and stores the information as words. Although the systems are independent, they communicate and interact, uch as wien bath image and concept knowledge are retrieved from long-term memory. For example, upon hearing the name Salvador Dalla person might retrieve both image-based and verbal information from long-term ‘memory. One might construct mental images ofthe artist's paintings and also recall biographical informa. tion about his ite. ‘This dual system of processing and storage explains ‘why memorized information is mare likely 0 be = ‘Weved when its stored in both visual and verbal form, That ls why associating graphics with tex or using an ‘audio track with an animation can improve information recall Placing pictures together with words also allows, these two medes of information to form connections, creating a larger network of schemas. 36 Visual Language for Designers ‘THE AUDIENCE'S COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS It may not be possibie to fully predict how an audience will peceive and interpret a picture because of the Complex nature of human experience and the variable Cognitive skils among individuals. Yt an awareness (ofan audience's cognitive characteristics can bring designers closer to this goal. In her book Research Jato ‘Mustration, professor Evelyn Goldsmith categorizes the cognitive resources and abilities that could affect an individua' abilty to comprehend a picture. ‘The first characteristic is developmental evel. The implicaton is that development, rather than age, is 2 more accurate predictor ofa person's cognitive abii- ties. less sklled viewer may interpreta picture Iter- ally although the intended meaning is metaphorical. ‘The ability to interpret more complex types of visual ‘expression comes with mature development. Also, visual skis vary with developmental level. Visual skis such as depth perception, color differentiation, and acuity vary at diferent stages of development Distractibilty isthe ability to focus an what is impor- tant while inhibiting distraction from other events and information. In terms of graphic comprehension, an in- dividual capable of inhibiting distractions wil be better ‘able fo concentrate on relevant information ina visual Not surprisingly, younger viewers find it mare dificult to clse their minds to extraneous information, > The cognitive characteris ties of developmental evel ‘and aistracibity come into play when designing fora young audience. These display graphies use bright colors and humorous i lustations for an aquarium exhib Greg Ditzenbach, ‘McCullough Creative, United Stateste 6 eelainy: (3This information graphic vi sualies the potential global tage of wind energy de Dicted in maps and grap, ‘Advanced developmental ‘and visual literacy levels fre required t comprehend amples sraphies ‘Kristin Cute, University of Washington, Unite States ‘Another characteristic atthe top of the lst is visual iteracy. Athough it may not tke training to recognize the objects in an image, a comprehensive understand: ing of picture involves the ably to fully decode the vigual message. Knowledge ofthe symbols and graphical devices used in one's culture as well as an Understanding ofthe context are required. Learning to accurately read a picture isa result of education and ‘experience. For example, i takes an advanced level of visual literacy to analyze and interpret an information graphic using many types of graphs. 38 Visual Language for Designers Politics & Potential The audience's level of expertise should significantly affect design decisions. Experience with the content of 2 picture isan important predictor of a ewer’ bility ta comprehend a graphic. Experts are knawn to orga nize complex patterns in the visual environment into {ower perceptual units, which reduces cognitive oad. Thus, viewers with domain-specific experience are less likely to get overioaded when perceiving a complex visual as compared to novices. ‘Motivation isan important factor in whether an aud fence member wil have an intrest ina picture. A view- {ers motivation is typically based an his or her goals for viewing the graphic. Is the graphic being viewed for aesthetic appreciation ori it required for perform- ing task, such as fixing a bicycle? Does the graphic ‘explain a complex concept that must be learned? Or is ta bland marketing mailer for which the viewer has no use? With enough motivation, a viewer will attend to ‘and work at understanding a graphic.i it i i | Catureis another signiiant facto in graphic creation, Many cognitive skis are culturally based—ways and pattems of thinking, symbol and color interpretation ‘and visual associations with verbal language, to name 2 few. Culture provides the context or ens through ‘which people interpreta picture, and therefore culture affects cognitive processing. As the global exchange of people and ideas continues to increase, accommoadat- ing the cognitive conventions ofa pluralste culture is 2 fundamental requirement of effective design Reading skis often correspond tothe users under standing ofa graphic. People with low reading levels ‘may nat be proficient at following a visual hierarchy or finding the most relevant information. They may net be experienced a allocating their visual attention to ‘a picture in the most efficient manner and may miss Important information. * Reading level also atects how ‘wel the viewer wil read tiles, captions, and call-auts ‘and how he or she will integrate text and images. ‘An imgertant cognitive ‘hil to consider n complex _raphies isthe reading level of the audlence. In {this information eraphic {or the Sydney Morning Herald, call-uts are exten ‘ively sed f explain the ramped conditions atthe Opera Theatre (Ninian Carter Canad Getting Grophics 39INFORMATIVE VALUE [Another aspect of cognition relates to a graphic’s informative purpose. In his book Steps to an Ecology ofthe Mind, Gregory Bateson writes that information 's a difference that makes a difference." This stato ments profoundly true for visual communication. The ‘sual language ofa graphic and every compositional element it contains potentially convey a message 10 the viewer. By determining a graphie’s informative purpose, de- signers can strategically organize a graphic to invoke the most suitable mental processes. For instance, ‘some graphics only request recognition from the viewer. They require the viewer to notice, to become aware—of an organization, an event, a product, or an ‘announcement. These graphics must be magnetic to attrac the viewer's attention and sustain it for as long as possible. The viewer's gaze must be directed to the ‘mast important information. And the graphic should bbe memarabe, so that the viewer encodes the mes sage into long-term memory (ther graphics are crested to extend the viewer's knawiedge and reasoning abilities. The value of maps, diagrams, graphs, and information visualizations fs to make things abundantly clear and move the viewer beyond what he or she could previously understand, Upon viewing one ofthese visuals, the viewer should be able to see new relationships. Here, the graphics must be clean and wel organized and must accom- ‘modate ease of interpretation and reasoning. Then there are graphics designed to assist wth a task ora procedure, such as assembling furniture. In order for the graphic ta be effective when the viewer becomes ‘2 user, must be accurate and unambiguous, leaving ro room fo misinterpretatio, By understanding the mental processes required to meet specific informative goals, designers can find the most suitable graphic approach for their purpose. The principles discussed in the next section ofthe book describe ways to achieve this. > The rch, stoking textures ‘Aatian Labos, 3 Studios, Romania tion of how dita! camera ‘and organized to Kevin Hand, United States 40 Visual Language for DesignersGetting Graphics 41SECTION TWO 1: Organize for Perception irect the Eyes teduce Realism lake the Abstract Concrete 5: Clarify Complexity 6: Charge It Up “For design is about the making of things: things that are memorable and have presence in the world of mind. It makes demand upon our ability both to consolidate information as knowledge and to deploy it imaginatively to create purpose in the pursuit of fresh information.” “Jean Manvel Davivier, Jean-Manuel Duvivier IMustration, BelBors Lube, Studio Intemational, Croat 44 Visual Language for DesignersPRINCIPLE 1 “Vision is not a mechanical recording of elements, but rather the apprehension of significant structural patterns.” RUDOLF ARNHEIM Cur visual system is remarkably agile. Ithelps us per- form tasks necessary for survival in our environment. Yetwe are able to apply these same processes to perceiving and understanding pictues. For example, without canscious effort we sean aur surtoundings to ‘extract infarmation abaut what is “out there," nating ifthere is anything of importance in the envionment. Similarly, without conscious elfor we scan a picture ta acquire information, noting if there is anything of Importance in the visual display Allof this occurs effortlessly, before we have consciously focused our attention The processes associated with early vison, called preattenve processing, nave generated a great deal ‘of research that can be applied to graphic commu nication and design. By understanding how viewers inaly analyze an image, designers can structure and ‘organize a graphic soit complements human percep- tion, The goal sto shit information acquiston tothe perceptual system to speed up visual information pro- ‘cessing. This is equivalent to giving a eunner a head start before the race begins. Early vision rapidly scans a wie visual eld to detect features in the envionment. This frst phase of vision is driven by the atibutes of an object (the visual stimulus), rather than a conscious selection of where talook. Upon detecting the presence of wsual fea tures, we extract raw perceptual data to get an overall, impression. This daa is most likely “mapped ito di ferent areas in the brain, each of whichis specialized to-analyze a diferent property.” From this rapid wsual analysis, we create some frm of rough mental sketch or representation? Later, vision makes use ofthis representation to know where to facus our attention. tis under the influence of our preexisting knowledge, expectations, and goals. For example, using the low-level visual system of early vision, we might register the shapes and color features we see in a graphic. Later, vision directs our attention to those same features and uses knowledge stored in long-term memory t recognize and identify the shapes as people. These two stages af vision form 2 complex and lttle understood interaction that provides: us witha unique visual intligence. Organize for Perception [ORGANIZE FOR PERCEPTION 4sereeenanenett ereeeneeetett ereeenanetett Hreeinanenete wi ett wit it i it 46 Visual Language for Designers Hreeenanenett ererenaeetett ererenenetett Srerenerenene Seeernetehiet Hhetedoteadtt iehettetecttcIn these iustrations at an Underwater landstide for Siete American, vivid textures enable ust de Lingus between land and 58a. The dynamic texture of the ocean projects a sense ofthe oncoming tsuram Dovid Fierstein, Dovid Firstion Mutation, ‘Animation, & Design, United States Perceptual Organization The significance of early vision is that it organizes our perceptions and gives structure and coherence to sen- sory data. Without perceptual organization a picture might appear tobe a chaotic st of disconnected dots ‘and lines. During our preconscious visual analysis, \we perform two primary types af perceptual organiza- tion—dlscriminating primitive features and grouping visual information into meaningful units Primitive features are the unique properties that allow a visual element to pop out ofan image dur Inga search, because they are the mast salent or prominent. Examples of primitive features are colo, ‘motion, orientation, and size. We later merge these features into meaningful objects through the guddance af our focused attention. Primitive features also allow Us to discriminate between textures, which we see as regions of similar features on a surface. When we see the dscontinuatin of feature, we perceive it as a border or the edge ofa surface. This process, known as texture segregation, hes us identify objects and forms and isa related preattentve process. Whereas the detection and discrimination af prim tive features tol us about the properties ofan image, the preattentve process of grouping tells us which individual parts go together. Before consciously paying attention, we organize sensory information into groups tr perceptual units. This provides information about the relationship of elements to each other and tothe whole. A basic perceptual unit can be thought of as any group of marks among which aur attention is not divided. A simple example ofthis concept occurs when we perceive a square. We tend to see the whole shape ofthe square rather than four straight lines intersecting at ight angles. Application of the group- ing concept can help a designer ensure tha viewers perceive visual information in meaningful units Using visual language that speaks toa viewer's preat tentive visual processes—discriminaton of primitive features and grouping parts into wholes—enables a designer to quickly communicate, grab attention, and provide meaning. This principle can be applied to informational and instructional graphics, promotional materials, warning signs and wayfinding, information visualizations, and technical interfaces, Organize for Perception 47Da ane es Res Reece eterna pa arty BUT HAS LESS THAN 2 PERCENT OF THE Proofs Boosting Cognition ‘ acy tr : to preex a s sensor ¢ s ample, emphasizing inacone PS __ Fi ¢ : : : Schwartz Brand Grow proce at the seu " the Acce important area ' cous atten ; en udience a : pv 3h data should ens x . t : nudience per f 1 ultimately enhancing comprohe w ‘Compre , sequitio bud tent that th reat cd me . . : process an : aa ca portunities for miscomp Organize for Perception 49fo (OF U.S, URBAN TRAYEL 1S 2 MILES OR LESS. RIDE YOUR BIKE TOFIGHT ° WARMING. Wired magazine, wal bars wth y and similar color tor nto their own perceptual soup The individual groups form into one whole graph because of proximity and breensting ko howto ‘Arno Ghelf Tatler staro, Unites States 50 Visual Language for Designers ‘Mark Boedian, (cut Bar & Company, United States market penetration 50 yearsApplying the Principle ‘Accommodating our prattentve visual processes through design requites thinking in terms of how the visual information wil be detected, organized, and ‘rouped. Fortunately, its nat dificult to predispose the viewer to a wel-organized visual structure. The low-level visual system is continuously Seeking a stim. ulus inthe environment to provide focus and draw the ‘eyes. When a design cals for quick recognition and response, graphics that emphasize one pronounced primitive feature, such as line orientation or shape, can be placed against a background with few distrac tors, This prietive feature willbe detected during a preattentve rapid sean When a project requires an emphasis on aesthetic ex- pression, the designer can take advantage of how early vision segregates features into textures. Using texture as a prominent feature can add visual depth and complexity to a graphic. And because we are adept at detecting texture differences, thi can offload some of the processing normally placed on working memory to the perceptual system The low-level visual system also seeks to configure parts ofa graphic into a whole unit when they are Clase together or have similar features. One example is how we perceive elements that have a common boundary as one unit, From a compositional perspec tive, grouping provides opportunities for emphasis, balance, and unity ina design. By organizing the structure ofa design through ‘emphasis of primitive features or through grouping individual elements, viewers wil quickly detect the ‘organization of the graphic. Many designers intuitively Use these organizing principles, but an awareness of the audience's preattentve capabilties isa way to intentionally improve the communication quality of any informative message, The way we preston: tively organize texture Into shapes canbe clear) ‘apoptosis (ce! death. ‘Drew Bery, Walter and Elin Hall Institute of Medical Research, Australia. Drganize for Perception $1than halfa century and of research leaders dedicated to Soenrem ranean 1 52 Visual Language for Designers‘of Nw York City bulsings for Sloombere Markets, magazine. oan Christe, Bryan Christie Design, United States > in this college comous ‘map, outlined green areas accentuate regions within ‘the campus. This helps us ‘roup the buildings thin ‘each region, faci tse ofthe ‘David Horton and ‘Amy Lebow, Phitearaphia, United States “ ' t | ‘ —i. Ma i 4 d ee ee meal = = ont: ents et} at a © ey oe oe neo)Po iss Sj I <0: feels GL S925 GU Sygsy ILS KAS 2T. oiflg,d cist MS B28 (99> Tub pal sign oo Pg SSS I. old HS P99 95)578 ST Ki ob dee gb SIO 39.55 PP OU: CS) SN cats! BSE 39 Eyed Col AU Se8 yoy sodbeg saysleh od bab al Spot Gia gs a Ct eee See oe ene aes ee ae Sete b bP 9590 ToL Se, Ba Boe hed pola a Sovn Bechira, 2X3 studios, Romanis Rosen beaeeieaae Gui fae! re PNY rh: PNPER CLS iS gd Salam os A> IAS 3! p95 Wc ELS & Cougs 3S ei ee aris Sep aerate goles Glass ole EO SHIR Mba le Sail alge Ol sWejgs PP Na Re I eg He Shy Lore: SRSA Se eae: OSs OES phe Pl cho ja Jal Rim . esol) 6 pilo iol Gs a 3 Col PO eG we im Peete ee es mes) 56 Visual Language for Designerse cus cy 2 rE T Bansh: OENOTEXTURE SEGREGATION tothe inux of sensory data isto organize primitive features into segmented regions of texture. In pictures, texture can be thought of asthe optical grain ofa surface. We unconsciously unify objects into regions that are bound by an abrupt change in texture. We perceive this change as defining where one object, or form, ends and where another One of ou ist respon: begins. Once we segregate a region info textures, we then organize it into shapes or objects that we identity with conscious attention. Our knowiedge of texture patterns helps us to identi objects. Through texture segregation, we also separate foreground from background. When we perceive a ference between two textures, the textured area is typically seen as the figure or dominant shape and the area without texture is typically seen as the ground ‘oF neutral form. The relationship between figure and ‘round i a prerequisite for perceiving shapes and eventually identifying objects. Color and size, also contribute tothe fgure—ground perception. Just as primitive features can induce the pop-out effect, so can regions of texture. For instance, wien 2 surface texture is composed of uncomplicated primi tive features, such as line orentation or shapes, is 58 Visual Language for Designers ‘easy ta cistinguish the texture frm its surroundings. ‘When a form with a complex texture is placed on a busy background, the texture is harder to dis and loses its pop-out effect.