Materials Transactions, Vol. 51, No. 10 (2010) pp.

1747 to 1752
Special Issue on Lead-Free and Advanced Interconnection Materials for Electronics
#2010 The Japan Institute of Metals

Eect of Small Addition of Zinc on Creep Behavior of Tin

Naoyuki Hamada1 , Masakazu Hamada1 , Tokuteru Uesugi2 ,
Yorinobu Takigawa2 and Kenji Higashi2
1
2

Ishikawa Metal Co., Ltd., Sakai 592-8352, Japan

Department of Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka Prefecture University, Sakai 599-8531, Japan

Sn-based alloys with high creep resistance are required for soldering applications. This paper describes the eect of solid solution
strengthening on the creep resistance of Sn-Zn alloys. The maximum solubility limit of Zn is 0.34 mass% in Sn. The creep behaviors of Sn, Sn0.1 mass%Zn and Sn-0.4 mass%Zn were examined at 298 and 398 K under constant strain rates ranging from 1
104 to 1
102 s1 . The
creep resistance of Sn was improved signicantly by the addition of a small amount of Zn owing to the solid solution strengthening. The creep
resistance of Sn-0.4 mass%Zn was at the same level as that of Sn-37 mass%Pb. We obtained a stress exponent of about 7 and an activation
energy of 4145 kJ/mol, which indicates that the creep behavior was climb-controlled dislocation creep controlled by pipe diusion. The nding
that a small addition of Zn improves the creep resistance is useful for developing new Pb-free solders. [doi:10.2320/matertrans.MJ201023]
(Received June 14, 2010; Accepted August 2, 2010; Published September 15, 2010)
Keywords: lead-free solder, tin-zinc alloys, creep resistance, solid solution strengthening, stacking fault energy

1.

Introduction

Eutectic Sn-37Pb solder has been the most widely used

material for interconnecting and packaging electronic components. However, Pb and Pb-containing compounds are
considered as toxic substances. Due to the current awareness
of the environmental and the health hazards associated with
Pb, many studies on Pb-free solders and soldering techniques
have been performed with the aim of replacing Sn-Pb solders
with Pb-free alternatives.1,2) Considering performance, reliability and resources, Sn-Ag and Sn-Zn alloys have received
the most attention.3)
Eutectic Sn-9Zn alloy has a melting point of 471 K, which
is closer to the 456 K of eutectic Sn-37Pb than the 494 K of
eutectic Sn-3.5Ag.4) Therefore, Sn-9Zn has been considered
a potential Pb-free solder material.5,6) Many investigations
have dealt with dierent aspects of Sn-9Zn, such as its
mechanical properties,7) solderability8) and oxidation behavior.7) To apply a soldering material to a wide range of
applications, high creep resistance is also required.9) One
example is dimensionally stable solder for optoelectronic
applications.10) The creep resistance of Sn-9Zn is superior to
that of Sn-37Pb.11) However, the general conclusion is that
despite its better mechanical properties, Sn-9Zn has poor
wettability to the Cu substrate, a phenomenon generally
related to the oxidation sensitivity of Zn.12,13) To improve the
wettability, it is very eective to use hypoeutectic Sn-Zn
alloys having lower contents of Zn.14) Based on this
consideration, Mahmudi et al. have researched the creep
behaviors of a series of Sn-Zn alloys (2.59 mass%Zn) and
found that creep resistance was due to the higher volume
fraction of Zn-rich second phase particles in the more
concentrated alloys.14)
In Sn-Zn alloys, trace Zn is soluble in the Sn matrix, which
has a maximum solubility limit of 0.34 mass%Zn.15) In this
work, the objective was to clarify the eect of solid solution
strengthening on the creep resistance of Sn-Zn alloys by
means of a constant strain rate tensile test. We believe that
the ndings presented in this paper will be useful for the
development of new creep-resistant Pb-free solders.

Table 1

Chemical compositions for Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn (mass%).

Sn

Zn

Sb

Cu

Bi

Pb

Fe

In

Sn

balance 0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.002

0.002

0.003

Sn-0.1Zn

balance

0.10

0.001

0.001

0.002

0.002

0.002

0.003

Sn-0.4Zn

balance

0.41

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.001

0.002

0.003

2.

