INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL COMMUNICATION Rodger E. Ziemer Department of Eletcal and Computer Engineering University of Colorado at Colorado Springs Roger L. Peterson Motorola Labs Sehaumbarg, lnois Prentice Hall Upper Sadile River, New Jersey 07458 httpilwow prenhall.com“Library of Congress Cataloging -Pubiaton Data lem, Roger, Tnoduction to dial communiaonRodgerE. Zim, Roger L Peso — Pe pen Ics bibliographical reference an nde, ISBN 0.13 8900615, |. igialcommunicaioas. 1 Tite: Digital conncato,H Peteson Roger Tie ‘TKSI03:7255 2000 enka coarssi6 cw Vice rset and edt dretr: Moria Horton Pabisher Tom Robbins Associate et Alice Dorin Titra asst Jerea Power “Market manager: Danny Hye Production eta Pine Tre Composition Executive managing er: Vine OBrien Managing elo: David A. George ‘Ar decir: Jayne Cone (Cover design Brace Renelar Ate Adam Vetus Manufcting manape: Trudy Pct Manus yer: Dawn Marin ‘Assan vice president of producti and manucing: David W, Ricard {©2001 1992 by Prenic- Halo, ‘Uper Sate River, New esey Alig served, No pat of his ook maybe ‘reproduce, nay foo by any meas hou eosin in wing rom the publishr, “Te thor and publisher ofthis bok have wed ther et tos n preparing his book These ffs inchs the devclopment research, and eng of thoes to determine hel eflecvenest. Printed ithe United Stes of America wes7e sas ISBN 0-33-a9b482-5 Prec Hal Itai (UK) Limit, Landon rene lof Attala Py Lite, Sey Prete al Coad le, Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispnounercana S.A. Mesko Prete Hall of nda Piva Lito, New Deki Premie Hal fap, ne, Toko raion Edveaton Asia Re. Ld, Shgopore tora Pence Hal do Bas Las, Rode Jani Proface Contents 1 Introduction to Digital Data Transmission a4 12 13 15 16 47 Introduction Components of a Digital Communication System 1.2.1 General Considerations 1.2.2 Subsystems in a Typical Communication System 1.2.3 Capacity of a Communications Link ‘Communications Channel Modeling 1.3.4 Introduction 1.3.2 _ Specific Examples of Communication Channels: 1.3.2.1 Propagation Channels 13.22 Land Line 13.23 Compact Disc (CD) Channels 1.3.3 Approaches to Communication Channel Modeling 13.3.4 Discrete Channel Approach 13.3.2 Waveform Description of Communication Channels 11.3.4 Interference and Distortion in Communication Channels 4.3.5 External Channel Propagation Considerations. Communication Link Power Calculations 1.4.1 Decibels in Communication System Performance Calculations 4.4.2. Caloulation of Power Levels in Communication ‘Systems; Link Budgets Driving Forces in Communications ‘Computer Use in Communication System Analysis and Design Preview of the Book References Problems vil Bown » a 14 13 14 15 162 Signals, Systems, Modulation, and Noise: Overview 2.4 Review of Signal and Linear System Theory 2.4.4 Introduction 24.2 Classification of Signals 2.1.3 Fundamental Properties of Systems 2.1.4 Complex Exponentials as Eigenfunctions {or a Fixed, Linear System; Frequency Response Function Orthogonal Function Series Complex Exponential Fourier Series The Fourier Transform Signal Spectra Energy Relationships 2.4.10 System Analysis 2.2 Basic Analog Modulation Techniques 2.2.1 Double-Sideband Modulation 2.2.2 The Hilbert Transform; Single Sideband Modulation 2.2.3 Angle Modulation 2.3. Complex Envelope Representation of Bandpass Signals, and Systems 2.3.1 Bandpass Signals 2.3.2 Bandpass Systems 2.4 Signal Distortion and Filtering 2.4.4 Distortonless Transmission and Ideal Filters 2.4.2 Group and Phase Delay 24,3 Nonlinear Systems and Nonlinear Distortion 2.8 Practical Filter Types and Characteristics 2.5.1 General Terminology 2.8.2 Butterworth Filters (Maximally Fat) 2.5.3 Chebyshev Fiters (Equal Ripple) 2.5.4 Bessel (Maximally Flat Delay) Fiters 2.6 Sampling Theory 2.6.1 The Lowpass Sampling Theorem 2.6.2 Nonideal Effects in Sampling 2.6.3 Sampling of Bendpass Signals 2.6.4 Oversampling and Downsampling to Ease Filter Requirements 2.6.5 Pulse Code Modulation Differential Pulse Code Modulation 2.7 Random Processes 2.7.4 Mathematical Description of Random Processes 2.7.2 Input Output Relationships for Fixed Linear Systems with Random Inputs; Power Spectral Density Contents Contents 2.7.2.4 Partial Descriptions 2.7.2.2 Output Statistics of Linear Systems 2.7.2.8 The Central and Noncentral Chi Square Distributions 2.7.3 Examples of Random Processes 2.7.4 Narrowband Noise Representation 2.7.5 Distributions of Envelopes of Narrowband Gaussian Processes 2.8 Computer Generation of Random Variables 2.8.1 Introduction 2.8.2 Generation of Random Variables Having 2 Specific Distribution 2.8.3 Spectrum of a Simulated White Noise Process 2.8.4 Generation of Pseudo Noise Sequences 2.9 Summary References Problems Basie Digital Communication Systems 8.4. Introduction 3.2 The Binary Digital Communications Problem 3.2.4 Binary Signal Detection in AWGN 3.2.2 The Matched Filter 3.2.3 Application of the Matched Fitter to Binary Data Detection 3.4. General Formula for Pe ‘2 Antipodal Baseband Signaling ‘3 Baseband Orthogonal Signaling 3.2.3.4 Baseband On-Off Signaling 3.2.4 Cortelator Realization of Matched Filter Recelvers 3.3. Signaling Through Bandlimited Channels 3.3.1 System Model 3.3.2 Designing for Zero ISI: Nyquist’s Pulse-Shaping Criterion ‘Optimum Transmit and Receive Filters, ‘Shaped Transmit Signal Spectra Duobinary Signaling tion in Digital Data Transmission Introduction Zero-Forcing Equalizers ‘Minimum Mear-Square Error Equalization Adaptive Weight Adjustment Other Equalizer Structures Equalizer Performance 105, 108 112 112 114 a7 119 119 120 125 129 133 134 141 141 141 145, 148, 148, 150 150 151 154 155 155 187 160 164 166 168 168 169 173 ut 182 183Contents 3.8 A Digital Communication System Simulation Example 184 3.6 Noise Effects in Pulse Code Modulation 190 3.7 Summary 194 References 195 Problems 196 ‘Signal-Space Methods in Digital Data Transmission 199 4A. Introduction 199 4.2. Optimum Receiver Principals in Terms of Vector Spaces 202 4.2. Maximum a Posteriori Detectors 202 42.2 Vector Representation of Signals 205, ‘4.2.2.4 KDimensional Signal Space Representation of the Received Waveform 206 42.2.2 Scalar Product 206 42.2.3 GramSchmidt Procedure 207 42.2.4 Schware's Inequality 209 42.2.5 _Parseval's Theorem 210 4.2.3. MAP Detectors in Terms of Signal Spaces 212 4.2.4 Performance Calculations for MAP Receivers 215 4.3. Performance Analysis of Coherent Digital Signaling Schemes 219 43.4. Coherent Binary Systems 219 4.3.2 Coherent Mary Orthogonal Signal Schemes 220 4.3.3. Mary Phase Shift Keying 224 4.3.4 Quadrature-Amplitude Modulation 227 4.4 Signaling Schemes Not Requiring Coherent References at the Receiver 232 44.1. Noncoherent Frequency Shift Keying (NFSK) 232 4.4.2 Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK) 235 ) 4.8. Comparison of Digital Modulation Systems ar 4.8.4 Bit Error Probabilities from Symbol Error Probabilities 243 4.5.2. Bandwidth Efficiencies of Mary Digital ‘Communication Systems 244 4.6 Comparison of Mary Digital Modulation Schemes (on Power and Bandwidth-Equivalent Bases 245 4.8.1 Coherent Digital Modulation Schemes 245 4.6.2 _Noncoherent Digital Modulation Schemes. 247 4.7 Some Commonly Used Modulation Schemes 248, 4.7.4 Quadrature Multiplexed Signaling Schemes. 249 4.7.1.4 Quadrature Multiplexing 249, 4.71.2 Quadrature and Offset Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying 251, 4.7.4.3 Minimum Shift Keying. 