* iminate Texture perception also presents spatial information depth perception.” The texture «gradient on a surface contributes to our perception of ject appears. When the texture’s pattern on a surface is perceived as denser and fines, by providing cues hhow neat ofr ano an object appears to recede in the distance; when the pattern is perceived as less dense and coarser, the object appears closer. Our abilty to segregate textures during eary vision is key to understanding the meaning of a graphic. An analysis of texture shows that itis constructed from Contrast, orientation, and element repetition. Designers ‘can manipulate these individual properties to convey meaning, Texture can be expressive, capturing the es sence ofan abject or mood. Texture can also simulate surface qualities to help us identify and recognize ob- jects. When given appropriate emphasis, texture can become more prominent than shape and line. ‘A In these three dimen sional displays to promote organic textures to express the natural beauty of Croatia, Textures ae easy peresved inthe early vision example 80 competing ‘Boris Lubicle, Studio Intemational, Croatia > one can almost fe! the ‘gooey, meting textures this poster. The powertu! ‘ype pops cut even against the high-energy cols and shapes because ofthe con teats in coor and texture, “arian Labs, 23 Studios, Roman(hvstopher Short, 60 Visual Language for DesignersTan Lynam, Tan Lynam Creative Direction & Design, Organize for Perception 61Pec Tene ei EESeeV Pherae) with Text Text 62 Visual Language for Designers¥ agro — é av Oho gto etter wien reat rea a aan, tet, Fat ty, slater obra Za, Us EE, Nang 1 inimno zasjna ob es lthice 2, Sina 0300 Konce 3 feat Ning somovan je prs Bodin nk ki pats roHlogodisyn ade NES Fits, Osobitg 2 cms ay nin ad se Zag ie oa os aa el pe 38d tap ent ak : Be if Yoysuseen rn VU Kolikog nays asia sit ae ideronon i Posetno sc eh ag 2 ti Run hg Eno esa ak, ai ih oni Uskani U Za poy RIO dob Klum | 028m pti sae i i tel aa ps je ot ony eh Seek i hans Pods cle iodo objay seine ogee Smo Ht FHRATSRE CNC tll ejecta GoD KA ime, ia hAa pfs NaC NTA KNIIGE kno means Nip dan da PRVE arena seat Robi Spe SR tes pera oani ts , So gn giska Organize for Perception 63em Sieg ou i — YAMA URTERT WIENER == UMLAUT DOPPELDEEKER BRATWURST UASPRAGHE HAMSTER SCHMUSING = sea SEE STRATE, WAFFEEKLATSCN,-KLAT {WEISSWURST: i “VOLKSWAGEN POLTERGEIST-., WANDERLUST_ ESTER TIAN 7 PE ikistay=: ‘emer OPILITO sr” = MALE WME LETMOT a : ‘Si UNDERGARTEN a : is — ae ; a YAL Then Ban in Ausgewanderte Worter ini WANDERWORT. ~~ “= = = ALLEs BLAU? =vacua ugar Moe AEP KUIH rs sl MAKAT aA aad near PRT RAUEED, UNDHELGROUPING Understanding where abjects are located and how they are arranged in space is essential for moving ‘through the environment. Perhaps that's why spatial ‘otganizatonis 3 fundamental operation of preatentive perception, The low-level vsual system has a tendency tw organze elements into coherent groups depending (on how they are arranged and where they are located. This preattentive configuration of pars into wholes lets us knaw that a set of elements in a picture fs associated and should be viewed as ane unit. During later cognitive processing, the relationship among the perceptual units and thet relationship tothe whale becomes valuable information that conveys meaning in a graphic ‘The perceptual organization of parts into wholes is based on theories promoted by the Gestalt psychalo gists inthe early twentieth century. Their principles demonstrated that under the right conditions, combin- ing parts into wholes takes precedence overseeing the parts themselves. A few of the Gestalt principles ‘that determine whether a whole unt or ts parts have visual precedence include proximity, sitar, and symmetry. Elements that exhibit proximity are close to each ather in space or time, We perceive elements with proximity a belonging to the same group. We also perceive elements that have similar visual charac teristics, such as shape and texture, as one unit. The symmetry principle states that we configure elements inta'a whole when they form a symmetrical figure rather than an asymmetrical one 66 Visual Language for Designers In the past few decades, research in the area of preattentive perception has added to our body of knawiedge about the grouping phenomenon. These findings have extended the factors that are thought toiinfluence our natural tendency 1 group parts into wholes. These newer principles include the concepts. cof boundary and uniform connectedness. The bound- ary principle states that fa set of elements is enclosed with a boundary, such as a circle, we group those elements together® Thus, when a boundary encloses 2 set af items, we perceive this as a unit eventhough ‘we would perceive the items as separate withaut the boundary. Connectedness describes our tendency to perceive elements as ane unit when they are ahysi- cally connected by a line or common edge® This is generally how we perceive diagrams. ‘A design that arranges elements into meaningful units wil influence how weil the audience oxganizes, iter. pts, and comprehends a visual message. Grouping elements enhances the meaning of a graphic, because viewers know that clustered elements are asso ated. Visual search is speedier as a result of grouping because iis faster to find information thats placed in one location. Grouping elements together can also make new features emerge. For instance, a set of ines radiating from a center point might emerge as a Sun form. Designers can take advantage ofthe conditions that evoke grouping—proximity,simlaty, symmetry, bounding, and connectedness—to facilitate visual ‘communication‘United States Organize for Perception 67WE KNOW THE PROPER SALARY FOR EVERYONE IN YOUR DEPARTMENT. 68 Visual Language for DesignersOrganize for Perception 69rr Ee) 70 Visual Language for Designers THURSDAY 974380130 = Gs Ee a sf si a8 ge ea & 8 This poster fora graphic design lecture tects the lye tthe important ifr. ‘mation afonga spiraled Tan Lynam, lan Lynam Creative Ditection& Design, JaenPRINCIPLE 2 [DIRECT THE EYES “If the viewer's eyes are permitted to wander at will through a work, then the artist has lost control.” |IRCK FREDERICK MEYERS, The Language of Vial 4 Athaugh we think ofthe brain asa system that can process massive amounts of data in paral, the ‘Quantity of input coursing through the optic nerve ‘every second is actualy more than the brain can squeeze into conscious awareness. Thus, we shift ‘ur visual attention from ane locaton te another in ‘a serial manner to extract the information we wart. ‘An interesting feature inthe envionment may tact ‘our eyes, or an internal goal may diect our attention Likewise, when viewing a graphic we attend to what is most compeling. Prominent features ina graphic ‘compete for aur attention, so if we are not given visual direction we may dwell on the wrong information or become overwhelmed with toe much infarmation. To find meaning in what we see, we must selectively at- tend to what is important. A designer or iustrator ean assist this process by purposeluly guiding the viewer's ‘eyes through the structure ofa graphic, Ths is one of the more essential techniques visual communicators ‘can emplay to ensuee that viewers compcehend their Intended message Directing the eyes serves two principal purposes—to steer the viewer's attenton along a path according to the intended ranking arder and to draw the wewer's attention to spectc elements of importance. When our ‘eyes scan a picture, we do not glance randomly here ‘and there. Rather, aur eyes fate on the areas that are ‘mast interesting and informative. We tend to fate on ‘objects, skipping over the monotonous, empty, and Uninformative areas. This not surprising, since we ‘are continually seeking meaning in what we see. But itdoes mean that each individual may scan the same picture in his or her unique way depending on what the person considers informative Nevertheless, there are common tendencies and biases in how we move our eyes around a picture. The intial scanning process often starts in the upper let comer asthe point of entry. We are biased toward let- te-right eye movements and top-to-bottom movements Diagonal movements of the eye are less frequent. ‘Mtr the fist several fixations, we mast likely get the “gist” ofa picture, and then our eye movernents are influenced by the picture's content, is horizontal or vertical orientation, and our own internal infuences. Itis debatable whether the dectional orientation of one's wing and reading system contributes to eye ‘mavement preferences. ‘The eye movements ofthe viewer are erica to ‘graphic comprehension. Unlike other forms of com- ‘munication, such as reading, listening to music, of ‘watching a movi, the time spent looking at a graphic can be remarkably brief, Purposefuly ditecting the eyes makes it likely that a viewer will pick up the most relevant information within a limited time frame. The designer can guide the viewer's eyes by using tech: riques implicit to the composition, such as altering ‘the postion of an element or enhancing the sense of ‘mavement, The designer can aso guide the viewer to specific information by signaling the location with vi- sual cues lke arrows, color, and captions. Visual cues 4 not cary the pximary message; their function isto trent, point ou, or highlight crucial information, n72 Visual Language for DesignersAWATDUIE DU LDWOTEE Both compostional and signaling techniques are effective at guiding the eyes because they make use ‘of prominent features that are picked up early in the perceptual process. Even though eye movements are ‘also controled by the viewer's expectations and search ‘goals, research shows that using compositional and signaling techniques ta dlect the eye can be quite ef- fective. In one experiment that gauged eye movernent based on compositional techniques, an experienced artist explained to the study authors precisely where he intended observers of his at to look, Observers ‘were then allowed to view the at fr thity seconds while their eye movernents were recorded. The scan- ning paths of the subjects proved to be in “consider- able concardance® with what the artist intended. Signaling the viewer with arrows and color is known to be effective when used in explanatory and informa- tional graphics. Studies show that when an area ofa sraphic is highlighted a its being discussed, such asin a mutimedia environment, viewers retain more information and are better able to transfer ths infor ‘mation than thase who didnot view the highlighted v- suals? Other research has demonstrated thatthe use of arrows as pointing devices reduces the time it takes to search for speci information in a visual field? In this visual study of early transatlantic ners created fora student projet, the painting finger is a visual ue syed fo ft the early rao tansatantc liners ‘Chronopoulou kate, {a Cambre School of sual At, Begum Direct the Eyes 73Importance of Attention ‘The cognitive mechanism that underlies eye mave- ‘ment control is selective attention. When we extact sensory data from a pictur, its momentarily regis tered in our sensory memory in fleeting images. We ‘must detect and then attend to these images though the process of selective attention to transfer visual information into working memory. Through selective attention, we send visual information onward through the visual information-processing system Cognitive researchers study eye movernents because fee movements reflect mental processes. We typically ‘move our eyes, and sometimes our head and body, to view an object withthe fovea—the part ofthe eye with the sharpest vision. When doing this, our focus of at- tention usually coincides with what we are seeing. But the relationship between eye movement and atention is not absolute, We can move our attention without moving aur eyes, as when we notice something in 74 Visual Language for Designers peripheral vision while looking straight ahead at some. (one speaking. In this circumstance, the movement of allention precedes the mavement ofthe eyes“ Because altention and the eyes can be associated, intentionally directing the eye helps to ensure they are aligned. ‘As discussed in Principle 1 (Organize for Percep- tion), attention can be captured preattentively through the bottom-up processing driven by a stimulus, ort can be captured during conscious attention through top-down processing. Designers can take advantage of ether type of processing to direct the viewer's atten tion. Incorporating contrast ar movement into a design vl tigger attention through bottom-up processes. Indicating the steps of a sequence through numbers and captions will activate attention through top-down processes. This information graphic created for itaché mage zine explains how gasoline engines werk, using as. ‘quence of numbers to guide the viewer’ attention, ‘ge! Holmes, Ute StatesEnhancing Cognitive Processes Promotes speedy perception. Vihen an observer's visual attention shifts ta a predetermined location ar along a preconceived path, it enhances haw the person understands a graphic in many ways. Drecting tha eyes promotes the afciency and speed of wsual perception, enhances visual information processing, and improves compretension. Specialy, when a viewer scans a complex graphic, it takes time to get ariented, to determine what is most important, and to extract essential information. Viewers are known to overlook important details in complex ilustrations unless they are shown where fo attend. When a viewer Is directed toa precise lation, however, search time is reduced and efficiency i increased Improves processing. During preattentve processing attention 's unconsciously directed to features that are ‘most salient. Studies have demonstrated that view- ers can be distracted by powerful but irelevant visual information that captures thelr atentian even against their intentions * Directing the eyes can help ensure that irelevant information Is nether dulled upon noe | Ome eee | Saket iat processed. Moreover, when a viewer Is quicky guided to the essential information, it diminishes the demands placed on working memory that would have been ap plied to finding important information. More resaurces are then avalable for organizing and processing infor mation 38 wel as assimilating new information € This results in better understanding and retention. Increases comprehension, Otecting the eyes can also assist inthe comprehension af a picture. The types of visual cues used in informational and instructional raphics, such as acows and highlights, are more likely to be understood than instructions were pe sented in a writen form. Comprehension is also aided by visual cues that provide structure, such as adding numeric captions to emphasize the oder of a process Organization is known to improve comprehension because it provides a cognitive framework. Wellorga- rized information helps viewers construct coherent representations in working memory, making it easier to assimilate new information into existing schemas. This circular format por trayng the ie cele of @ parasite directs the eyes wit 2 continuous aro {nd a number sequence, Drovging a structure that faclitates comprehension Nigel Holmes, United States Direct the Eyes 75Applying The Principle In the visual arts, the focal pont, the magnetic area to which the eyes are drawn, isa principal aspect of a ‘composton. “If design has no focal point, drawing attention inward, it may seem to fall apart, making it iffcut forthe viewer to organize what is going on,” ‘write Paul Zelanski and Mary Pat Fisher in Design Principles and Problems. Al ofthe elements within the frame of a compostion have a reationship to one another and ta the whole. The focal point can be the largest shape in a graphic or the ane withthe brightest ‘color itcan be isolated fram ather elements ar placed ina compeling pasion. We perceive it because out brains are wired to seek and detect diferences. To our visual processing system, these differences are infor- mative, causing the eye to pause and extract informa- tion. Creating several focal points with varying degrees ‘of weight gives rise to a relative order of importance ‘that guides the viewer's attention and eyes through the flow a information, Several compositional techniques can be used to direct the eyes. Positioning and emphasis are two powerful ways to achieve ths. Positioning refers to the importance associated with an element’ location. Emphasis refers tothe stress given toan element. In ‘addition to structure, movement also guides the eyes. A picture tends to move and flow according tothe directionalty and energy of line, shape, and texture. For example, the downward fow of wine pouring from ‘a botle directs the viewers eyes along the vertical axis, into the wine glass. When the patterns ofa texture ‘move in a specific direction, this also guides the eyes. Position, emphasis, and movement provide a visual language for orienting and directing the viewer's sion ‘along an intended path In adaition, explicit techniques that ae overaid onto a ‘graphic cal attention to crtical attributes and provide directional information. Explicit cues facilitate aten- tion when used alane or in combination, as long as they ae placed correctly and used judiciously. The designer should ensure thatthe chosen cues are appropriate ta the cognitive characteristics ofthe audl- ence. For example, @ younger audience may nat know that a dashed line implies directionality. Also, children are not as adept as adults at shifting their attention to important information. The agonal ins of his ‘éraphic draw the viewer Into is kietc center, 38 ‘the eyes jump to several ‘ocal points derived trom contrasts n colo, shape, and see, Shinnoske Sugsak Jap Whether guiding the eyes through a graphic or direct ing the eyes toa specific location, designers should consider the informative purpose of the graphic, is ‘degree of visual complexity, and the characteristics of the audience when deciding on an approach. Impl, compositional techniques have an aesthetic dimension that will enhance promotional graphics. For instance, Powerful ines that guide the eye are also appealing to the senses. Explicit cueing techniques that indicate lo- cation are appropriate in information and instructional sraphics and diagrams. Direct the Eyes 77al Language for Designerscuaanerine rwnnny rine eas WILDLIFE RESCUR & RERABILITATION The directionality of the images and detailed texture dirsct the eyes in these twenty-ith anniversary cards forthe Wildlife Rescue Foundation 1 Michael Karshis, MK Archive, United States Ror Dra ares Dares Direct the Eyes 79POSITION ‘The boundaries that define the edges ofa graphic, referred to as the frame, have a powerful effect on a composition. Regardless of whether encloses a post card, a page, a poste, ora screen, the frame creates meaning forthe elements It bounds. Among aesthetic theorists, tis generally accepted thatthe postion of an object within a frame creates a perceptual force ot tension that affects the perceived importance of an ‘object and hence where we place our attention.” Through the thoughtful placement of elements, a designer can establish a visual hierarchy ta direct the viewers eyes. The postion of each component conveys a progression of relative importance, starting withthe element of the highest rank and continuing to those with lesser rank. For example, in a magazine spread, the information graphic might be the most dominant element, folowed by a headline and then ‘explanatory text. A standard visual hierarchy consists of thre levels— primary, secondary, and equivalent, 80 Visual Language for Designers (Our understanding of positoning ina frame is a metaphor for how we view hierarchies in the world. We ‘speak of people wha have important positions as being atthe top. Likewise, we have an expectation of this Convention in pietutes. We anticipate that elements at the tp ofa page willbe the most important. In fact, research shows that objects in the top half of 2 picture are considered to be more active, dynamic, ‘and potent. In other words, they have more visual weight * Another study found that viewers spend more time viewing areas appearing on the lft and upper half ef the fei than on ateas lecated on the right and lower half. This appeared to be true in both sym- ‘metrical designs and in a double-page spread.