1

M hnh Chun ca Vt l Ht c bn
trch t K Yu Ht Higgs v M Hnh Chun, nxb Tri Thc 2014

Phm Xun Ym

Khi thuyt Tng i rng ca Einstein thay th thuyt Vn vt Hp dn ca Newton, n

khng nhm chnh sa i cht nh lut nghch o bnh phng m l loi b khi
nim c bn cho rng hp dn l lc ht mt vt th bi cc vt th khc. Trong thuyt
Tng i rng, ta khng cp n lc m quan tm n cong ca khng gian v
thi gian. Tuy h qu - ca vic thay th lut hp dn Newton bng thuyt Tng i rng
- l c sa i cht xu (nh hn mt phn triu) nhng tin on v s vn hnh ca H
Mt Tri, nhng thuyt ca Einstein lm mt cuc cch mng trong nhn thc v t
nhin. Ngy nay, chng ta cn mt cuc cch mng khc na.

Steven Weinberg

Tm tt - Vt l ht c bn c mc tiu tm hiu, tin on, phn loi, sp xp, khm ph

nhng c tnh cng nh nhng nh lut chi phi s vn hnh ca cc thnh phn s cp cu
to nn vt cht trong ton v.
M hnh Chun (the Standard Model, SM) ca vt l vi ht l l thuyt din t ton vn v
nht qun h thng ca nhng vin gch s cp ca vt cht di tc ng ca ba trong bn
lc c bn ca T nhin: lc in-t, lc ht nhn mnh v lc ht nhn yu t vn vt
hnh thnh v bin ha.
Lc hp dn, din t bi thuyt Tng i rng, l lc c bn th t m s ho nhp vi ba
lc ca SM hy cn ng cha hin thc c, chnh l cuc cch mng m Weinberg
nu ra trn, do trng lc khng l i tng ca bi vit.
Bi gm bn phn:
PHN I: Nhp , phc ha v dn gii tng quan c gi lm quen vi nhng thut ng
v khi nim ch yu ca SM, qua c ci nhn bao qut v nhng ti ca th gii vi m.
PHN II: M t nhng hin tng in hnh lin quan n cc ht quark, thnh phn c bn
ca ht nhn nguyn t. Quark b chi phi ch yu bi lc mnh gn kt chng cu to nn
hadron gm hai loi l baryon (ht c spin bng m in hnh l proton v neutron) v
meson (spin 0, 1 m in hnh l meson hay pion). Trong tin trnh khm ph ra lc mnh,
l thuyt Yukawa ng vai tr m ng, theo tng tc ca cc baryon l do s trao i
cc meson gia chng. Th nng Coulomb 1/R ca lc in-t v th nng Yukawa e mR/R
ca lc mnh theo th t l do trao i photon v meson (vi khi lng 0 v m). Th nng
Coulomb l mt trng hp c bit ca th nng ph qut Yukawa: khi m 0, e mR/R

Night thoughts of a quantum physicist. Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. 49, No. 3
(Dec., 1995),pp. 51-64.

2
1/R, m cng ln th tm truyn R ca lc cng nh, photon khng c khi lng nn lc int truyn i v hn (nguyn l bt nh Rm ).
Nguyn l i xng c khai thc vi dng c ton hc l nhm SU(3) khm ph nhng
tnh cht c th, phong ph ca cc ht c bn, th nht l hng v sc ca quark, th hai
l cng thc ph qut GNN (Gell-Mann, Nakano, Nishijima) chi phi cc hadron, cc ht c
bn v cc lc. Cng thc GNN cng l kim ch nam nh hng cho s ho nhp gia lc
in-t v lc yu, ch ca PHN IV.
Ta nh bng tun hon Mendeleev trong ha hc, cc nhm bi baryon v meson c th sp
xp theo hnh tm cnh u n m Gell-Mann mn danh t Bt chnh o ca nh Pht
ch nh chng.
PHN III: Trnh by phng php c bn khm ph ra Sc ng hc lng t (QCD),
nh lut chi phi s vn hnh ca quark. Trc ht cn thu trit mt nguyn l cc k
phong ph gi l i xng Chun nh x (Local Gauge Symmetry), nn tng ca in ng
hc lng t (QED), tc l thuyt v lc in-t c hon tt thi tin SM. Nguyn l
ny c m rng v khai thc khm ph ra hai nh lut c bn khc ca SM l QCD (
PHN III) v in-Yu ( PHN IV).
QED i xng chun nh x QCD v in-Yu
i xng chun xc nh l phi tn ti nhng boson chun mang spin 1 truyn ti lc cho
quark v lepton tng tc, nhng boson chun ny tun theo phng trnh Maxwell (cho
photon ca lc in-t) v Yang-Mills (cho gluon ca lc mnh v W, Z ca lc yu). Hai
tnh cht c th ca QCD l T do tim cn v N l hng ngoi gii thch quark v
gluon b gn cht khng thot ni ra ngoi hadron nhit (nng lng) thp. Tri li vi
nng lng cng cao th quark v gluon cng t do, chng khng b gn kt cht ch trong
hadron. chnh l trng thi ca vt cht thu Big Bang v cc my gia tc c nng
lng cc k ln.
PHN IV: Dnh cho lc ht nhn yu v s ho nhp ca n vi lc in-t tr thnh
thuyt in-Yu, nh cao ca SM. B cc ca PHN IV gm ba ch :
M u vi neutrino v hai tnh cht c th ca lc yu l s vi phm i xng phi-tri (P),
v i xng vt cht-phn vt cht (CP).
Th hai, khi nghin cu hai hin tng c trng ca lc yu: k tnh bin chuyn thnh
phn k tnh vi Glashow, Iliopoulos, Maiani (GIM) v s vi phm i xng CP vi
Kobayashi, Maskawa (KM), cc tc gi trn tin on (v thc nghim sau xc nhn) s
hin hu ca ba loi vt cht mi l din t bi cc quark duyn (charm, c), y (bottom, b)
v nh (top, t); minh ha mi tng quan su sc gia hai lc mnh v yu.
Cui cng nh lut chi phi lc yu c khm ph qua hai giai on:
i xng chun v thuyt Yang-Mills vi nhm SU(2) lin kt hai dng trung ho in
tch ca lc yu v lc in-t ho nhp chng.
C ch BEH (Brout, Englert, Higgs) - tn ca ba trong su tc gi xut ra n - th
hin s ph v t pht ca php i xng chun bi trng Higgs mang khi lng cho
hai boson W, Z ca lc yu.
S pht hin boson Higgs CERN ngy 04 thng 7 nm 2012 cng vi gii Nobel vt l
2013 vinh tng Franois Englert v Peter Higgs chng kin mt chng c va khp li v
mt trang s mi ang l dng trong vt l ht. Khp chng c v hon tt mt on
ng di l tt c 17 loi ht c bn c thc nghim khm ph y . iu ny khng
nh s vng chc ca SM, mt h hnh m t y mi pht trin sau ny u phi da vo
vn xa hn na. M chng mi, v c ch BEH thc s ln ngi. C ch ny c th nh
hng n nhiu ngnh khc, n ra i nh mt lin i su sc gia hai ngnh khc bit: vt

3
l cht ngng t (siu dn in-t) v vt l ht (lc yu ca neutrino). y l ln u tin
con ngi khm ph ra mt lc mi l, din t bi trng Higgs, mang khi lng cho vt
cht, c th coi nh lc c bn th nm ca T nhin bn cnh bn lc quen thuc trc .
Bn Phn u tng i c lp. Nhng chi tit mang tnh k thut u c trnh by trong
phn Ch thch.

Phn I-Nhp
Neutrino l mnh nh nht ca thc ti vt cht m con ngi tng hnh dung ra, ci
ln nht l v tr.
Clyde Cowan v Frederick Reines
Trong cu m u ca bn bo co v s kin ln u tin pht hin ra vi ht neutrino l
phn ng ht nhn Savannah River (South Carolina, M), hai nh vt l Cowan v Reines
(gii Nobel 1995) dng ng t hnh dung ra, iu gy cht ngc nhin cho ngi vit bi
ny khi c cu ln u, nhng ngm li mi thy su sc.
Thc th, khi con ngi xy dng c mt h thng nhng tng v suy lun cht ch,
nht qun cng nhng ngn t tng xng din t v gii thch th gii bn ngoi cng
nh khm ph nhng hin tng mi l v nhng nh lut chi phi s vn hnh ca chng,
th theo ngha h hnh dung ra thc ti ca T nhin m Ht c bn v V tr l v d
in hnh v ci m chng ta hiu bit v hai th gii thi cc v cng nh cng nh v cng
ln . Ht c bn c vai tr no trong cuc tm kim ci ngun ca con ngui trong v tr
ni qu kh vi tng lai, chng ta t u n, l g, v u, nhng cu hi mun thu.
S hiu bit v ht c bn (vin gch vi m khng th chia ct cu to nn vt cht) hay v
tr (tng th v m bao trm vn vt c khng gian v thi gian) khng duy nht m thay i,
cch tip cn v bn cht ca chng thng trm theo cc thi i v cc nn vn hin.
Ht ri thi xa xa khi kim, mc, thy, ha, th l 5 thnh phn s cp ct li ca vt cht.
Mi cch y trm nm phn t vn c coi l ht s ng. Ngy nay chng ta bit phn t
ch l tp hp ca nhiu nguyn t khc nhau lin kt bi electron ngoi vi, m mi nguyn t
li c cu to bi ht nhn ca n vi nhng electron dao ng xung quanh, ri ht nhn
nguyn t cng do proton cng neutron kt hp vi nhau m thnh, sau ht proton v neutron
l hai quark u, d gn kt bi gluon cu to nn. C th nh nhng con bp b Nga lin hi
cha ng nhau, chui di ca nhng vi ht i t phn t n quark l c mt qu trnh khm
ph bn b khi ln lc xung, l thuyt cng thc nghim cht ch an xen.
Cng vy, nhn thc v v tr bin i t thuyt a tm trc thi Copernic, Galileo cho ti
thuyt N Bng (Big Bang) hin i, theo thu hng hoang cch y gn 14 t nm, v
tr l mt t im k d cc nng cc c nhanh chng gin n, tuy gia tc gin n
gim dn trong khong 7 t nm u nhng sau li vt tng ln. Mt phm tr k diu
nhng khc vi ht c bn nn s khng cp tip y.
Khoa hc ni chung l hnh trnh khm ph lin hi, mi mi i tm, khng c im tn cng.
Vt l ht c bn c mc tiu l tm kim, phn loi sp xp cc thnh phn s cp ca vt
cht v phm kh nhng tnh cht cng nh nhng nh lut c bn chi phi s vn hnh ca
chng. SM l l thuyt din t ton vn v gii thch nht qun nhng c trng ca nhng
vin gch s ng cu to nn vt cht, di tc ng ca 3 trong 4 lc c bn ca T nhin:
lc in-t, lc ht nhn mnh v lc ht nhn yu t vn vt c hnh thnh v bin
ha. Ht c bn tiu biu hn c l electron c khm ph ln u tin bi Joseph John

4
Thomson nm 1897. Electron chnh l gc ngun ca hin tng in-t m ngay t thi xa
xa con ngi cm nhn thy khi nhn sm st cng nh khi ch xt h phch. T nh n
ln quang thi xa xa n iPad tn k thi nay, du n ca electron v hnh trung ngy cng
m nt trong i sng con ngi.
Hin tnh ca cc ht c bn1 c tm lc trong s (Hnh 1), chng gm ba phn: th
nht l mi hai ht c spin 1/2 nh quark v lepton c gi ngn gn l trng vt cht; th
hai l bn boson chun c spin 1 gm photon ca lc in-t, gluon g ca lc mnh, hai
boson W, Z ca lc yu, gi chung l trng lc; th ba l boson Higgs c spin 0 ng vai tr
ch yu to nn khi lng cho vn vt (boson W, Z, quark, lepton).

Hnh 1: S cc ht c bn trong SM.

trung tm hnh, duy nht boson Higgs c mu xm nht nh nhc nh l ht ny, tuy l im mu cht ca
SM mang khi lng cho hai boson chun W, Z ca lc yu cng nh cho quark v lepton, nhng ti thi
im ca hnh v li cha c thc nghim khng nh, trong khi quark, lepton, boson chun Z, W, , g
c thc nghim xc nhn l hin hu. Rt c th,mu xm ca ht Higgs s rc r nh vng v hai nhm thc
nghim ATLAS v CMS CERN va tm ra du vt ca n trong my siu gia tc Large Hadron Collider (LHC)
ngy mng 4 thng 7 nm 2012, ho thm vi gii Nobel Vt l 2013.

Vt cht (quark cng nh lepton) tng tc vi nhau qua s trao i cc boson chun. Boson
chun c vai tr lm trung gian ni kt v truyn ti lc cc vin gch vt cht c bn
(quark hay/v lepton) tng tc vi nhau.
C 6 loi quark mang k hiu u (up), d (down), s (strange), c (charm), t (top), b (bottom) v 6
loi lepton bao gm 3 ht e (electron), (muon), (tauon) mang in tch m e, v 3 ht
neutrino e, , trung ha in tch, theo th t 3 ht neutrino ny bao gi cng snh i
vi 3 ht electron, muon, tauon trong tng tc ca chng. S cn bng s lng 6 loi quark
v 6 loi lepton khng phi ngu nhin m c lin quan su sc n tnh i xng chun v
tnh ti chun ha trong l thuyt trng lng t, nn tng trn SM c xy dng.
Lc mnh gn kt ht c bn quark u, d trong ht nhn nguyn t v lm cho vt cht vng
bn. Lc in-t din t s tng tc ca electron vi hai quark u, d trong ht nhn nguyn t
to nn nguyn t ca cc nguyn t ha cht trong bng tun hon Mendeleev cng nh
ca cc t bo sinh vt trn tri t. Lc yu ca quark v lepton chi phi s phn r ca cc
ht nhn nguyn t, cc phn ng nhit hch trong lng cc ngi sao, mang nh sng cho bu
tri ban m cng nh pht tn hng t ht neutrino tng giy ang xuyn qua da tht chng
ta.