254 Contents 48 49 44 4.7.1.4 Perfomance of Digital Quadrature Modulation Systems 4.7.2. Gaussian MSK 4.13 1/4Differential QPSK 4.7.4 Power Spectra for Quadrature Modulation Schemes. Design Examples and System Tradeotts ‘Multih Continuous Phase Modulation 4.9.4 Description of the Mult-h CPM Signal Format 4.9.2 Calculation of Power Spectra for Multi CPM Signals 49.3 Synchronization Considerations for Mult: CPM Signals, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing 4.40.1 Introduction 4.10.2 The Idea behind OFDM 4.40.3 Mathematical Description of DFTAmplemented ‘OFDM 4.40.4 Effect of Fading on OFDM Detection 410.5 Parameter Choices and Implementation Issues in OFDM 4.40.5.4 OFDM Symbol Rate for Combating Delay Spread 4.40.5.2 Realizing Diversity in OFOM 40.5.3 Implementation Issues 4.40.6 Simulation of OFDM Waveforms, Summary References Problems Channel Degradations in Digital Communteations Ba 52 83 Introduction ‘Synchronization in Communication Systems 5.24 Carrier Synchronization 5.2.2 Symbol Symchronization 5.2.3 Frame Synchronization The Effects of Slow Signal Fading in Communication Systems 5.3.1 Performance of Binary Modulation Schemes In Rayleigh Fading Channels 5.3.1.4 Introduction 8.31.2 Bit Error Probability Performance In Slow Rayleigh Fading 5.3.4.3 The Use of Path Diversity to Improve Performance in Fading 5.3.1.4 DPSK Performance in Moderately Fast Rayleigh Fading 254 258 258 261, 271 271 276 282 284 284 286 286 291 203, 293, 295 295 296 299 301, 307 307 307 317 319 321 324 321 322 324 329wi 5a 55 5.3.2 Performance of Mary Modulation Schemes in Slow Fading 5.3.2.1 Introduction B.32.2 Mary PSK and DPSK Performance in Siow Rayleigh Fading 5.3.2.3 Mary PSK and DPSK Performance in Siow Ricean Fading 5.3.2.4 Mary QAM Performance in Siow Rayleigh Fading 5.3.2.5 Mary Noncoherent FSK Performance in Siow Ricean Fading 5.3.3 Mary PSK and DPSK Performance in Slow Fading with Diversity 5.3.3.4 Rayleigh Fading 5.3.3.2 Ricean Fading Diagnostic Tools for Communication System Design 5.4.1 Introduction 5.4.2 Eye Diagrams 5.4.3 Envelope Functions for Digital Modulation Methods 8.4.4 Phasor Plots for Digital Modulation Systems Summary References Problems. 6 Fundamentals of Information Theory and Block Coding 64 62 Introduction Basic Concepts of information Theory 6.2.1 Source Coding 6.2.2 LempelZiv Procedures 6.2.3 Channel Coding and Capacity 62.3.1 General Considerations 6.2.3.2 Shannon's Capacity Formula Capacity of Discrete Memoryless Channels .3:4 Computational Cutoff Rate Fundamentals of Block Coding 6.3.1 Basic Concepts 6.3.3.4 Definition of a Block Code 6.3.3.2 Hamming Distance and Hamming Weight 6.3.3.3 Error Vectors 6.3.3.4 Optimum Decoding Rule 6.3.3.5 Decoding Regions and Error Probability 6.3.3.6 Coding Gain 6.3.3.7 Summary 6.3.2 Linear Codes 6.3.21 Modulo2 Vector Arithmetic Contents 332 332 Contents ay 6.3.2.2 Binary Linear Vector Spaces 83.2.3 Linear Block Codes 6.3.24 Sjstematic Linear Block Codes 6.3.2.5. Distance Properties of Linear Block Codes 83.26 Decoding Using the Standard Array 6.3.2.7 Error Provabilties for Linear Codes D833 Owl Codes 263.34 Deiiition of Cycle Codes 63.3.2 Polmomial Arithmetic 62.3.3 Properties of Cyclo Codes 63.34 Encoding of Cyclic Codes 83.35 Decoding of Cele Codes 6.3.4” Hamming Codes {63.4.1 Definition of Hamming Codes 6.342 Encoding of Homming Codes 6343 Decoding of Hamming Codes 6.3.4.4 _ Performance of Hamming Cods 6.3.5 BCH Codes 6.3.5.4 Defntion and Encoding for BCH Codes 635.2 Decoding af BCH Codes 5, 83.6.3 Performance of BCH Codes ( 76.3.6 Reed-Solomon Codes 6.3.64 Definition of Reed-Solomon Codes 63.6.2 Decoding the Reed-Solomon Codes 8.3.6.3 Performance of te Reed-Solomon Codes 6.3.7 _ The Golay Code 6.3.7.4 Defntion of the Golay Code 6.3.7.2 Decoding the Golay Code 8.3.7.3 Performance ofthe Golay Code 6.4 Cocing Performance in Slow Fading Channels 65 Summary References Problems Fundamentals of Convolutional Coding 74. introduction 7.2. Basic Concepts 7.2.1" Defition of Convolutional Codes 7.2.2 Decoding Convolutional Codes 7.2.3 Potential Coding Gains for Soft Decisions 7.2.4 Distance Properties of Convolutional Codes: 7.3 The Viterbi gorithm 7.3.1 Hard Decision Decoding 7.3.2 Soft Decision Decoding 7.3.3 Decoding Error Probability 441 444 446 a7 447 448, 449, 450 452, 462 463,Contents Contents " 7.34 BitEror Probability 508 QPSK Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum sr 7.4 Good Convolutional Codes and Their Performance 507 Nonconetent SlowFrequency-Hop Spread Spectrum 583, 14 Good coms 510 NonconerentFastFrequeney-Hop Spread 7.84. Sequertiol Decoding Sit Spectrum 506 7152. Theshold Decoding sit Hybrid Direct Sequence /Frequency-Hop TES Concatenated Reed-Solomon/Conolutional Coding 542 . Spread Spectrum 586 718.4 Punctured Convoltionel Codes S14 > 94 Complex Envelope Representation of Spread'Spectrum 7.8.5 Trelis Coded Moduation 516 systems 580 756 Turbo Codes 522 8.5. Generation and Properties of Pseudorandom Sequences 594 TE7 Appications 526 9.84 Definitions and Mathematical Background 594 287 As 526 9.5.2 _mSequence Generator Configurations 596 References 530 9.5.3 Properties of mSequences Ser Probleme 532 9.5.4 Power Spectrum of mSequences 599 9.8.5 Tables of Polynomials Velding mSequences 601 ‘8 Fundamentals of Repeat Request Systems 536 9.5.6 Security of mSequences 608 536 9.5.7 Gold Codes 605 8.4 Introduction 536 8.8.8 Kasami Sequences (Small Set) 607 8.2 General Considerations 337 9.5.9 Quatemary FourPhase) Sequences 608 8.3 Three ARQ Stateges 3s 9.8.10 Walsh Codes bt 8.3.4 StopandiWal 8 2.8 _Synetronization of Spread Spectrum Systems ett 4.3. General Descrintion S32 Througnpt Calculation 539 8.7 Poromance of Sead Spectrum Sats 8.3.2. GoBack ARQ 54a in Jamming Environments ot 8.3.2.4 General Description 54a 71 Introduction oi 832.2 Throughput Calevation 546 9.7.2 Types of Janmers bie 8.3.3 Selective Repeat ARQ 548 9.7.3 Combating Smart Jammers oie 8.3.3.4 General Description 543 "7.4 Error Probabilities for Barrage Noise Jammers 618 8333 fhroughout Calelation 550 8:75 sor roabities fr Optmzed Para and for Error Detection of Pulsed Jammers * Sia Goncral Considerations 551 9.8. Performance in Multiple User Environments 624 8.4.2. Hamming Codes 355 9.9 Multiuser Detection @4 84.3 BCH Codes 586 9.40 Examples of Spread Spectrum Systems 633 8.4.4 Golay Codes 558 9.40.1. Space Shuttle Spectrum Despreader 633 8.5 Summary 387 9.40.2 Global Positioning System 638 Referees 8 942 Suny on Problems ferences 642 sca Probiems ota 2c-Spectrum Systems a vet 362 10 Introduction to Cellular Radio Communications 650 9.2. Two Communication Problems 563 20.4 Introduction 650 9.2.4 PulseNNoise Jamming 568 20.2 Frequency Reuse 651 9.2.2 Low Probably of Detection 566 40.3 Channel Models oes 9.3. Types of Spreat-Spectrum Systems 568 40.3.4. Path Loss and Shadow Fading Models 650 9.3.4. BPSK DireckSequence Spread Spectrum 569 8.4 Free Space Path Loss 66010.8.1.2 Flat Earth Path Loss 10.3.1.3 Okumura/Hata Path Attenuation Model 10.3.1.4 LogNormal Shadow Fading y 20.3.2. Multipath Channel Models 10.6 10.9 10.3.2.1 Rayleigh Fading (Unresolvable Multipath) Models. 20.3.2.2 Ricean (Unresolvable) Fading 10.3.2.3 Summary 40:3.2.4 Resolvable Multipath Components 40.3.2.5 A Mathematical Model for the WSSUS Channel Mitigation Techniques for the Muitipath Fading Channel 10.4.1. Introduction 10.4.3 Frequency Diversity 14 Time Diversity 10.4.5 Multipath Diversity and RAKE Rec ‘System Design and Performance Prediction 20.5.1 Introduction 40.5.2 Performance Figures of Merit, 20.5.3 Frequency Reuse 40.5.4 Cells Are Never Hexagons 10.5.8 Interference Averaging ‘Advanced Mobile Phone Service 10.6.4. Introduction 10.6.2 Call Setup and Control 10.6.3 Modulation and Signaling Formats Global System for Mobile Communications 10.7.4. Introduction 10.7.2 System Overview 10.7.3 Modulation and Signaling Formats 10.7.4 Summary and Additional Comments Code Division Multiple Access 10.8.1 Introduction 40.8.2 Forward Link Description 40.8.3 Reverse Link Description 20.8.4 Capacity of CDMA 40.8.5 Additional Comments Recommended Further Reading 10.9.4 Cellular Concepts and Systems. 