° Of ‘one thing we can be certain Varying the postion of an ‘object ina frame changes its impact on the observer 4. This information graphic for Conde Nast Portolio establishes an effective sual herarchy to explain the auction of mooie band- was Joho Grimwade and Lana Zamora, Condé Nast Publication, United States > tn this poster fra Lon. ‘fon museum, the designer Used a classi approach to positioning by placing the name ofthe hstoreat exhibition above the fla ‘nan oldtimey newspaper desien, og Design, United Kingdomees ism en une a Book tickets now: 0844 980 2151 www.museumindocklands.org.uk/jacktheripper Seer SANE Ae BM Rie Cue a)EMPHASIS nphasis eyes aroun E ‘can be accomplished through techniques . his chat ute, contrast att We sense that note nal ot are equal, the visual aa aa reas af samen a ight af an element is mast depende BankerWesse, 5 sfference. Its throu at we di th that contrast in tonal values hat from und and diferente tet im attribute se sures, and patterns. Through ¢ , : e Jem eraphic emerge and becor message, as the audience wil inter ren > inth promot than their surrounding meaning A succe f nitrast at varying Incongruence can also be used x = apes "i ment has a place because it provides a focal point. Incongruence refers ‘ voiding a comp nance. Ane oth nent of an unex mila Sy tobe p nt . a bathtub in the middie of th zs th br P tween . d by using tein an men roundings is vivid. The primary expected way, su op int must create impact. Secondary and tertiary — that b nan th incongr ements 3 8 toned down, : te v struct schemas world I Is, and we ru 1 challenges our 7 ' unfamiliae and fails prior knowiedg interest is height to mentally -commodate an unusual ux uncon: 82 Visual Language for Designers84 Visual Language for DesignersLis tones, “Jean: Manvel Duvivier, Direct the Eyes 85Kas ad Py MOVEMENT -onveys a dynamic sense of move ert glide across its surface Movernent can be explained as an energet tension embodied in and between the lines, textures, shapes, and forms ofa graphic. Movement is more ‘than the repetition of patterns; rater, It sweeps the nrOugh a picture 11s to diect the viewers eye to When a graphic ‘ment, aur eye viewers attention Itisa powerful way for graphic de the important ele nents ina graphic When we perceive movement in a static picture, we anally, sensing whether it or takes us off perceive its di newes in fits and starts, rounds back onto ise the page of visual fore factors: the a Rudolf Arnheim suggests that the direction s in a picture is determined by theee traction exerted from the visual weight ‘of surrounding elements, the shape of objects along thelr axes, andthe visual direction and action ofthe 86 Visual Language for Designers rectionalty and movement in Picture isa remarkable feat We perceive kinetic information That we can perceived 2 static two-dimension ofthe eyes and brain in a sil picture because we know the experience af our own physical movement and we understand the motion of objects. In fact, our ably to perc raph @ for observing physical mation In one study, researchers found that action photo ated areas ofthe bain that are sensitive ment ina stati associated wit regions of the brain that we graphs a to eal motion, whereas photos depicting people in stil postions did not activate these areas. According to the study’s authors, mation te the perception that an abjec ues ina graphic appear 0 leaping out from its state surroundings.” though this study was based an photographs of people in action, iti kely that our perception of compositonal movement is also due to moton-detecting neurons. ‘Greg Bennett, Sau,Graphic designers can explot the expressive quality ‘of lines and shapes to create movement based on the rhythm of elements. For example, curved ines and Lndulating shapes create smooth and flowing mave- ‘ment. Jagged lines create tension and make the eyes dart and pause. Its interesting to note that movernent that extends ina leftto-ight direction is considered ‘easier to perceive. Ina survey of art from many cul- ‘ures, including Chinese, Japanese, indian, Persian, ‘and Wostern, ths left-to-right asymmetry of empha- ‘sis was found to be a comman phenamenon 22 The ‘survey found that across cultures, important elements tended tobe located ta the lft of those that were less Important, causing the eyes to flow ina rightward ‘movement. Thus, the left-to-right preference may be neurological rather than cultural Designers can also create mavement by creating the illusion of three-dimensional perspective, which draws the viewer's eyes into the depth of fled. Viewers deduce depth perception ina piture because ofthe knowledge of how things appear in the physical wold Objects that are larger in size are assured tobe in the oreground. Viewers also perceive the iluson of depth because converging lines create a sense of depth ‘and cooler colors create a sense of distance. Depth perception also creates a visual hierarchy. Most view. ‘ers consider objects inthe foreground mote important ‘than objects inthe distance. This promotional poster for an ats’ lecture exemplifies how the visual ‘rection of shapes can create dynamic movement Jan tynam, Jan kynam Creative Direction & Design, Japan Direct the Eyes 87Christopher Shor page inthis typoeraphy ‘Maziar Zand, M. Zand Studio, 88 Visual Language for DesignersDirect the Eyes 89Date Sprague and Joslyn Anderson, Canyon Create, Ont Daniel Maller, Haderer& Miller 90 Visual Language for Designers‘TRAFFIC MYSTERY: THE ‘SHOCKWAVE’ Making sense of red lights, construction zones and other roadieay phenomena = oo coe Why do freeways “seem come to a stop? happens to most drivers atleast afew times a year ‘You're sling along onthe freeway when you're forced to Come toa stop, or at least a craw. You cant see why ‘things are slowing around the bend — and when you get ‘here rai s moving better ‘Taffic planners call this a “shockwave.” “The next diver shows {10.45 mph tomaintain ‘safe distance from care A and 8. Devers farther back sce the brake lights and begin slowing down. ‘The funnel effect ‘Cuyahoga County transportation engineer Jamal san’ compares rushourtaffitoa funnel ‘The pattern continves, and more st ght amount But nid etry water er ‘through as fast as its ieee tie putinthe funnel. comes toa crawl By thetime the rer of thelam catches Up towhere the ‘shockwave began, the cffending parties {are tong gone nd "Theft few divers could have a big impact,” sani ‘3, “Ther behavior in the peak ime has a huge ‘pple effect, even it dows Took that bad to them.” FIRSTINASERIES siete Direct the Eyes 91EYE GAZE Itisnt surprising that we are drawn to pictures of eople—our brains appear to have specialized mechanisms for detecting and recognizing human faces. Regardless of whether the face appears as a photograph, a painting, a sketch, or a simple sche- matic figure, specific neural networks are activated in the brain upon perceiving anything configured as 2 face. In adaiton, specialized regions ofthe brain respond to the recognition af at least one facial feature in Isolation—the eyes. We are attuned to detecting faces and eyes because we are communicative beings, and facial expressions convey important ‘emotional and interpersonal information ‘A secondary and intriguing characteristic of facial awareness is that we automaticaly shift our eyes in the direction where someone else is looking. Ina long, lst of studies, eye gaze has been found to orient a viewer's attention 15 According ta researchers Stephen Langton and Vieki Bruce, “Neuronsycholageal, neuro. physiological, and behavioral evidence is emerging in ‘support ofthe postion that there isa functionally pe- cic mechanism devoted to the task of detecting eyes and computing wherein the environment eye 222s directed"® Suppor for this specialized mechanism is. found in the fact that infants as young as three months of age can detect the direction of an adult's gaze and ‘wil shift thei own attention in that diction.” 92 Visual Language for Designers eyo M p>) PAU] Basia a a hee Ab ARES ph) Although its unclear whether ths is innate or learned, gaze perception triggers what is known a joint atten tion, or shitting our eyes in the direction of someone else's gaze. AS a survival mechanism, is clear that shifting attention to where someone else i looking Could prove quite helpful in times of danger. As 2 social mechanism, joint attention could provide signi Cant information about another person's momentary interest and perhaps their psychological state This seemingly automatic ability transfers to pictures. ‘When an observer views a static image ofa face, it triggers the viewer's attention to look in the direction ofthe subject's gaze. Graphic designers can take ad- vantage of this eye gaze reflex ta focus attention on a particular graphic by using photographs or ilustrations that depict a person gazing in the desired direction. ‘a Eye gaze fs 2 magnetic attraction for pling in the la Levitsky. B.L6. Design Israel > This poster fran art exhibit features the trict and his wie gazing Alownward, absorbed their asks. Following the ‘irection oftheir gaze takes the viewer deeper into the rope. Ta Wesel, BankerWessel, SwedenFrancheska Guerer ‘Untoding Tern, 94 Visual Language for DesignersNanotools A scanning tunneling microscope uses electrons moving between a single atom at its tip and atoms on the sample material to measure the contour of a surface. VISUAL CUES Some ofthe fist tasks a viewer performs when scan. ning a picture ae to search fr informative area priotitize the information, and select what is important. The time i takes to locate important infor. mation depend of eye fixations tha jewer makes, because the eyes fix on static pain ich ofthe time during the search process, Visual slexty makes it more dificult find imp information and ineeases the numberof fixations needed to perform a search Designers can facilitate the earl tasks of searching, prioritizing, and selecting by signaling the viewer's tention tothe location af the most essential informa This involves adding visual cues such as aro and captions toa graph 1 viewing experience by providing a shorteu relevant information, rendering the need for a visu arch unnecessary. Furthermore, visual cues have been shown to improve a person's recall of informa "They also enable a viewer to attend toa sing area of visual information rather than dividing atten meting stimul, There is evidence tha ft perceived visual field is actualy reduced, whereas val cue point got increases the perceved ual area, This speeds up the search for importa 96 Visual Language for Designers © Single atom x cod De peeve) Bean brew Making desl from soy requires three steps“4 These information sraph Jes for Bloomberg Markets ‘magazine show the value of sgnaling even for briet Eliot Bergman, Japa > in this scientite symp: sum postr, qumbers and Cfased lines are visual cues that lead the viewer tothe essen information, ‘Surabhi Gorka, ‘Avostrophe Desin, Inia Gh Freeing Mechanics unit | 31 Decembér 2007 on” The Egnering Mechanic Unt wae eben 3988 and has rote ns vat deputies Eh cl membe’ and about ery ve scent engage hese in fa nea, nontrest Samia ble pee Syst mans He Ges of Renew bling forthe Engineering hecanes Unt ater psetatans ae edad wl be acest ha tistconeistseed bs Led Ure sppe ‘Sova for tcents ant poses. Pease eal fe Former ete rman. sease vt Itpamincasic ema Direct he Eyes 97Bola arrows in this informe. tion grape tor Condé Nast Traveler represent the time it takes to trav from London to Pars by various ‘modes of transport. The ‘roms are the dominant e- fement that leads the viewer from ove pce of essential Information othe ext. “John Grinwade, ‘Condé Nast Publications, United States ‘Arrows and the Like The arrow is an ever present pictorial device frequently found in explanatory graphics, diagrams, and wayfind- ing, Its used so offen because its exceedingly effec tiv: the arrow not only directs our attention and our eyes, it guides cognition. Because the arrow is derived from an asymmetric siape—a trangle—it brings a sense of dynamism to a graphic. The arrow sa symbol, and as such it stands for some- thing else and must be decoded by the viewer. The viewer must recognize the triangular shape of the ac. ‘ou's head, shaft, and tail as one perceptual unit and associate this shape with one or more “arrow sche- mas" stored in long-term memory. For those familiar with the arrow symbol, its recognition and meaning are easy and automatic. Upon perceiving a visual cue like an arrow, the viewer rapidly evaluates ts directional meaning. Context plays an important part in arrow comprehension. We do nat interpret any triangle ving fon its sie as an arrow, but in the appropriate context, such asin a diagram or when representing a “contin ue" of “play” button, we interpret a sideways triangle ‘When the arrow points toa specific location, t helps the viewer fiter out extraneous information ana focus (on the essentials. Cuing the observer's selective attention to important information i the fist step in ‘comprehension, When designing the pointer arrow, it ‘must be suficientiy dominant to capture the viewer's attention, but it should not overpower the holistic per- ception of the graphic. 98 Visual Language for DesignersGrape cane gallmaker lifecycle Ampeloglypter sesostris_Color Cues Ina rich array of visual information, viewers need 2 way oft out what's extraneous in order to attend ta the information that Is relevant to ther task. ime and again, color has proven to be a compeling way tw atract attention and prompt the viewer to attend to the mast relevant details. Asan explicit cueing device, contrast in color—in the form of a ctce, a line, ther shape—acts asa signal to direct the eyes. Color is one ofthe primitive features we detect in preatten- tive vision, and itcan play a dominant ole in guiding attention and reinforcing a message. Color facilitates the interpretation and comprehen sian of visua information in several ways. In complex vsuals it helps viewers rapily earch through a large Quantity of visual information to locate what is most important. Also, viewers have an easier time notic- ing and distinguishing between objects ina colored graphic as compared to a monochrome ane because Color often emphasizes fgure—ground contrasts. In addition, when a color cue becomes a visual at tribute ofan object, it helps to make the information memorable Color cues at effective in most types of visual com- ‘munications. During animation sequences, color cues are needed because important informatin can fy by ‘Quickly In maps and diagrams, color cues are often used to indicate key information. In learning materia, the explicit use of colar cues is knawn to help students ‘comprehend and retain information. There is evidence that color helps us organize and categorize visual information For information to get noticed quickly, a color cue must vary sufficiently from the background and surrounding objects, Designers should avoid using 00 many colors. 100 Visual Lenguage for Designers In this visitor’ guide tora house and garden tour, the designer uses color cues to signa the location of the most important aspects ofthe house. Explenatoy information associated with 20h cue i Stale below. Francheska Guerrer, Unfolding Train, United States f ias a 100 at “whe. a eiEARLY MORNING ATHLETES This ustration provides 42 fear explanation of how 1 row team functions. A team member's location in the boot i mast significant, 450 the individuality of each person is de-emphasized 0 the audience stays fecused on the esentiat ‘ntormation. “Tonathan Avery, University of North Carolina, United States 102 Visual Language for DesignersPRINCIPLE 3 “The simplest way to achieve simplicity is through thoughtful reduction.” JOHN MAEDA There are times when the ideal expression of a mes- sage can be achieved through visual shorthand. An ef fective way to do this isto reduce the realistic quaties embedded ina graphic. (One way o think about realism i in terms of fidelity, or hhaw much an image resembles something recogriz able. On a continuum, visuals with the highest fidelity ‘are photographs in full and natural colar, and photo alistic 3-D renderings. The high-ielty visual contains detail, depth, shadow, texture, and nuance of colar as clase as possible to interpreting what we se in ‘ur environment. On the ather end af the continuum ae visuais with low fidelity, such as line drawings, silhouettes, and iconic images. The low-fidelty image uses fewer visual elements and qualities that resemble a recognizable object, Reducing realism reduces the fidelity ofthe image. The spread in tis colege viewbcok smooth incor poraes both high-fidelity fon the loft) and fon-aeity Imagery fon the right) to suit cifferent purposes ‘my Lebow and Purnima Rao, Phileraphica, United States Low-fidelty graphics are effective when the goals to facus on essential details, induce a quick response, strengthen the impact of a message, or provide an ex planation, particularly ta those with neminal knowledge of the content. For example, the designer may con sider reducing the realism af graphics in a beginner's coakbook to help @ navice understand how ta follow the recipes. In contrast, high-fidelity images might work best in a cookbook for experianced ches ‘The communicative intent af the message, the char acteristics ofthe audience, and the appropriateness of the content should influence the degree of image rea ism used in a design. images with reduced realism are best sulted for general audiences who need to quickly comprehend the message being conveyed, such as waylinding signage, educational materials, explanatory raphics, and promotional materials. [REDUCE REALISM 103Efficient Visual Information Processing Designing wth @ minimalist approach has many ‘advantages when it comes to graphic comprehension. Minimalism makes every phase ofthe human informa- tion-processing system more efficient as we perceive & graphio, hold information in working memory, inter: rally represent information, and interpret it When we read an image, we scan itto extract sig- nificant information. As our neurons work in paral, we perceive the primitive features of an image, such ‘as coor, shape, and depth. After ths inital percep tion, we extract mare complex information that we synthesize into a coherent form. A graphic composed (of primitive features, such asa line drawing, wil take lass time to scan and assimilate compared to one that is more complicated, such as a natural scene ina photograph, Working memory has a limited capacity and is eas ily overloaded. When viewing a high-fidelity graphic composed of superfiuous elements, the additional information can overload working memory, acting sa batter to comprehension. Distiling a graphic down to its essential visual elements minimizes the information processing required to understand it 104 Visual Language for Designers Lowfidelty graphics require fewer transformations to get them ready for encoding ito long-term memory As the brain processes visual informatio gleaned from ‘an image, it temoves the nonessential sensory input ‘and retains the crucial information, converting it into 2 bare-bones representation. Some cognitive theorists think we may encode images as “sketchy, caroon-lke representations... that exaggerate or highight crtical distinctons."