5
Lc mnh ca cc quark trao i gluon g gia chng vi nhau c gi l Sc ng hc
lng t (Quantum Chromodynamics vit tt l QCD) thut ng ny m phng ch in
ng hc lng t (Quantum Electrodynamics hay QED), l thuyt c hon tt thi
tin SM din t lc in-t ca cc ht mang in tch trao i photon . Do SM bao
gm lc mnh (QCD), lc in t (QED) v lc yu; hn na lc in-t v lc yu li c
hp nht thnh lc in-yu (Electroweak).
Nu in tch l tnh cht c trng gn b vi lc in-t cng nh khi lng gn b vi
lc hp dn, th sc tch (color charge) l ch thm mt tnh cht lng t c trng ca cc
ht quark. Cng nh danh t quark, danh t sc dng y l thut ng ring ca ngnh vt
l ht c bn, n chng c mi lin h no vi mu sc xanh, trong ngn ng thng
thng. Thc th, trong vt l lng t, c mt nh l lin kt spin vi php thng k FermiDirac, theo cc fermion (ht c spin 1/2) khng th cng chung sng trong mt trng thi
vt l xc nh bi nng lng, spin, vn tc, v tr, hay bt k mt c tnh no khc. V d
hai fermion khi chung mt im khng gian th chng phi c hoc vn tc hoc chiu quay
ca spin khc nhau; nu cng vn tc th spin ca chng phi quay ngc chiu hoc khng
cng mt v tr. l nhng ht c c tnh mnh m, s phn b trng thi cc ht fermion
phi tun theo php thng k Fermi-Dirac. Thng k ny c th phn no gii thch ti sao
xp x cng mt mt electron nhng c vt cch in, c vt li dn in, thm ch siu
dn in-t. Tnh cht ny ca cc fermion hon ton tri ngc vi tnh ho ng, chung
sng ca cc boson (mang spin s nguyn nh 0, 1) minh ho bi chm nh sng laser vi
nhiu photon trong cng mt trng thi.
V quark l fermion nn khi cn 3 quark kt hp vi nhau trng thi cn bn (nng lng
lin kt cc tiu) to thnh baryon th s kt hp , theo thng k Fermi-Diac, phi phn
i xng (i du) trong bt k s giao hon no gia cc cp fermion. V c 3 cp (u-u, d-d,
u-d trong tp th 3 quark u, d to nn nucleon nh mt v d, coi Hnh 2) nn tnh phn i
xng ny ch c thc hin nu mi quark, ngoi in tch v khi lng, phi mang thm 3
tnh cht mi l na chng t khc bit vi nhau. Thay v gn ba c tnh lng t ny ca
quark bng ba con s 1, 2, 3 hoc ba ch ci a, b, c th cc nh vt l ht dng ba mu ,
xanh, lam mang tn sc tch (color charge). Gi thit v 3 sc tch ca quark sau c
chng minh chnh xc bi nhiu thc nghim khc nhau v s c cp trong nhng Phn
II, III, IV.

Hnh 2: Ba sc tch ca quark

Mi quark, ngoi in tch cn mang 3 sc tch, tng trng bi 3 mu. Proton (phi) cu to bi hai quark u v
mt quark d cn neutron (tri) bi hai quark d v mt quark u. Ba sc tch khc nhau ca quark c cn bng
u n cui cng proton v neutron trung ho sc tch, cng nh in tch m v dng ca electron v
proton cn bng nguyn t trung ho in tch.

Quark khc lepton ch l ngoi sc tch (lepton khng c sc tch), chng cng mang in
tch, nhng in tch ca chng khng phi l s nguyn e nh electron m +(2/3)e cho ba
quark u, c, t v (1/3)e cho ba quark d, s, b.
Chnh v quark c c in tch v sc tch nn chng b chi phi bi c 3 lc: in-t, ht nhn
yu, ht nhn mnh. Cn electron, muon, tauon v mang in tch v khng c sc tch nn ch
b tc ng bi 2 lc: in-t v yu. Neutrino khng c c sc tch ln in tch nn b tc
ng duy nht bi lc yu.
Hai lc in-t v yu, tuy khc bit v cng tng tc hiu dng, nhng li c nhiu c
tnh chung nn kt hp c trong mt tng tc duy nht gi l in-yu, mt trong hai l
thuyt tr ct ca SM; tr ct th hai l QCD din t lc ht nhn mnh. S thng nht hai
lc in-t v yu trong cng mt quy lut l bc tin ln ca vt l cui th k 20, c th v
nh s tng hp ba hin tng in, t v quang cui th k 19. Hai nguyn l nn tng, lm
ngn hi ng ch ng cho s hp nht ny, l i xng chun nh x v s ph v t
pht ca n. S ph v i xng mt cch t pht ny c gi l c ch BEH, c nhim v
mang khi lng cho vn vt.
Lc c bn th t, lc hp dn (din t bi thuyt Tng i rng) to nn cu trc ca v tr
bao la v chi phi s vn hnh ca cc thin th, cn ba lc phi hp dn ni trn ch yu ch
tc ng trong th gii vi m ca vt l ht; ba lc ny u xy dng trn nn tng ca thuyt
lng t. Tuy nhin lng t khng ch gii hn trong vt l ht m cn tc ng trong hu
ht cc ngnh vt l khc.
Du hin din trong c hai th gii vi m v v m, nhng vng h nguyn t v lc hp dn
c cng tc ng qu nh (khong 10 39) so vi ba lc kia nn c th b qua.

Tri li, ti nhng thi khc ban u ca v n ln (Big Bang) hay khi mt s thin th tn li
tr thnh l en (Black hole), trong mt khng gian nn p v cng nh vi nng lng v
nhit v cng ln (gi chung l bc tng Planck), th cng trng lc li rt mnh,
tng t vi cng ca ba lc phi hp dn. V tt c bn lc cng ng vai tr ch cht
trong l en v trong ci khng-thi im Big Bang ban u , chng phi mc nhin ha
nhp vi nhau trong cng mt h thng cht ch v nht qun l gii mi hin tng. Tuy
nhin, s thng nht cn thit ny gia hai ct tr ca vt l l Tng i rng v Lng t
cho n nay cha thc hin ni, mc d c nhiu c gng trong nhiu nm qua. Nguyn do
chnh yu l khng nh ba lc phi hp dn thnh cng trong vic c lng t ha v ti
chun ha th thuyt Tng i rng cha th nht qun ho hp vi Lng t. l vn
hc ba s mt ca vt l hin i, n i hi mt cch mng trong nhn thc v T nhin m
Weinberg gi ln trang u bi vit ny.
Tm gc li cu hi trn, ta tr v vi SM ca ht c bn vi khong 30 gii Nobel Vt l
trong ba mi nm gn y, Thuyt in-yu v sc ng hc lng t tuy mi ra i nhng
nm 1970, khong thi gian tng i ngn so vi nhiu ngnh khoa hc khc trong tin trnh
khm ph (l thuyt v thc nghim lun lin kt h tng nhau), SM mang li c mt kho
tng tri thc khoa hc s, tin on nhiu hin tng v ht mi l cng nh nhng tnh
cht c o ca chng m sau u c thc nghim kim chng vi chnh xc ng
kinh ngc. Hy tm k s khm ph dng trung ha in tch ca lc ht nhn yu; ba loi
quark c, t, b; hai boson chun W, Z; ch hin hu c ba loi neutrino vi khi lng cc k

7
nh; ht mang khi lng 125 GeV/c2 va pht hin thng 7 nm 2012 CERN. S kin
lch s ny c cc nh vt l hi hp n ch t nm 1994 khi CERN quyt nh xy dng
my gia tc LHC c nng lng cao nht th gii sn tm ht Higgs.
Cng nh trng in-t cho nh sng hay trng hp dn li ht vn vt, trng Higgs trn
y v tr. N gi ra cch tip cn mi v khi lng ca vt cht, khc vi quan im c
hu coi khi lng l ci g cho trc bi T nhin m khng ai thu hiu ngun gc su xa.
Theo SM, khi lng ca vt cht c to ra bi s tng tc ca chng vi trng Higgs
tn ti trong chn khng ca v tr ngay t v n ln. Khi u tt c u khng c khi
lng, do tng tc vi trng Higgs m vt cht mang khi lng, nng hay nh ty theo
cng tng tc ca chng, cng tc ng mnh vi trng Higgs th vt cht cng c
khi lng ln.
Khng c trng Higgs th khng c khi lng cho vt cht cng nh lc gn kt chng
to nn tinh t, v tr, do cng khng th c sinh vt v con ngi.
Tuy trng Higgs mang khi lng cho vn vt, nhng ci g mang khi lng 125GeV/c2
cho chnh ht boson Higgs va c thc nghim pht hin. Ngoi ra khong 96% nng-khi
lng ca v tr (c gi l nng lng ti v vt cht ti) hy cn nm ngoi s hiu bit
hin nay ca con ngi, y l cha k lc hp dn hy cn xa l i vi cc ht c bn thu
Big Bang. Vi nhng cu hi cn b ng nh vy, r rng SM cha th l gii p cui cng
ca mi vn c bn.
Mt chn tri k th ang n ch, nhng trc ht hy cng nhau hc hi nhng iu m
bao ngi siu vit i trc khai ph. Trc khi i vo chi tit ca SM trong nhng phn
sau, chng ta hy im qua vi nt tng quan c th ca ngnh vt l ht c bn:
1- Cch tip cn quy gin qua s tm kim nh lut cn bn thuc v bin gii ca tri thc.
Trong khi , nhiu ngnh vt l khc c cch tip cn hiu dng v t khi thin v tm
hiu, khm ph nhng hin tng xy ra trong cc trng thi vt cht, tc l nhng nghim s
(tng ng vi nhng iu kin c th no ) ca nhng nh lut c bn m SM khm ph
ra. V d, ht electron tun th phng trnh c bn Dirac, cn vt l cht rn khai thc nhng
tnh cht phong ph ca cht bn dn, siu dn do tc ng ca electron trong nhng iu
kin a dng ca vt cht.
Di cch nhn quy gin ca nh vt l ht c bn th tnh cht ca cc h thng vt cht, d
phc tp v phong ph n my, u ng nhin l phi nh vy bi v chng u c cu
to bi nhng vin gch s cp tun th nhng nguyn l ca SM v u c iu hnh bi
ba lc c bn: in-t, mnh v yu.
Mt bn tm kim phng trnh c bn chi phi s vn hnh tng th ca vt cht, bn kia tm
ti khai thc cc nghim s phong ph a dng ca phng trnh c bn trong nhng iu
kin khc nhau ca mi trng v m m vt cht c t vo. Hai cch tip cn quy gin v
t khi b sung cho nhau, cng nh nghin cu c bn v ng dng an xen ln nhau, khng
c ci ny th khng c ci kia.
2- Nhng cng ngh tn tin mi nhn v vt liu, in t, siu dn, my tnh c tn dng
v khai thc xy dng nhng my siu gia tc v nhng cng c thc nghim cc k phc
tp v tinh vi nhm phn tch, khm ph nhng ht c bn v hin tng mi l, kim chng
hoc bc b nhng c tnh ca cc ht m l thuyt tin on hay xut. Ngnh Vt l ny
i khi c gi mt cch tro phng l i khoa hc (Big Science) v nhng my gia tc
v my d tm ht u khng l, c v nh nhng gio ng hay kim t thp k v thi xa
xa.
3- S cng tc trao i thng xuyn v cn thit gia nhng nh vt l ht trn th gii v s
tp trung nghin cu trong mt vi c quan quy m quc t vi hng ngn nh vt l thng

8
trc nh CERN, DESY chu u, Fermi-lab, SLAC, Brookhaven chu M, KEK Nht
Bn.
S kin thnh lp CERN l mt bi hc vt xa i tng khoa hc thun tu. Trn cnh
ng hoang lc c my ch b n c Ferney-Voltaire bin gii Php - Thy S, ngay sau
Th chin th hai, nhiu nh vt l u chu tng di tn khp ni v nn pht xt tr v
cng ng nghip xy dng nn CERN. V ha bnh v pht trin qua nghin cu c bn, vi
s h tr tch cc ca mt s chnh khch Php, c, Anh c tm nhn xa, h chung sc
m ng cho s hi sinh v ho gii ca cc nc u chu. Mi nc ring l khng th
nhn s v phng tin hon thnh s mng, nguyn tc t chc ca CERN - tp hp ng
gp ti nng, ngn qu t nhiu nc - tin phong lm m hnh cho nhiu ngnh hot ng
khoa hc khc phng theo t thin vn, sinh hc, thm ch c chnh tr v CERN ra i nhiu
nm trc Lin minh u chu. Mng li ton cu (world wide web) ca internet ra i
khong nm 1990 c quan ny l mt trong nhng thnh cng k diu ca ng dng nghin
cu c bn; my chp hnh scanner trong y hc, cng ngh siu dn in-t to nn nhng
khi nam chm khng l l vi v d khc. Hn na, CERN cn dang tay n mi s cng tc
ca nhng ti nng n t khp mi min trn tri t, k c nhng nc ang pht trin. y
l c hi ngn vng i vi cc ti nng tr Vit Nam tip cn vi nghin cu quc t
trong nhng lnh vc thuc ranh gii ca tri thc nhn loi.