10.9.2 Channel Modeling and Propagation 10.9.3 Concluding Remarks References Problems, Contents 661 667 669 687 eon 692, 603 698 608, 701 7o1 702 703 706 707 708 713 713 715 715 a7 m8 720 720 722 724 730 731 731 735 743, 747 752 753 754, 754 756 756 753 Contents 14. Satellite Communications - 444 Introduction 44.4.4 A Brief History of Satellite Communications 41.4.2 Basic Concepts and Terminology 44.4.3 Orbital Relationships 41.1.4 Antenna Coverage 11.2 Allocation of a Satelite Transmission Resource 14.24 FOMA 1122 TOMA 4123 CDMA 41.3 Link Power Budget Analysis 11.3.1 BentPipe Relay 11.3.2 Demod/Remod (Regenerative) Digital Transponder 14.3.3 Adjacent Channel Interference 11.3.4 Adjacent Satelite Interference 11.3.5 Power Division in Limiting Repeaters 411.4 Examples of Link Power Budget Caleulations 11.8 Low- and MediunEarth Orbit Voice Messaging Satelite Systems 11.6 Summay References Problems A Probability and Random Variables Aa as aa AS Probability Theory AA.4 Definitions AL2 Axioms A-L.3 Joint, Marginal, and Conditional Probabilities, Random Variables, Probability Density Functions, ‘and Averages A241 Random Variables A2.2 Probability Distribution and Density Functions A2.3 Averages of Random Variables Characteristic Function and Probability Generating Function ABA Characteristic Function ‘3.2 Probability Generating Function Transformations of Random Variables AAA General Results ‘A4.2__ Linear Transformations of Gaussian Random Variables Central Limit Theorem References Problems all 764 764 764 766 768 770 7 772 774 m7 TT 719 Te 784 785 788 790 801, 803 803 807 807 807 808 809 sit Bit B11 a4 815 815 818 820 820 825 826 826 826x B Characterization of internally Generated Noise References Problems. © Attenuation of Radio-Wave Propagation by Atmospheric Gasos and Rain D Generation of Coherent References Da b2 ba D4 Introduction Description of Phase Noise and Its Properties D.2.4 General Considerations 1.2.2 Phase and Frequency Noise Power Spectra D.2.3 Allan Variance D.2.4 Effect of Frequency Multipliers and Dividers ‘on Phase-Noise Spectra Phase-Lock Loop Models and Characteristics of Operation D.3.4 Synchronized Mode: Linear Operation D.3.2 Effects of Noise D.3.3 PhaseLocked-Loop Tracking of Oscillators with Phase Noise D.3.4 Phase Jitter Plus Noise Effects D.3.5 Transient Response D.3.6 Phase-Locked-Loop Acquisition D.3.7 Effects of Transport Delay Frequency Synthesis D.4.4 Digital Synthesizers D.4.2 Direct Synthesis D.4.2.4 Configurations 0.4.2.2 Spurious Frequency Component Generation in Direct Synthesizers D.4.3 _PhaseLocked Frequency Synthesizers D.4.3.4 Configurations D.4.3.2 Output Phase Noise D.4.3.3 Spur Generation in Indirect Synthesizers References Problems, E Gaussian Probability Function Reference Contents 833 833 835 856 863 870 870 71. 874. 872 874 875, 875 875 879 contents F Mathematical Tables Fl The Sinc Function F.2Trigonometric Identities F.3_ Indefinite Integrals FA Definite Integrals F.5 Series Expansions F.6._ Fourier Transform Theorems F.7 Fourier Transform Pairsee ee ‘The philosophy of this book remains the same as that ofthe first edition, in particular to provide an introduction tothe essetils of digital communications based on sound math- ‘ematical underpinnings and anchored in the literature of the various topics considered, After providing a treatment of the basic theory of digital modulation and coding in the first eight chapters, the three additional specialized areas of spread spectrum, cellular, and satellite communications are given one-chapter overviews. The intent is to not only pro vide firm foundation in the basic theory of digital communications, but to give an intro- duction to three areas that have provided the basis of a number of applications in recent years and show avenues of research that are currently receiving much attention. For ex- ample, spread-spectrura communications includes the subareas of code families with good correlation properties, multiuser detection, and ultra wideband communications for re- solving multipath channels. Celular radio provides a host of research areas, such as ca- pacity optimization of multiuser communication systems and means for accommodating ‘mixed-rate trafic. Satellite communications has enjoyed a resurgence of interest with the proposed (wvith one realized) low-earth orbit mobile voice communication systems, stel- lite navigational systems, and small aperture antenna system applications. With this phi- losophy, we feel that both the needs of the practicing engineer in the communications industry and the senior/beginaing graduate student are met. The former is provided with a ‘means to review or self-study atopic of importance on the job, and th latter is provided ‘background in basic theory wit an introduction to possible topics for further researc. Virtually all electrical engineering programs include a course on linear systems in the junior year, and this book is written under that assumption. However, since the con- {ent of these linear systems courses varies from program to program, an overview of lin- ‘car systems is included in Chapter 2. An addtional reason for providing this information is to set notation and define special signals used throughout the book. ‘Another assumption ofthe authors is thatthe typical student taking a course using this book will have had a junior level course on probability. Often such courses contain additional topics from statistics and random processes. However, since coverage of these topics varies from program to program, the necessary material on random processes for this book is included in Chapter 2. For those students that may not have had a prior course ‘on probability, our recommendation i that one be taken before a course taught using this book i taken, However, for very diligent students who may not wish to do this, or whose aitPreface ——— ‘The philosophy ofthis book remains the same as that of the first edition, in particular to provide a introduction to the essentials of digital communications based on sound math: ‘ematical underpinnings and anchored in the literature of the various topics considered. After providing a treatment of the basic theory of digital modulation and coding in the first eight chapters, the thee additional specialized areas of spread spectrum, cellular, and satelite communications are given one-chapter overviews. The intent is to not only pro- Vide firm foundation in the basic theory of digital communication, but to give an into duction to three areas that have provided the basis of a number of applications in recent ‘years and show avenues of research that are curently receiving much attention. For ex- ample, spread-spectrum communications includes the subareas of code families with good correlation properties, multiuser detection, and ultra wideband communications for re- solving moltipath channels. Cellular radio provides a host of research areas, such as ca- pacity optimization of multiuser communication systems and means for accommodating ‘mixed-rate traffic, Satellite communications has enjoyed a resurgence of interest withthe proposed (with one realized) low-earh orbit mobile voice communication systems, stel- lite navigational systems, and small aperture antenna system applications. With this phi- Tosophy, we fool that both the needs of the practicing engineer in the communications {industry and the senior/beginning graduate student are met. The former is provided with a ‘means to review or self-study atopic of importance