? Because graphics wih reduced realism inherently match how we most likely represent infor ‘mation internally, it takes less effort to recognize ther ‘and to prepare them for long-term storage. ‘The presence of unnecessary elements can distract the viewer fram focusing on the key message and potentially cause misunderstandings. Francis Dwyer, professor and researcher of instructional systems, notes that images with highly realistic details are not ‘always successful at communication. “Probably my ‘most surprising finding is the ineffectiveness of rea- istic images. The very polished, mast highly sophist cated visuals don't always work."? 1A Reduced realism i ieat for explaining «process such as desaination, shown here. The geometric forms, smooth surfaces, and fat ‘ares of color make the ‘components 095 per ceive and comprehend. Colin Hayes, Colin Hayes ustratr, ‘United States > Fat areas of color without texture crate lowideity maps—al the Information that i needed for showing the lection of this organization's project. ‘Benjamin Thoma Bento Graphics, JapanApplying the Principle We tend to define a picture as realistic if it appears to bea successful copy of is referent. By defntion, however, all pictorial representations deviate to some tn this information ‘raph, line art succese fully ilustrates the history of early thermometers and In addition to effectively conveying the human figure, line drawings ae excellent for technical and expana: tory grapes that describe the inner workings ofthe body ar a machine. These drawings typically provide allthe necessary deta and amitaying supertunus, ode exlration Explanatory re ravings ae eecive asitusvatone 220m in documentation ad textbooks, a ingrid toc assembl structions. Surtangy. people erty Dian iar, Minos Insitute of rt, the objects inline drawings as easily asthe objects in ae 2 a photographs, and line drawings are superior to photo graphs in terms of making the information conveyed in the picture memorable.® As in ether approaches to reducing eealsm, the line drawing does not need extensive detall, but must cap ture the contours and prominent features ofan object while ftering out relevant information. The designer or ilustrator must analytealy and intultvely sek the few elements that will convey the idea, eration, oF (object. Although the drawing and the object will not be equivalent, the visual impression it creates will sutfie—the audience will add their knawledge ofthe ‘word to the interpretation of those few lines.Reduce Realism 123Line ati used to instract students on permitted and Drohibited scree! dancing In this humorous iat tion fr the Seattle Weekly. Although the itustrations| portray the top portion of each gure, our minds com: Diet the missing intam- tion asa result of expecta tions and prior knowledge. tie Larsen, Eric Larsen ‘Artwork, United States 124 Visual Language for Designers stew oxstercT GALLERY yanek ape 9& Using the low idelity imag: ery of line at, ths poster expresses the fun and lightness of Miam’s Galery Wolk, Line at may closely ‘match how we store visual Infarmation in long-term ‘memon. ‘Sarah Cazee, Cazee Design, United StatesJ i Swap good genes for bad WC c QUANTITY Fi Erea Greg Howe and achieve this ate to remove extraneous imagery, shorten AMY Lebow, Philegraphica, quick glance, we ately and rapa u un ust perceive a limited number of element within a border so da one uni apabilty for quicky judging the nun The design must cantinue ta wrk after any elem tems without counting is known as subitizng. We is removed. c tothe ing the number of elements, working i load; visual bi mountcd ere oe ancl activity bitalso the formation of blood. Kidneys and fat cells 126 Visuol Language for Designers all of which de e's an IE Design & Communications, elements inthis design fora poets’ fest Tra Ginzburg, B16. Design,manwn mw own Aron ND deli Mviiva an aj 31.5.06-3.6.06 WU 3" Iw Ty wT Reduce Realism 127PRINCIPLE 4 | MAKE THE ABSTRACT CONCRETE The progress of civilization can be read in the invention of visual artifacts, from writing to mathematics, to maps, to printing, to diagrams, to visual computing.” STUART CARD ET AL Visuals help us think. We sketch a map to give drec- tions, draw a dlagram to express a complex idea, ‘and read graphs to understand financial data. Visual thinking isan integral aspect of cogntin, and the visualizing of abstract concepts helps us understand the word and communicate about. The contribution that visuals make to our analytical, reasoning, and problem-solving abies is far reaching. In his book Things That Make Us Smart, Donald Norman writes, “The pawer ofthe unaided mind is highly avetateo |without external aids, memory, thought, and reasoning are all constrained.” ‘We gain enormous insights ftom representing informa tion ina visual form. From ancient maps to interactive visualizations, the graphical depiction af data and concepts has created new ways of seeing things and new approaches to solving problems. Two significant ‘examples fom the early history of graphs exemplify this point. In 1854, Dr John Snow visual patted where deaths were occurring from a cholera epidemic in London. By analyzing his statistical raph, Or. Snow ‘was able to locate and eliminate the contaminated source of water, which stopped the futher spread of cholera. Not too many years later, during the Crimean War, Florence Nightingale invented a new type of statistical chart proving that British soldiers were dying ata much higher rate from preventable diseases than from the wounds of bale. Because Nightingale was able to visually represent the magnitude of preventable disease among solders, her petition to improve saita tion conaitions was more compeling, Visual portrayals create new forms af knowledge. Diagrams, charts, graphs, visualizations, maps, and timelines are referred to by many names—abstract, nontepresentational, logical, and arbtrary graphics. Regardless of their name and form, their purpose Is the same—to coneretize abstract ideas and concepts ‘Athough abstract graphics were once the domain of staisicians and cartographers, graphic designers and iustrators are frequently called upon to praduce them for editorial publications; stientifc, technical, and business journals; annual reports; educational and training aids; and promotional materials. 19How Abstract Graphics Work Not only da abstract graphies enhance communica- tion, they also enhance the crediblity of a message. There isa sense of objectivity tothe nonvepresenta- tional graphic, similar ta the way photographs appear tobe objective renderings of realy. After al, abstract graphics represent facts and data, concepts, and systems. People expect them to reflect accuracy and precision, believing they are the final word In truth, howover, every abstract graphic i inherently the result of numerous subjective design decisions. The designer ‘must determine such things as what information can ‘itand what must be excluded, whether the elements should be represented as symbols, icons, or ilusta- tions; which colors and patter will enfance commu nicabiliy; and which conventions should be followed And which ignored, ‘Abstract graphics are unique in that each element has 2 one-to-one correspondence with what repre: sents. Each element has only one unambiguous and exclusive meaning” In a map, for example, the icon ofa picnic table has a unique meaning—it symbol- izes "penic area." Anyone familar with maps knows ‘that this symbol has no ether interpretations, Inline graph, each point represents a single value, and in a ‘agram, each component represents one object or Concept. Ths is quite cfferent from pictorial represen tations ike paintings and photographs, where the ele- ‘ments and symbols can have many meanings based (on a viewer's subjective interpretation. 130 Visual Language for Designers “4 This ciagram eeates for ‘research institute uses ‘minimalist art and txt to explain the practical uses 0 slar powered syst Note ow every element in the ciagram presents one objector concept ‘Stuart Medley, Lightship Maual, Australia [Another distinguishing characteristic of abstract graphics is that they depict relatonships. Diagrams and charts represent systems and the elationships between the systems’ components; graphs represent {Quantitative relationships; visualizations create pat- tems that represent complex data relationships; maps represent spatial relationships among geographical locations; and timelines represent the relationships be ‘ween temporal events. Hybrid graphics that combine two or more forms, such a8 the combined timeline and graph shown in the NASA infographic (on page 132), represent several levels of relationships, > to tis provocative statement agsinst bast ‘augmentation, statistics blend with creative gery 0 make 2 power sca statement. A breast formation nas arranges ‘with 32,000 Barbie dol ‘which eauals the number of lective breast augment tion surges performed ‘monthiy nthe United States n 2006, according to the artist [Abstract graphics are prevalent in technical, scienti, ‘and business publications because they provide a Cconerete reference for understanding difficult con- {ent and facilitate analysis and problem sohing. They succeed at depicting intangible concepts that are dificult to express in words. Abstract graphics ace also pragmatic, asin the maps we use for navigation and ‘weather information. Many abstract graphics have @ Powerful aesthetic dimension associated withthe rich beauty of information display. They can also serve as vehicles for arlistc expression and for making political and social statements, ‘hrs Jordan, United StatesMake the Abstract Concrete 131132 Visual Language for DesignersTrees = ome mee ——— “4 This information graphic Abstract srophies provide demonstrates how agret_ new ways of looking a infor deal of data can be packed mation. These visualizations ‘no one visual NASA's an- demonstrate how et ag, nual budget data is depict-_atfects the body when fying fdas ane graph mapped in various drations ‘onto a timeline. Associated Images connect to gonts on “ohn Grinwade, the graph, andthe length of Condé Nast Publications, each ois dsplayed across United States the bottom a John Grimwade ‘and Liana Zamora, Condé Nast Pubicatons, United Sta Make the Abstract Concrete 133ting e5e8ee8 The Cognitive Aspect Space conveys meaning. Abstract graphics are often ‘superior to verbal descriptions because oftheir effect (on cognition. We process them more quickly and eas. il, particularly compared to reading long explanations or performing numeric calculations. Their tangible quality comes from the meaning we find inthe spatial ‘elationships among the graphie’s components. We easily derive meaning from spatial relationships be- cause of our familiarity and experience with physical space. In maps, the spatial relationship among elements is analogous to thie geographical locations. We know that fa cty map oriented tothe north shows a buld- ing to the west of where we are standing, the building wil be to our left because of this analogous relation- ship. In diagrams, chars, and graphs, the spatial relationships are metaphorical. When elements are ‘displayed in a hierarchical chart, a spatial metaphor helps us understand that the element in the primary position (usually the top or the let isthe most signif Cantor powerful. When a line graph trends toward the top of the page or screen, we use a spatial metaphor {o understand that this means an increase in value. 134 Visual Language for Designers The arder, sequence, and distance between elements ‘also communicate meaning. When two events in a timeline are separated by a large interval, we interpret this to mean the events ae far apart in time. These interpretations are grounded in our realworid experi- fence and are thought tobe “cognitively natural"? Because we can easily interpret the spatial metaphors used in abstract graphics, we make fewer mental transformations to understand them than when we read the same information in text. When a visual ‘explanation is used, fewer cognitive resources are needed to gt at the meaning. Reducing cognitive load. Due to our limited-capacty Working memory, we quickly reach ou limits when ‘we try to integrate numerous pieces of information. Abstract graphics often alleviate this problem because relationships ae expletyilustrated. A line connects related elements ina diagram, related bars are placed in proximity in a bar graph, and a road connects cites (on a map. This explicit depiction of relationships helps viewers process information simultaneously ather than sequentialy—as when reading text Viewers qucky understand the pattern of aiaram to {get an initia sense ofits ‘meaning. Here, 2 database system for racking and co lectng product moverent 's depicted in a hierarchical forma, which makes cog: tive sense. ‘Franziska Erde, ‘Mich Desig, Germany{Upon fst looking at this cylial agra, the viewer [gts the gist ofthe graphic {rough the ilusrations Integrated withthe circular arrow. The accompanying {ext explanation ils nthe missing pieces. RIVER BLINDNESS ‘Oncowesasis aso amar lindess pS cael moma mara ‘Seite 8 lion pope wore connect Omran, a By "Ses Saree. = — Simeane Tec ee and san deamertaten ‘Improving search efficiency. When we need to lcate Information, abstract graphics can often improve the efficiency of the search process compared to reading text To search through tex, we typically start atthe beginning, skim through headings and paragraphs, try to remember where important information i located, and then etuen to each ofthe various lacations Conversely abstract graphics ae inherently structured ‘Alberto Cuadra, so that information is visually inked, When a person Houston Chronicle, searcines for and locates the fst piece of important United States Information ina diagram, relevant information is typ cally adjacent to it. This reduces the time and effort Involved in acquiring information > Make the Abstract Concrete 135Applying The Principle The key purpose ofa nontepresentational graphic is. to create a visual portrayal that extends the viewer's ablity to see, think, and know. To achieve thi, the designer can consider which type of mental structure ‘would be mos effective to invoke in the viewer. For ex ample, if the goal sto help readers understand how 2 sequence of actons led toa climactic event, a timeline ‘would faciltate the most effective mental representa- tion. On the ather hang, ifthe intent i to help viewers understand usage pattems on the Internet, then an information visualization that depicts users swarming around Web pages would help the viewer construct the mast accurate schemas, When abstract graphics are complex, designers can ‘enhance them forthe automatic processing that oc- curs in eaty vision, This shits more ofthe cognitive ‘operations to visual perception, reducing the demands fon working memory. Based on theories discussed in Principle 1 (Organize for Perception), a graphic can be enhanced for vsual perception in several ways. Ensure that similar elements are the same color or shape, so the viewer does not have to unnecessary discriminate between them. For example, is easier and quicker to ‘compare the length of bars in a bar raph when they ate the same color When appropriate cluster similar elements into groups using proximity or bounding tines 0 the viewer perceives the entities as one unit. Be- cause the size of an objects quickly detected during peatlentve vision, use this feature to convey meaning, Make an element half the sizeof another element fit is of half the value. These techniques will improve the viewer's abilty to automaticaly extract information dur- ing eary vision. 