Experimental Procedure

Sn, Sn-0.1 mass%Zn and Sn-0.4 mass%Zn were used in this

study. For the preparation of these alloys, high-purity Sn
(99.98% purity, Yunnan Chengfeng Non-ferrous Metals Co.,
Ltd., China) and Zn (99.9% purity, Mitsuwa Chemicals Co.,
Ltd., Japan) were used as starting materials. The chemical
compositions are shown in Table 1. The alloys were initially
produced by ingot casting. The casting temperature was
603 K, which was about 100 K above the liquidus line
temperature.15) The molten alloys were cast into an iron
mold. The inner diameter and length of the mold were 30 and
140 mm, respectively. The ingots were solution-treated for
24 h in air and then water-quenched. The solution-treatment
temperatures were 423 K for Sn and 453 K for Sn-0.1Zn and
Sn-0.4Zn. The ingots were then extruded into cylindrical bars
of 12 mm in diameter at an extrusion temperature of 373 K.
The cylindrical bars were machined as tensile test specimens
with a gage length of 12 mm and a diameter of 4 mm. Tensile
tests were carried out by the constant strain rate method at
strain rates ranging from 1
104 to 1
102 s1 and at temperatures of 298 K ( 0:59 Tm , where Tm is the melting point
of Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn15)) and 398 K ( 0:79 Tm ).
The microstructures were examined by means of a
scanning electron microscope (SEM). The microstructures
after the extrusion are shown in Figs. 1(a) for Sn, 1(b) for
Sn-0.1Zn and 1(c) for Sn-0.4Zn. The average grain sizes
were 5.8, 5.0 and 4.2 mm for Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn,
respectively. It will be shown that the amount of Zn in
solution is the important variable in explaining the creep
resistance of Sn-Zn alloys in the latter. A Sn-Zn eutectic

1748

N. Hamada, M. Hamada, T. Uesugi, Y. Takigawa and K. Higashi

(a)

(b)

(c)

10m

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

10m

Microstructures of (a) Sn, (b) Sn-0.1Zn and (c) Sn-0.4Zn.

(a) Sn-Zn phase diagram and (b) Sn-Zn partial phase diagram for the Sn rich part.15)

phase diagram15) is given in Fig. 2. The maximum solubility

limit of Zn is 0.34 mass% in a Sn-Zn system.15) The solubility
limits at 453, 398 and 298 K were 0.32, 0.16 and 0.13 mass%,
respectively. The solution-treatment temperature was 453 K,
and the tensile test temperatures were 398 and 298 K. There
is no doubt that Sn-0.1Zn is a completely solid solution. Even
in Sn-0.4Zn, most of the Zn exists in solution; a proportion
of about 80% in solution and about 20% in Zn particles at
the solution-treatment temperature of 453 K can be estimated
by using the lever rule. So, no precipitates were observed in
the microstructure of Sn-0.4Zn, as indicated in Fig. 1(c).
3.

10m

Results

3.1 Tensile properties

Typical true stress-true strain curves for Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and
Sn-0.4Zn at a strain rate of 1
103 s1 and at temperatures
of (a) 298 and (b) 398 K are shown in Fig. 3. The true strain,
", and true stress,
, were calculated as follows:
" ln1 "n

n 1 "n

where "n is the nominal strain and
n is the nominal stress.

The derivation of eqs. (1) and (2) assumes both constancy of
volume and a homogenous distribution of strain along the
gage length of the tensile specimen. Therefore, the values of
the true strain and true stress are inaccurate after the localized

necking. After the localized necking, the applied deformation

is almost concentrated in the localized neck. This deformation concentration results in unloading in the materials
outside the localized neck, which results in decreasing the
true stress just before the fracture as shown in Fig. 3. The
ow stress, at the xed true strain of 0.1 was determined from
each sample tested at the given temperature and strain rate.
The ow stresses increased with increasing Zn content at
both 298 and 398 K. It is obvious that the creep resistance
was improved by the addition of a small amount of Zn. All
of the Zn content in Sn-0.1Zn and most of that in Sn0.4Zn existed as solutions in the Sn matrix. Therefore, the
strengthening mechanism in Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn is the
solid solution strengthening. The mechanism of this solid
solution strengthening will be discussed later in this paper.
SEM observations of the fracture surfaces indicated transgranular creep fractures. The growth of voids by creep was
observed in the fracture surfaces of Sn-0.4Zn.
Figure 4 shows the relationship between the strain rate
and the normalized ow stress compensated by the shear
modulus, G. The value of the shear modulus of Sn that was
used for this normalization is shown in Table 2. The stress
exponent, n, which was estimated from the slope of the curve,
exhibited values of 7.1, 7.0 and 7.2 at 298 K and 7.3, 7.1 and
7.4 at 398 K for Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn, respectively.
The n values suggest that the climb-controlled dislocation
creep could be a dominant deformation process.16)

Eect of Small Addition of Zinc on Creep Behavior of Tin

1749

Fig. 3 Typical true stress vs. true strain curves for Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn at temperatures of (a) 298 and (b) 398 K under a strain rate
of 1
103 s1 .