on the job, and the later i provided ‘background in basic theory with an introduction to possible topics for further research. ‘Virtually all electrical engineering programs include a course on linear systems in the junior year, and this book is written under that assumption. However, since the con- ten of these linear systems courses varies from program to program, an overview of lin- car systems is included in Chapter 2. An additional reason for providing this information is to set notation and define special signals used throughout the book. ‘Another assumption ofthe authors is thatthe typical student taking a course using this book will have had a juniorlevel course on probability. Often such courses contain additional topies from statistics and random processes. However, since coverage of these topics varies from program to program, the necessary material on random processes for this book is included in Chapter 2. For those students that may not have had a prior course ‘on probability, our recommendation is that one be taken before a course taught using this book is taken. However, for very diligent students wo may not wish to do this, or whose itPreface probability course was taken in the distant past, Appendix A of this book provides a brief Dverview ofthe necessary topics from probability. This material may be reviewed in con- junction with Chapter 1 and will not be needed until the latter part of Chapter 2, where random processes are covered, vAftee an introduction to the general features of digital communication systems, (Chapter 1 includes an overview of channel characteristics and an introduction to link power calculations. The latter subjet is retued to in Chapters 10 and 11 in conjunction ‘with & consideration of cellular radio and satellite communication links, respectively. The introduction of this subject in Chapter 1 provides a link between performance require ‘ments of communication systems in terms of signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver input and the requirements of transmitter power implied by the performance desired and the channel atenuation characteristics. ‘As already mentioned, Chapter 2 is a review of signal and system theory, analog ‘modulation, and random processes. In addition to providing definitions of basic signals And sesting notation, a very simple simulation of noise through a linear system (Butter- ‘worth digital filter) is illustrated by an example. This ets the context for simulation of a ‘simple digital communication system illustrated by example in Chaptet 3. The student is then encouraged todo his or her own simulations in several problems of Chapter 3 ‘In Chapter 3, the subject of digital data transmission is introduced. The receiver, ‘structure assumed is that of a linear filter followed by a threshold detector. Optimization ‘of the receiver filter through maximization of peak signal-to-root-mean-square noise ratio at its output leads to the concept of the classic matched filter receiver. The data transmis sion schemes considered are binary. Although the channel is initially considered to be of infinite bandwidth, optimum systems forthe strictly bandlimited case are eventually con- sidered. Equalization methods for compensating for intersymbol interference introduced by bandlimiting in the channel are next considered. The chapter ends with a brief consid- ration of signal design for bandlimited channels and noise effect in pulse-code modula- tion systems, "The purpose of Chapter 4is to provide @ sound theoretical basis forthe digital mod- ulation systems introduced in Chapter 3, as wel as to extend the results in several direc- tions. The approach used is that of Bayes's detection couched in the language of signal space. The background noise is assumed to be additive and white, which allows the use of any orthogonal basis function set that spans the signal space, giving a very clear geomet- ric picture ofthe digital signal reception process, As an extension of Chapter 3, Chapter 4 considers M-ary digital data transmission and the explicit treatment of modulation ‘schemes suitable for practical channels, The concepts of equivalent bit err probability ‘and bandwidth efficieney in terms of bits per second per hertz of bandwidth are intro- ‘duced in order to provide a basis of comparison of M-ary systems. The chapter ends with severdl example design problems and a basic introduetion to orthogonal frequency divi- sion multiplexing. Building onthe ideal systems covered in Chapter 4, Chapter 5 takes up several top jes that can be considered degradation sources for those ideal systems. Synchronization ‘methods at various levels (Le, carrer, bt, and fain) are discussed, and the degradation imposed by imperfect carrier synchronization is characterized. Fading channel effects are Preface x charcerzed and diversity tansision for combating thm is disused. The chapter nds by dsasing envelope plots, ye gran, an phasor lot as emt characte inecommuncnton system perfomance and ter entation by compat imaaon = lustrated, = a — " Chaps 6 tough 8 take up the sj of coding, withthe element of infoma- ton tery and lok ding costeed in Chap 6 andthe element of conltonl coding considered in Chae 7, Theoretical oundatons ae provided, ut he major ex- Seryngobjeive of Chapter 6 and is ays ene of tem spplctins. al coding tectniges considered in Chapter 6 and 7 ae characterized nts of tee ability fo Tower the signto-noie rao required to achieve a dsred probably of i enor (power etieny) andthe bis per second ta canbe sopprd pr bet of bandwidth (nd ‘ith eftiony). Chaplr 8 provides sti teste of enter sor contol seme called automat repeat request (AR), which uaz fedbock chanel, Cape 9 conn an overview of sreat-spctnm communion. The import cone of muler detection i considered where, hen signals frm mille ses ae being recived thedteston proces takes io acon th ais harass and the improvement of detector performance over wht could be oie if teeter set, Sigal were ea a oie Chapter 10 dels wih cellar aio communications, The cellular concep isinto- duced along wit the major deraations experienced in sich syste ingdng te ser erfece and multipath fag, Fs an secnd-gneraon cellar syste dicated and provide an excell example ofa ease whee the move hus been made from analog og atsmiton for ever reasons Cape 1 teas satelite communications a wa example where dial communica on cones ad appiions ave ome in extensive we ovr he yer The cosets te state with several dxgn examples, Chara of several wert ert tall communicion systems for mobi ne communion we sna "The fist don ofthis bok hasbeen wed succesfully to each courses on digital ommniicatons to aris undergradaate and fistyeargadute tents or ever Years, Typical, aller the inteducton rovidd in Chapt Is covered, basic gia Idulton they and eoding (Chap 7) re covered ater pending sre tine on Sana, jem, nd adon ross svi. Te vse of compute simalaon emp Sized fom te sar, with he sigaent at bout mi-semest of Comput Sinl Projet to be worked on thoughout te semester. Weetly problem ses ae asigned and faded, An nas cloned-book midterm examination i given to encourage student (0 Become itm faiiar wih base random procts, modulation and digtaldtection principe usally, his oor a th end of Chapter 3). Depending on th scope of the Comper prj ad the intaive shown bythe as,» examin ay o¢ my notte given We ws oan the many persons who have conte either ety orn set to this book These ine oor clleagies a varios loatons tought the word, We special thank David Kiss of SAI forbs crf review nd constnctive {rim of Chapter 6 trough 8, Nek Alexandr forbs conection of even examples inthe fist eon, Jen Brand of Haris Corporation