Phn II. Chuyn k v quark

Vy l trong nhng khi nim vt l v ha hc, chc chn t nay chng ta phi a
vo mt yu t gin on, nhy tng bc; iu m trc y vi nm khng ai thc.
Marcel Brillouin
Yu t gin on m Brillouin ni n gi l Lng t, vy chng ta trc ht hy lm quen
vi vi thut ng v khi nim thng c dng trong ngnh vt l ht t nm bt
my iu cn bn: lng t, spin, phn vt cht, sc tch v hng v ca quark.
IIa Mt thong Lng t, n v nng lng c bn.
Nhng vin gch c bn ca vt cht vy vng trong th gii vi m ca Lng t, vy khi
nim ny l g, n t u? Vo cui th k th 19, mt mu thun cn bn c pht hin
gia l thuyt in-t v nhit ng hc - hai tr ct ca vt l thi y - vi thc nghim v
2
cng bc x ca vt en . Thc th, hai l thuyt a n mt h qu phi l l tng
nng lng phng x bi vt en phi v hn, nm na nh ngi trc mt bp si hng, bt
k nhit cao thp ra sao ta s b t chy ht. H qu phi l ny ch c th c gii p
nu c mt yu t hon ton mi l no b sung hon thin h hnh c in trn. Nhn t
gi l Lng t tc l n v gin on hay gi nng lng c bn, mt gi thit m Max
Planck a ra khi ng tm hiu ph bc x ca vt en. Bng mt hnh ng hu nh tuyt
vng tm cho bng c mt cng thc ton hc din t chnh xc cc o lng thc
nghim, Planck (v sau Einstein b sung) phi a ra mt tin theo cc vt th vi
m, khi dao ng vi tn s , th s phn b nng lng E ca chng phi l nhng n v

9
ri rc, gi l lng t, nh 1h, 2h, 3h ... ch khng th lin tc. K l thay nng lng
pht ra hay hp th u theo tng n v h l t. Ta nh gia 0 v 1 c mun vn s lin tc
khng sao m xu, nhng ch c mi con s thp phn l 0.1, 0.2,...1. Chnh s khc bit
gia lin tc v ri rc trong s phn b nng lng ny gii quyt h qu phi l ni trn.
Cho bt k mt tn s sng dao ng ca mt vt th vi m v mt nng lng trung bnh
kBT quy nh bi nhit , ta ch cn N gi h l t ti kBT ri, Nh kBT, cng ln
th N cng nh v nhng gi t (N+1)h tr ln v vt qu kBT nn b kh mnh bi hm m
exp (h kBT) khin cho tng nng lng phng x bi vt en tr thnh hu hn. im then
cht m Planck gi nh l mt vt ch c th tip nhn hay mt i nhng gi nng lng h.
Dng ph bc x ca vt en o c bi cc nh thc nghim, nm 1900 Planck tm ra
h 6.5510 34 J.s. o c ngy nay cho kt qu h 6.62610 34 J.s = 4.13410 15 eV. s, hng
s h t y mc nhin l biu trng ca vt l lng t.

Albert Einstein l ngi u tin dng gi thuyt lng t nh sng h din gii hin tng
quang in. c tnh ni ti khng lin tc ca lng t c Niels Bohr p dng sng to
ra thuyt nguyn t v ng thy ph nng lng ca electron trong nguyn t cng ri rc.
Tip theo l Louis de Broglie vn m lng tnh sng-ht ca mi vt th vi m, chng u
dao ng nh sng nh sng, v c hc lng t hnh thnh vi nguyn l bt nh ca
Werner Heisenberg v phng trnh sng ca Erwin Schrdinger. Lng t ca Planck do
khng cn l gi thuyt na m tr thnh mt trong vi nguyn l nn tng ca vt l v khoa
hc ni chung m du n ngy cng in m trong sinh hot ca con ngui; khi u t khoa
hc, cng ngh ri lan rng sang nhiu kha cnh khc nhau ca trit hc, ngh thut, vn
chng. Hng s Planck h trong E = h c gc ngun ch hilfe (ting c l ph tr), chi
tit ni ln s khim tn ca nh bc hc ln.
Do tnh ton qua hng s rt nh h, danh t vi m trong khoa hc t nhin c hiu nh
nhng vt cht kch thc bng hay nh hn mt phn t mt, hay nano-mt. Nh vy mt
nhm nguyn t rng di khong nano-mt (kch thc mt nguyn t c 1/10 nano-mt)
c th c coi nh ngng ca bt u i su xung th gii vi m trong bao gm nhng
ht nh hn na nh electron cng proton v neutron, hai thnh phn ch cht ca ht nhn
nguyn t do quark cu to nn.
Hng s Planck h, vn tc nh sng c v hng s G ca lc hp dn Newton l ba hng s c
bn chi phi s vn hnh ca vn vt trong v tr, t m mi n v vt l u c th suy
din, tnh ton ra.
IIb Yukawa v lc ht nhn mnh.
My siu gia tc Large Hadron Collider (LHC) ca CERN l my phng hai chm hadron c
gia tc cc k cao va chm nhau sn sinh ra cc ht khc nh hadron, lepton, boson chun
vn vn vi mc tiu u tin l sn lng ht Higgs trong s cc ht . Vy trc ht hadron
l g? Ly t ting Hy Lp hadros c ngha l mnh, hadron l ht b chi phi bi lc ht nhn
mnh, hng s tng tc ca n ln hn rt nhiu hng s tng tc ca lc in-t em=
e2/c 1/137 vi = h/2. V d in hnh ca hadron l ht proton (p) mang in tch dng
+e v ht neutron (n) khng c in tch, chng l hai thnh phn ch cht gn kt nhau
to nn ht nhn ca cc nguyn t trong T nhin.
n gin nht l nguyn t Hydrogen bao gm mt electron dao ng xung quanh mt
proton, ht nhn ca nguyn t . Nguyn t Helium c hai electron chuyn ng xung
quanh ht nhn ca n bao gm hai neutron v hai proton. iu cn thit mi nguyn t
c trung ha in tch, nh ta thy trong thin nhin, l s lng electron phi bng s
lng proton m hai nguyn t Hydrogen v Helium minh ha.

10
Tt c cc hadron u l nhng hp t cu to bi nhng thnh phn s cp hn gi l quark.
Vy hadron v quark l c trng ca lc ht nhn mnh, mt trong bn lc c bn ca T
nhin, ba lc c bn khc l in-t, ht nhn yu v hp dn.
Hai chm hadron trong my gia tc khng l LHC chnh xc ra l hai chm proton va chm
nhau cc mnh.
1- Hadron (baryon, meson) v Lepton: Ngoi proton v neutron ra cn c bit bao cc
hadron khc c pht hin, mt s trong l cc ht c spin nh N , 0, , gi
chung l baryon, ting Hy Lp c ngha l nng. Quark l thnh phn s cp cu to nn
baryon ni ring v hadron ni chung.

Lepton ting Hy lp c ngha l nh i chi vi nng nh mt cch phn bit gia hai loi
ht c bn ca vt cht l lepton v quark. Lepton th nht l ht electron e kh quen thuc,
ht (muon) c khm ph nm 1936 l v d th hai ca lepton, ht th ba gi l (tauon)
pht hin nm 1975. Ba ht e , , u c in tch m e, song hnh cng ba ht neutrino
e, , trung ha in tch, 6 lepton ny cng vi 6 quark u, d, c, s, t, b c thy l 12 vin
gch c bn ca vt cht phc ha Hnh 1 trong phn Nhp .

gia bn nng (baryon) v bn nh (lepton) l nhng ht trung dung (meson), v d in

hnh l meson hay pion. Hadron gm hai loi: baryon c spin 1/2, 3/2... v meson c spin l
s nguyn 0, 1...
S hin hu ca ht pion v hng (spin 0) c tin on nm 1935 bi Hideki Yukawa
(ngi Nht u tin nhn gii Nobel nm 1949) theo lc gn kt proton v neutron trong
ht nhn nguyn t l do s trao i meson , ht ny c vai tr lm trung gian truyn ti lc
mnh cho proton v neutron tng tc gn kt vi nhau.
Sng to ca Yukawa khi ngun t s nhn thc su sc v khi nim trng (field) ca hai
lc c bn m con ngi t lu bit r, l lc in-t (din t bi phng trnh
Maxwell, ngi tng hp v b sung cng trnh m ng ca Ampre, Faraday) v lc
vn vt hp dn (din t bi phng trnh Einstein m rng nh lut Newton). in tch di
chuyn to nn trng in-t, pht tn nh sng v tc ng n cc in tch khc khp
ni v mi lc. Cng vy khi lng to nn trng hp dn thu ht vn vt khp ni, mi
lc. Vy trng l nhn t v cng lm trung gian cho lc tc ng ln mi vt t mt
ch no trong khng gian v mt lc no ca thi gian, gi chung l mt khng-thi
gian. Trng l mt thc th tn ti khp mi im ca khng-thi gian, khc vi ht ch
hin din mt im chnh xc ca khng-thi gian. Trong ngn t ton hc, trng l mt
hm s (m bin s l bn to khng-thi gian), hm s ny tun th mt nh lut vt l
din t bi mt hay nhiu phng trnh no .
c im ca hai trng c in in-t v hp dn, theo th t chi phi bi hai phng trnh
Maxwell v Einstein, l chng biu hin di dng sng lan ta khp khng gian vi vn tc
ca nh sng. Nhng khi ha nhp vi th gii ca lng t th sng v ht tuy hai m mt,
sng in-t cng xut hin di dng ht ci sng, gi l photon, m Einstein chng
minh vi hin tng quang in. Ngc li, Louis de Broglie vi ci nhn thng tu thy ht
cng dao ng nh sng thnh trng lng t, iu chng nghim sau bi Clinton
Davisson v Lester Germer m ng dng trc tip l s pht minh ra knh hin vi in t.
im quan trng cn nm bt l gia hai electron phi c s trao i sng in-t c
lng t ha di dng ht gi l photon, ht ny lm trung gian truyn ti lc in-t
cho electron y nhau. Cng vy, gia hai khi lng c s trao i sng hp dn, din t bi
ht graviton, chng ht ln nhau. Dng tin ny, Yukawa i xa hn v a ra gi thuyt
l gia hai nucleon (tn gi chung cho proton v neutron) phi c s trao i mt ht no

11
lm tc nhn cho lc mnh gn kt nucleon trong ht nhn nguyn t khin cho vt cht bn
vng ni chung. Ht trung gian n gin nht ca lc mnh m Yukawa xut l meson
v hng (spin 0), khc vi photon ca lc in-t c spin 1.
Khng nhng tin on phi hin hu ht pion truyn ti lc ht nhn mnh, ng cn c
tnh c khi lng ca n bng cch m phng tnh in hc, theo s trao i ht
photon gia hai in tch cho ta th nng e2/R m o hm ca n l lc Coulomb e2/R2
quen thuc, vi R l khong cch gia hai in tch. Thc vy, dng php bin i Fourier
cho hm truyn 1/k2 ca photon ni kt hai in tch e, (k l vect xung lng ca photon
trung gian, Hnh 3 pha tri trn), ta tnh c th nng e2/R ca lc in-t m de Coulomb
nm 1785 o lng v chng nghim.
Cng vy, vi g l hng s tng tc pion-nucleon, m l khi lng ca meson , ta c hm
truyn 1/(k2+ m2c2) ca pion, ht trung gian ni kt proton v neutron (Hnh 3 pha phi
di). Dng php bin i Fourier cho hm truyn pion, Yukawa tnh ra c th nng
g2e R /R ca lc mnh, vi = mc/ . Trong h s ta thy tc ng ca lng t qua hng
s h ca Planck. Khi khi lng ca meson trung gian bng 0 (trng hp photon), lc
Yukawa tr thnh lc Coulomb (m 0, e R /R 1/R) chng t s nht qun ca php tnh
ton dng hm truyn ca ht trung gian (nh photon, W, gluon, meson ) ti lc. Vy th
nng Coulomb l mt trng hp c bit ca th nng Yukawa ph qut.

Hnh 3: Gin Feynman

Pha tri trn: Photon truyn ti lc in t electron tng tc (QED) .
Pha phi trn: Phn r n p + e + e, boson chun W truyn ti lc yu gia nucleon (n, p) v lepton
(electron, neutrino).

Pha tri di: gluon truyn ti lc mnh quark tng tc (QCD).

Pha phi di: meson (gch chm) ni kt hai nucleon din t tng tc proton v neutron.
Richard Feynman l ngn hi ng ca ngnh vt l ht vi cc gin (diagrams), hm truyn (propagators),
quy lut (rules) mang tn ng.

Khi lng m ca ht trung gian (photon, meson , hay bt k ht boson trung gian no) cho
ta h s hm m e R xc nh di truyn ti R ca lc: R 1/ = /mc, m cng ln bao
nhiu th tm truyn R ca lc cng nh by nhiu, iu ph hp vi nguyn l bt nh
Heisenberg Rmc h. Mi lin h gia m v R c minh ha bi lc in-t, photon khng
c khi lng nn n c th truyn i v hn (m = 0 R = ).
Bit di tc ng ca lc mnh R 10 15 m do Ernest Rutherford trc kia o lng kch
thc ca ht nhn nguyn t, Yukawa suy ra l khi lng ca meson vo khong 140
MeV/c2, nng hn electron gn ba trm ln3. Kt qu quan trng lin i gia khi lng v

12
hm m e R c mt im tng ng vi hiu ng Meissner, theo t trng b ngn chn
trong cc vt liu siu dn in-t4 , mt ti lin quan mt thit n boson Higgs ca lc
yu trong SM m ta s cp sau phn IVe.