136 Visual Language for Designers Each form of abstract grape has is own unique notation or visual cade, We learn these cades through ‘experience and education. Far example, we know that 2 topographical map uses contours to indicat eleva- tion and that ine graphs compare twa vatiables. The designer can ensure that the audience understands a particular notational system by flowing accepted con- vertions. Viewers infer a great deal fom context. Un- loss the goals ta provide novelty a surprise, remain Consistent with what is expected from a notation. Clarity is an important qualiy ofthe abstract graphic, affecting its readabilty, usefulness, aesthetic, and Coverall comprehensibilty. Take steps fo ensure that any visual diffrence, such as a change in color or texture, fs actually intended to convey meaning and re- ‘move any unnecessary visual differences. I one arrow in a diagram i larger than the others, for example, ths ‘likely be interpreted as representing an increase in strength or value, even if unintended. Also, avoid ambiguity by making illustrations, icons, and symbols easy to iden and recognize, Tiles, legends, captions, labels, and call-outs add es- sential information to abstract graphics, making them ‘more substantial and soiying their meaning, Text cften provides redundant information, which creates ‘a second channel fr transmitting information, In abstract graphics, ensure that text is legible, brief, and consistentrenee ee Bev ale Make the Abstract Concrete 137(Color can provide an addtional dimension for convey. ing meaning, We see ths in maps when colors used to indicate road types. Colr-ceding can also indicate that elements are associated, as when color repre: sents diffrent types of data ina statistical map, such 2s income or poltica affliation. The color coding of elements and data facilitates information retrieval be cause color is stored in long-term memory along with associated information, ‘final design consideration is whether to represent the features ofan abstract graphic as cons, ilusta tions, geometric shapes, or text. The form ofthe repre sentation can have a significant effect onthe meaning ofthe graphic. For example, to explain how voice over Internet protocol works, an ilustated diagram that portrays signal transmission between two people on phones clarifies the concept more than if boxes and lines ate used ta explain the system. The choice of haw ta represent features not only aflects meaning, but also affects the graphics tane and style When graphic designers and ilustrators—rathor than statisticians or cartographers—produce maps, diagrams, and graphs, a new aesthetic naturally ‘emerges. Designers use the context and purpose of the abstract graphic to communicate an an artistic and ‘emotional level. Through techniques such as textured backgrounds, ilustrated or photographed imagery, and unique shapes and patterns, designers are able to. ‘convey more than the fac, revealing the indefinable feclings and impressions associated withthe content ofthe graphic. 138 Visual Language for Designers 4 2 srs cana ine Le Dasa = A cesigners touch adds textured and layered ook to these graphs created forthe [ational Conte of Research tn ttay. [Lorenzo De Tomas, Hay1 Diagrams express cela- This dagrem for Mac !onships through spatioh Wr magazine explains layout 9 inthis abstract ow the vies over ntemet ‘graphic depicting a com- _potocal wars. Schema- ‘munication system. The ized slustatons help schematie style ofthe sym- the viewer understand the Dols, Hins, and connectors system conveys the precision read —————__— fers expect from a technical Colin Hayes, Colin Hayes raphe Musrator, United States ‘iad Stark, Graphic Advance, United States a ill = TTA ° (ary Make the Abstract Concrete 139BIG-PICTURE VIEWS There is na common definition for diagrams among people wha use, create, and theorize about them. In this book, dagrams rofer to a vsual explanation that represents a system rather than statistical data. Dia- «grams are lypicaly composed ofa system's elements and thelr interelationships. The elements in a dagram vary in their realism, ranging from a representational illustration to iconic symbols or amorphaus shapes. ven though diagrams use spatial organization to con- vey meaning, the content they represent is nat neces. sal spatial. Diagrams depict and help us understand the structure, processes, transformations, cycles, and functions ofa system. These facets are expressed ‘through the unique arrangements and positioning of the elements and the lines, arrows, and shapes that Ceannect them. As with ather abstract graphics, every element ina dagram has a direct relationship with the abject to which it refers. The potentialyimitiess ‘combination of elements contributes to the rich a versity of diagram types, such as the cyclical diagram that represents a recurring process, the hierarchical ‘diagram that lustrates structure and oxganizaton, the ‘nee diagram that dissects categories into fine deta, and the flow diagram that explains a process. In diagrams, arrows point to important content. When arrows are used as connectors, they lnk elements together and indicate eelationships. Arrows also guide the viewer through the flow ofa process or events and show a path that i followed. They are effective in depicting the actions that occur in a system, a move- ment, or @ conversion overtime. Adjusting the size, shape, color, and emphasis ofan artaw are tech- higues to control what an arrow represents. To sgniy ‘movement, the arrow might have a jagged, curved, or twisted shaft. Large, emphasized, or contrasting arrows suggest strength and value, Double-headed arrows depict cyclic or reciprocal relationships. 140 Visual Language for Designers Using arrows can change the meaning ofa diagram. Ina study that examined how arrows carvey meaning, researchers showed students diagrams of mechari- cal devices with arrows and aiagrams of mechani cal devices without arrows. The study's participants interpreted the diagram without arrows as depicting the structure of the mechanical device and interpreted the diagrams with arrows as showing cause and effect and functionality! Viewers derive meaning from a diagram when they dotect and recognize its pattern of elements. The pattem creates the diagrams organizational structure, Research shows that ths organizational structure affects how information is mentally represented and fencoded.* Thus, when viewing a dagram with 2 cyclical structure, a person wil construct an internal representation that encodes the dlagram's information in some form of evcular fashion. The designer can take advantage of this cognitive process to use the most effective structure for communicating information and faciltating its retention. ‘Aviewer can enter a diagram atthe global level and ee its overall pattern or enter atte local level and focus on the details. This significant, because the level af entry is where the viewer begins to search {or information In most cases, global precedence is prefered fr diagrams, because much of thei intial ‘meaning Is obtained fram the big-picture view. To help viewers enter a graphic atthe global level, the ele- ments must be large enough to easy detect the over- all pattern. I the elements are overwhelmingly large, however, the viewer wil focus only onthe element and its dotal fist. > This eraphie depicting the advantages ofa com- ‘mercial saftware slution felis fo stoves. The top portion visualizes 0 se uence of posivve customer fevers along an arow. based timeline. The Bott portion uses spatial layout and arows to diagram how the sotware synchronizes operations ‘rem Crowiey, XPLANE, ‘United StatesDashed Lines In dliagrams, the dashed line is often used wth or with- > These cagrams vsuaize the processes ofan infor Imation technelogy slution Dashed lines often convey transmission. e ‘ia Ginzburg, 8.1.6. Design, ‘out the arrowhead to signty transactions, connections ‘and events that cannot be effectively expressed with ‘2 solid line. Because the repeated rectangular shape ‘that forms the dashed line conveys a sense of move- ment, it soften used to represent a form of invisible ‘energy, such as data transmission. Dashed lines often reflect the tentative or provisional quality of an action. ‘When they inaicate a relationship between elements, they often mean thatthe connection is uncertain or not always present. When dashed lines represent 2 path, iis often a projected or alternative path that wil take place inthe future. > in his agra forthe Houston Chrencl, the dashed lines and concentric circles portraying a wireless ‘system enhance the visual explanation. ‘Alberto Cuadra, Houston Chronicle United States BROADBAND FOR THE MASSES. ‘yee wee (WE) brandi nen eer a wl coe po Make the Abstract Concrete 143DATA DISPLAYS “A child can tel that one-thcd ofa pe is larger than a fourth iong before being able ta judge thatthe fraction “is greater than ¥%," writes statistics professor and ‘author Howard Wainer in Educational Researcher. In other words, the visual display of numerical data is easier to understand when we can see itn a concrete form, such as in graphs and tables. Information graphics often use a hybrid appraach for displaying data, combining representational art with numeric information Data aispays, such as graphs, visually communicate the relationships hidden in quantitative information and are probably the most common abstract graphic we find inthe popular media. Its dificult to pick pa newspaper or news magazine without seeing some ype af graph describing business, technical, ot scientfi data. The simplest and most common graph framework is configured in an L shape, witha hotizon tal xaxs representing the data being measured and a vertical yaxis representing the type of measurement Of course, there are numerous ather types of graphs for expressing value. Pictographs use icons to repre- sent the quantity ofa data type, pie charts express. data as a percentage ofa whole, statistical maps dis- play the distribution of data across a geographic area, and area graphs use the area ofa circle or rectangle to indicate value, just to name a few. Viewers can quickly get a sense ofa graph's meaning by understanding how graphs use space to represent values. Ina pie chart itis the size ofthe slice com pared fo the whole, ina piclograph i fs the lenath of the row of symbols, and in an area graph itis the size ofthe regon. Graphs also convey meaning through spatial positioning, as when data points are plotted and then connected on a line graph. These corwen- tions provide an immediate preunderstanding before ‘activating more involved cognitive processes, 144 Visual Language for Designers Of allthe forms of abstract graphics, people have the most diffcully understanding graphs. Numerous visual ‘and mental processes are invoked upon studying a graph. Early in the process, the viewer rapidly detects ‘geometric shapes, texture, and color.” These represent the graph’s cade for depicting values. The viewer then ‘must call up graph schemas from long-term memory ta derive meaning from the graph's notation. This invalves eading the labels and captions, determining the graph’s scale, glancing back and forth between entities, and comparing relative magnitudes to each father. Using this information and prior knowledge ‘bout the data, the viewer makes inferences and con- ‘stucts relevant concepls, Ifa person's graph schemas are incomplete, he or she wil have dificult with one (oF more of these tasks, Poor design is a major reason why information is mis interpreted in graphs. Although many data displays are technically accurate, they do not accommodate the Strengths and imitations of our information-pracessing system. Twenty years ago, well-known statistician John Tukey wrote thatthe main purpose of analyzing numerical data is to describe phenomena rather than to simply present the information. He argued thatthe phenomena derived from the numbers are of most interest to people For example, if we are viewing a bar graph that illustrates the rising cass f higher edu cation around the world, we probably won't remember the actual cost af tution in each locaton. Through an effective graph, however, we wil see and remember how rising tuto prices in one's own country compare wth others As the popularity oferaphs In the meaia increases, 8 wider varity of formats is tied, The cites in this rea graph depict sources of eenhouse gas emis- sions and appear to be released tom 2 actony smokestack, “Arvo Ghelf,Yateler taro, United States{Gas Emissions per Employee we (inmetrie tons) Industrial Conglomerates am Make the Abstract Concrete 145The tasks for which data displays are used—making comparisons, seeing trends, and finding pattems: sould ultimately lead tothe recognition of phenom. ena. Tukey emphasized that the foremast quality of an effective graph i to Seek impact and immediacy. [An effective data display should frce the viewer to in stanly understand the message. If getting the point is gradual or burdensome, another type of display should be implemented. For instance, i the reader needs to locate individual numerical values, then a table would be mare effective than a graph, In his research an graph design, neuroscientist Ste phen Koss expands on several principles of effec tive data displays to accommodate our visual and cog: rive systems, To accammadate the visual system, he notes that all elements in a data display must be large or heavy enough to be detected, and al variations need to be easily discriminated. He also points cut the importance af organizing labels and captions so they are grouped with the appropriate vsual element To accommadate the limitations of working memory, Kosslyn recommends restricting displays so there are only four to seven perceptual units. In addition, view ets should not be asked to decompose a display that 146 Visual Language for Designers is grouped, such as the points ona ine. This reverses ‘our automatic tendency to group items that are similar Cor close together Ta meet the expectations and abil- ties ofthe audience, provide neither too litle nar too ‘much information an consider whether the audience has the appropriate knowledge to understand the display29 ‘A data display is effective if t provides a shortcut to the intended message, promoting visual processing ‘and bypassing the need to make numerical eomputa tions. Research has demonstrated that eple are better at making comparisons when using bar graphs and better at interpreting trends when using line graphs." When using graphs with an x-and y-axis, ‘miniize numerical computations by using precaleu- lated numbers ike percentages and averages for the {as ater than raw numerical data! This makes it easier for readers to make quick comparisons. Ia designer needs ta depict mare than two variables, as is common in most graphs in an L framework, use attributes such as cole 0 of adaltional variables. From a design perspective, imagery can go a long way in conveying the meaning of a graph, uanttatve depictions con Support a soca! agende This display depicts one milion plastic cups, which the numberof cups tied on ate fights fn the United ours (ivi Jordan, United StaThe mit of imagery anc ‘raps helps the viewer ne beyond the data inthis brochure fra bopharm ceutical company ‘Ay Vest, ‘Avplied Biosystems Brand £& Create Grow, United States High performance on a large scale Removing scale-up bottlenecks People with Diabetes In millions These iustrted bar charts depicting cabetes ana foo obesity statistics appeared in Woman's Day magazine. Rose Zodzinsi, Information Graphies, Conads Make the Abstract Concrete 147Rubbish EW Ter Protas "David Horton ana Amy 13 148 Visual Longuage for DesignersVISUALIZATION OF INFORMATION In response tothe explosion of complex information in many knowiedge domain, information vsualiza- tions represent and make accessible the structure and intricate relationships found in large sets of data. ‘The information visualization can be thought of as 2 cognitive too! that expands our abilty to comprehend, interpret, and explore data thats to complex for our ‘working memory to manage. It's offen a solution for representing information that would otherwise be cif- ficult to comprehend, such as how things change over time or with speed or rotation. Information vsualiza- tions are applied to both abstract data and to concrete data about the physical wold. * \With sualizatons, “the important information ‘om moce than a milion measurements i immed ately avaiable, Visualization allows the perception of ‘emergent properties that were not anticipated,” notes professor Colin Ware in his book information Visualiza tion information visualizations are often generated by 2 computer and often occur in realtime. They provide interactivity and utilize three and often four dimen: sions. The exploration, rearrangement, and recon- struction ofthe visualization are a primary means for achieving insight 150 Visual Language for Designers Visualizations complement our perceptual and infor mmation-processing systems because we are adept at detecting and identifying patterns, we intuitively under- stand spatial metaphors, and we process information most effectaly when it's organized and structured Most information visualizations use at least twa modes (of communication: a visual aspect that utlizes space, Color, and shape to represent data, and a textual aspect that labels the data When computer visualization specialists collaborate wth graphic designers, the outcome is more acces- sible toa wider audience. Perhaps because of this Collaboration, the aesthetic dimension of information vsualization has become increasingly important. In some visualizations, the beauty of the information and the facility of interaction take precedence over their practical use to create artistic works or promote a political or social agenda 44 This computer genereted visualization depicts the online music-istening histor ofa user over an eighteen-month pied. The eauency of stening is Indicated by tot size. Color ‘epresonts the length of Tstening te periegs. ‘Lee Byron, United States > visuotzains increase fur ungerstanaing of data by making it angie. This computer visualization ‘adele the aerodynamic forces ofa bat in ight Designed as a joit effort between engineers a¢ Brown University and MIT ‘Dave Wis, Mischa Kestandov, Dan skin, Jaime Pera, David H.Lailow, ‘Sharon Swartz, ‘and Kenny Breve, ‘Brown University and MIT United Statesee ee er [ripest reppin asepalonmente pivcdeyrmcepegirenia teres) pacar mapenatemre ore ee te eye perpen an nia eet en ern eek i Etec ren eee ee el es fees ae perehepy wee baemnennee yer epee pe pape bree nyse py Prey yep prepares ee Elatedreiror meer)Grad Studio lustrated Visualization Coinciding withthe popular of computer-generated A fa this ilustrated visual. This lustated informe vsualzations is a gonre of ilustrated visualizations ‘zation fora schoo! project, tion vsualizatian represents based on smal datas These range rom parson designer mpoed er the compe stact data to an anakds ofthe words ni pases fou tities troughs one of chapters, paragragh, at ofthe woes ane Dirases found ek ofeaduate schoo, sentences, and ward in in iterature. Similar to computer-based versions, penclestict ied) ee ae ce these human-geneated information vsualzations pr ine ator a a oe are equally fascinating because they present data _—_byealor size, ond poston- represents o or, hich ina unique format to promote a fesh analysis and ing of ope Iseolorcaded scoring 0 perspective. ————_____ themes, suchas rave, Kara Tennant, Carnegie york anc survival, and ‘Mellon Universi, egal activities and potce Effective visualizations of both vataties have specific Cares ree {ualtes. They ae relatively easy to perceive and interpret, they find novel ways to structure data and Pai information, they ar efficient in the way they commu: Unites Kingdom nicate comparisons and relationships, their move- a ments and interactions (when availabe) are intuitive and sensible, and thelr aesthetic qualties atract and engage the