an ohn Hang of Motrl for titPreface reading and constructive criticism of Chapter 1p. The Office of Naval Research is ac- knowledge as indirectly supporting the writing of this book through research grants to Rodger Zicmer, as well as the National Science Foundation, which provided research and development tie while he was a program officer there during the production of the sec- ond edition. We also thank the reviewers of the book for their helpful comments and sug gestions, a majority of which have been incorporated. In particular, we acknowlédge the input of Professor Vijay K. Jain, University of South Florida; Professor Peter Mathys, University of Colorado at Boulder; Professor Laurence B. Milstein, University of Califor- nia at San Diego; Professor Peyton Z. Peebles, J, University of Florida; and Professor William Tranter, Virginia Tech forthe first edition, And we would also like o acknowl- ‘edge the input of Mohammad Maqusi, Texas Tech University, and Richard J. Kozick, Bucknell University for this second edition, "Any crrors or shortcomings that remain are the responsibility of the authors ‘Most importantly, we thank oue wives, Sandy Ziemer and Ann Clatk, for their pa- tionce during the writing of both the first and second editions of the book, and the second author thanks his daughter Diane Peterson for love and support during this project. The first author wishes to specifically mention his children, Amy Ziemer-Nilson and Mark ‘iemer, wino apparently paid more attention to his writing activities than he thought— ‘both are now published authors themselves! Rodger Ziemer Roger Peterson January 17,2000 aa 1 Introduction to Digital Data Transmission INTRODUCTION ‘This book is concerned with the transmission of information by electrical means using digital communication techniques. Information may be transmitted from one point o an ‘other using either digital or analog communication systems. In a digital communication system, the information is processed so that it can be represented by a sequence of dis- crete messages as shown in Figure 1-1. The digital source in Figure 1-1 may be the result cof sampling and quantizing an analog source such as speech, or it may represent a natu rally digital source such as an electronic mal file. In ether case, exch message is one of a finite set containing q messages. If q = 2, the source is referred to as a binary source, and the two possible digit values are called bits, contraction for binary digits. Note also that source outputs, whether diserete or analog, are inherently random. If they were no, there ‘would be no need for a communication system, For example, expanding on the case where the digital information results from an analog source, consider a sensor whose output voltage at any given time instant may as- sume a continuum of Values. This waveform may be processed by sampling at appropri- ately spaced time instants, quantizing these samples, and converting each quantized sample to a binary number (.e., an analog-to-digital converter). Each sample value is therefore represented by a sequence of 1s and Os, and the communication system associ- ates the message 1 with @ transmitted signal s,(?) and the message O with a transmitted signal (2) During each signaling interval either the message 0 or | is transmitted with no other possibilities. In practice, the transmitted signals s(0) and s,1) may be conveyed by the following means (other representations are possible): 1, By two different amplitudes ofa sinusoidal signal, say, Ay and A, 2. By two different phases ofa sinusoidal signal, say, /2 and ~n/2 radians 1. By two diferent frequencies of a sinusoidal signal, say, fy and f, her In an analog communication system, on the other hand, the senor output would be used directly to modify some characteristic of the transmitted signal, such as amplitude, ‘hase, or frequency, withthe chosen parameter varying over a continuum of values,4/introduction to Digital Data Transmission Disa hanael soar Teaser (Gertion Reciver Digi sin 1a soe cng. Inerirenes) ™ 10 0 my essages FIGURE 4-1 Simplifed block eiagram fora digital communication system, Interestingly, digital transmission of information actually preceded that of analog transmission, having been used for signaling foe military purposes since antiquity through the use of signal fires, semaphores, and reflected sunlight, The invention ofthe telegraph, 1 device for digital data transmission, preceded the invention ofthe telephone, an analog ‘communications instrament, by more than thirty-five year.! Following the invention of the telephone, it appeared that analog transmission ‘would becom the dominant form of electrical communications. Indeed, this was true for almost a century until today, when digital transmission is replacing even traditionally ana~ log transmission areas. Several reasons may be given for the move toward digital commu nications: 1, In the late 1940s it was recognized that regenerative repeaters could be used 10 reconstruct the digital signal essentially error ree at appropriately spaced inte vals. That is, the effects of noise and channel-induced distortions ina digital ‘communications link ean be almost completely removed, whereas a repeater in an analog system (i. an amplifier regenerates the noise and distortion together with the signal ‘A second advantage of digital representation of information isthe flexibility in- hhereat in the processing of digital signals.’ That is, a digital signal can be ‘processed independently of whether it represents a discrete data source or a ‘igitized analog source. This means that an essentially unlimited range of signal conditioning and processing options is available to the designer, Depending ‘on the origination and intended destination of the information being conveyed, these might include source coding, compression, encryption, pulse shaping for spectra contto, forward error correction (FEC) coding, special modulation "he teegraph was invented by Sarl FB. Mas a he United Stes nd by Sir Chases Whetstone in Gre ‘Briann 1897, and he fit pbc elgrm was sent in 1848, Aletander Graham Bell inveted the teepione 186, *Soe [inthe reference at heen of he ape °An exelent overview of eninalogy, Mes, nd mathemati dexrpson fda communication iso ie ina are byRistenbt 2), pyad aa Introdvetion| 3 to spread the signal spectrum, and equalization to compensate for channel dis- tortion, These terms and others will be defined and discussed throughout the book: 13. The third major reason for the increasing popularity of digital data transmission is that i can be used to exploit the cost effectiveness of digital integrated cir- ‘cuits, Special-purpose digital signal-processing functions have been realized as large-scale integrated circuits for several years, and more and more modem functions are being implemented in ever smaller packages (e.g, the modem card in a laptop computer). The development of the micgstomputer and of special- ‘purpose programmable digital signal processors meff that data transmission sys- tems can now be implemented as software." This is advantageous in that a particular design is not “frozen” as hardware but can be altered or replaced with the advent of improved designs or changed requirements. 