Chemistry Brady

Chapter 1:Fundamental Concepts
and Units of Measurement
Brady & Senese 5th Ed
Index
1.1. Chemistry is important for anyone studying the sciences
1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature
1.3 Matter is composed of elements, compounds, and mixture
s
1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways
1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties
1.6. Measurements always contain some uncertainty
1.7. Units can be converted using the factor-label method
1.8. Density is a useful intensive property
Chemistry and the Sciences

Chemistry- the study of the composition of matter
and its transformations
Matter- anything that takes up space and has mass
Chemical reaction- change that results from the
interaction of matter.
1.1. Chemistry is important for anyone studying the sciences
Scientific Method : Getting Started

Observe a Phenomenon-accurately
describe something we see, taste, feel,
smell or hear
Pose A Question
To Explain The Phenomenon
Form a Hypothesis-a
tentative explanation of
the phenomenon
Scientific Method: Testing the Hypothesis

Experiment to Prove or Disprove
Hypothesis
If experiment proves
hypothesis,
form theory (theoretical model)
If experiment disproves
hypothesis,
Pose new question or
hypothesis
Continue experimentation.
If results form pattern,
considered a law
Scientific Method Case Study:

The Process of Growth
A child sees that a seed, when planted in soil,
watered, and exposed to sunlight, grows to form a
flower. He concludes that all living things require
sunlight, water, and burial in soil to grow.
Build a case for rebuttal using the scientific
method.
Your Turn!
Which of the following is not a hypothesis
for the observed plant growth?
A.
B.
C.
D.
soil is necessary to all growth

light is essential to growth of the seed
water is required to allow growth
plants grow to a greater height if they
receive fertilizer
E. none of the above
Your Turn!
A chicken egg is buried, left in the sun, and watered.
A second egg is left above the soil, watered and
left in the sun. Would this prove that soil is
necessary to growth?
A. Yes
B. No
The Scientific Method- Evaluating The Data

A theory is an explanation (based on well-tested,
internally consistent experimental results)
about why the phenomenon may occur
it should explain currently available data

It should be as simple as possible
It should clearly show underlying connections
It should accurately predict future behaviors
The Scientific Method is Cyclical
10
Atomic Theory Helps Us Visualize Matter

Air inflates a balloon
air must be composed of matter
the matter is colliding with the walls
of the container.
A leaf floats on waters surface

water is composed of particles that
occupy space
A leaf falls through air, but rests on

waters surface
particles are closer in liquid than in
gases
11
Models Helps Us Visualize Matter
12
Changes in Matter
Chemical change- a process that results in the
formation of a new substance
Evidence? Formation of a new solid, new liquid,
new gas, temperature change, or an unexpected
color change
Physical change- a process that results in no new
substance, but that may change the state of those
present, or the proportions
1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
13
Learning Check: Chemical Or Physical Change?
Chemical
Physical
Magnesium burns when heated

in a flame
Magnesium metal tarnishes in
air
Magnesium metal melts at
922K
Grape Kool-aid lightens when
water is added
14
Your Turn!
Which of the following is not a chemical change?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
a match burns in air

ice melts in air
an aluminum door whitens in air
all of these
none of these
15
Matter Can Be Classified By Its Properties:

Matter is either a pure substance or a mixture
Mixtures may be separated using physical methods
such as chromatography, filtration, sieving
16
What Is An Element?
Elements - substances that cannot be
decomposed into simpler substances
shown on the periodic table as symbols: K for
potassium and Na for sodium
made of identical atoms, either singly or in
groups
17
Weird Science
Eleven symbols bear no resemblance to their English
names - their names are derived from other languages
Some of these are used in naming, and these are
highlighted
Sb
antimony
stibium
potassium
Cu
copper
cuprum
Sn tin
stannum
Au
Gold
aurum
Na sodium
natrium
Ag
silver
argentum
wolfram
Fe
iron
ferrum
Hg mercury
Pb
lead
plumbum
tungsten
kalium
hydragyrum
18
What Is A Compound?
Compounds - formed from two or more atoms of
different elements combined in a fixed
proportion
Have different characteristics than the elements
that compose them
Can be broken down into elements by some
chemical changes
19
Mixtures
mixtures consist of varying
amounts of two or more
elements or compounds
Homogeneous mixtures or
solutions- have the same
properties throughout the
sample
Brass, tap water
Heterogeneous mixturesconsist of two or more phases