viewer 152 Visual Language for DesignersMake the Abstract Concrete 183iy Ly Li lf Nf V/ | Yi YYMORE THAN GEOGRAPHY ‘Maps record and communicate what we know about {an environment and serve as reliable wayfinding tools ‘They provide a basis for the academic study of many subjects, from geography to history to art. Yet maps. also possess a mystical dimension. They tug atthe imagination, encouraging us to explore and discover landscapes and cities, people and cultures. They allow us to see and consider the impossible vast stretches ofthe planet as wel as incredible detal of smal ‘Maps are a reduced version of an analogous space {and cannot include everything tat isin that same physical space. Thus, a map communicates the features that are important tits purpose. To the extent that one understands how maps are affected by purpose, belo that maps are simply miniaturization (albet fattened ones) which show some singular ‘eal’ or truth, Rather there are infnte realies that can be expressed by maps,” writes psychology pressor Lynn Liven one is more ely to avoid the mistaken Ite were to dissect a map, we would find that its informative on several levels. One level shows feature information, composed of the maps Individual sym: bol, icons, landmarks, and text along with the at butes detected during preatentve vision, such as size, shape, and colo information relating tothe spatial layout ofthe map. The structure is composed of the distance between The second level the structural the map's features and the distance between a feature and the map's edge. & third level isthe structure the viewer mentally projects onto the map. Research has demonstrated that viewers create additional structures, such as drawing imaginary lines between two moun: tain peaks or between a landmark and the center ot 156 Visual Language for Designers own. The structure and spatial layout ofa map is sig- nificant, because itis thought that people perceive a captures the personality map halistcaly. In ether wards, a viewer may mentally 294 geagrapy ofthe nein hold an intact image of a map in working memory. etnands 0 te map oe ted for Rach magazine. The fourth lee! i related tothe subjective impression he ytasttor used ‘and associations a map invokes. The map’s designer rom Kat's panting may add a scenic route, a friendly ilustration, or an at iconography fom Merican fekione, Frida Kahio's Mexico City titi spatial perspective, The viewer may respond with emotions triggered by memories of places and people once vsked an tom a angngto vt new ands Pea ar Lge Pou! Lange Design, United States In genera, aduits are familiar and comfortable with maps; we have a reliable framework for itorpeting ‘maps and we know their conventions. The designer ‘must consider these conventions and decide how they can be aesthetically accommodated. The most ‘obvious convention isthe assumption that a map's layout corresponds directly to physical space. Another assumption—which is ellen incorrect—is that a map wil be erent tothe narth, This convention is $0 deeply embedded that when a map has a cifferent ‘orientation, mest people wil rotate the map so north ks atthe top in arder to process the spatal information. Users also rly on legends to explain the symbols and 2 grid to provide coordinates if neededThere are an extraordinary numberof ways to present ‘map-based information These travel 2 maps published in the newspaper Polio, delet the time t takes to tave to diferent cities in Spain ‘Chiu’ Esteban ana Alvaro Valin, Public, Spain Presenting a bird'-eye view ofthis frm and garden Center's val tur hele the viewer immediately Understand th layout. ‘Dermot MacCormack, Patrica McElroy 2ladesign, United States Make the Abstract Concrete 157‘Through experience we knw that maps are designed within a context, for diferent purposes and ford ferent people. Although we expect a road map to be ‘drawn accurately to scale, we may nat expect prec sion of scale in a map showing te location of events ata festival. Interestingly, through convention we also know which notations of a map actualy represent a physical feature and which are incidental. Ina road ‘map, we know thatthe curves ina line represent the ‘cues ofa road, but the thickness of a ine does not represent the width of the road.2® Graphic designers and illustrators ae typically nat cartographers. When they engage in map design, itis to make maps simutaneously functional and aesthet cally pleasing. Maps can be made more appealing depending on the vantage point that draws inthe viewer and the graphics that represent the terain and relevant imagery. Typefaces can express the personality of an environment, and color and tex ture can create a rich visual experience for the map viewer. These aspects of map design provide more than aesthetic appeal: they help users interpret and remember the map's features. When map features are visually dstnctve and resemble the real objects they represent—such as illustrated landmarks—viewers ‘can more easily recall a map's features than when only text labels are used." Also, minimizing the number of details and using symbols that are familiar and easy to recognize enfiance map comprehension, 158 Visual Language for Designers Bird densities inthe New York ity repion are depict. 4 through vivid colors and Imagery i this map creates fara student project. Eli Carico, United StatesMake the Abstract Concrete 189> These maps crested for ‘an annual report convey the oridwide cations and network ofa logistics Ser vice rouge. The coor of the dots indicates the type of contrat sac sit. Francisca Erde, Mich Design, Germany 160 Visual Longuoge for Designers > eps provide a way to communicate more than _ecgraphy. This map fer ‘an af fat printed in the Indianapolis Star is aso 9 comprehensive user guide “Angela Ecards, Unite States This portat ofthe San Francisco River in Bazi Iustrates the cuture, people, animals, and pants ong the river fom its pot of origin to its mers Ing with the ocean, (Carlo Giovani, Carlo Giovani ‘Studio, Sri,Make the Abstract Concrete 161TCA SNAPSHOTS OF TIME ‘Time has been conceptualized in many ways through history and acras different cultures. W ceive of time, we typically relate it toa spatial meta hor using a horizontal line to move forward. If also imagined as a cyclical phenomenon that is grounded in natural occurrences, such asthe seasons. Far some, time i envisioned as a spal,recuring inthe pattern ofa helix. in antiquity, scenes were often pre- sented in nonchronologcal order so that events that were most significant athe artist were placed fis. Time is significant dimension of much information tions of time help us understand relationships and make con and it underlies aur if experience. Represen nections between temporal event 162 Visual Lnguage for Designers phical form the most pervasive. Usually, they linear fashion sh hat depict time, timelines sepicted in wing time moving forward into the ture, perhaps with an arrowhead ta indicate director Itis common to depict an increase in time directionally from lett right o usually structured that occur in ach 5 from bo om to top a a series of fixed te ological sequene in historical timelines, this may suggest a cause-andl-eect rela tionship between conquest of Mou missions and durations are Lary Gormley, History Shots, and Kimberty Cloutier, White Rhino, ‘Marlena Buczek Smith, ‘Ensen Graphics,In terms of time span, timelines are quite adaptable. They can potentially represent linear time on any scale, running the gamut from personal or organ Zatonal time, which would be represented in day, ‘weeks and years, to histarical time represented in Centuries or eras, tothe deep time of geological events based in millons of years. Visualizing relationships and events through time helps us to make sense of the past and allows us to map out the future. We can find visual depictions of time in numerous types of media. Organizations often use timelines to tout ther accomplishments orto explain their narra tive. Newspapers and magazines use them to depict newsworthy events or to show how events might aflect the future, Textbooks visually represent time for histor cal purposes in an effort to make intangible events more concrete, In the sciences, timelines convey ‘wansformations and cause and effect, More $0 than verbal communication, visual language provides a flex- ible way for exploring and portraying time. 164 Visual Language for Designers A potion ofan extensive (lympie timeine pub lished in Superinteressante ‘magazin is shown here. The sepia toned coloring ‘mixes wit ol photaraphs expresses the historic aspect of the timeline “Juliana Veiga and Cato Giovani, Carlo Giovani Studio, Braz)This extraordinary por trayaltvough deep time iutrates the history o ite n Earth over the past 600 milion years. Initiate Aleta i astrates the rch bigiversity esting fram olution and gives new meaning tothe concept of 2 timeline. ‘Brian Fin, Iapetus Pres, United States Make the Abstract Concrete 165ey peers errs aaa Ei reg on ee eet ree ceria eo foro a iand i | ee og BS | a5 Pn eee enedPeet endPRINCIPLE 5 “Complexity isn’t what it used to be. It’s more—and different.” YONNE HANSEN. formation ‘sual complexty is a paradox. On the one hand, ‘complexty is a compelling feature knawn to capture 3 viewer's attention and stimulate intrest. Rather than looking at an entice picture, viewers tend to look atthe informative portions, particularly those with intricate ‘deta, paterns, and occlusions. On the other hand, ‘complexity any arouses curiasty up toa paint. When 2a visual is extremely complex, viewers may tend to ‘vod it altogether" Athaueh complexity has always surrounded us, the visual depiction of complex objects, systems, and ‘concepts has became increasingly prevalent. Complex subjects are depicted as infographies in newspapers ‘and magazines; as animated segments in newscasts ‘and documentaries; as exhibits in museums; as, instructional graphics in textbooks and online courses; 2 procedural and assembly instructions in product, manuals; and as accompaniments to artces in aca- ‘demic journals. “4 1%e frames of this mutt ‘media documentary made ‘or Spain's newspaper El Mundo explain Alber Ein Stein's landmark discoveries from 1908. Breaking com plex concepts into smal segments can hep viewers understand complex ‘bera Caro, United States Objective complexity refers tothe properties inherent ina system, information, of task. Systems are consi. ered complex when they have many parts or compo: rents that interceiate. Information is complex when it is voluminous, dense, and lacking in structure. Tasks ‘become complex when many cognitive operations and strategies are required to complete them 2 Task complexity also inereases when a person's attention is divided while performing simultaneous operations, Ike Using a cell hone while driving. In these situations, both tasks compete for attention, whichis limited in capacity? On the other rand, subjectve complexity is based on indvidual perception and relates o a person's rel- evant skis, knowledge, and abilties. "What is highly complex to one person may be much less complex to another person. Rather than a feature ofthe environ ‘ment, complexity primarly seems tobe in the eye of the beholder," write cognitive researchers Jan Elen and Richard Clark [CLARIFY COMPLEXITY The completes of poker are caved with this deck {that includes an oncard ex plaation ofthe adzitional ‘ards ede forthe best poker hang, ‘Drew Davies, Oxide Design, United StatesDie Beladung einer MD11 Explaining Complex Concepts ‘The explanation af complex concepts aten results in visually complex graphics. Complex graphics ate infor mation rch, conveying meaning through an increased use of detail, pattern, shapes, text, calor, density, and diversiy ef elements. Viewers may have dificult with these visuals because there are a greater numberof Pictorial stimuli to discriminate, ientiy, and process. ‘Also it takes longer to search through and to locate relevant information when a graphic is complex. One eye-tracking study found that vsually complex Web pages produce a more scattered and disordered eye- scanning path than Web pages with fewer elements > 170 Visual Language for Designers ‘The challenge for visual communicators is ta provide @ {ull and complete graphical explanation while accom: ‘modating the limits and strength of human cognitive architecture I is mast effective when designers use fechniques to clay information rather than ta simplify it Although simpliicaton is highly effective fr many ‘communication needs, some concepts and systems are to deep and too rich fo pare down. As Evelyn Goldsmith writes in her book Research into ist tion, “Just as a verbal exposition sometimes needs to Consider a number of issues in order to present an argument in its true perspective, soa drawing can lose ‘much of ts communicative value ifn an attempt at simplicity it's denied an appropriate context.” ‘4A complex explanation requires a visual complex ‘raph, as shown in these {epictions of the impart process a Frankfurt Aiport for Planet magazine. Jan Sehwochow, Golden Section Graphics, Germany > The features of the high-energy performance CConge Nast Buiing are Itustrated through calouts and spot enlargements to ‘make the explanation mare sete ‘Mathew Luckwita, gafPort, Unite Statestym Clarity ComplexCognition and Complexity Ina complex word, we are bound to seek all kinds of ‘explanations to beter understand it. We rely on pre ‘us krawledge, which is structured in mental repre: sentations or schemas, to perform cognitive tasks and te assimilate new information. Our schemas are often fuzzy and incomplete. Explanations help us refine them so they are more accurate. Our schernas may have conflicting and tlogcal concepts. Explanations help dissolve cognitive dissonance. Regardless of whether itis wsual or verbal, acom- plex explanation places a great demand on working ‘memory. The mote the informational components of an explanation interact, the greater the cognitive load, This is because understanding an interdependent system Is more dificult than understanding elements in isolation * For example, cognitive lad i greater in ‘ying ta understand haw an entre computer network ‘operates than in trying to understand how one compo- nent, such a8 a router, functions Fortunately, our cognitive architecture is equipped to handle complex information. When we come upon something new and complex, itis theorized that we sradually build up schemas into large entities in ‘working memory in order to have mare information simultaneously available This ensures thatthe limited capacity of working memory wil not be strained, as it can only accommodate afew entities ata time. 172 Visual Language for Designers We also construct mental models to help us under stand complex systems. Mental models, which are based on schemas, are broader representations of how different aspects ofthe world operate. They integrate what is common about a particular type of system or phenomena. Far instance, a person who has ‘an accurate mental madel of how computer printers ‘Work wil be able t use this mental made! to oper ate almast any printer. While studying an explanatory graphio, viewers wil construct a network of knowledge ta understand itand will enhance their mental madels With this new information ‘Two Important contributors to building accurate mental representations are coherency and contest. Coherency refers tothe consistent loge that makes an explana: tion meaningful. Coherent explanations might invoive Understanding cause and effect or the steps of a pro cess. They contain a structure that makes sense. Just 2s verbal explanations require coherency, so do visual ‘ones. Designers can ensure graphical explanations ‘are coherent by ensuring that the order for viewing information is clear, extraneous information is mited, {and the graphic i visually uned and logical, The context ofan explanation is the framework within ‘which new information is assimilated. In picture comprehension, context a constraining feature that determines what objects to expect and what not to ex pectin a particular type of visual. As a result, context helps to guide the viewers attention and influences how a picture is interpreted. It so strongly influences meaning that when something is perceived as out of Context, it often does not make sense. Providing con- {ext in @ complex visual explanation, such as showing the big-pictue view and the detail in an inset, goes a long way in helping @ viewer understand a concept > This visually coherent in formation graphic explains the causes of obesity in te United States es compared to Javan. ‘Alan Lau, United States0900) Se ae Oe, ne OFF ~ (© wor THe RATE OF OBESITY BETWEEN JAPAN AND UNITED STATE ARE DIFFERENT Joanne Haderer Mller, ‘aderer& Maller Duodenum (Portion of ‘smal intestine Clarity Complexity 173Lo mas parecido a una mano verdadera {G gan vertaja de esta press con resoecto sur anecesras a varedad de movimientos que permite la ‘como funciona ‘osblidad de dare un aspect as el soosor ‘Cuatro posiciones PRECISION wave rocoerpeattos Pra mani aves, Seetekdee a ecm corso ‘noice Easpecto, ove ave = ‘Cosmess de alta ‘etinion 174 Visual Language for Designers In tis explanation of how 2 ‘mechanical and works for the Palco newspaper, the ‘main illusteation with cal: ‘outs provides the context forthe sale explaratory segments that surround it Chiqui Esteban, Palco, ‘SpainApplying The Principle Itis well known that viewers have an easier time Understanding simpler grapes than complex ones. Increased complexity can interfere withthe viewers ability to decode and interpret a visual. Thus, design- ers must find effective ways to clearly convey meaning without overwhelming the audience. A complex visual ‘explanation does nat require extraneous and distract- ing detail it does, however, require the detail neces- sary for providing a coherent explanation Several visual approaches can facilitate building accu rate schemas and appropriate mental models without ‘overloading the audience. One isto segment complex ‘content into smaller units to minimize the amount ot Informaton processed at onetime. Organizing infor ‘mation into smaller chunks alaws schemas to slowly bull up so that content can be gradually understood and ultimately integrated into one whole. Segmenting ‘can take many forms. A designer can present simpler visuals frst and then progressively reveal more com- plex components. Or a complex task can be broken ‘down into simpler steps that form a chronological sequence. Alternately, information can be divided into {frames and animated. Any ofthese approaches can potentially decrease the cognitive demands placed on the viewer. A second approach to clartying complexty isto expose parts and components that are normally concealed. This can include a straightforward portrayal of what is normally hidden from sight, creating