4. A fourth reason that digital transmission of information isthe format of choice in ‘majority of applications nowadays is that information represented digitally can be treated the same regardles of is origin, as already pointed out, but more im- portantly easily intermixed in the process of transmission, An example isthe In- temet, which initially was used to convey packets or files of information oF relatively short text messages. As its popularity exploded in the early 1990s and. as transmission speeds dramatically increased, it was discovered that it could be used (0 convey traditionally analog forms of information, such as audio and video, along with the more traditional forms of packerized information In the remainder of this chapter, some of the systems aspects of digital comma nications are discussed. The simplified block diagram of a digital communications system shown in Figure 1-1 indicates tht any communications system consists of a transmitter, a channel or transmission medium, and a receiver ‘To illustrate the effect ofthe channel on the transmitted signal, we return to the bi- nary source case considered calir. The two possible messages can be represented by the set (0, 1} where the 0s and Is are called bits (For binary digit) as mentioned previously. If 10 ora I is emited from the source every T seconds, a 1 might be represented by a volt- age pulse of A volts T seconds in duration and a 0 by a vollage pulse of ~A volts Tsec- ‘onds in duration. The transmitted waveform appears as shown in Figure 12a. Assume that noise is added to this waveform by the channel that results in the waveform of Figure 1-2b. The receiver consists ofa filter to remove some of the noise followed by a sampler. ‘The filtered output is shown in Figure I~2c and the samples are shown in Figure 12d. If ‘a sample is greater than O, i is decided that A was sent iit is less than Othe decision is “A contraction of modultdemodultor. Se J. Seveshuns, . Vesuatn and Tabor, “Tea in ie coe Ra Large Sele Integration” IEEE Comm. Map, Vol 36 pp 142-147, a. 200 for poze IC ‘eallanton of ado functions, °See the IEEE Communicarons Magazine pial ise on software aos (3), "Tis block gr soggess single communicatons system tis ofen the case tat communication s5- em re mansto-one, one-man cman oman ners fansite sore) and eee ks).4/introducton to Digital Data Transmission 4.2. Components ofa Digal Communications System 5 4.2 COMPONENTS OF A DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM : ‘The mschniztion and prfomnecosension for dig communications systens aot PL Lu M F Wil now te deed in mre del Figure 1-3 chor aye lok gran fats thot ed tan ttf ie I. The futons of al he ls of Figur 1-3 re Ssonsed inti seston, £ 1.2.1 General Considerations In most communication system designs, a general objective is to use the resources of bandwidth and transmitted power as efficiently as possible. In many applications, one of these resources is scarcer than the other, which results in the classification of most chan- nels as either bandwidth limited or power limited, Thus we are interested in both a trans- mission scheme’s bandwidth efficiency, defined as the ratio of data rate to signal bandwidth, and its power efficiency, characterized by the probability of making a recep- tion error asa function of signal-to-noise ratio. We give a preliminary discussion of this ppower-bandwidh efficiency trade-off in Section 1.2.3 Often, secondary restrictions may >be imposed in choosing a transmission method, for example, the waveform atthe output (of the data modulator may be required to have certain properties in order to accommodate ‘nonlinear amplifiers such asa traveling-wave tube amplifier (TWTA). 5 10 is Ey 35 0 £ 12.2 Subsystems in a Typical Communication System | ‘We now briefly consider each set of blocks in Figure 1-3, one atthe transmitting end and its partner atthe receiving end. Consider first the source and sink blocks. As previously discussed, the discret information source can be the result of desiring to transmit a natu- FIQURE 1-2 Typical waveforms in a simple digital communication system that Crean] _f mee! ne ' uses @fiter/sampler/thresholder for a detector: (a) undistorted dial signet; (6) cn EE HE come ef itt Hy ' noise plus signa; () fiteed noisy signal (6) harcimited samples of fitered noisy H H : Signal—decision ~ 1. if sample > O and ~1 F sample <0. Note the errors resulting 4 ome | | ‘rom the fairy high noise love. _ “ae | | that aA was sent. Because of the noise added in the channel, errors may be made in this =e ' decision process. Several are evident in Figure 1-2 upon comparing the top waveform t = : ‘with the samples in the bottom plot. The synchronization required to sample atthe proper i t i instant is no small problem, but will be considered to be carried out ideally in this meme] [se Le [op bef comme Lal [oJ ee taeew | example. a as mone YS a cy i Inthe next section, we consider a more detailed block diagram than Figure 1-1 and ‘explain the different operations that may be encountered in a digital communications system. FIQURE 1-3. Block diagram ofa typical cigtal communication system,4/introduction to Dial Data Transmission rally discrete alphabet of characters or the desi to transmit the output of an analog ‘Source digitally. If the latter is the case, the analog source, assumed lowpass of bandwidth 1W hertz in this discussion, is sampled and each sample quantized. In order to recover the signal from its samples, according to the sampling theorem (Chapter 2, the sampling rate {frm obey the Nyquist criterion, which is” {f= 2W samples/second an, Furthermore, if each sample is quantized into ¢ levels, then log, ¢ bts are required to rep resent each sample value and the minimum source rate in this ease is Ry = (Fain 082 4 = 2W logs q bits/second a2) Consider next the source encoder and decoder blocks in Figure 1-3. Most sources possess redundancy, manifested by dependencies between successive symbols or by the probabilities of occurrence ofthese symbols not being equa, in thir output. It is there- Tore possible to representa string of symbols, each one being selected from an alphabet of {q symbols, from the output of a redundant source by fewer than logy @ bits per symbol on the average. Means for doing so will be discussed in Chapter 6. Thus the function ofthe source encoder end decoder blocks in Figure 1-3 is to remove redundancy before trans- ‘mission and decode the reduced-redundancy symbols at the receiver, respectively It is often desirable to make the transmissions secure from unwanted interceptors. “This is the function of the encryptor and decryptor blocks shown in Figure 1-3. This is true not only in military applications, but many civilian applications as well (consider the Lundesirabilty, for example, of a competitor learning the details of a competing bid for & ‘construction project that is being seat to a potential customer by means of a public caries transmission system). Although mauch ofthe literature on this subject is classified, [5] pro- vides an excellent overview. Tin many communications systems, it might not be possible to achieve the evel of transmission reliability desired with the transmitter and receiver parameters available (ea, power, bandwidth, receiver seasitvity, and modulation technique). A way to im- prove performance in many eases isto encode the transmitted data sequence by adding re- ‘dundant symbols and using this redundaney to detect and correct errors atthe recciver ‘ouput. This is the function of the channel encoder/decoder blocks shown in Figure 1-3. It may seem strange that redundancy is now added after removing redundancy with the source encoder. This is reasonable, however, since the channel encoder adds controlled redundancy, which the channel decoder makes use of to correct errors, whereas the tedun~ ‘aney removed by the source encoder is uncontrolled and is difficult to make use of in to emphasis tt communication theory sande onthe shoals of many plone ist ferences ae “Goa sche om time oie] ete one peraing wo Nyguis’s evelopat of sampling theory. ‘Modulation and demcklaton dente the imposing of the informaon-earing signal on acai tthe tans iar an ecover ofthe oeve,rexpciey, Tere ae several reasons for modaln, among Wich {Evaro ation by anonfena the poston of pee band of reuenies ta given ue by ares: {ay Buy, he sang of common fequesy source by tua, nd combating perurbtons imposed byte channel, 4.2 Components ofa Digtal Communications System 7 enor consi. thers dificult ue it in improving the feel oss tans mission reliability.