2- Nm 1947, meson c pht hin bi cc tia v tr, l cc chm hadron c nng

lng cc k cao t cc thin h xa xm bay n v va chm nhng ht nhn nguyn t nm
trong kh quyn bao quanh tri t. Do tc ng ca lc mnh, tia v tr sn sinh ra meson
theo qu trnh: p + p p + n + + , n + p p + p + , p + p p + p + 0... Sau khi sinh ra
bi lc mnh, meson lin phn r bi lc yu, th d + v lepton va sinh ra
cng li phn r thnh cc lepton nh hn e + e + , c th tip ni vng sinh hy, sinh
bi lc mnh v hy bi lc yu.

Ngoi ra tia v tr cng pht hin meson K nm 1947 v baryon 0 nm 1950, chng l
nhng ht mang k tnh u tin c bit n. K tnh (strangeness), mt hng v ca
quark, s c cp sau on IIc. Tuy c nng lng cao rt cn thit cho s khm ph
ht, nhng tia v tr li tn mt khp khng gian nn chng ch l phng tin mang tnh
ngu nhin v kh c th khai thc mt cch h thng. Do my gia tc ht c xy dng
nhiu ni t M sang u, d dng thao tc, truy tm, pht hin ra nhiu ht mi l,
kinh nghim cho thy gia tc cng cao th cng khm ph ra nhiu hin tng bt ng. My
gia tc v hnh trung l biu tng ca ngnh vt l ht, khng c nhng dng c ngy cng
honh trng ny th vt l ht kh pht trin thm v thin vn, v tr hc c th tr li vai tr
nguyn thy nh mt phng th nghim ln m Thin nhin tng con ngui nu c th khai
thc hu hiu.
Vo thi im trc khi SM ra i, hng vi trm hadron nh vy c pht hin bi tia v
tr v my gia tc. Bn cht chng l g, c tun th mt trt t no ging nh s sp xp cc
nguyn t ho hc trong Thin nhin vi bng tun hon Mendeleev khng?
Nhng cu hi m sau ny ta s lm quen v gii p, theo hadron l phc hp ca quark
(hay/v phn quark) gn kt vi nhau bi gluon: baryon c cu to bi 3 quark v meson
bi quark gn kt vi phn quark. Thc l mt thnh tu ln v ch vi my vin gch c bn
m ta xy dng nn tt c cc hadron v din t nht qun nhng tnh cht ca chng.
Phn vt cht ni chung v phn ht ni ring l khm ph k diu ca Paul Adrien Maurice
Dirac (1902-1984), mt thin ti tm c Albert Einstein. iu ngu nhin l c hai v u 26
tui khi khm ph ra hai phng trnh nn tng ca vt l E = mc2 v (i mc)(x) = 0 t
mi pht trin by gi v sau ny u phi da vo nh mt h hnh ca khoa hc vn
cao ln na. Khi kt hp nhun nhuyn c hc lng t vi thuyt tng i hp, Dirac
sng to ra phng trnh chi phi s vn hnh ca nhng vin gch s cp cu to nn vt
cht nh lepton, quark v rng ra ca tt c cc fermion phc hp khc nh proton, neutron,
baryon. Ti sao kt hp? Lng t l iu d nhin cho vt th vi m, cn thuyt tng i
hp th ti cn thit din t s chuyn ng vi vn tc rt cao ca cc ht vi m.
Phng trnh5 Dirac l bn giao hng tuyt vi ca s hp phi ni trn, n m ra hai chn
tri mi l: th nht l electron mang spin /2, mt c trng c o ca lng t, th hai l
s hin hu tt yu ca phn electron (gi l positron) ni ring v ca phn quark, phn ht,
phn vt cht ni chung6. Ht v phn ht c cng khi lng nhng tt c cc c tnh khc
(spin, in tch, sc tch, hng v) ca chng u ngc du. Carl Anderson khm ph ra
positron e+ vo nm 1932.
3- in ng hc lng t (QED)- Thi tin M Hnh Chun khong trc 1950, khi
u bi Dirac v kt thc bi Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itero Tomonaga,
Freeman Dyson, duy nht ch c in ng hc lng t l c hon tt, l l thuyt

13
din t tng tc in-t gia cc ht mang in tch. L thuyt hon chnh QED ny kt hp
trng in-t c in vi tnh lng t (qua cc tnh cht phi lin tc, xc sut v bt nh
ca vt th vi m) thnh trng lng t photon. Cng vy hm s sng electron, nghim
s ca phng trnh Dirac cng c lng t ha ln th hai thnh trng lng t
electron din t nhng kha cnh sng-ht, phi lin tc, bt nh trong electron v phn ht
ca n l positron sinh hy lin hi. Trng lng t QED din t s bin ho, sn sinh v
hy dit ca photon, lepton, phn lepton, tng s nhng ht ny khng c nh m bin i,
mt c trng ca cc trng lng t tng tc vi nhau. Nh vy, trng lng t l cng
c l thuyt rt ph hp vi vt l ht c bn v tnh cht phong ph a dng va sng va ht
ca chng vi s lng ht v phn ht sinh hy v bin i khng ngng.
Thuyt QED c mt cu trc tnh ton cht ch v nht qun gi l phng php nhiu lon
(perturbative method) bng cch trin khai thnh chui cc ly tha ca hng s tng tc
in t em 1/137. V em << 1 nn trin khai theo ly tha ca em l chnh ng.
Mi i lng trong in t u c trnh by nh chui n nem An m ta phi tnh ton
nhng bin tng tc An, A1 tng ng vi gin cy (tree diagram) minh ho bi Hnh
3, An (n 2) vi nhng vng kn (loop) minh ha bi Hnh 4.
Nhng QED ch l tng tc in-t ca lepton vi photon thi, cn hai tng tc mnh v
yu ca hadron v neutrino l c mt tin trnh gian nan nhng k th trong s khm ph cc
ht quark, boson chun W, Z, gluon cng nh nhng nh lut vn hnh ca chng cui
cng ra i SM, mt bc nhy vt bc ca vt l ht c bn. Feynman, vi cc gin v
quy lut mang tn ng, thc s l ngi dn ng cho s pht trin ca QED, thuyt ny tr
thnh mu hnh cho hai thuyt in-Yu v QCD m phng v thng hoa.

Hnh 4: Vi th d v vng kn lng t (quantum loop). Php tnh nhiu lon khi u bng 0 vng kn (0-loop)
hay gin cy minh ho bi Hnh 3, ri tip tc bi Hnh 4: 1 vng kn (one-loop) hai u bn tri (vi
photon ) v bn phi (vi gluon g), 2 vng kn (two-loop) gia.

IIc- Hng v Sc ca quark.

Ngoi sc tch bit (xem phn Nhp ), quark cng mang hng v, ln na li l mt
thut ng ring t ca vt l ht ch nh s khc bit gia 2 loi quark u, d khng hng
v ca vt cht bn vng hin din khp ni, vi 4 loi quark s, c, b , t c hng v, chng
mang tn k (strange), duyn (charm), y (bottom), nh (top), nhng c tnh ca mt lot
vi ht vt cht mi l, nng v phn r nhanh chng, thi gian sng trung bnh khong gia
10 10 v 10 13 giy, s sn sinh ra chng i hi my gia tc khng l vi nng lng cc k
cao.

Trc ht hy xem v u c tn k nh vy? Vo nhng nm 1950 trong nhng bung sng

Wilson d tm ht, s pht hin nhng ht mang tn V (v t mt im chung c hai vt tch
ri nhau ta nh ch V) l im khi u ca mt bc ngot quan trng trong tin trnh pht

14
trin vt l ht, t khi nim hng v ca vt cht ra i, mang hng cho quark. c
sn sinh ra bi s va chm gia cc hadron trong tia v tr hay trong my gia tc, nhng ht
V ny c mt tnh cht lng t l lng l bao gi cng ghp i, biu l thnh hai vt ging
nh ch V khi c sn sinh bi cc tng tc mnh ca ht nhn nguyn t. Cu hi u
tin l ti sao hai ht cp i trong V li d dng c sinh ra cng mt im, trong khi mt
ht duy nht li khng c to ra, iu tri ngc vi tri nghim bnh thng?
Ngc nhin khng km l sau khi c sinh ra, mi nhnh trong cp i ca V li phn r
thnh vi ht quen bit nh hay/v nucleon vi cng rt nh so vi cng phn r
mnh hn nhiu ca cc ht khc (nh baryon N hay meson chng hn phn r rt nhanh ra
nucleon hay ). L do l N (hay meson ) u n gin ch l nhng ht cng hng do
nucleon v kt t nn chng li phn r nhanh chng ra nucleon (hay ) bi lc ht nhn
mnh, khc hn vi hai nhnh ca V b phn r rt chm bi lc ht nhn yu.

Phn tch k lng nhng hin tng ny a ti kt lun l phi hin hu mt tnh cht
lng t mi l no m sau ny c gi l hng v ca quark (v phn quark) chng
cu to nn cp hadron v phn hadron nh hai nhnh ca V. Mi nhnh mang mt i lng
mi l i lp nhau v lun i km nhau, ta nh photon ca lc in-t sn sinh ra hai nhnh
l cp ht v phn ht ca chnh n nh cp e e+, ch khng phi cp e hay e+, v
nh vy khng c s bo ton s lng electron hay s lng muon. Murray Gell-Mann, gii
Nobel 1969, gi i lng c bo ton bi lc mnh l k tnh7 v trc khng ai bit
vt cht mi l ny m ch thy vt cht bnh thng bn vng nh nucleon to nn bi quark
u, d khng hng v thi.

Phn ng + + n K+ + 0 l mt v d v s bo ton k tnh ca lc ht nhn mnh. Khi

u t hadron khng hng v l + v n, chng va chm nhau sn xut ra V gm hai
nhnh l K+ v 0. Mi nhnh phi mang k tnh s v

i ngc nhau chng t trit tiu

v bo ton k tnh ca h thng K+ v 0, trong 0 c quark s v trong K c phn quark .

Ht V c pht hin u tin l cp meson K+, K hay cp K0, phn K0; K+ cu to bi cp
+

u, K bi s, K0 bi d, phn K0 bi s. Baryon 0 l do cc t hp ca 3 quark u, d, s cu

to nn.
Sau khi c sn sinh ra, cc hadron k nh K+ v 0 li phn r bi lc yu, lc ny vi phm
k tnh, K+ 0 + e + e, K+ + + 0, 0 p + e + e, 0 p + l vi v d ca hadron
phn r bi lc yu vi phm k tnh (v tri K+ , 0 mang k tnh cn v phi khng c k

tnh). Cc phn r K+ 0 + e + e v 0 p + e + e cho ta nhn ra mt iu rt quan

trng l dng lc yu ch bin chuyn vi in tch thay i nh K+ 0 hay 0 p, m
chng trung ho (in tch khng thay i) nh K+ + hay 0 n. Khi lc mnh sn sinh
ra quark s, n lin phn r v mt i k tnh bi lc yu, hn na thc nghim cho bit k tnh
mt i phi di dng thay i in tch s u m khng phi di dng trung ho (in tch
khng thay i) l s d. Khng c dng lc yu thay i hng v m chng thay i in
tch, s trit tiu dng lc yu s d ny chnh l im khi u cho c ch GIM
(Glashow, Iliopoulos, Maiani) tin on s hin hu ca quark duyn m ta s cp sau
Phn IVc .
Tm li lc ht nhn mnh bo ton hng v ca quark, trong khi lc ht nhn yu vi phm
hng v ca n. Khng nhng vi phm hng v, lc yu cn vi phm php i xng triphi (i xng P), v php i xng vt cht-phn vt cht (i xng CP) m chng ta s
cp Phn IV v thuyt in-Yu.
+

Cho n cui nhng nm 1950, vi trm hadron c pht hin bi thc nghim, ngoi cc
hadron bnh thng khng mang hng v nh meson , , ... v baryon N , N ...( l

15
nhng cng hng do nucleon v pion hp t), cn c nhiu hadron khc mang k tnh nh
meson K v baryon 0, , ...
Quan st nhng c trng ca chng (khi lng, spin, cc kiu sn xut v phn r) tm ra
nhng quy lut chi phi chng mt cch nh tnh v sp xp chng mt cch c h thng
theo tng nhm bi (coi hnh 5), nm 1953 Murray Gell-Mann, ng thi vi Kazuhiko
Nishijima v ng nghip Tadao Nakano tm ra mt ng thc mang tn GNN (GellMannNakanoNishijima) ni kt ba i lng Q, Iz, Y ca hadron, vi Q l in tch (tnh
theo n v in tch +e), Iz l thnh phn chiu xung trc z ca vect spin ng v8 I v Y l
siu tch9. l:
Q = Iz + Y/2