Salad dressing, Coca-Cola
20
Learning Check: Classification

Sand
Ice
(H2O)
Flour
Table Salt
(NaCl)
Pure
Element
Compound
Molecule
Heterogeneous Mix
Homogeneous Mix
21
Your Turn!
brass is pure
natural peanut butter made only by
crushing peanuts is pure
True
False
True
False
because blood cells can be distinguished

from plasma under a microscope, blood True
is a heterogeneous mixture:
False
22
Classification Of Matter By State

Classification by state is based on packing, motion,
and shape
Solids have fixed shape and volume
Liquids have fixed volume, but take the container shape
Gases have to expand to fill the shape and volume of
the container
23
Properties Of Matter
Chemical properties describe the behavior of the
matter that leads to the formation of a new
substance: the "reactivity" of the substance
Physical properties can be observed about the
matter alone, without changing the composition
24
Learning Check: Chemical or Physical

Property?
Chemical
Physical
Magnesium metal is grey

Magnesium metal tarnishes in air
Magnesium metal melts at 922K
Magnesium reacts violently with
hydrochloric acid
25
Your Turn!
Which of the following is a chemical property?
A. water is colorless
B. water reacts violently with solid Na metal
C. water dissolves table salt
D. all of these
E. none of these
26
Intensive And Extensive Properties

Intensive properties are independent of sample
size
Examples: color, texture and temperature
Extensive properties depend on sample size

Examples: volume and mass
Properties used to identify substances are always

intensive
Density, color, and texture are often helpful in
identification, but temperature is not
27
Measurements are Observations
Qualitative observations are non-numerical-- ask
what or how or why

Quantitative observations are numerical--ask
how much and are also called measurements
This course is general chemistry with quantitative
analysis
28
Your turn!
Which of the following is a quantitative
observation?
A. the height of the plant
B. the mass of water added
C. the temperature of the day
D. all of the above
E. none of the above
29
Measurements:
Always involve a comparison

Require units
Involve numbers that are inexact (estimated).
This
uncertainty is due to the limitations of the observer
and the instruments used
In science, all digits in a measurement up to and
including the first estimated digit are recorded
30
Measurements and units
In the U.S., we use the Imperial (USCS) System

The scientific community (and most of the world)
uses the metric system

Variations in the metric system exist, thus a
standard system is used: International System of
Units (SI)
SI units we will use now:
Length (m) Mass (kg) Time (s) Temperature (K)
31
Derived units
involve a combination of base units, including:
Measurement
Area
Volume
Velocity
Acceleration
Density
Formula
length width
length width height
distance/time
velocity/time
mass/volume
SI Units
m2
m3
m/s
m/s2
kg/m3
32
Decimal multipliers
Prefix (Symbol)
Giga ( G )
Mega- ( M )
kilo- ( k )
centi- ( c )
milli- ( m )
=
micro- ( )
nano- ( n )
pico ( p )
= Numerical Equivalent
=
109
=
106
=
103
=
10-2
10-3
=
10-6
=
10-9
=
10-12
33
Learning Check: Complete The Missing

Information
103 g
10-12 g
10-9 m
106 g
10-2 L
109 Hz
kg
pg
nm
Mg
cL
GHz
34
Your Turn!
Identify the correct conversion:
A. Gm=109 m
B. 109 Gm = m
C. Gm = 10-9 m
D. none are correct
35
You May Encounter Non-SI Metric Units:

measurement
name
symbol
Value
length
angstrom
10-10m
mass
amu
metric ton
u
t
1.6605410-27 kg
103 kg
time
minute
hour
min
h
60 s
3600 s
volume
liter
1000 cm3
36
Mass- Matter Content
USCS: oz (avdp.), lb, T