® Proving te level fy Te dts male odie cminonstie wavefom uber tanmson trogh i nel, wilted mode's ncn next edn he tessived sil now possly dred an uy The bs rail datdtetion fom stoned yrs ga wasted bye dncuson pena emer hg 1-2. Scene of te nan fant a snk hare he pets fat a oitn shmop hae Se The nx set of oss te sweadpecrum mods and dened sgzess sn ston eve of melon beyond te dat malo, Spend peur el fons avs enplned, ut re ate inprant aon fring ins acs ‘ich wl wegen shy. In sendspstam commotion sytem deg, Sani. ‘ith ciency ent of etny come an expo fis sates shen peat ‘pera sung wes tpn cst ele as othe sane sect ae to: nis ee Serge mans osctommodn x anys ay sb) The es ‘prea secon stony ndlaon shone ta rode eee fre ane mits mich we han and ineenden of te nd of inert Be nied Thre sr many schemes forint nd ome ofthe ed in Chapter 9. Why would such a scheme be employed? Among the reasons for doing so 1. To provide some degree of resistance to interfe dj trference and jamming (ie, inten- ‘ional disruption of communications by an enemy) [refered to as jam resistance (uR) 2. To provide a means for masking the transmitted signal in background noise in order to lower the probability of intercept by an adversary (referred to as low probability of intercept (LPI) Its important to point out that JR and LPI are ‘not achieved simultaneously, for the former implies that one uses the maximum ‘wansmitted power available, whereas the latter implies that the power level is Just sufficient o carry out the communication. To provide resistance to signal interference from multiple transmission paths [commonly referred to as multipath. ms 4. To permit the access of a common communication channel by more than one user [refered to as multiple access) §. To provide a means for measuring range or distance between two points. "Bath ows nd chanel ect te np nd compte je as wi cn ire te ae wit cmt ch ‘eng ne inbch Wester coe! eign Chaps nd Stes ets peat gear © Sen dng dvs tt ea tll dren ol ome Rts) en ‘provide comprebensive treatments ofthe subject. ™ ‘ves "woes ose arena oe cme () rane main cya ste ‘pe pone ye pro) cs nd or commas ne pe ed ‘eneripting the message before transmission, ° ee "41/introduction to Digtal Data Transmission Final operations such a8 power amplification and fileing to retict the spect ‘of the tanomited signal, are performed before transmission in many comsmunicalons SFatens, Likewise, tere are several preliminary operations pesformed in any TeeNes aire plication, mixing, and filing. The power amplification and receiver font= tind blocks shown in Figure 1-3 incorporate these functions. vote channel ean be of many different types. Possibilities include twisted wire pars waves ree space, optical fiber, and soon. Further discussion of some ofthese will be given shorty 1.2.3 Capacity of a Communications Link itis useful at this point to explore briefly the concept of the capacity of a digital comes en link, Suppose that the communications system designer is asked to design a eh ae uncaton link that ansmits no more than P wats and such thatthe majriy veered power is contained in a bandwidth W. Assume thatthe only eect of aes ald thermal nose (see Appendix B for a short discussion about chermal sin) tothe ransmited signal and thatthe bandwidth ofthis noise i wery wide lave roi signal bandwidth, W. The statistics of this noise are assumed Gaussian the channel seed the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel, Given these constrains, 48 Se tvsts amaximusn rate at which information can be transmitted over the Hak wit THearily high reliability, This rate is called the error-free capacity of « communication ayaa The pioneering wotk of Claude Shannon (8 inthe late 1940 proves the Signe eSthemes exist such hat erore transmission can be achieved at any rate lower han ‘apecity, Shannon showed thatthe normalized error-free capacity s given PY c P ER C1 gig) mn (i BE)aw ee = chanel cgay itl W = transmission bandwidth, her P= F,R=signal power, watts [Ny = single-sided noise power spectral density, wattfhert E, = energy per bit of the received signal, joules R= data rate in bites (aot to be confused with the code rate to be defined in Chapter 6) [Mote willbe said later about these parameters. For now, an intuitive understanding will cae cent For example, the capacity, C, isthe maxizmum rate at which information ean re tut tough the channel with arbitrarily high elisbilty if the source is say oe rhod to the change Ts fll significance requires definition of information content of sreeecage and how the source is o be matched to the channel, both ofthese topics ae a aoeeest is Chapter 6,'The rate of information transfer may be conveniently expressed ip tit por second (bits), which is che number of binary symbols tht most be eansmited 1.2. Components of a Dial Communications System a er second to ereset tl dat sequence o to repre Benfield inher ee wenn cmon ans on wih ai sie aie man te = Ch Ts tig R= Cone ond ae oye c Ac © = top, [1 + 2 (£ woe e(@)] oo Solving for E/N, we obtain an explicit relat mn between E/N and CAV = RW: By 2"-1 NW oo ‘The graph ofthis equation is shown in Figure 18 woe ae ouare tart tn eree so 4s 3s as EN cB 8 ask w ww wo? io te kaw 10 1 FIGURE1-4 Powerbandwidth radeot for Bandwicthimited chants Mt for eror‘tee transmission trough nosy,4,/inodueton to Digital Data Transmission metimes refered to as Shannon's second theorem, does not pro- odes that will achieve exror-free transmission, But sae setts yarstick by whic the perfomance of practical communication then se nse. At pos bow and to th ight ofthe cave sown ip Maur ra coving or complexity will achieve totaly reliable tansmission: Af pot ao of is te et ofthe curve eor-fee transmission is possible, although Pera ae ou ice terms of Bandwidth, complet. or ransmision delay Nove Gt oe ge poate a al points in the plane of Figure I=, but some eros ae ne avoidable at rates above capacity. rot canbe separated ito a bandvidihtinited region, where RW > © 818 powered region, where RW <1. Tha i the amber of ise SA) ‘han re uc efit ine of wliing bandwith If the mamber of Ws a we sceme is efficent i terms of power alization. For powes Knit f= aa cewtng behavior is noted: As RAW ~> OG. finite bnawid) eH sal to-oie ato EN approaces Ix) a about —L.64B." Av any Ti ets ing Sar i bik of making a wansmision errors posible atthe expen of ae bandwidth. Even more important o note, however is that hiss ine rate-to-bandvwidth ratio, & signal-to-noise ratio ao a oi ghck errorfee transmission i posible and below which its no, CONE coe ectial communication schemes are compared wih this deal by choosing Sr crete pebabity of err, sty, 10°, and finding the signal-to-noise ratio necessary ae signal-to-noise ratios then pled versus RAW fre system, where Ws aoa ing fo aome suitable definition of bandwidth. Example I-1 illasas the ‘concepts just presented. channel. Tis result, sr ‘ide a constructive means for finding infinite trans ply one point oa the graphs for any giv EXAMPLE 1-4 ‘A certain binary digital communications system ca han By, of 106 dB (power efficiency), sate 1/2 bitefe (bandwith eicieny) (a) suing at Py = 1 canbe viewed a erie sate he operating i of is fystem on the plot of Figure 4, achieve an eror probability of bandwidth ratio is approximately R/W (b) nor carection coding + now imposed 0 te system of art. Far te Si er cra two encoded bits ar sen for cach source it The coding stheme reduers mined Ey o achieve P= 10 by 36 over the uncoded sytem, Loss ihe ‘perating point forthe coded scheme on Figure 1-4 gon in the bandwid-imited or powertimited rege? (©) Is transmission opera “Solution: (a) Te pin E/N = 1066 4B and R/W= P-bit is shown athe i9 FE ure 1-4 to the bse 10 oF poe to, AL ope discussed in Sesion 141, 8 dese! (BB) 10 times the Tat mally euvleat aio of TESSPenc i ea curgy to power pene of anew is dimen poves. 