(cng thc GNN)

tng ct li trong GNN l phi c mt s lng t mi l no (gi l siu tch Y) c

bo ton trong s sn sinh hadron (c baryon ln meson) bi lc ht nhn mnh, nhng khi
hadron phn r bi lc ht nhn yu th Y khng cn c bo ton na m b vi phm. Ngoi
Y ra, phi b sung thm mt thnh phn no khc na ca hadron din t ng lot hai hin
tng (bo ton v vi phm) tri ngc ny. Thnh phn b khuyt gi l spin ng v (k
hiu Iz) c bo ton bi lc mnh nhng cng b vi phm bi lc yu, hai i lng Y v Iz
ny gn b mt thit vi nhau nh mt quy lut chi phi c ba lc in-t, mnh v yu. Khi
Y thay i mt n v th Iz thay i na n v lm sao cho tng s ca chng li
chnh l in tch Q, mt i lng bt bin ca in-t.
B ngoi c v gin n nhng do tnh ph qut ca cng thc GNN i vi cc ht (hadron,
quark, lepton), cc lc tng tc (mnh, yu, in-t) v cc php i xng, n l kim ch
nam nh hng sau ny cho cu trc ca hai lc yu v in-t trong s thng nht chng
thnh thuyt in-Yu, hai lc u c I 0 (bi Iz ) v I = 0 (bi Y).
ng thc GNN cn c dng tm ra in tch ca quark. Thc th, v phi cn 3 quark
gn kt vi nhau to thnh baryon, nn s baryon b ca quark l (ph ch 9), do :
u (Iz = 1/2, Y = 1/3), d (Iz = 1/2, Y = 1/3), s (Iz = 0, Y = 2/3)
c (Iz = 0, Y = 4/3), b (Iz = 0, Y = 2/3), t (Iz = 0, Y = 4/3)
t y ta tnh c in tch +()e cho ba quark u, c, t v ()e cho d, s, b.
Vic pht hin ra hng v k ca vt cht bi lc mnh m ng cho lc yu pht trin
v a n h qu tuyt vi l s hin hu tt yu ca ba hng v mi l ca vt cht, l:
duyn, y v nh m sau c thc nghim kim chng thnh cng. Meson K0 ng vai
tr quan trng trong mi lin h hu c gia hai lc mnh v yu a n s tin on
ny. Quark duyn bi Sheldon Glashow, John Iliopoulos v Luciano Maiani (c ch GIM),
hai quark y v nh bi Makoto Kobayashi v Toshihide Maskawa (c ch KM) din t s
bt i xng gia vt cht v phn vt cht.
Khng nhng tin on ba hng v mi l ca vt cht m ngay c khi lng ca cc quark
duyn v nh cng c c lng chnh xc bi nhng tnh ton phc tp cc vng kn
lng t, soi ng cho thc nghim d tm v o lng tnh cht ca chng. Php tnh ton
nhng vng kn ny (m Hnh 4 minh ha) c xy dng bi Gerardus t Hooft v ngi
thy hng dn lun n tin s Martinus Veltman. Mc tiu ca hai v l chng minh
thuyt in-Yu ca Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam v Steven Weinberg cng c hon
chnh nh QED ngha l cng nh lc in-t, lc yu c th ti chun ha 10
(renormalization) v t thuyt in-Yu thng hoa v c mt khun kh tnh ton hon
ho, cht ch v nht qun nh QED. Him thy ngnh khoa hc no c ba gii Nobel ch vi
lun n tin s: t Hooft chng minh s ti chun ha ca in-Yu, Politzer v Wilczek vi
t do tim cn (asymptotic freedom) ca quark v gluon trong QCD. in-Yu v QCD l
hai tr ct xy dng nn SM ca vt l ht.

16
IId- Gell-Mann, con s 3 v bt chnh o.
Tm kim mt trt t no gia c mt rng hn lon ca vi trm cc loi hadron c bit
thi 1960, xp t chng mt cch tun t v h thng l mc tiu phi gii quyt trc tin
i xa hn na. Khi u cuc hnh trnh l tng ca Enrico Fermi vi cc ht khng
hng v (quark u, d theo ngn t thi nay), theo meson l hp t ca nucleon v phn
nucleon, ri n Shoichi Sakata m rng sang cc ht c k tnh theo 3 baryon p, n v 0
ng vai tr ch ng cu to nn cc hadron c (v khng c) k tnh. V d + cu to
bi p, K bi 0, nhng Sakata ch gii hn phm vi meson cn i vi nhng baryon
khc nh , 0, , 0 th m hnh Sakata nh b tay, khng th cu to chng vi p, n, 0
mt cch trc tip m phi kt hp vi meson v K to thnh, v d + = 0 +, = 0
K ...
B sung khuyt im v m rng kch bn ca Sakata, Gell-Mann nhn thy l gia cc
hadron (c meson ln baryon) c mt php i xng ng tr chng, l nhm i xng unita
SU(3) ca 3 vt th (quark) b ngoi tng t nh 3 baryon p, n, nhng hon ton khc v
bn cht.
Ch cn 3 vin gch c bn ca vt cht m Gell-Mann gi l 3 quark11 u, d, s cng vi 3
phn quark , , cu to nn tt c cc meson v baryon m ngi ta bit thi im trc
nm 1974, sp xp chng theo mt trnh t nht qun, a ra nhiu tin on m in hnh l
baryon vi khi lng c tnh sn, trc khi thc nghim khm ph ra.

V meson cu to bi quark v phn quark, chng l t hp ca mt trong 3 quark u, d, s gn

ghp vi mt trong 3 phn quark , , , nh vy c thy tng cng c 9 cp quark-phn
quark, chia lm hai biu din 8 v 1 ca nhm SU(3): 3 x 3 = 8 + 1. Biu din 8 gm c d,

u, d, ( u d), ( u + d 2 s), u, s, s theo th t l 8 meson K0, K+, , 0, 0,

+, phn K0 , K ca Hnh 5.
Cn baryon l hp t ca ba quark qi qj qk vi i, j, k l bt k mt trong ba hng v u, d, s,
vy c thy c 33 = 27 b ba: 3 x 3 x 3 = 8 + 8 + 10 + 1. Trong biu din 8 ta nhn ra tm
baryon ca Hnh 5: n, p, 0, , 0, , 0, th d + = uus, = sds (so snh vi m hnh
Sakata + = 0+, = 0K ta thy r s khc bit), trong biu din 10 c baryon = sss
mang spin 3/2, tin on bi Gell-Mann.

17

Hnh 5: Nhm bi hadron (meson v baryon) c sp xp cn i trn hnh tm cnh u n theo to Iz

(trc ngang) v Y (trc thng ng) gp nhau trung tm (0 v 0). Ba i lng Q, Iz v Y ca nhng hadron
tun th ng thc GNN. Gell-Mann gi cch xp t nhm bi hadron theo hnh tm cnh u n l Bt
chnh o, mn ch nh Pht.

Ngoi ra li cn thm mt con s 3 na, nhng ln ny khng phi l 3 hng v u, d, s ca

quark m l 3 sc tch , xanh, lam s c tn dng khm ph ra nh lut c bn chi
phi s vn hnh ca quark, l Sc ng hc lng t (QCD) m Gell-Mann cng gp
phn sng to. Nhm SU(3)C dng trong QCD l nhm i xng gia 3 sc tch, cn phn
bit vi nhm i xng SU(3)F gia 3 hng v u, d, s ca quark m biu din 8 ca n l hai
hnh bt gic trong Hnh 5.
Lc mnh QCD c mt c trng duy nht v c o m cc lc khc khng c, l tnh
cht t do tim cn, theo nhit cao (nng lng E ln) quark v gluon khng gn b
vi nhau na v c t do, hng s tng tc QCD ca chng nh dn nh 1/Log(E) khi E
tng. T do tim cn ca QCD cho php ta dng phng php nhiu lon nh QED trin
khai thnh chui cc ly tha ca QCD 0.
Ngc li nhit bnh thng (E nh), quark v gluon b gi cht trong cc hadron. Tnh
cht l lng v c o ny, mnh danh n l hng ngoi (infrared slavery), coi nh l h qu
ca s ko di lin tc t E ln xung E nh ca 1/Log(E), hm ny tng khi E gim v nh
vy lm cho QCD >> 1.
V E v di R lin i nghch vi nhau theo nguyn l bt nh E R h (coi phn IIb)
nn h qu ca n l hng ngoi l cng ca lc mnh gn kt quark li tng ln vi
khong cch R ca quark, cng y chng ra xa tch ri chng th lc gn kt chng li
cng mnh hn ln ko gi chng li vi nhau. Quark mi mi b cm t trong hadron,
nhit bnh thng trong i sng hng ngy, quark khng sao thot ra ngoi hadron l
mt, khng nh electron nhan nhn khp ni. iu cn nhn mnh l hadron khng mang sc
tch v 3 sc tch ca quark u ha quyn vi nhau lm mt trung bnh hadron c trung
tnh v sc tch, cng nh electron v proton trit tiu in tch ca nhau cc nguyn t
trung ha in tch.
IIe- Quark c tht vi vi thc nghim tiu biu.
Tuy khng trc tip ra mt nh lepton hay boson chun nhng s hin din gin tip ca
quark v gluon rt rch ri trong nhiu thc nghim c lp vi nhau v tnh cht ca chng
c nghim chng chnh xc. Vic truy tm quark, thnh phn s ng cu to nn hadron,
cng ta nh Rutherford nm 1911 khm ph ra proton trong ht nhn nguyn t. Khi bn
chm nguyn t Helium (tia alpha) vo mt phin vng mng, mt phn chm alpha quay
ngc tr li (tn x vi gc ln hn 90), Rutherford suy ra l ht nhn nguyn t phi cha
mt ci g rt nh v cng mang in tch dng nm trung im ca nguyn t,
chnh l ht proton.
Quark cng c pht hin nh vy bi chm electron p mnh vo nucleon v thy xut
hin n bt ng nhiu tn x vi gc rt ln, Hnh 6.
Khi phn tch chi tit cc s liu thc nghim v phn b tn x nng lng cao, iu ngc
nhin tri ngc vi trc gic thng thng l cc thnh phn c bn (quark v gluon) cu to
nn nucleon hu nh khng cht no b gn kt cht ch m li dao ng t do trong nucleon.
Tnh cht t do tim cn ca QCD gii thch iu ny v nng lng cao th hng s tng
tc QCD 0, quark thoi mi vy vng khng b b cht trong hadron.

18

Hnh 6: Pha trn: nu nguyn t c electron v ht nhn tn mc khp ni th chm tia alpha bn vo s i
thng khng b quay ngc tr li. Pha di: v nguyn t c mt ht nhn rt cng v nng nm trong trung
tm, mt phn chm alpha bn vo s b quay ngc tr li vi gc ln hn 90.

in tch phn s ca quark cng c xc nh r rt khi so snh tit din tn x ca electron

v ca neutrino12.
Cn 3 sc tch ca quark cng c chng minh t nht bi hai loi thc nghim hon ton
c lp chng cht g lin i: tit din (e + e + hadrons) v tc phn r ca pion ra
hai photon: 0 + .

V hadron l do quark cu to nn, do s sn sinh hadron bi e + e+ hadrons cng

tng ng nh e + e+ j j + q j vi tng cng tt c 6 hng v (u,d,s,c,b,t) ca quark qj

v phn quark j, chng u c to ra t photon. Thc vy, khi e v phn ht ca n e+ t

hi, chng t hy bin thnh nng lng thun khit tng trng bi photon o vi khi
lng 0 v bng tng nng lng ca e v e+. Khi lng ca photon o ny li sinh ra
cc cp vt cht-phn vt cht, tng trng bi cc cp quark.
Khi so snh e + e+ j ( j + qj ) vi e + e+ + , ta nhn thy v khng c
sc tch v in tch ca muon cng khc quark, nn t s r gia (e + e+ hadrons) v (e
+ e+ + ) chnh l r = Nc j Qj2, vi Nc l s lng ca sc tch (Nc = 3) v Qj l in tch
ca quark j (theo n v +e).
Nu tng nng lng ca cp e + e+ (cng l ca cp quark qj j c sn xut ra) di
ngng khi lng ca cp quark duyn, th r = 3{(2/3)2 + 2(1/3)2} = 2. Nu vt qua
khi lng ca cp quark duyn th r = 3{2(2/3)2 + 2(1/3)2} = 10/3, qu ngng ca quark
y th r = 11/3, tt c cc kt qu trn u c thc nghim kim chng thnh cng. Trn
nguyn tc, gi tr tim cn ca r l r 5 khi vt qu khi lng ca cp quark nh.
ng gp ca 1 vng kn lng t trong QCD cho kt qu chnh xc r = Nc j Qj2 {1+ s /}
vi s 0.15 l hng s tng tc ca QCD, so vi hng s tng tc in-t em 1/137.
Tc phn r ca 0 + tnh ton bng vng lng t hnh tam gic theo quy trnh
0 ( u d) + s cho ta kt qu nh hn thc nghim 9 ln nu ta qun khng tnh
n bnh phng ca h s sc tch (Nc = 3).
u c th l ngu nhin m hai thc nghim hon ton xa l cng a n mt kt lun
chung l quark phi c Nc = 3 sc tch.