Metric: g
SI: kg
37
Length
USCS: in, ft, yd, mi

Metric: L, cm3
SI: m
38
Volume-bulk
measured directly, using
equipment for
volumetric measure
calculated using
dimensional (length)
information and
appropriate formulas.
1 cm3= 1mL
USCS: fl. oz., pt., qt.,
gal
Metric: L, cm3
SI: m3
39
Your Turn!
Which of the following is not a USCS unit?
A. ft.
B. m
C. gal.
D. T.
40
Your Turn!
Which of the following is not a volume unit?
A. mL
B. qt
C. in3
D. cm
41
Temperature
USCS: F
Metric: C
SI: K
42
Temperature Conversions
9 F
tF tC 32 F
5 C
1K
TK tC 273.15 C
1 C
43
Complete The Following:
13.5C=? F
27.50 F =? C
9 F
C 32 F
t
13
.
5
F 5 C
24.3 32 56.3 F
F
F
32
C
C
9 F
-34.5 F =?K
t 32 F
t
F
C
5 C
t 32 F 5 C
F
C
1
9 F
t 32 F 5 C
F

t
27.50 32 F 5 C
C
2
.
50
C
1
9
F
C
1
9 F
34.5 32 F 5 C
C
36
.
9

44
C
1
9 F
9
t
F 5
T t 273.15 236.2 K
C
K
44
Your Turn!
Which of the following is the lowest temperature?
A. 300. K
B. 16 C
C. 55 F
D. they are the same
45
Measurement Error
Because each measurement involves an estimate,

measurements always have error.
Record all measured numbers, including the first
estimated digit
These digits are called significant digits or
significant figures
Exact numbers have infinite significant digits
46
Significant Digits In A Measurement Are

Limited By Instrument Precision
Using the first thermometer, the

temperature is 21.3 C (3
significant digits)
Using the more precise (second)

thermometer, the temperature is
21.32 C (4 significant digits)
47
Errors Arise From A Number Of Sources

Including:
Errors-inherent error due to the equipment or

procedure
Changing volume due to thermal expansion or contraction

(temperature changes)
Improperly calibrated equipment
procedural design allows variable measurements
Mistakes-blunders that you know that you have made.

Do not use these data
Spillage
Incomplete procedures
Reading scales incorrectly
Using the measuring device incorrectly
48
Reducing Error:
Errors can often be detected by making repeated
measurements
Error can be reduced by calibrating equipment
The average or mean reduces data variations: it
helps find a central value
49
Accuracy vs. Precision
An accurate measurement is close to the true or
correct value, a hole-in-one

A precise measurement is close to the average of a
series of repeated measurements
When calibrated instruments are used properly, the
greater the number of significant figures, the greater
is the degree of precision for a given measurement
50
Rules For Significant Figures (Sig Figs)
Non-zero digits are significant

Zeros between significant digits are significant
Zeros to the right of non-zero digits in a number
that contains a decimal point are significant

(Trailing with a decimal point)
Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are never
counted as significant (Leading)
Zeros at the end of a number without a decimal
point are assumed not to be significant (Trailing
without a decimal place)
51
Learning Check: How Many Significant

Figures Are There In The Following?
2.33
500.0
1000
.0500
3
52
Your Turn!
How many sig. figs. are there in the number 010.010?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. none of these
53
Measurements Limit The Precision Of

Calculated Results
Rules for combining measurements depend on the
type of operation performed:
Multiplication and division
The number of sig. figs in the answer should not be
greater than the number of sig. figs in the factor with
the fewest sig. figs
3.14 2.751
0.64
13
(3 sig. figs.) (4 sig. figs.)

(2 sig. figs.)
(2 sig. figs.)
54
Your Turn!
How many sig. figs. result from the following:
12.33 x 0.00002?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
Only 1!
D. 5
E. none of these
55
Addition and Subtraction

The answer should have the same number of decimal places as
the quantity with the fewest number of decimal places (least
precise)
3.247
41.36
+125.2
169.8
3 decimal places
2 decimal places
1 decimal place
answer rounded to 1 decimal place
56
Your Turn!
How many sig. figs. result from the following:
10.33-0.0344?
A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. none of these
57
Exact Numbers
Numbers that come from definitions are exact and have
no uncertainty
They can be assumed to contain an infinite number of
significant figures
58
Your Turn!
How many sig. figs. result from the following?
(10.0 x 10.88) - 12.2
A. 2
2.2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
E. none of these
59
Unit Conversions
Suppose we wish to convert 25 miles to km.
Further, we know that there are .6215 miles in a

km.
We can assemble a ratio and solve this problem.
25 miles 0.6215 miles
? km
1km
easy enough because we have a direct conversion
between the units