Fig. 4 Strain rates for Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn as a function of the
shear-modulus-normalized ow stress at 298 and 398 K.

Table 2

List of material factors in Sn.

Burgers vector, b/m

Youngs modulus, E/MPa

3:17
1010
66;607-60:3T

Ref. 20)
Ref. 25)

Shear modulus, G/MPa

25;314-24:6T

Ref. 25)

Pipe diusion coecient,

DP /m2 s1

1:0
104 exp46;000=RT

Ref. 23)

Lattice diusion coecient,

DL /m2 s1

4:8
104 exp102;000=RT

Ref. 23)

Figure 5 shows the variation in strain rate as a function

of ow stress for Sn, Sn-0.1Zn, Sn-0.4Zn, Sn-9Zn,17) Sn3.5Ag18) and Sn-37Pb18) at 298 K. Highly creep-resistant
solders are necessary for many soldering applications.9)
Among the Pb-free solders, Sn-3.5Ag and Sn-9Zn have been
expected as promising alternatives of Sn-37Pb because of
their superior creep resistance compared to that of Sn-37Pb,
as shown in Fig. 5. On the other hand, the ow stress of Sn-

Fig. 5 Variation in strain rate as a function of ow stress for Sn, Sn-0.1Zn,

Sn-0.4Zn, Sn-9Zn,17) Sn-3.5Ag18) and Sn-37Pb18) at 298 K.

0.4Zn is higher than that of Sn-37Pb above the strain rate of

1
102 s1 at 298 K. The creep resistance of Sn-0.4Zn is at
the same level as that of Sn-37Pb.
The variation in ow stress as a function of Zn content at
298 K is shown in Fig. 6. There was a remarkable increase in
ow stress with increasing Zn content under the maximum
solubility limit of Zn. It is well known that the addition of Zn
improves the creep resistance of Sn.7) The good creep
resistance of Sn-Zn alloys is believed to derive from the
dispersion strengthening of the Zn-rich second phase particles.7) However, Fig. 6 indicates that Sn-Zn alloys are
strengthened signicantly owing to the solid solution
strengthening under the solubility limit. This gure also
indicates that Sn-Zn alloys are further strengthened moderately due to the dispersion strengthening of the Zn-rich
second phase particles with increasing Zn content above the
solubility limit. In Sn-Zn systems, not only the dispersion
strengthening of the Zn-rich second phase particles but also
the solid solution strengthening is an important strengthening

1750

N. Hamada, M. Hamada, T. Uesugi, Y. Takigawa and K. Higashi

Fig. 6 Variation in ow stress as a function of Zn content in Sn-Zn alloys

at a temperature of 298 K under a strain rate of 1
103 s1 . The ow
stress of Sn-9Zn is taken from the paper by Mavoori et al.17)

mechanism, even though the solubility of Zn in Sn is very

small.
3.2 Activation energy
The constitutive equation which describes the deformation
behavior at high temperatures (above about 0:5Tm ) is
generally expressed as follows:19)
   n   p


Gb


b
Q
3
D0 exp 
"_ A
kT
G
d
RT
where "_ is the strain rate,
is the ow stress, G is the shear
modulus, b is the Burgers vector, k is Boltzmanns constant,
T is the absolute temperature, n is the stress exponent, d is
the grain size, p is the grain size exponent, D0 is the preexponential factor for diusion and Q is the activation energy
which depends on the rate-controlling process, R is the gas
constant and A is a material constant. The values of b and G
are shown in Table 2.
The n values observed in Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn are
about 7, as shown in Fig. 4. The p value was taken to be zero,
as in conventional dislocation creep.16) The activation energy
for creep can be calculated as follows:


d ln "_ 
Q R
4
d1=T 
=G
In order to calculate the activation energy, the relationship
between "_kT=Gb and the reciprocal temperature at a xed
normalized stress,
=G, of 9:1
104 is illustrated in Fig. 7.
The creep activation energies were 41, 41 and 45 kJ/mol for
Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn, respectively. These activation
energies are much lower than the 102 kJ/mol of the lattice
diusion in Sn.21)
Under the climb-controlled dislocation creep, the stress
exponent ranges from 5 to 7.22) A stress exponent of 5 with
the activation energy of lattice diusion is known as climbcontrolled dislocation creep controlled by lattice diusion.22)
The stress exponent of about 7 with the low activation energy