1.3. Communications Channel Modeling Fry (©) Foc this pa we may sant 3.6 ve may sac 3.6 JB fo he vale of sd in 7a, De fe ov coded a oe ene k \4 bits/s/Hz (the rate at which information bits are sent through ant cept constant). This point is shown as the ® in Figure 1-4, “ “s (©) Both schemes operate inthe power-Limited region. Note that plenty of room islet for improvement in ether case 113 COMMUNICATIONS CHANNEL MODELING 13.4 Introduction The channels defined as The chanel define a singe pth for ransmiting signals ciherin one eto on} arin nth esos If single deo ony, cel cae a pe if tan, ladon in neously in both directions it is refered to as fal The py say wish te tannin te nl ae eo ero netic energy or acoustical energy, for example. If ele use of electromag ‘sion coul further cate; : electromagnetic, the ismis- so cn ri arg ng lac wa aly canals fame tes 03> 10" Hs) or inthe inared, vibe, o ull eins Fu thamor te op of opgntn cn egies pe. Tae ot ges ing o vaamagnetic pcm ans along vith pice appiaons * estes, itis efi to say an at pis 1 al mos of raison Imleed ede arena oye deine, lege dere, the peaon a he asm gl eer fnces in passing through the channel {hat the transmited signal experi- 4.3.2 Specific Examples of Communication Channels sing 22 mein Can 2) Poe eae hl a canes issing communication systems is what wi ref he oe in pin cess ues ey it frequency. A tow isc sie miof erne She el Seman ssaom cme tel ah hen Sneed ty te nem, sch av amore noe. a er, om Taig scars, over line corona, and commutator noise TIO), AU higher ftequences, ein he in lcs nd pie he ann he mwceation -subsyst noise is often accompanied by galactic noise frc solar system ines a, in wil ae vcuines of comnaicten ae toh eae oft cognates fe de particularly a fe wh rn ay ana penn se ve wa ne il yo sper 0h as they have ee nexitence, Tie ately se epitonaate trentoned hee, vous one is perhaps that of cedar mobile vad, or its move inclusive andTABLE 1-1 Frequency Bands and Communications Applications 1 ‘ana Frequency Wavelength Designation Typical Applications 3308 110m ELF ‘Survvable commoicaons (itary) 30-300 10-108 SLE Survvubl communications (military) 300-3000 10-10km ULF ‘Servvabl communications (military) 330k = 10-100km_— VLE Senvable communications (military) Sonar (couse) ‘Omega navigation (10-14 kz) LF ‘Loan C navigation (100) Amateur ratio 300-3000KHe O.-1km MF ‘Commercial AM rai (04~ 1.6 ME) 330M 10-100m HE ‘Commercial commonicatons ‘Over te horizon radar Gtizns baad sao Amateur radio 30-300Mie 10m VE Citizens band radio “Television (54-88 Mile, Ch 2-6; 4-216 MH, Ch 7-13) Commeril FM (8-108 ME) [Nevigaional aids: VORMLS Miltary ado: SINCGARS; HAVE QUICK Phase-aray rads ‘Around communications 2300-30002 Oem UBF ‘A round communications ‘Televison (420-890 MHz, Ch. 14-83) Navigational ais Colao “Tactical air surveillance and contol Global poitoning systems IFFTACANITIDS Common eer microwave 330GH: lem SHF Common ener microwave Radio navigation Seti elevision Precision approach radar ‘Advanced Communication Techology Seite ‘Abore fre contra and navigation radar Milineter wave sekersensor [Navy auto care landing ‘Astley location radar ‘Saape satelite communications 30-300 ke 30-300 GH 300 G3 TH 01-1 mm ‘Bxprimental Tam MidIR—Farlaared at upper end 3.07 um New IR Laser commuications 07-04 jm Visible ight Laser communications 040.1 nm_—_Unravioet ‘per Uta, V= very: = low M= motion: = igh am= acon = 10 mets, OM ga 2104 G = pgh = 1P;T were 0 oy Bo extemal kei Communications Channel Modeling 13 ‘more recent cousin, personal communications systems. Such systems are the topic of (Chapter 10. A by now familiar type of propagation channel is the satellite communications ‘channel. Satellite communications is the subject of Chapter 11. In the mid-1970s, it was ‘thought that all ofthe exciting applications of communication satellites had been thought of and, hence, further research on satelite communications was unnecessary. This was thought to be even more the ease once optical fibers had been extensively Iaid under the ‘oceans, since the major commercial application of satellite communication systems up to that time had been for long-haul communications. With the installation ofthe very wide- band and low-cost (relative to satellite systems) optical fibers, therefore, it was argued that the need for long-haul satelite communications was essentially dead, except for a few remote andior low population regions of the earth. However, withthe advent of cellu- lar mobile radio systems, it was thought by many research groups thatthe next logical de- velopment in the quest for communications anywhere, anytime should be satellite mobile personal communications systems. Several industrial concems are actively developing ‘hese systems, which involve constellations of several satellites (a few tens to hundreds) in ow- or medium-earth orbits capable of relaying conversations (and later pethaps video and data) between two arbitrary points on the earth's surface using hand-held devices (ie. telephones, computers, personal digital asistans or PDAS, etc). The exact means for accomplishing this vary widely depending on the system being developed. For exan- ple, some depend on the use ofthe terrestrial telephone system and some do not Yet another relatively recent developinent in satellite communications is that of very small aperture earth terminals. These are characterized by the small dishes mounted on the sides of dwellings for television delivery. The advantages of this development for television access are economy (after the initial investment), much greater programming varity, and not having to put up with unsightly large dishes as inthe past. Also appearing. ‘onsthe horizon are satellite systems for providing Internet connections for hard-to-access locations. 1.3.2.2 Land Line (11, 12]. Following the propagation channel the most ob communication medium, perhaps, is land line. The most geographically perv example of this isthe telephone system. A few years ago, we could have referred to it as wire line, but more and more of the telephone plant is being replaced by optical fibers, hich have tremendously more bandwidth than the original wire-line form of this system. While the original form of the telephone system used analog transmission, the move now is to digital transmission for reasons already cited. ‘The insallaion of more fiber ‘communication paths means that a broader range of services is available, with perhaps the most obvious of these being the Intemet. While fiber was not a requisite for evelopment of the Intemet, itis definitely more supportive of its wide geographical ispersion and the range of media becoming available over i Another example ofa land line system, not quite so geographically pervasive asthe telephone system, is cable television. The coaxial cable has wider bandwidth than the wireline twisted pair telephone system. The cable was originally intended as a single di- ‘ection (simplex) connection although future developments may make much of the plant