Phn III-Sc ng hc lng t (QCD)

19
Chng ti, nhng nh vt l ht, thc s khng my quan tm n ht m ch trng n
nhng nguyn l c bn, chng ti dng ht nh nhng cng c tm hiu nhng
nguyn tc nn tng tim n trong .
Steven Weinberg
Nh mo u phn Nhp , nh lut din t lc mnh gn kt cc ht c bn quark c
gi l Sc ng hc lng t (vit tt QCD). Thut ng sc (sc tch) trong QCD chp mn
ch in (in tch) trong in ng hc lng t (QED).
Nhng nm 1950 thi tin M Hnh Chun, QED l l thuyt hon ho duy nht ca ngnh
vt l ht c bn din t tng tc in-t. QED, m Feynman gi l hn ngc ca l
thuyt trng lng t, t ti mc chnh xc mt phn mi t khi so snh thc nghim v
tnh ton; hai v d l momen-t lng cc d thng ca electron v cc trng thi nng
lng cc k tinh vi ca nguyn t hydrogen.
Nguyn l i xng ng vai tr ct ty cho s hon tt ca QED ni ring v cho s khm
ph nhng nh lut vn hnh v cu trc ca vt l ht c bn ni chung. N ri sng ch
ng pht hin ra hai nh lut tng tc c bn mi l l QCD v in-Yu.
Tht vy, c 3 lc: mnh, in t v yu u b chi phi, iu hnh bi mt nguyn l cn bn
gi l i xng chun nh x (local gauge symmetry), mt cng c nhim mu pht hin
ra c 3 nh lut c bn ni trn. i xng ny xc nh trc ht l phi tn ti nhng boson
chun mang spin 1 truyn ti lc cho quark v lepton tng tc, nhng boson chun ny
tun theo phng trnh Maxwell (cho photon ca lc in-t) v Yang-Mills (cho gluon ca
lc mnh v W, Z ca lc yu).
Lch s khm ph QED thc ra i con ng ngc li: electron v dng in ca n ly
t phng trnh Dirac chnh l ngun to nn trng in-t photon (din t bi phng trnh
Maxwell); t tng hp chng hnh thnh nh lut tng tc gia electron v photon
(QED). Khi phn tch cu trc ton hc ca QED th nguyn l i xng chun nh x c
pht hin. i xng ny t tr thnh ngn hi ng trong ngnh vt l ht, khi khai thc v
m rng n th hai nh lut ca tng tc mnh v yu c khm ph; theo th t chng
mang tn QCD v in-Yu. Tm li:
QED i xng chun nh lut Yang-Mills: QCD v in-Yu
IIIa- Vi iu v i xng.
Trong tin trnh khm ph cc nh lut khoa hc, nhiu nh nghin cu ly ngun cm hng
trong ci p cn i hi ho ca thin nhin quan st, tm ti, suy lun, sng to. Ci p
c th ch quan trong ngh thut, vn chng, hi ha, m nhc nhng trong khoa hc t
nhin n khch quan, nh lng v mang tn gi i xng vi dng c ton hc l nhm i
xng phn tch, xp t th t cc trng thi, pht hin phng trnh din t quy lut tng
tc ca h thng v tin on nhng h qu kim chng bi thc nghim. S tm kim nhng
i xng v s vi phm tun t ca n, cng nh xc nh c nhng g bt bin trong vt l
l phng php ch ng ph bin v hu hiu trong cng cuc khm ph.
i xng c nh ngha theo nh ton hc Hermann Weyl (1885-1955) nh sau: mt nh
lut khoa hc mang mt tnh i xng nu n biu hin khng h thay i khi ta tc ng ln
n bi mt php bin chuyn. Hnh cu l mt minh ho r rt ca mt vt th i xng: php
quay trong khng gian ba chiu vi bt k mt gc no chung quanh tm ca hnh cu khng
lm n thay i hnh dng. Ni cch khc, ng knh ca hnh cu l mt bt bin ca php
quay chung quanh tm ca n.
C hai nh l v cng phong ph - khm ph bi nh n ton hc Emmy Noether nm 1918 theo khi mt tnh i xng chi phi mt h thng vt l no th phi c mt nh lut

20
bo ton km theo, v nh vy phi c mt i lng bt bin tng ng. nh l th nht
lin i n tnh i xng ton b (global symmetry) hm ngha l php bin chuyn khng
ph thuc vo tng im ca khng-thi gian, din t bi t-vect x . nh l th hai lin i
n tnh i xng nh x (local symmetry) hm ngha l php bin chuyn ph thuc vo x ,
n phong ph hn nhiu v nh m pht hin mt trng tng tc mi l gi l boson
chun c spin 1 v iu k diu tip theo l khm ph ra phng trnh din t s tng tc ca
chng.

Bn thn ca mi nh lut cn bn vt l nhiu khi tun th mt php i xng no m

nh nghin cu cn tm kim ra.
V d ca nh l Noether th nht l lut bo ton nng lng, h qu ca tnh i xng ton
b bi s chuyn i tnh tin ca thi gian (mt th nghim thc hin hm nay, nm trc
hay tun sau, trong cng mt iu kin, cng u ging ht nhau). Tnh i xng bi s
chuyn i tnh tin ca khng gian (th nghim thc hin trong cng mt iu kin ti H
Ni, Paris, Washington u nh nhau) cho ta nh lut bo ton xung lng. Hai nh lut bo
ton ny, theo th t, din t tnh ng nht ca thi gian (lc no cng th) v ca khng
gian (u cng vy). Ngoi ra cn c i xng bi php quay chung quanh mt trc, n a
n nh lut bo ton xung lng gc. nh lut ny din t tnh ng hng ca khng gian
(bt k chiu hng no cng tng ng nh nhau). ng nht v ng hng l hai i
xng c bn ca khng gian v thi gian.
Mt v d ca nh l Noether th hai l s bo ton in tch, h qu ca php i xng
chun nh x trong lc in-t. in tch chng bao gi mt i hay sinh ra c, n bt bin bi
php bin chuyn chun (gauge transformation). Danh t chun, cng do Hermann Weyl a
ra, hm l khng c mt thang chun mc, mt thc o tuyt i no trong cch tnh ton,
ong m, o lng gi tr ni ti ca cc i lng khoa hc. Mt hay mt nm nh sng,
n v nhit Fahrenheit hay Celsius u tng ng, ch l c l ca con ngi. Bt
bin bi i xng chun hm l gi tr t ti ca mt i lng khng ph thuc vo
phng cch, mc thc, n v m ta dng o lng, tnh ton.
i xng chun ng mt vai tr cc k quan trng trong tin trnh khm ph, khi u trong
in t v sau lan rng sang nhiu ngnh khoa hc nh vt l ht, vt l cht rn, v tr
thin vn v hnh trung km theo nhng ng dng k diu trong cng ngh lin i n
nhng ngnh ny13.
Vy i xng chun v bin chuyn chun l g? Ai trong chng ta khi lm quen vi c hc
lng t u bit rng bnh phng ln ca hm s sng |(x)|2 ca electron cho ta xc
sut trng thi ca n. Ta thy ngay php bin chuyn chun (x) eie (x) (x) vi bt k
mt hm thc (x) no u khng lm thay i |(x)|2 ca electron. Bin chuyn chun
(chuyn pha) c hai c tnh l lin tc (v (x) l hm lin tc ca x) v nh x. Tnh t
nh x nhn mnh (x) tu thuc vo bin s x, ch vit tt ca t-vect x (ct, x) din t
khng-thi gian bn chiu.

Cng vy phng trnh Maxwell ca photon, din t bi t-vect in th A (x), khng thay
i bi php bin chuyn A (x) A (x) (1/e) (x)/x , ta thm vo hay bt i o hm
(x)/x ca bt k hm (x) no trong A (x) cng khng lm thay i phng trnh
Maxwell. nh lut in-t bt bin bi php bin chuyn A (x) A (x) (1/e) (x)/x v
(x) eie (x) (x) vi bt k hm thc (x) no14.

C th, ta mng tng i xng ny nh sau: in th ca tri t l mt triu volt v hai

cc in trong nh l 1000000 volt v 1000220 volt, nhng my ca chng ta chy vi 220
volt khng h trc trc mc du hng triu volt in th ca qu t. Ci quan trng l hiu s
ca in th ch khng phi bn thn ca in th mi im x ca khng-thi gian. V (x)

21
l bt k hm g, c mun ngn in th ty tin khc nhau mi ni trong hon v bao la,
nhng nh lut chi phi s vn hnh ca chng phi c iu chnh ra sao cho ta mt
trng in t duy nht, lc in t trong my ca chng ta cng l lc in t trn cc thin
th. H qu ca i xng nh x l s lng in tch bao gi cng c bo ton trong cc
qu trnh vt l, chng bt bin vi thi gian v khng gian. l ngha vt l ca cc loi
i xng nh x, n tc ng ln c bn lc c bn: hp dn, mnh, in-t, yu.
IIIb-T i xng n nh lut.
1- Theo thuyt tng i rng (lut hp dn), mi ngi quan st bt k h chuyn ng ra
sao u bnh ng nh nhau, ngi di chuyn vi gia tc cng c th ni h ng yn v h
c th thay th lc m h b tc ng ln bng lc hp dn m h b t vo. S tng ng
gia gia tc v trng lc c th minh ha qua hnh nh quen thuc ca phi hnh gia l lng
ng yn trong ha tin bay vi gia tc ln. N phn nh tng m Einstein coi nh mn
nguyn nht trong i ng: mt ngi rt t trn cao xung khng cm thy sc nng ca
mnh. Theo ngha , lc hp dn tun th mt php i xng nh x, n bo m rng tt
c cc h quy chiu mi im ca khng-thi gian u tng ng vi nhau.
2- i xng chun nh x khng nh tnh bt bin ca nh lut in-t bi nhng chuyn
di ca in tch t im ny n im kia ca khng-thi gian. Cng th, i vi lc mnh
ca ht nhn nguyn t th hai ht proton v neutron u hon ton bnh ng, nh lut tng
tc mnh ca ht nhn khng thay i bi s hon chuyn proton neutron bt k im
no trong khng-thi gian.
V y l im ct li: S tng ng ca mi h quy chiu (bt k chng chuyn ng c
hay khng c gia tc) i hi phi c lut hp dn v xc nh c lut hp dn di dng
phng trnh Einstein ca thuyt tng i rng15.
3- nh lut tng tc in-t gia electron vi photon cng c th c pht hin nh vy.
M u ch c mt trng electron (x), vi iu kin l hon chuyn (x) eie (x) (x)
khng lm bin i dng ca hm Lagrange16 (x)(i mc)(x) ca electron. i hi
ny a ti h qu l phi hin hu mt trng t-vect A (x). Thc vy, o hm /x
p t ln eie (x) (x) b buc mt trng A (x) no phi hin hu v phi hon chuyn ra
sao trit tiu h s (x) v gp phn lm cho hm Lagrange bt bin bi hon chuyn
(x) eie (x) (x). Hn na, trng A (x) v tenx lin i F A (x) A (x) li tun th
phng trnh Maxwell, vy A (x) chnh l trng photon. Kt qu cui cng cho hm
Lagrange bt bin l c hai trng electron (x) v photon A (x) phi gn kt di dng
e (x) (x)A (x), m cng thc ny chnh l nh lut tng tc in-t (QED) gia electron
vi photon, k th thay!

4- Cng theo cch lp lun nh trn, ta s i t i xng gia proton v neutron trong cc
qu trnh ca ht nhn nguyn t pht hin ra nh lut tng tc ca chng, nh lut ny
l phin bn u tin ca l thuyt chun Yang-Mills. Thc th neutron ging ht nh proton
trong nhng tc ng ca chng lnh vc ht nhn nguyn t, vy php i xng nh x
gia hai thnh phn proton v neutron ca nucleon ( bt k mt im no ca khng-thi
gian) i hi tng tc mnh phi c din t di dng ca mt phng trnh c th no
.
Chen Ning Yang cng ng nghip Robert Mills bn lun v tnh bt bin ca lc mnh di
s hon chuyn proton neutron v tm ra nh lut tng tc p ng php i xng ny.
Cng trnh cc k phong ph gi l l thuyt chun Yang-Mills17 vi nhm i xng
SU(2) gia hai i tng l proton v neutron.

22
M phng phng php ny vo trng hp ca quark mang sc tch bng cch thay th
nhm i xng SU(2) gia proton v neutron bi nhm i xng SU(3)C gia 3 sc tch ca
quark, thuyt Yang-Mills xy dng vi SU(3)C do mang tn Sc ng hc lng t (QCD)
v boson chun ca n l gluon.
i xng chun nh x gia ba sc tch ca quark din t tnh bt bin ca QCD bi nhng
chuyn ri ca sc tch t mt im khng-thi gian ny n mt im khng-thi gian kia.
IIIc- T do tim cn v n l hng ngoi.
V mt cu trc ton hc th s hon chuyn ca N vt th bi nhm i xng SU(N) c
biu din vi (N2 1) ma trn N N, tng ng vi (N2 1) boson chun ni kt N vt th
vi nhau. Vi nhm SU(2) ta c 3 ma trn Pauli, vi nhm SU(3) ta c 8 ma trn Gell-Mann
v QCD c 8 boson chun (gluon) ni kt quark; c gluon ln quark u mang sc tch. V
nhng ma trn ca SU(N) phn giao hon (ab ba) nn i xng chun vi nhm SU(N)
mang tn i xng chun khng giao hon.
Mt h qu c o do tnh khng giao hon ca nhm SU(N) trong l thuyt Yang-Mills ni
chung (v nhm SU(3)C trong QCD ni ring) l cc (N2 1) boson chun phi trc tip tc
ng gia chng vi nhau, khc vi in-t khng c tng tc trc tip ny. Thc th nhm
i xng U(1) ca QED l eie (x) ch c mt thng s (x), tng ng vi mt boson chun
(photon) nn ng nhin i xng chun U(1) giao hon. Theo nh l Noether, h qu ca
i xng SU(3)C trong QCD l s bo ton sc tch, cng nh h qu ca i xng U(1) trong
QED l s bo ton in tch.
Tc ng trc tip vi nhau gia cc gluon l gc ngun ca tnh cht t do tim cn18,
theo , cng ca lc mnh gim i khi nng-xung lng E dng thm d quark tng
ln, hng s tng tc QCD nh dn nh 1/Log(E) khi E tng. Trong vng nng lng cao,
quark v gluon khng lin kt cht ch vi nhau na v c t do; ngc li, vng nng
lng thp (nhit bnh thng), quark v gluon b gi cht trong cc hadron. Tnh cht l
lng ny, mnh danh n l hng ngoi, c th coi nh h qu ca s ni di lin tc t E
ln xung E nh ca hm 1/Log(E), hm ny tng khi E gim lm cho QCD >> 1. V khong
cch khng gian R v nng-xung lng E t l nghch theo nguyn l bt nh, tnh n l
hng ngoi khin cho cng QCD ca lc mnh gn quark vi nhau li tng ln vi
khong cch ca hai quark, cng y chng ra xa tch ri chng th lc gn kt chng li
cng mnh hn ln ko gi chng vi nhau, tri ngc vi lc Coulomb ca in-t b
gim theo bnh phng ca khong cch gia hai in tch. Quark b cm t trong hadron,
nhit bnh thung chng khng sao thot ra ngoi l mt. Tnh cht c o t do tim
cn ca QCD mang gii Nobel 2004 cho Gross, Politzer v Wilczek.
Khi phn tch chi tit cc s liu thc nghim v phn b tn x, iu ngc nhin l nng
lng cao (nhit ln), cc thnh phn c bn quark v gluon hu nh khng cht no b
gn kt cht ch trong cc hadron. Tnh t do tim cn ca QCD gii thch iu ny v nng
lng cao th lc mnh nh dn, quark thoi mi vy vng t do trong hadron. Cng vy
trong my gia tc c nng lng cao hay cc thin th bng pht, c tnh t do tim cn
tin on quark cng nh gluon khng cn gn cht vi nhau na m tp hp v m ca
chng tr thnh lng v qunh nh mt, mt trng thi mi ca vt cht gi l quark-gluon
plasma. Trong nhng giy pht u tin ca V N Ln BigBang vi nng lng, nhit ,
p sut, mt cao cng cc, quark v gluon hon ton t do khng cn cht no gn kt,
tng tc vi nhau, vt l thi nguyn thy thc l n s! Khi v tr ngui dn, entropy tng
trng, lc mnh gia quark gluon tng dn, gn kt chng thnh hadron v vt cht ni
chung tr nn phc tp.
c im cn nhn mnh ca i xng chun nh x l n i hi cc boson chun - lm
trung gian s gi cho nhng trng vt cht quark v lepton tng tc vi nhau - phi khng