Fig. 7 Normalized strain rate, "_kT=Gb, as a function of reciprocal

temperature.

in Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn is consistent with the climbcontrolled dislocation creep controlled by pipe diusion.22)
Adeva et al.23) have estimated that the activation energy for
pipe diusion in Sn was 46 kJ/mol, based on the theoretical
relationship proposed by Sherby and Weertman.24) This
activation energy for pipe diusion is close to the activation
energies of 4145 kJ/mol in Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn
obtained in the present study. Therefore, it was demonstrated
that the creep mechanism of Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn
was climb-controlled dislocation creep controlled by pipe
diusion.
4.

Discussion

The experimental results indicate that the dominant

diusion process is climb-controlled dislocation creep in
Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn. Robinson and Sherby22) have
demonstrated that the concept of an eective diusion
coecient, Deff , can be applied to describe the dominant
diusion process for climb-controlled dislocation creep. The
eective diusion coecient involving the lattice diusion
coecient and pipe diusion coecient is given by the
following equation:
 2


Deff DL 200DP
5
E
where DL is the lattice diusion coecient, DP is the pipe
diusion coecient and E is Youngs modulus.24) Robinson
and Sherby22) have demonstrated that eq. (3) under climbcontrolled dislocation creep could be rewritten as follows:
   5
Gb


Deff
6
"_ A
kT
G
The relationships between the normalized strain rate,
"_=Deff kT=Gb, and the normalized stress,
=G, for Sn, Sn0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn are shown in Fig. 8. The material factors
of DL , DP , E, G and b in Sn which we used in this study are
listed in Table 2. E and G in Table 2 were determined from

Eect of Small Addition of Zinc on Creep Behavior of Tin

1751

creep including the stacking fault energy is given by the

following equation:35,36)
  3    5

Gb


0
Deff
8
"_ A
Gb
kT
G

Fig. 8 Relationships between the normalized strain rate, "_=Deff kT=Gb,

and the normalized stress,
=G. The tting line has a xed slope of the 5th
power.

Table 3 The material constant, A, and the stacking fault energies for Sn,
Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn.
Material constant, A

Stacking fault energy, 

Sn
Sn-0.1Zn

1:1
10
7:2
106

0
0.40 0

Sn-0.4Zn

3:9
105

0.15 0

the elastic stiness coecients of Sn25) by using the Voigt

and Reuss average.26,27) The tting line in Fig. 8 has a xed
slope of the 5th power. This gure indicates that the ow
behaviors of Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn are straight lines
with a slope of the 5th power. The values of A for Sn, Sn0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn could be estimated from the intercepts
of the tting lines with a slope of the 5th power at
=G 100 ,
as shown in Fig. 8. The values of A for Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and
Sn-0.4Zn are listed in Table 3. The constitutive equation
under climb-controlled dislocation creep was developed
using the material parameters for Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn.
Many researchers have suggested that the ow stress
during climb-controlled dislocation creep in solid solution
alloys such as Al-based alloys,2830) Cu-based alloys31) and
Mg-based alloys32,33) is dependent on the stacking fault
energy. The decrease in stacking fault energy due to the
alloying in solid solution alloys usually improves the creep
resistance.2833) It is explained that the root of solid solution
strengthening in Sn-Zn alloys is also the decrease in the
stacking fault energy due to the addition of Zn.
It is widely accepted that the ow stress increases with the
inverse cube of the stacking fault energy.34,35) Therefore, the
material constant A in eqs. (3) and (6) is includes the stacking
fault energy, as follows:
 3

A A0
7
Gb
where A0 is a constant and  is the stacking fault energy.35)
The constitutive equation under climb-controlled dislocation