a variety of interior views, such as cutaways and cross sections or using pictorial devices to show movement, These approaches reveal the inner form ofan objector system, conveying new meaning about how things are structured and how they function A third technique for claiying complex isto reveal the inherent structure ofthe information, which conveys its organizing principle. Inherent structure is based on an intuitive understanding of how informa- tion is ordered. For example in a calendar, information is structured in months and days. n a graphic about sail information i structured in layer. This cognitively natural approach provides a somewhat abstract path tofacltating comprehension. When a graphic is visually organized so that it makes conceptual sense, ithelps viewers get the message. ‘The success of creating a complex visual explanation depends on whether the visual techniques meet the ‘gal for which the graphic is created and accommo- date the prior knowledge ofthe viewer. When clariying complexity, designers and ilustrators must balance the cognitive requirement for detail withthe knowledge that viewers can become overwhelmed with too much visual information In this poignant rendering ‘of a eman with diabetes Tor the NewYork Times, 2 transparent view potays ‘he organs thought tbe assccated with the disease, Bryan Chiste, Bryan Christie Design, United States Clarity Complexity 175176 Visual Language for Designersies Eg ae mal oe tas: a ee i ve “3 iSEGMENTS AND SEQUENCES Providing @ complex visual explanation inane spatial layout can resut in a cluttered composition of disorg nized ideas. I takes thoughtful restraint and controled logic to pace an explanation orto organize it into a sequence with a beginning, middle, and end. Research has shown that when the entity of an ‘explanation is presented all at once, people are less likely to comprehend it® In particular, people fee over: ‘helmed wien confronted with complex information for which they have litte prior knowledge. Essentially the amount of processing requied to understand the what the person can hold in work ing memory. One effective way designers can avoid Creating cognitive overload is to segment information inta digestible pieces. information exceed Information segmentation is particularly effect because iis a natural cognitive strategy we use to de. ‘compose our world into smaller units. Babies segment sounds when they lear to speak; authors sagment books into chapters and topics: designers segment graphics into dominant and subordinate elements; and songwriters segment songs into verse and chorus. We routinely use segments to internally manage our world, ‘As we experience the actives in our ife, we naturaly parse them into temporal segments and think of ther as separate events. We do this because when infor ‘mation i in smaller entities, iis easier to manage in working memory and easie to ft into existing schemas for future storage and retrieval? 178 Visual Language for Designers his explanation of how to se Neti for Stanford ‘magazin, dividing the ‘sua into small eran gical steps helps to avd cognitive overload, ‘Nigel Holmes, United States‘apie designers can segment information by dvd ch unt al into smal but meaningful unis. groups conceptually related information. Seq at which information sinroduced, slows the pac allowing viewers to take the time to process a minimal numberof concepts before moving onto the next ‘one. People understand and learn more deeply when information fs presented in smaller segments rathe than larger ones. Segmenting isa isk when a viewer cannot combine the individual segments inta one coherent mental model. The ‘memory unt th segment must be maintained in working person views the next portion of the graphic. Some viewers may be unable to integrate 2cr0ss unis of information when a composition is isu ally fragmented. To avold this, ensure that the viewer ‘ets the holistic view of @ concept or system while studying the smaller segments. This can be achieved in several ways: depicting the big-picture view to provide contest; introducing the overriding concept at the start providing visual continuity tothe information nd stanly building on previous concepts. n addition, the designer should ensure that a segmented visual Connects elements by directing the viewer's eyes 180 Visual Longuoge for Designers using the compositional techniques or pictorial devices discussed in Principle , Direc the Eyes. quencing is a special typeof segmenting that presents information in a chronological ord to how it would occur inthe real word effective approach for explaining a procedure, a set (of steps, cause and effect, or a complex idea where one principe builds on sequence, prioritize the information to determine Is logical order and display it fom left to right or top to bata nat the relevant details a di Ensure played implication so that concept of task dows 3p, avoiding too much information associated with th An advantage to sequencing is that it groups important visual information together, often through prox ity, a connecting line, or a visual Boundary. When items are perceptually organized into a group, they are represented together in visual working memory his enhances the probably thatthe information wil neoded as one group into long-term memory. equental pr tend to increase comprehension, antatons are also processed faster and te segments to gradually Wi Muy, Biotsion Design, oF how nuclear power is Benerated, the procedure is ee reece ra ‘Kimberly Fulton, University of Washington,Small Atom, Big Energy Clarity Complexity 181‘An explanation of Ei theor of special for Discover Nigel Holmes with Michio Kaki, Unite States ESyol-Terr- Ma ccirctu\ ag ‘Special relativity unlocked the secret ofthe stars and revealed the untold Ce ee en ed She Lee question: what would @ beam of ight ok ike if you coud race along sie? eee tt toh iret Cee ne olen nny See Coe eae ered ete Cee ee aad Peete meth ued always constant, no matter how fast you moved. He then Sut etait ear Kea) Ce eer ad Ceca) nets Secor) Sere) Cee ce ‘Visual Language for Designers.Cee nce eee arbi na beso Crewe ree nett ito eae re Quetta peered beet ect seen entid Pee ( SeanaSPECIALIZED VIEWS ‘Although our visual system is remarkably intligent, it does have ts physical imitations. Many structures ‘and mechanisms are invisible ta the unaided eye, ‘and many processes can only be seen through thelr ‘outcomes. Revealing what is physically hidden and depicting unobservable phenomena through special forms af representations and pictvial devices are effective ways to portray complex systems. Cutaways, ‘magnifications, and other inferior views work well fr depicting structural information. Techniques that depict movement are valuable for communicating ‘unctional information. ‘Specialized views comprise any technique that allows 2 person ta see through the abstructions ofthe surface {and beyond tightly assembled components. These types of graphics ae based on the conwertions of technical ilustration, defined as “a technique used to sraphically present complex parts and assemblies so that professional and lay people alike can understand ther form and functionality." s graphic designers and generat illustrators increasingly create explana- tory graphics, they find ways to make complex content more accessible and engaging. To break through the complexity barter, designers ‘must keep in mind that novices use diferent cognitive strategies than experts. “Experts are expert not only because they knaw more but etically because they know differently," write David Evans and Cindy Gadd in Cognitive Science in Medicine. When learning about physical systems, the internal representations of a nav ice focus on the state physical structures wth minimal Understanding of how things function and operate. Ex petts have a more integrated model that incorporates the structure, functions, and beraviors of a system 2> 184 Visual Language for Designers Contrary to many of the recommendations in this book, increased realism in a graphie may be mare cffective than highly schematized drawings when Viewers will ned to apply their knowiedge about 2 physical system to a real system. In this case, highly schematized drawings that omit too much detail can lead to misunderstandings These findings validate the principle that clanfying rather than simplifying complexity is most effective. ‘4 In prometional moteria's fora scientific device used for protein analysis, the Interior view and ca-cuts help ela the optics tech: oly inside. ‘Amy Vest, ‘Applied Biosystems Brand 4 Creative Group, ited States > The explanations of physical objects and sys tems often require specs ‘ned views becouse we an often only se the tip ofthe ‘iceberg a lustated here for Selenite Amerian, ‘vid Fierstein, Davia Fierstein ttustation, ‘Animation & Design, Unite StatesInterior Views Tears in lateral collateral ligaments (LCL) Sad r ; jaa : SFY that a b me 7 Posterior a ; wine YY Stone re ar in AJ @ calcancotioular ligament 186 Visual Language for DesignersIn this view! anatomy 3 human body Bly explain the ro Nicola Landucel, (CCGMetamed us inkjt printing process |s shown through several rect mental model The the sytem and how i une tions. Cross sectional views provide detals about how 3 Carvidge operates “Jacob Halton, Mino institut of rt, Unites States Clarity Complexity 187Exploded Views \When a machine, architectural structure, or organism has hidden pars that cannot be fully seen with asta dard interior view, an exploded version can provide ‘even greater clarification. Exploded views shaw the ‘components of an obect in thei corect arrangement, ‘though sightly separated and spread along a camman axis, to reveal haw they fi together. This is one way to ‘show both the deta ofthe individual parts, ther ela tionships, and the order in which they are assembled, Iv the proportions ofthe exploded pictorial graphic do not fi within the constrains ofthe layout, the pats may be moved out of alignment. Flow lines can then indicate where the pars ft into the assembly. Call outs ae helpful for naming the parts that may be referenced in a verbal explanation. Athough exploded views typically convey structure, the drawing can also convey function withthe addition of arrows to indicate movement Depending on the purpase af the graphic and the ualities ofthe abject, exploded views do not neces- afl requite a realistic rendering. It not uncom- ‘mon forthe pas of a device to be portrayed as a line ‘drawing because the components are cecognizable by shape. This type of simplification may be helpful when the graphic is used forthe purposes of assembly or disassembly. When exploded views are rendered for homes and buildings, increased realistic detalis often appealing. Because exploded views usualy eliminate any ype of occlusion, viewers get a better understand ing of structure. 188 Visual Language for Designers 4 Prctoriat graphics that show how the parts af an abject are assembled, as In this exploded view of @ classical guitar, provide a ‘greater understanding of 2 systems structure ‘George Lads, Base24 Design ystems, United States > The expoded view in this intermation graphic about the mechanical alarm lock lait internat structure and how the gears Marjlare M. Crabtree, Minos Institute of Art, ‘United States Double Bell Alacm Clock a‘An exploded view of Caste. Meseburg forthe German ‘Sundey poper Welt am Seatag allows for an extremely detailed view ofthe interior, Jan Sehwochow, Katrin Lamm, Juliana Kéneke, Jarostaw Ki. Kasehtainsi, Golden Section Graphics, Germany Clarity Complexity 189MAGNIFICATION Magnification or 200m portay a level of detail that offers a fine-tuned perception ofan object. Increasing the level of detail i valuable fr focusing on the erucial aspects of a device or system. Usually, the detail is enlarged and arranged as an inst o in a shape of a contrasting color. To highlight the deta, the magnified area can be pulled away from the main ilustration but remain connected with lines, arrows, ora zom effect. ‘An advantage to enlarging individual areas ofan object is thatthe main ilustration provides the needed refer lence for context. This provides a holistic view before the viewer delves into the deals 190 Visual Longuoge for Designers Detaled areas of skin are ‘magnified to better explain how shin retract a result ‘of tipesuction. Travis Vermiye, Travis Verily Medical & Biological Mustation, ‘United StatesSchematic of Articular Cartilage Metisa Beverage, ‘Natural History Mustration, United states Clarity Complexity 191192 Visual Language for DesignersIMPLIED MOTION Although static interior views ae effective at showing structure, they don't clay the dynamic aspects of a system or concept. Representing motion is important, however, for explaining the workings of a machine, the assembly ofa product, human movement, and the dynamics of unseen forces. They clay the ‘ambiguity that might occur from a structural view and help a viewer to build a dynamic mental model that represents how something moves. Several power- {ul techniques can create the mental impression of ‘mavement. These include mation ines, straboscopic ‘mavement, action arrows, and motion blur Motion lines are the set of streaking lines placed behind an object or person to suggest speed. Several studies that examined mation lines found tis tech rique to be quite successful at conveying the impres- sion of quick movement and the direction of motion.!® Straboscopic movement, an the other hand, simulates mation by depicting a progression af images that are similar in size and shape but differ in their postion or pose. The difference between each image creates the ‘thm ofthe motion. A ghosting technique that cre ‘ates a transparent object or person makes the transi- tion between images seer even smoother ‘common way to depict motion and ts direction in scent and technical ilustrations i with arrows The arraws are often curved ta convey a sense of ‘action. Because the arrow symbol seems to have limit- less uses, actin arrows often depend on context to be Understood. Another technique for showing movement is moton blur. This soften depicted in photographs. A disadvantage to blur is that much ofthe object's ‘detail can be lost with this approach, ‘Arrows convey the coect ‘ppreach fr vsing side Imirors while passing a car ‘na graphic for Popular Mechanies magazine. Jaroslaw Kaschialins, {Golden Section Graphics, Germany > Arrows demonstrate ‘the wentation in an eo builing—the Peart River Tower in China Broan Chiste, ‘Bryan Chistie Design, United states Clarity Complexity 193(OUR GENES: WHAT Wa INHERENT STRUCTURE {An inherent structure under 3 information just as, the spokes of an umbrella undeti its covering. Visual ‘communication depends upon structure, and view ers rely oni a a feature that conveys the nature af 2 graphic. Inthe radial structure ofthe genome map shown, the organizing principle transmits a sens of energy, ofa biological or mathematical form basis for life. The lack of visual hierarchy conveys that ll chromosomes have equal impartance and are generated from the same source. Thus, the sensory impression ofthe graphie’s structure helps us interpret its meaning. Our visual and cognitive systems make sense ofthe world by understanding structure, whichis based on the relationships between entities. Philp Paratore ‘describes this in his book Art and Design: “Mean. ing emerges from relationships. Nothing exss ors perceived in isolation. A design acquires ts form and ‘meaning from the relationships on which itis base. 196 Visual Language for Designers Fath tntat "OHM In pictorial design this is called composton; in musi, ‘orchestration; in nature, ecology. The process of. veloping meaning through the organization of relation. ships is analog! ais, us inal fled, i all media and for al Memory for content improves wherever information is organized. The theory behind this is that spatial ‘and physical features af the visual structure may be encoded along withthe semantic structure ofthe infor mation. Consequently, when information in memory is wel organized, itis thought ta be easier to retrieve and to integrate with new information. 6 Researchers have found that memary improves dramatically wen people apply hierarchical organization to large amounts of information.” This i the basis for the learning strategy known a information mapping, in which people are taught to represent concepts in spatially construct diagrams to improve the meray of it A Avadial structure, which seems to refeet ie isl, ‘is used fo ma n genome inthis formation erage for Tne mogaz "Nigel Homes, Unite States > The stvctues ofthese ‘ahi daplins, sowing fies and plats, are based (on organic shapes and seemingly random arrang diversity of nature gener 2d by evolution. Vivien Chom, Edmund Li, Fang-Pin Le, Pauline Dotovch, Tony Reich, and ‘Stephen Pet, Reich +PEAPE Faw Set K Ee rh 198 Visual Language for DesignersSub-surface WetlandsEstablishing structure usually involves more than just ‘ordering elements in an aesthetic arrangement. It entails finding the conceptual basis of the graphic's meaning and expressing ths through visual language. Visual structures are as varied as there are types of information. For example, the designers ofan exhibit ‘that explains mammal evolution and diversity used the structure of the DNA molecule asthe organizing principle ‘Some information is best organized by physical att butes, when the conceptual purnese iste help viewers discriminate between visual forms, as in feld gues \When a set of varied forms are arcanged in proximity to one anather, the viewer can make comparisons and understand the simlaties and differences between ‘objects. It is one way that viewers can bulld knowledge ‘through inference ‘Structuring visual elements according to ther rganiz= ing principle can have a profound effect on how some: fone perceives information. In his book information Anxiety 2, Saul Wurman writes, “Each way of organiz ing permits a diferent understanding; each lends seit to different kinds of information; and each has certain reassuring linitations that wil help make the choices of how the information is presented easier" 200 Visual Language for Designers Graphic designers may find Wurman's approach to in formation architecture useful. Known by the acronym LATCH, his recommendation isto order information by location, alphabet, time, category, and hierarchy. Wur man states that this organizational system isthe basis {or almost all of the structured information we encoun. ter, from telephone directories to entire libraries. Many ofthese organizational structures are so embedded in fur cognitive strategies, we use them without much thought, as when we alphabetize a fling system. ‘The LATCH system is particulary helpful wten con- sidering how to organize large amounts of information. For example, a catalog of retail gods can be sorted by alphabetical order or category of item. A brochure (of seasonal performances can be ordered by per- formance category, seasan of event, ara hierarchy ranging from the most popular tothe least known. For designers, the essence ofthis approach is fo translate the organizing principle into an effective visual form In this informational poster about the proper uses of ater, the information ‘s aranged ina droplet structure, Ths enables ewers fo quickly get the Bist ofthe visual, promoting 2 preunderstanding of the message. "Nathanasl Hamon, Slang, ‘and Jaana Deviants, iyi, GermanyClarity Complexity 201PRINCIPLE 6 [CHARGE IT UP “The brain states and bodily responses are the fundamental facts of an emotion, and the conscious feelings are the frills that have added ici ‘What raises the voltage level of 2 graphic and gives it ‘a charge? Wry do vsuals with that special spark grab attention and sustain intrest? Some viewers find the compositional aesthetic compeling. Others may be ‘moved by a poignant image or vsual symbols filed with personal meaning. Some are amused by humor us and entertaining pictures. One thing is certin— ‘good design creates an emotional response. The common assumption that art evokes emation is reliably supported through brain research. When view ers laok at both pleasant and unpleasant pictues, they consistently demonstrate an emotional reaction ind- cated by pronounced brain activity that does not occur ‘when they look at neutral pictures. Even with repeated showings ofthe same affective piture—up to ninety repetitions in one study—viewers continued to elicit a ‘marked emotional response.