23
c khi lng19. Photon hay gluon l v d ca boson chun khng c khi lng. cng l
iu kin tin quyt cho s ti chun ha thnh cng ca QED v QCD.
Cui cng cn li lc yu. i xng chun, mt nguyn l mu nhim, c th ng vai tr
no cho lc yu khng? Nhn b ngoi th v vng v khi lng MW ca ht trung gian
truyn ti lc yu khng nhng khc 0 m li rt ln theo nguyn l bt nh (MW /RW) m
di truyn ti ca lc yu RW th cc k nh v n ch tc ng trong ht nhn nguyn t.
y vy m cu hi mang v tuyt vng ni trn c c li gii p, nhng phi qua nhiu
chng ng kh khn m ngon mc mang tn gi l s ph v t pht ca i xng chun
nh x, iu lin i n boson Higgs cp sau Phn IV v thuyt in-Yu.

Phn IV-Hp m trong vng in-Yu

L do hin nhin l hu ht cc thnh vin ch cht ca ban L thuyt CERN khng
quan tm ti tng tc yu v khng tuyn dng nhng nh vt l tr c tim nng lm
vic .
John Iliopoulos, Lch s ca CERN (1993)
Trong nhng phn trc, chng ta lm quen vi hai trong ba lc c bn ca T nhin: lc
in-t (QED) v lc ht nhn mnh (QCD), phn cui ny dnh cho lc ht nhn yu. Quark
c in tch v sc tch nn b chi phi bi c ba lc: in-t, ht nhn mnh, ht nhn yu.
Electron, muon, tauon mang in tch nhng khng c sc tch nn chu s tc ng ca hai
lc: in-t v yu. Neutrino khng c c sc tch ln in tch nn duy nht ch c lc yu
iu hnh chng.
Thut ng yu thong nghe nh chuyn ph vn, ngay c i vi nhiu nh vt l ht trc
nm 1970 nh Iliopoulos nhc nh trn y. Thc ra ngc li mi ng khi bit rng lc yu
chi phi s phn r ca ht nhn nguyn t, ch cht iu hnh nhng phn ng nhit hch
trong cc thin th, pht tn nng lng cc k cao mang nh sng cho bu tri ban m,
phng ra mun t ht neutrino tng giy pht ang xuyn qua da tht chng ta. S tng hp
nhit hch trong tm li mt tri lm n nng rc ti chng 20 triu l hin tng pht x
neutrino bi lc yu (Hnh 7).

Hnh 7: tng hp nhit hch: 4 H He + 2 e+ + 2 e

Mi cch y c 18 ngn nm trong giai on cui cng ca thi k bng h, tuyt ph dy

c bao trm phn ln tri t, ngay c vng xch o. Ngi tin s c th thot khi nn
tuyt chng bi ci lnh kinh hong ny, v may thay trong thi k bng lnh th ni la li
hot ng cc k mnh, kh nng lan to nhanh chng xung mt t qua hin tng nh
knh. Nhit lng phun ra t ni la l do phng x neutrino ca Uranium trung tm tri
t.

24
Tin trnh tm hiu v khm ph nh lut ca tng tc yu khong u nhng nm 1970
ng vai tr quyt nh v m ng khai phng cho Vt l Ht thng hoa vi nhng pht
hin k diu nh:
ba hng v mi ca vt cht l duyn (charm), y (bottom), nh (top);
boson chun ca lc yu W v Z;
ch hin hu c ba loi neutrino vi khi lng cc k nh, nhng khi lng qu nh b
c th o lng bng cch xc nh s hon chuyn gia ba loi neutrino e ;
boson Higgs mang khi lng cho vn vt v tr hnh thnh trong c con ngi.
C hai lc mnh v yu u c din t bi thuyt Yang-Mills vi nhm i xng SU(3)C
ca ba sc tch cho lc mnh v nhm i xng SU(2)W ca cp i quark u, d (hay cp i
lepton e , e) cho lc yu. Hn na lc in-t (nhm i xng U(1)) li ha nhp vi lc yu
nn cu trc ca SM c biu din ngn gn nh tch s ca ba nhm i xng : SU(3)C
SU(2)W U(1) theo th t chi phi ba lc mnh, yu v in-t.

IVa- Neutrino, ci thu ban u.

S pht hin ra lc yu m u nm 1896 khi Henri Becquerel (gii Nobel 1903) quan st
thy mt s ht nhn nguyn t t nhin phng x m khng do mt tc ng no t bn
ngoi. Mt trong nhng bc x t nhin l s phn r Carbon-14 ra Nitrogen-14 km theo
electron v neutrino gi l phn r , din t bi n p + e + e.

Thc ra trc nm 1930 chng ai ng thi c neutrino c m ch bit electron thi v ngh
rng n p + e , nhng nu th th lut bo ton nng lng b buc electron ch c mt nng
lng duy nht l E = En Ep. Ngc nhin bit my khi o lng nng lng ca electron, th
thy ph nng lng ca n l c mt ng cong lin tc vi bt k mt tr s no nm gia
0 v En Ep. Chng l nh lut ph qut nht ca khoa hc, nh lut bo ton nng lng,
li b vi phm trong trng hp c bit ca phn r sao? Ngay c Niels Bohr (gii Nobel
1922), v trng lo ca trng phi Copenhagen v cch din gii c hc lng t, ngi t
nn tng cho l thuyt nguyn t, cng min cng chp nhn s vi phm ny.

Nhng Wolfgang Pauli (gii Nobel 1945) khng th ng vi cch tha hip d di y ca
Bohr, bo ton nng lng l nh lut ph qut m tt c mi hin tng phi tuyt i tun
th. gii p nghch l ny, nm 1931, Pauli gi nh l c mt ci g pht ra cng vi
electron (s n p + electron + ci g ) chia s vi n tng s nng lng En Ep. V
neutron trung ho in tch v cp proton-electron trit tiu in tch ca nhau nn ht gi
nh bi Pauli phi trung ha khng mang in tch, n cng phi mang spin nh electron
v hu nh khng c khi lng. Hn na, so vi phng x rt nhanh ca in t (nh tia X)
th phn r li rt chm chp, cng phn r rt nh nn c gi l lc yu v neutrino
hon ton b chi phi bi lc ny. Khc vi electron mang in tch, ht gi nh bi Pauli
nh nh t v vn hnh duy nht bi mt lc m cng tng tc li rt nh nn xc nh
s hin hu ca n bng thc nghim l mt iu cc k kh khn v Pauli nh tuyn b:
Ti cht phm mt iu tai qui l gi nh s tn ti ca mt ht nhng li khng c phng
cch thc nghim no d tm ra n c.
T nay mang k hiu , ht ma rt kh nm bt ny chnh l neutrino (neutron nh), tn t
bi Enrico Fermi (gii Nobel 1938), v gio hong ca nn vt l , khi ng ghp trung ho
(neutro) vi nh xu (ino), hai ngn t gn b vi qu hng ng. Ln u tin nm 1955 ht
e c pht hin bi Clyde Cowan v Frederick Reines (gii Nobel 1995) trong mt thc
nghim l in ht nhn Savannah River. Ngy nay chm neutrino c sn sinh d dng t
cc my gia tc ht m LHC ca CERN ng vai tr hng u th gii.
Nhng neutrino khng ch sn sinh trn tri t, cn c mun t neutrino trong v tr t cc
thin th xa xm k c mt tri n vi chng ta, vn l lm sao d c ra, ri xc nh

25
cng o lng tnh cht ca chng. Cc nh vt l-thin vn dng nhiu my mc rt khc
nhau tm bt, quan st neutrino.

Hnh 8: My d neutrino Super-Kamiokande

Kamiokande (Nht), my d l mt bnh khng l cha 50 ngn m3 nc tinh khit nh pha

l trong lung linh hng ngn thit b in t tinh vi t di hm m thic (Hnh 8), nhm
IMB t my trong hm m mui Ohio (M), Baksan (Nga) i quan st neutrino t su
trong rng ni Caucasus. Ngy 23 thng 2 nm 1987 ba i thin vn-neutrino ny quan
st o lng c c thy 24 ht n t mt siu tn tinh (supernova) SN1987A trong thin
h ln Magellan (st cnh Di Ngn h) cch y 163 ngn nm n bng, m chi sng
rc r tng ng vi mi t mt tri v pht tn hng h sa s, tng cng 1058 ht
neutrino.
IVb- Thi xa vng.
1- Do thc nghim pht hin ra, lc yu c c im l n vi phm i xng gng (P) v i
xng vt cht-phn vt cht (CP) trong khi cc lc in-t v mnh tun th hai i xng
ny. P v CP l nhng i xng gin on, khc vi tnh lin tc ca i xng chun. Bn
hnh dung i xng gng nh sau: tay phi (hay tri) ca ta c hnh trong gng ht nh tay
tri (hay phi), v ci ta gi l pha phi hay pha tri ch l mt c l gia con ngi. Khng
c g cho ta phn bit c mt hin tng ngoi gng v hnh chiu ca hin tng
trong gng, s o ngc khng gian x x khng lm thay i nhng hin tng, chng
bt bin. Thp ra c knh soi hnh xung nc trong vt pha l ca H Gm ma thu l
biu hin ca i xng gng ton vn, thp vi hnh chng sao phn bit.
Khong u nhng nm 1950 thc nghim pht hin mt iu kh hiu l meson K+ lc th
phn r ra 2 pion, lc ra 3 pion. Nu lc yu tun th i xng gng th l mt nghch l
v tnh chn l ni ti20 ca K+ (meson 0 ) b buc n ch c phn r ra 3 pion thi. Hai nh
vt l Trung Quc M L Chnh o (T.D. Lee) v Dng Chn Ninh (C. N. Yang), gii
Nobel 1957 khi tm hiu v phn tch nghch l trn bn gi nh l lc yu vi phm i
xng gng P. Cng lm vic i hc Columbia nh L Chnh o, nh n vt l thc
nghim Ng Kin Hng (Chien-Shiung Wu) bn lun vi ng v phng cch kim chng
gi thuyt ny bi thc nghim v h nhn ra vai tr quyt nh ca spin trong v kim chng
s vi phm i xng gng. B Wu khm ph trong qu trnh phn r ca Cobalt phn cc
l electron ch pht ra theo pha ngc chiu vi trc phn cc ca Cobalt21; r rng c mt
bt i xng trong s phn phi electron chung quanh trc phn cc, chng t lc yu vi
phm ti a i xng gng.

26
2- Mt th d khc l i xng vt cht - phn vt cht hay i xng CP, theo cc nh
lut vn hnh ca vt cht v ca phn vt cht phi ging ht nhau. Ch C trong CP ch nh
in tch v s hon chuyn vt cht phn vt cht l thay i du ca in tch e e+. S
hon chuyn vt cht phn vt cht cng lm hon chuyn tri phi (i xng gng
P), c hai i xng C v P u i du nn tch CP khng i du, do CP din t s i
xng vt cht - phn vt cht.
Cn nhn mnh l trong tt c cc ht trung ha in tch, khng phi lc no ht v phn ht
cng l mt (nh photon, meson 0, 0 , 0). Phn ln nhng hadron trung ho in tch nh
neutron, meson K0, baryon 0, meson B0 u khc phn ht ca chng.
Trng hp neutrino rt c th v n l ht c bn duy nht trung ha in tch (quark v ba
lepton e , , u khng th), v cu hi neutrino v phn neutrino c khc nhau khng?
cha c thc nghim tr li. Nu chng khc nhau th chng c g l, chuyn bnh thng
nh neutron khc phn neutron thi v c gi l neutrino Dirac. Nhng nu khng,
neutrino cng chnh l phn neutrino, th chng l neutrino Majorana. Bn cht ca neutrino
Majorana cc k quan trng v n vi phm lut bo ton s lng lepton m h qu l s hin
hu ca phn r kp 0 neutrino: n + n p + p + e + e . V u n + n khng c lepton, v
sau c hai electron, vy s lng lepton khng bo ton. Nu neutrino l loi Dirac th phn r
kp phi km theo hai e : n + n p + p + e + e + e + e , vi hai e (phn lepton) v
hai e (lepton) v sau th s lng lepton c bo ton.