The values of the stacking fault energy for Sn and Sn alloys

have not been obtained experimentally. So, the stacking fault
energy of Sn is dened as a hypothetical value, 0 . Using this
value, eq. (7) can give the stacking fault energy for Sn-0.1Zn
and Sn-0.4Zn. The stacking fault energies for Sn-0.1Zn and
Sn-0.4Zn are listed in Table 3. In the case of Sn-0.4Zn, the
material includes a Zn-rich second phase. However, the
fraction of second phase particles in the solid solution matrix
is very small. So the eect of dispersion strengthening can be
neglected. Recently, the stacking fault energies of many
metals have been calculated from rst principles with
absolute accuracy.37,38) The authors have investigated the
stacking fault energies for Sn and Sn alloys from rstprinciples calculations and will present the calculated results
in the near future.
In this study, it was claried that a small addition of Zn
under the solubility limit leads to a signicant improvement
of the creep resistance. This knowledge should be useful for
the development of new Pb-free solder alloys, for example,
Sn-Ag-Cu-Zn alloys. The Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu system is now
the most familiar Pb-free solder in Japan, and is being used
by most Japanese manufacturers for reow, wave soldering
and hand soldering.39) Because Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu alloy contains
3 mass% of the expensive metal Ag, this alloy is more
expensive than other Pb-free alloys. In Japan, recently, SnAg-Cu alloys with a lower Ag content (0.3 or 1 mass% Ag),
named low-Ag Pb-free solders, are being developed for
reducing the material cost.4044) But the decrease in the Ag
content in the alloy results in the deterioration of the creep
resistance.40,44) Consequently, most recent researches have
focused on the selection of a 4th element in order to boost
the creep resistance of low-Ag Pb-free solders.45) The
addition of a small amount of Zn, which greatly improves
the creep resistance in Sn, to low-Ag Pb-free solder may be
one of the solutions. The addition of Zn leads to poor
wettability, as is well known in Sn-9Zn.12,13) Nevertheless,
the deterioration of the wettability should not be a big
problem, because the amount of Zn added for solid solution
strengthening would be about 0.4 mass%, which is very small
compared to that in Sn-9Zn. Our report of the development
of a low-Ag Pb-free solder containing a small amount of Zn
will appear in a future paper.
5.

Conclusions

The creep behaviors of Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn were

examined at 298 and 398 K and under constant strain rates
in the ranging from 1
104 to 1
102 s1 .
(1) The creep resistance of Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn was
improved signicantly by the addition of a small
amount of Zn owing to the solid solution strengthening.
Not only the dispersion strengthening of the Zn-rich
second phase particles but also the solid solution
strengthening is an important strengthening mechanism
in Sn-Zn systems, even though the solubility of Zn in Sn

1752

N. Hamada, M. Hamada, T. Uesugi, Y. Takigawa and K. Higashi

is very small: the maximum solubility limit is 0.34

mass%Zn.
(2) A stress exponent of about 7 and an activation energy
of 4145 kJ/mol were obtained for Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and
Sn-0.4Zn. This activation energy was close to the
46 kJ/mol for pipe diusion in Sn. This, together with
the stress exponent of about 7, suggests that the creep
behavior of Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn was climbcontrolled dislocation creep controlled by pipe diusion. The creep mechanism controlled by dislocation
climb demonstrated that the root of the solid solution
strengthening in the Sn-Zn system is the decrease in
the stacking fault energy due to the addition of Zn. The
constitutive equation under climb-controlled dislocation creep was developed using the material parameters
for Sn, Sn-0.1Zn and Sn-0.4Zn.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr. T. Hirata and Dr.
T. Tanaka of the Technology Research Institute of Osaka
Prefecture for their useful discussions and comments. This
research was partly supported by Potentiality Verication
Stage of Collaborative Development of Innovative Seeds,
Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST).
REFERENCES
1) K. Suganuma: Curr. Opini. Solid State Mater. Sci. 5 (2001) 5564.
2) S. K. Kang: J. Electron. Mater. 8 (1994) 701707.
3) X. Chen, M. Li, X. X. Ren, A. M. Hu and D. L. Mao: J. Electron. Mater.
35 (2006) 17341739.
4) W. J. Plumbridge: Mater. High Temp. 17 (2000) 381387.
5) M. McCormack, S. Jin and H. S. Chen: J. Electron. Mater. 23 (1994)
687690.
6) R. A. Islam, B. Y. Wu, M. O. Alam, Y. C. Chan and W. Jillek: J. Alloy.
Compd. 392 (2005) 149158.
7) R. Mahmudi, A. R. Geranmayeh and A. Rezaee-Bazzaz: Mater. Sci.
Eng. A 448 (2007) 287293.
8) J. E. Lee, K. S. Kim, M. Inoue, J. Jiang and K. Suganuma: J. Alloy.
Compd. 454 (2008) 310320.
9) R. J. Mccabe and M. E. Fine: J. Electron. Mater. 31 (2002) 12761282.
10) H. Mavoori and S. Jin: JOM 52 (2000) 3032.
11) R. Mahmudi, A. R. Geranmayeh, H. Khanbareh and N. Jahangiri:
Mater. Design 30 (2009) 574580.
12) K. I. Chen, S. C. Cheng, S. Wu and K. L. Lin: J. Alloy. Compd. 416
(2006) 98105.
13) S. Vaynman and M. E. Fine: Scr. Mater. 41 (1999) 12691271.