Often, we must piece together multiple steps and this
approach is impractical
1.7 Units can be converted using the factor-label method
60
Definitions of One
Remember that 3 teaspoons (tsp) = 1 tablespoon
(Tbsp)
Using the logic that a number divided by its
equivalent = 1, then it follows that:
Clearly 3/1 is not 1, but the units make the
statement true.
Thus we could multiply any number by either of
these fractions (1) and the number has the same
value.
3tsp
1Tbsp
1Tbsp
1 and
3tsp
61
Learning Check
Write two fractions from the following conversion factors
4 qt = 1 gal
4 qt/ 1gal
1 gal/4 qt
8 fl oz / 1c and 1c/ 8 fl oz
8 fl oz=1 c
16 oz. = 1 lb
16 oz./1 lb and 1 lb/16 oz.
62
Using Conversion Fractions
Since we can multiply by 1 and the value remains
unchanged, we can multiply by these conversion fractions

to change the units of a measurement.
For example, 12 in = 1 ft so the conversion of 3.5 ft to in.
can be done using one of these two conversion fractions
12in
1ft
1 and
1
1ft
12in
3.5 ft 12in
1 ft 42in
1
63
Your Turn!
Given that 2.205 lb=1 kg, which of the following is an
appropriate conversion factor?
A.
1 lb
2.205 kg
B.
2.205 lb
1 kg
C.
D.
1 lb
1 kg
E.
None of
2.205 lb these
2.205 kg
64
USCS Unit Conversions

Mass
Volume
16 oz. (avdp.) = 1 lb. 3 tsp. = 1 Tbsp.

2000 lb. = 1 T.
16 Tbsp. = 1 c.
2 c. = 1 pt.
2 pt. = 1 qt.
4 qt. = 1 gal.
8 fl. oz. = 1 c.
Distance
12 in. = 1 ft.
3 ft. = 1 yd.
1760 yd. = 1 mi.
65
USCS And Metric Units Are Related Using Critical

Links
Length
Mass
Volume
USCS to Metric Metric to USCS

1 in. = 2.54 cm
1 m = 39.37 in
1 yd = 0.9144 m 1 km = 0.6215 mi
1 mi = 1.609 km
1 lb = 453.6 g
1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 oz = 28.35 g
1 gal = 3.785 L
1 L = 1.0567 qt
1 qt = 946.4 mL
1 oz (fluid) = 29.6 mL
It is also useful to know that 1 mL = 1 cm3=1 cc

66
Building Conversion Factors in Unit

Conversions
1. Write the number to be converted as a fraction
(with units)
2. Identify the target units
3. Are the starting units in the same system as the
target?
If not, you will need a critical link.
USCSUSCS Conversions: Write down the
conversion factors from smallest to largest .
metric metric conversions: Write down the
definitions of all prefixed units.
67
Learning Check:
Write all conversion factors needed to convert the
following:
12 in.=1 ft
3 ft =1 yd
33 in to yd
450 c to gal
56 y to s
25 mph to ft/s
2 c.=1 pt.
2 pt.=1 qt.
4 qt.=1 gal.
60 s=1 min
60 min=1 h
24 h=1 da
365.25 da=1 y
Distance: 3 ft=1 yd; 1760 yd=1 mi
Time: 60 s=1 min; 60 min=1 h
68
Learning Check:
Write all conversion factors needed to convert
the following:
mm=10-3 m
33 mm to km
450 cg to ng
56 s to Ms
km=103 m
cg=10-2 g
ng =10-9 g
s=10-6 s
Ms=109 s
mL=10-3 m
nL=10-9 L
25 mL to nL
69
Learning Check:
Write Down All Conversion Factors Needed To Convert
The Following:
3.03 g to T
0.545 ft to km
Crit. Link: 453.6 g=1 lb

USUS: 2000 lb = 1 T
CL: 2.54 cm=1 in
USUS: 12 in=1 ft
mm: cm=10-2 m; km=103 m
25 mphCL:
to 2.54
km/scm =1 in
Distance:
Time:
USUS 12 in = 1 ft; 3 ft= 1 yd; 1760 yd = 1 mi;
60 s=1 min
m m: cm = 10-2 m; km= 103 m
60 min= 1 h
70
Building Conversion factors (cont).