‘ Viewers also spend more time looking at affective pictures than neutral pictures. Viewers have a preference ‘or magery that evokes emotions. A sensual pho: tegraph, such as tis one {oan arts and culture bro chure, wil gra a viewer's attention. (66 Lemere, Campbell Fisher Design, United states g to the emotional cake.” JOSEPH LEDOUX. Te Ener Although by definition emetians are nonverbal, cogni- tive psychologists have no difficulty finding the words to describe the components of affect. They define ‘emotion as a powerful usualy shorted experience that is@ reaction toa specific stimulus. Emotions result from a rapid appraisal ofan objector event's significance in order to prepare us for action. They help us cope with changes inthe environment. This isin contrast to feelings, which are the subjective and internal experiences of emation. Anather campanent of affect is moad, which refers to a longer-lasting, en eralized experience that is mider than emotion. mation also has a physical component. Everyone 's familar withthe body states associated with ‘emotion, such asthe pounding hear, tightened ‘muscles, and sweaty palms that accompany fear or the light-headed, energized sensations of romantic love. On a daly basis, we may not generate particularly powerful emotions, but they do affect us in many ways. For example, emotions often motivate us to pursue goals, like learning anew graphics program or finding a new jot. 203eessesees ve © ee 0000000000008 eee eee @eeer S@GOCOOS4E OO COOGOO® Emotive graphs inform at an immediate viscera viewers to adopt a particular viewpoint or conti entertain, adden, anger, _to.a cause. On the other end ofthe spectrum are fraphics arouse an audience. the campaigns that evoke fear in ocd to persu re attention before the audi-__In public health promotions, for example, message nce proces ntent ofthe message, citum- based onthe fear of harmful consequences from risky rag Bonnet Siguis fenting many rational and cognitive processes. When behaviors are often used ta sway attitudes. In pol aes s occu, al graphics influe ‘mes- campaigns, images that evoke fear are used ta inf age is subsequently perceived and interpreted ee voter opinion. Empirical evidence shows that th perience of fear is effective at persuas When a potential viewer is distracted, busy, oF jst plain cynical, aiming at th s isa designers Emotion-laden images area well-known influence an best chance for arousing interest. "Messages which decision mak voting choices to laundry soap. a ual, complex, intense, exp Adverlsing specialists provide emotional message unconventional, o fast-paced message strategies can in an effort to bypass cognitive analysis and shar nelp to overcome boredom and disinterest,” wi the decsion-male They often concentrate information design professor Judy Gregory? Grabbing on posite associations and s to gener altetion gets viewers involved, stimulates interest, and a pleasant feeling toward a product or an idea. In motivates them to decode the rest of the message her essay “Thinking Positvely,” communica fesearcher Jennifer Monahan writes, “The appeal of er reason for emotional appeals isto promote positive affect for commercial advertisers is i tude change. Ths soften the case in social issue Research consistently shows advertisements th promotions, publ innouncements, and rouse pasive er i i political campaign ese appeals use stir feelings toward the product and greater in ng imagery, such as innecent animals in the wil, iy withthe message 2 way to Wigger emotional responses and persu 204 Visual Longuage for DesignersOW TO KILL AN INDIAN SC aats tele crores) Pemmclrared Coe Chargeit Up 205Emotion and the Information- Processing System Emation and cagnition. Contrary ta the widespread be lef that emotion and cognition are opposites, they are rw thought tobe distinet but inseparable functions The interplay of emotion and cognition contributes teow we think, fee, and act. Emotion is known to affect mental processes, such as attention, perception, and memory. For example, emotive images can lead ta biased perceptions when a persuasive symbol is paired with a neutral objector person. good example is when news programs consistently pair people of 2 paticular race or religion with images of guns and vio lence. The negative feelings evoked from the images tend to transfer ta individuals ofthat race or reign. Emotions aso affect how information is processed and encoded into long-term memory. A growing body of = search indicates that unpleasant memories fade more ‘uichy than pleasant ones. Furthermore, pleasant phenomena-—whether words, images, or events—are processed more efficient and accurately and recalled more quickly 206 Visual Language for Designers Emotions have 2 powerful impact on our personal fe ‘and history. The narrative of aur i's experiance is thought tobe stored in episodic memory, whichis ‘autobiographical. Episodic memory automatically cap: tures the time, place, events, and emotions of our per- sora story. When we view a picture, autobiographical memories are often triggered by images, symbolism, ‘and compositional elements that convey emetional Content. When this connection accurs, the emational component of a visual message becomes personal and meaning Emotion and attention. Graphics wih meaningful ‘emotional content capture attention and interest because they generate a state of arousal, which is a cognitive and biologically energized state. As a general rule, mast people find monotony and boredom to be an unpleasant experience and stimulation and activation tobe a pleasant experience. Many psycholo- ists theorize that although individuals vary in their need for stimulation, most people want to maintain ‘an optimal state of activation. They seek “newness, ‘change, sensation, of inconsistency" in moderate ‘amounts. * Emotional experiences help people achieve ‘and maintain tis optimal state of arousal. When a raphe generates a satisfactory lvel a stimulation, viewers wil tay with 2 message and process it. When ‘2 message is considered boring, the viewer wl ook elsewhere for activation The emetional imagery of 3 dancing skeleton implores ers fo celebrate the Day ofthe Dead festa, {Lars Lawson, Timber Desian Company, United StatesDAY,OF THEApplying the Principle ‘Affective visuals generate attention elther throu ‘emational reflex that eccurs beneath conscious aware ness or through conscious selective attention. In either case, visual language triggers autobiographical memo fs, arouses curiosity and interest, and enhances the viewer’ involvement. Some effective strategies for producing charged graphics ae to convey emotional salience, provide a thematic narrative, make use of visual metaphors, and incorporate novelty and humar. When a phic has emotional salience, affective appeal i its prominent characteristic. I transmits femational content ina compeling way. Designers can achieve this by composing with design elements and imagery that have significance forthe audience. Graphics with emotional salience take viewers beyond 2 literal interpretation to one that connects with their footings The visual narrative form also transmits emetion, Narratives area cognitively and emotionaly natura ‘way for people to communicate. Teling a story of tying visuals toa coherent theme draws viewers to the mes- sage. Narratives allow designers to create an undery ing emotional tack that runs tough the visual. The visual metaphor is another effective vehicles for Conveying emation. Metaphors resonate with the non: verbal qualiy of emotions. Because they result from a synthesis of ideas, visual metaphors are often imagina- tive and captivating 208 Visual Language for Designers [A porvasve strategy for evoking emotion is to ‘an audience with an innovative and unexpected ‘approach. Not only do viewers enloy surprise, bu novelty arouses curiosity, which susta udience altenton. Ths includes using humor to shock, enter tain, or amuse, as is appropriate with the content of the message {An impottant consideration of the emotionally charged graphic i ts potential effect on an audience. Emotions are often multifaceted, so a viewer may respond with 2 mix of conficting feelings. This can result in an unin tended reaction. A good example comes frm a study that examined persuasive publi service messages to prevent the transmission of AIDS, The research found that when a message evoked fear, the viewer was likely to comply with it. When the message evoked anger ‘along with fer, the persuasive effect ofthe message was lst § Designers should carefully analyze whether thelr visual approach will obtain the reaction they de sire, For many purposes, a simple emotional response right be the most effective 14 Visual metaphors a tion, 2s inthis deluge of bots and eyes. Ein Cuber, United i ender and communities of Ecuador. ‘Antonio Mena, Antonio Mena Design, EcuadorMujeres ~ = Indigenas ee", del mae selon ea eeEMOTIONAL SALIENCE sion of asic design elen Qt $e 0 have satura re rm tense than soft, ° 210 Visual Language for Designerscerbencee Slag ebb Saegeree KG soe! Sa el A So Pagan g rag fe 52 ptt 6 Tagg comerto ag SG Q] Vije Gallery; December 20-27, 2007 9 Third St. of Nowbakht, Khoramshahr Ave., Tehran 1533864861-Compositional effects ae alsa pawerful ways to xpress and evoke emotion. To generate a dsquleting and disturbing experience, designers can take advan. tage of the audience's need to rasove tension. Tension can be generated through ambiguty—using shapes and forms tha ae indistinct, obstructed, and dificult te recognize and identily Tension may also result from exaggeration, when forms, colors, and textures are ‘obviously overstated, In addition, distortion can arouse sation because viewers expect abjects and people to have a natural ar conventional shape. Ay effect that prevents cognitive closure can potentaly create an unsetting experience Powerful imagery increases emotional salience, particularly photographs and drawings ofthe face Our brains ae especialy attuned to appraising facial ‘expressions and following eye gaze. The rapid and eff cient detection of facial emotion appears ta be another biological mechanism on which designers can rely to incease a message's impact. Incorporating facial ‘gestures that express emotional intensity wil eaplure attention and make a graphic memorable Symbolism plays a etical role in visual communica tion and provides an eloquent way to communicat ‘emotional content to represent abstract and often profound ideas. The diversity of objects and signs that work as visual symbols enormous, providing design ers with a large vocabulary fo shape meaning, Through ‘experience, people learn to associate the symbols of their culture with societal values and themes. n this process, many symbols acquire emotional meaning Religion, nationalism, societal status, oppression, and lustice are some ofthe diverse concepts that can be ‘communicated with symbols, 212 Visual Language for Designers New Orleans and the Afevastation from Murcane Katrina creates a stiing ing ett fr victims ‘Greg Bennett, Sauls, Unites stotsCharge it up 213NARRATIVES People are powerfully draw to stories and use them to naturally organize their own and others’ exper'- fences. Through this familarty and comfort with the structure and emation ofthe narrative, people often have a vicarious experience while reading or watching 2 story. Because ofthis cognitive and emotional read ness, visual narratives are an excellent way to generate ‘an emational resonance with the audience. In books, fim, theater, and television, we may find stories wth a clever plot tobe interesting, but itis, their emotional impact that is mast atactve. tis rt uncommon to continue to watch a show or fim wth a thin plot and poor acting onl to realize its the magnetism ofthe emotional drama that sustains our interest. A significant feature ofthe narrative is that ithas the power to captivate an audience regardess ‘of whether it is based on experience or is completely fictional. lis the dramatic and emotional aspect af people's ives—thelr desires and achieverents, tele disappointments and sutferings—that is common toa narrative, whether itis factor fantasy The emational response to narratives has been sub- stantiated in brain esearch. Ina study where subjects listened toa script and were told to imagine their in- velvement inthe scenes, the narratives triggered areas ofthe brain that emotionally prepared the participants to take physical action. In other words, the brain reacted as though the story was occurring inthe physi- cal environment. 214 Visual Language for Designers Graphic designers can use this natural human affinity for stores in imaginative ways. The crucial pont isto Create an absorbing visual narrative—a sequence of {events and actions tied together with emotional and Conceptual continuity. Visual narrates often folow a formal structure with an obvious beginning, middle ‘and end. Photographic documentaries, animated sto- fies, graphic novels, and comic book formas achieve this because a sequence of images is understood to describe a succession of events. When pictures are placed in a temporal order, wewers will mentally {ill in any gaps, such as actions needed to maintain continuity In addition to this more structured approach, implit narratives are also compeling. For example, promo- tional materials, annual reports, and brochures often cembady a narrative that is implied on every page. For some, the narrative might follow the development and history ofan organization. Others implicitly suggest a ‘coherent emotional theme through image and type AA morass narrative is sed here to explain the traditional publishing ro- cess, Implementing this 2 2 story ads ots interest. Lorenzo De Tomas, iy > A cramatie story tne is Iustrated to demonstrate the use of anew device tha 0s information on the status and location of wounded soles Colin Hayes, Colin Hayes ustrator, Unite Statesemployee ng to), these usr employ a story based Dine Albertson an Bowers, Daring Pi United States 216 Visual Language for Designers3 Ej es | i] a EI % Ei iva eel Rei) ge it Up airPen ee ee eyVISUAL METAPHORS (Our cognitive system often relies on metaphors and analogies to think and imagine. is haw we under stand things for which we have no specific knowledge, ‘We use metaphors to transfer the properties of one object to another or to conceptualize an idea in arms of another For example, in her book Design for Com ‘munication, Elisabeth Resnick describes the metaphor she uses to teach typography. “I describe typography 2s two-dimensional architecture upon which a founda- tion of visual communication can be bul. Leterforms become the building blocks that create the structure to convey an idea or deliver a message.” We often use metaphors to describe phenomens that ate dificult to verbalize, such as emations, When emo- tions seem ambiguous and ethereal, metaphors help ‘make them explicit and tangible. Pictorial metaphors can be vivid and imaginative when they compare or combine two previously unconnected objects or ideas. Designers often use emotionally charged imagery in ‘metaphors to create impact. One effective way to bring ‘a metaphor to Ife isto combine the qualities of two images. An example fsa public health advertisement that combines a cooking mushroom with a nuclear 220 Visual Language for Designers ‘mushraem claus to communicate the potential dan. gers of food-borne ines. [Another approach isto juxtapose two images inthe ‘same graphic, implying that they should be compared the properties of one image ae intended to transfer to the second. Juxtaposing an image of a sleek computer With a racing panther, for example, implies that the computer has fast processing power. Visual metaphors ean alsa stand on their awn, as in ths information sraphic about the history of money explained on a Monopoly board When a visual metaphor succeeds, it synthesizes two objects or concepts to reveal a new connection fora deeper meaning, But to understand a metaphor requires knowledge of is cultural context and the ably to make the correct inferences. The viewer must be able to interpret a metaphors figurative rather than literal meaning. Thus, the metaphor should accommo date the viewer's abilities, using recognizable objects and familar concepts. 1A. The history of money is explained inthis informs tion graphic for Superin teressante magazin that ses a Monopoly boar as 8 metaphor. ‘Adriano Sambugaro, Carl Giovani Studio, Braz > The clever visual meta: hor and clear copy send 2 staghtorward message tn this health sanitation campaign Tonatiuh Arturo Gémez, ‘AW Nazca Saatchi & ‘Saath, Vanssvseed persed‘A Metaphors can generate ‘an emotional response if xgveses a future promise formation brochure aboat 2 childrens hospital. rica Grege Howe and ‘Ay Lebow, Pilographica, < Mis eitora piece on mmemary les demonstates connect withthe audience Travis Vermiye, Travis Vemilye Medial and Biological Mutation, United States ee a eae ees es erate seus tcc Human Development Report 2006 Water and human The 21st century challenge metoohor used forthe cover graphic ofa ted Nations report on water and human develop ment apty demonstrates the coming challenges of the global water rss eter Grundy and Tl Northeage, United Kngsom Chorgeit Up 223