14) R. Maumudi, A. R. Geranmayeh, H. Noori and M. Shahabi: Mater. Sci.

Eng. A 491 (2008) 110116.
15) Z. Moser, J. Dutkiewicz, W. Gasior and J. Salawa: Bull. Alloy Phase
Diagrams 6 (1985) 330.
16) D. Sherby and J. Wadsworth: Prog. Mater. Sci. 33 (1989) 169221.
17) H. Mavoori, J. Chin, S. Vaynman, B. Moran, L. Keer and M. Fine:
J. Electron. Mater. 26 (1997) 783790.
18) I. Shohji, T. Yoshida, T. Takahashi and S. Hioki: Mater. Sci. Eng. A
366 (2004) 5055.
19) R. S. Mishra, T. R. Bieler and A. K. Mukherjee: Acta Mater. 43 (1995)
877891.
20) M. Fujiwara and T. Hirokawa: J. Japan Inst. Metals 51 (1987) 830838.
21) J. D. Meakin and E. Klokholm: Trans. Metall. AIME 218 (1960) 463
466.
22) S. L. Robinson and O. D. Sherby: Acta Mater. 18 (1969) 109125.
23) P. Adeva, G. Caruana, O. A. Ruano and M. Torralba: Mater. Sci. Eng.
A 194 (1995) 1723.
24) D. Sherby and J. Weertman: Acta Metall. 27 (1979) 387400.
25) J. A. Rayne and B. S. Chandrasekhar: Phys. Rev. 120 (1960) 1658
1663.
26) R. Hill: Proc. Phys. Soc. London Sect. A 65 (1952) 349354.
27) T. Uesugi, Y. Takigawa and K. Higashi: Mater. Trans. 46 (2005) 1117
1121.
28) M. S. Soliman: Mater. Sci. Eng. A 201 (1995) 111117.
29) P. K. Chaudhury and F. A. Mohamed: Metall. Trans. A 18 (1987)
21052114.
30) E. M. Tale, G. A. Henshall, T. G. Nieh, D. R. Lesuer and J.
Wadsworth: Metall. Mater. Trans. A 29 (1988) 10811091.
31) R. M. Bonesteel and O. D. Sherby: Acta Mater. 14 (1966) 385390.
32) H. Somekawa, K. Hirai, H. Watanabe, Y. Takigawa and K. Higashi:
Mater. Sci. Eng. A 407 (2005) 5361.
33) S. W. Chung, H. Watanabe, W. J. Kim and K. Higashi: Mater. Trans. 45
(2004) 12661271.
34) M. S. Soliman: J. Mater. Sci. 28 (1993) 44834488.
35) S. S. Vagarali and T. G. Langdon: Acta Metall. 30 (1982) 11571170.
36) S. S. Vagarali and T. G. Langdon: Acta Metall. 29 (1981) 19691982.
37) N. Bernstein and E. B. Tadmor: Phys. Rev. B 69 (2004) 94116.
38) T. Uesugi, M. Kohyama, M. Kohzu and K. Higashi: Mater. Sci. Forum
419422 (2003) 225230.
39) K. S. Kim, S. H. Huh and K. Suganuma: Microelectron. Reliab. 43
(2003) 259267.
40) T. Ohnishi: JEITA Lead-free Activities Report 2008, (Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries Association, 2008)
pp. 121140.
41) Y. Kariya, T. Hosoi, T. Kimura, S. Terashima and M. Tanaka: Mater.
Trans. 45 (2004) 689694.
42) S. Terashima, Y. Kariya, T. Hosoi and M. Tanaka: J. Electron. Mater.
32 (2003) 15271533.
43) S. Terashima, Y. Kariya and M. Tanaka: Mater. Trans. 45 (2004) 673
680.
44) T. Chen and I. Dutta: J. Electron. Mater. 37 (2008) 347354.
45) T. Ohnishi and T. Moribayashi: JEITA Lead-free Activities Report
2007, (Japan Electronics and Information Technology Industries
Association, 2007) pp. 133146.