4. Use the form of the conversion factor that allows
the units to cancel--they must be on opposite

levels of the fraction to cancel.
5. Continue adding conversion factors until the
units match the target units.
2nd Check- are all units written on the page two
times? If so, you have enough info to start the
problem.
71
Learning Check:
Convert the following:
3.03 g to tons
0.545 ft. to km
5.22 y to s
25 mph to km/s
3.34(10-6) T
1.66(10-4) km
1.65(108) s
1.1(10-2) km/s
72
Your Turn!
Given that 2.205 lb = 1 kg, what is the mass of 23.3
lb expressed in kg?
A. 51.4 kg
B. 0.0946 kg
C. 10.6 kg
D. none of these
73
Your Turn!
Given that 2.54 cm = 1 in, how many km are there in
25 ft?
A. 7.6 km
B. 0.10 km
C. 762 km
D. none of these
7.6(10-3) km!
74
Density (d)
intensive property defined as the ratio of an
objects mass (m) to volume (v), d = m/v

characteristic of pure substances at a specified
temperature
Since most substances expand when heated,
densities decrease when heated.
units : g/L for gases and g/mL for solids and
liquids.
75
Density relates a sample mass and volume
Blood has a density of 1.05 g/cm

We can say that 1.05 g of blood is equivalent to
3
1.00cm3
Conversion factors can be constructed from this
equivalence, which could be used in the factor-label
method
1.05 g blood
1.00 cm3 blood
or
1.00 cm3 blood
1.05 g blood
76
Learning Check:
A crash sounds from the lab- a large vial of mercury
has fallen from a broken shelf. We call the hazardous
materials team to report the spill, about 2.0 quarts of
mercury. They ask for the mass- what is it? (hint:
d=13.69g/mL)
2.0qt
1L
mL
13.69 g
4
3
2.6(10 ) g
1
1.0567qt 10 L
mL
77
Your Turn!
A glass bead with a mass of 5.96 g is dropped into a
beaker of water containing 10.2 mL. If the
resulting volume is 12.3 mL, what is the density
of the bead?
A. 2.1 mL
B. 5.96 g
C. 2.8 g/mL
D. 0.35 g/mL
78

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Chemistry Brady

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Chapter 1:Fundamental Concepts

and Units of Measurement

Brady & Senese 5th Ed

Chemistry and the Sciences

1.1. Chemistry is important for anyone studying the sciences

Scientific Method : Getting Started

Scientific Method: Testing the Hypothesis

Scientific Method Case Study:

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature

soil is necessary to all growth

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature

The Scientific Method- Evaluating The Data

it should explain currently available data

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature

The Scientific Method is Cyclical

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature

Atomic Theory Helps Us Visualize Matter

A leaf floats on waters surface

A leaf falls through air, but rests on

Models Helps Us Visualize Matter

1.2. The scientific method helps us build models of nature

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Learning Check: Chemical Or Physical Change?

Magnesium burns when heated

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

a match burns in air

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Matter Can Be Classified By Its Properties:

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Heterogeneous mixturesconsist of two or more phases

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Learning Check: Classification

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

because blood cells can be distinguished

1.3. Matter is Composed of Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Classification Of Matter By State

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways

Learning Check: Chemical or Physical

Magnesium metal is grey

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways

Intensive And Extensive Properties

Extensive properties depend on sample size

Properties used to identify substances are always

1.4. Properties of matter can be classified in different ways

Measurements are Observations

Qualitative observations are non-numerical-- ask

what or how or why

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties

Always involve a comparison

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties

Measurements and units

In the U.S., we use the Imperial (USCS) System

uses the metric system

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties

1.5 Measurements are essential to describe properties

Learning Check: Complete The Missing