Nu phn r kp vng bng neutrino c thc nghim pht hin th chc chn s l mt
bc ngot ca ngnh vt l ht v n vt ra ngoi khun kh ca SM, thuyt ny s phi
m rng sang mt h hnh mi.
Nm 1964, James Cronin v Van Fitch cng hai cng s vin pht hin s vi phm i xng
CP bi meson K0L trung tnh (K0L ch phn r ra 3 pion nu lc yu tun th CP, nhng n
cng phn r ra 2 pion, tuy t xy ra hn so vi 3 pion, nh vy vi phm chng mc CP) v
hai v nhn gii Nobel 1980. S vi phm i xng CP ca lc yu c xc nhn sau bi
nhiu thc nghim khc nhau lin i n cc hadron K (mang k tnh) v B (mang y tnh).
Trong ba tng tc c bn phi hp dn, lc in-t v ht nhn mnh u tun th php i
xng gin on P v CP, ch lc ht nhn yu mi vi phm chng, ti a vi i xng P, i
cht vi i xng CP: lc yu ca ht v ca phn ht khc nhau mc va phi.
3- Cho n u nhng nm 1970, trc khi SM c hon tt, lc yu22 c tip cn di
nhn quan mang tnh cht tm thi v hiu dng gi l thuyt Fermi. Thc vy, mc du
thuyt ny din t chnh xc nhng qu trnh phn r nng lng thp, nhng nng lng
cao E 600 GeV, n t mu thun. Ngun gc ca nghch l ny l thuyt Fermi ch yu
din t tc ng ca 4 fermion t chung mt im x (Ch thch 22). V t chung mt im
nn bin tng tc ca chng tnh ra l GFE2, nhng nu E 600 GeV th bin ny c
xc sut 1, iu ti k.
Chin lc t ra gii quyt nghch l ni trn l xem lc yu c tun th mt php i
xng chun no khng, v nu c th nh lut c bn ca lc yu trnh c khuyt im ca
thuyt Fermi (do hm truyn ca boson trung gian W nn 4 fermion khng t mt im m
tch ra 2 im, coi hnh f Ch thch 22), do c nhiu kh nng lc yu cng c hon
chnh nh lc in-t. Nhng li ny ra chuyn hc ba l ging nh photon ca in-t, i
xng chun b buc boson truyn ti lc yu W phi khng c khi lng23, iu tri ngc
vi thc nghim24.
Gii p tha ng vn trn l c mt bc ngot lch s trong tin trnh khm ph SM v
cn phi vt qua hai giai on hu nh kh dung ho: (a) xc nhn nh lut ca lc yu l
l thuyt chun Yang-Mills v (b) ph v t pht php i xng chun mang khi lng
cho boson chun ca lc yu. Nm na nh mt vin nm trng c hai ch: va c i

27
xng chun va c khi lng cho boson chun! ngha ca s ph v t pht i xng
chun l thc ra i xng ny khng b ph v hon ton m ch b che khut cc b bi h
thng vt cht trong trng thi cn bn vi nng lng ti thiu.

IVc- My dm sn kh
Trc khi i xa hn trong qu trnh vt khi thuyt Fermi t nn tng nht qun cho lc
yu qua hai giai on ni trn, chng ta hy tm tt nhng nt chnh ca lc ny:
1- Khi quan st v phn tch nhng hin tng xy ra bi tc ng ca lc yu, c my c
tnh sau y cn nhn mnh:
th nht l dng lc yu thay i in tch khi phn r , th d n p, + 0 ca hadron
(tng trng bi quark d u) v , e e ca lepton;
th hai l nhng hadron mang hng v (nh k tnh) khi phn r v thay i in tch nh
0 p, K0 + (tng trng bi quark s u) u c cng kh nh khong 5% so vi
phn r ca nhng hadron bnh thng khng hng v nh n p, + 0.
gii thch nhng hin tng ny, thay v c hai loi quark phn r bit lp d u v s u,
Nicola Cabibbo xut l hai quark d v s hn hp bi gc c khi phn r ra quark u theo nh
s (d cosc + s sinc ) u; khc vi cc lepton khng hn hp nh , e e.
So snh s sinc u vi d cosc u, con s 5% (0.22)2 = tan2c phn nh chnh xc cng
phn r ca k tnh 0 p, K0 + so vi n p, + 0 ca hadron khng hng v.
V cos2 c 0.95, s phn r ca hadron n p (tng ng vi d cosc u) phi nh hn
cht xu phn r ca lepton , iu xc nh bi thc nghim.
V K0 v 0 u phn r ra 2 hoc 3 pion, K0 pion 0 nn h qu l phi c s chuyn
bin l thng: vt cht c th tr thnh phn vt cht m 0 0 l mt v d. Tuy nhin
tnh ton theo thuyt Fermi a n kt qu bt ng l chuyn bin vt cht phn vt cht
ln hn o lng thc nghim c vi ngn ln.

Ngoi ra cn mt c tnh th ba kh hiu l nhng loi phn r trung tnh i hng v

(flavor changing neutral current) u rt him so vi nhng loi phn r in tch i hng
v (flavor changing charged current), th d 0 + + khong 10 4 so vi + + + m
tin nghim th khng thy chng c g khc nhau qu ng nh vy.

gii quyt nhng nghch l ny, nm 1970 Glashow, Iliopoulos, Maiani (c ch GIM)
xut l phi tn ti mt loi quark th t mi l gi l quark duyn c trc giao vi quark u
theo nh s (s cosc d sinc ) c km theo (d cosc + s sinc) u phn no trit
tiu loi phn r trung tnh i hng v s d. Hn na, s trit tiu c th tnh ton thnh
hiu s gia khi lng ca hai quark c v u, do khi lng ca c 1.5 GeV/c2 c tin
on trc khi pht hin quark duyn thng 11 nm 1974 ng thi Stanford v
Brookhaven vi ht J/(3.1) v mt lot cc ht charmonium khc. S kin pht hin ny
c mnh danh sau l cuc cch mng thng 11 ca vt l ht v n m u cho SM
thng hoa.
2- Nh trnh by, lc yu vi phm i xng CP, tng tc yu ca vt cht v ca phn
vt cht khc nhau. Trong bi cnh 1973 ca vt l ht thi y ang bui s khai, hai nh
vt l Nht bn Makoto Kobayashi v Toshihide Maskawa (KM), gii Nobel 2008 tin phong
i tm hiu c ch no cho php s vi phm ny. Trc ht KM nhn ra l hn hp ca cc
quark khng ch l mt tin ad-hoc a ra bi Cabibbo25 m cn phi m rng thnh ma
trn 22 vi nhng h s (cosc, sinc) trc giao vi ( sinc, cosc) qua GIM tin on
quark duyn. Sau nhiu cuc vt ln vi ton ng dng, hai v tm ra l ma trn unita 22

28
ni trn ch c h s thc nn khng th vi phm i xng CP c. Thc vy, s vi phm
CP ch c th xy ra nu ma trn unita hn hp quark c h s phc26. KM chng minh l
nu c N cp quark phn r th ma trn NN s c h s phc nu (N1)(N2) 2, vy N 3.
Phi hin hu t nht l ba cp hay su quark cho i xng CP b vi phm.
T y ra i ma trn phc unita 33 CKM (Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa), mt thnh phn
c bn trong cu trc ca lc yu.
Thc l mt tr tng tng phong ph v vo thi bui y quark ch l mt gi thuyt, mt
ti t nh, nhiu ngi bi bc k c nhng cy i th nh S.Weinberg, v ngay c nu chp
nhn gi thuyt quark th lc y ch bit c ba quark u, d, s cng lm l thm c thnh bn
quark thi. Thc nghim lin tip chng t sau ny s ng n, chnh xc ca c ch vi
phm CP m Kobayashi v Maskawa (KM) xng. Nm 1974 quark duyn bt u l din
ri quark y (nm 1977) v quark nh (nm 1994).
Khm ph ca GIM v KM gp phn cc k quan trng cho s hnh thnh ca SM. Chnh su
quark trong Hnh 1 sp dc theo ba cp quark (u-d, c-s, t-b) din t tt c nhng c trng
ca lc yu vi ma trn 33 CKM hn hp ba cp quark ni trn. Su lepton cng sp dc
theo tng cp (e - e, - , - ) nhng vi ma trn hn hp cc lepton khc vi ma trn
CKM hn hp cc quark din t s hon chuyn gia 3 loi neutrino e ni
on u ca Phn IV.

Bi hc rt ta t l gia trm ngn cc hin tng vt l ri rm, iu quan trng l bit

nhn xt, phn tch d kin, phn bit ci chnh ci ph v t nhng cu hi ct li c ni
dung bao qut, tng quan. Khi u cc tc gi u tp trung nghin cu v nhng c trng
ca lc yu: k tnh bin ha v vi phm i xng CP, h qu bt ng li chuyn sang a ht
ca lc mnh vi s pht hin ra ba loi quark vt cht mi l l duyn, y v nh. Nh ai
c cu t trng vn l gii quyt c na phn ri .
IVd- Lc yu xut pht t i xng chun Yang-Mills
1-Khong nhng nm u 1950, nhiu nh vt l (trong Sidney Bludman, John Clive
Ward) tinh nhn ra l gia hai tng tc in-t v yu c nhiu cu trc v tnh cht
ng nht, vy hu nh l chuyn ng nhin nu ta s dng phng php rt hiu lc ca
i xng chun trong in-t khm ph nhng nh lut vn hnh ca lc yu.
c th ca lc yu l s phn r theo cc cp quark hay cp lepton thay i mt n v
in tch. Ly trng hp ca cp lepton e v e (hay cp quark u v d) nh mt v d. Di
tc ng ca lc yu, chng thay i in tch e e (hay u d ) vi cu trc vect quay
v tri (V A) ca dng lc yu gia hai i tng e v e (Ch thch 22). Vy hu nh
ng nhin nhm i xng p ng tnh bt bin ca lc yu bi s hon chuyn ca hai i
tng e v e chnh l nhm SU(2) m ta lm quen vi thuyt Yang-Mills phn IIIb, ch
cn thay th cp p-n thnh cp e-e .

Ni chung, nhm i xng SU(N) hon chuyn N vt bng (N2 1) ma trn NN, tng ng
vi (N2 1) boson chun ni kt N vt ny. Vy nhm i xng chun SU(2) ca lc yu c 3
boson chun W+, W , W3 ni kt e e + W , e e + W+, e e + W3, e e + W3. S
hin din ca boson W3 v dng lc yu trung ha in tch e e + W3 gi ngay ra mi lin
h no vi dng lc in-t quen thuc ca electron e e + , ci khc nhau duy nht
gia chng l cu trc vect (V A) quay v tri ca dng lc yu, trong khi dng lc int ch c cu trc vect V.

Cn qu trnh vi neutrino: e e + W3 th hon ton mi l v trc ta ch bit lc yu

thay i in tch ca cc ht nh e e hay e e .

29
chng minh tnh ng n ca thuyt Yang-Mills dng nhm i xng chun SU(2) nh
phc ho trn, vic u tin l kim chng xem c tn x khng thay i in tch chng.
Tn x thay i in tch th bnh thng v dng lc yu thay i in tch (m e e l v
d), tri li khng thay i in tch th hon ton mi l. Nhm thc nghim Gargamelle
CERN nm 1973 cho kt qu e + nucleon e+ hadron (khng thay i in tch), ng
nh tin on ca thuyt in-yu; mt s kin lch s ca vt l ht, chng t SM vi thuyt
Yang-Mills i ng hng.

V y l im then cht trong tin trnh xy dng cu trc ca SM: khi lc yu b chi phi
bi i xng SU(2) th cc cp i lepton hay quark (e v e , u v d nh vi v d) u c spin
ng v I = , v nh vy ng thc ph qut ca Gell-MannNakanoNishijima (GNN) m
ta lm quen IIc ng nhin ng vai tr hng dn cho s hp nht ca hai lc in-t
v ht nhn yu v c hai lc u c chung cu trc Q = Iz + Y/2.

V boson W3 l thnh phn th ba tng ng vi Iz 0 nn Glashow (nm 1960) v sau

Salam, Weinberg (nm 1967) nhn nh l phi thm mt boson mi l X tng ng vi siu
tch Y/2, c hai W3 v X u trung ha in tch. S lin kt gia hai lc in-t v yu c
thc hin bng s hn hp27 t nhin (qua mt thng s gc w) gia hai boson W3 ca Iz v X
ca Y/2, hoc l gia hai boson chun: Z ca lc yu v photon ca lc in-t. Hn na
cng ca hai lc yu v in-t cng lin kt qua gc w.
Cho n giai on xy dng cu trc lin kt hai lc in-t v yu qua thuyt Yang-Mills
SU(2) U(1) ny, tt c bn boson chun (ba ca lc yu W+, W , Z v mt ca lc in-t )
u khng c khi lng v chng tun th i xng chun.

2- Giai on tip l lm sao mang khi lng rt ln cho W+, W , Z ca lc yu ph hp

vi thc nghim, trong khi photon ca lc in-t vn gi khi lng bng 0 ? Thch thc
ny c gii p bi c ch mang tn Ph v t pht tnh i xng (Spontaneous Breaking
of Symmetry, vit tt SBS) m Yoichiro Nambu (gii Nobel 2008) m ng khai sng.

Trong vt l, cng nh trong nhiu ngnh khc, c mt s nh nh khoa hc kin thc xuyn
ngnh uyn thm, nhn rng ra ngoi ci chuyn mn ca mnh, tm hiu nhng g ph qut
mang li cho ngnh mnh mt lung gi mi. Nh vt l Nht bn Nambu i hc
Chicago l mt trong s . Chuyn gia v ht c bn nhng ng cng lu tm v c ci nhn
bao qut v hin tng Siu dn in-t khc l vi Vt l ht. ng xt thy c ci g lin kt
hai ngnh - cu trc ton hc th ging nhau nhng vt l th li khc bit - v nhn ra c
tnh cht c th ca SBS m hin tng Siu dn in-t l mt biu hin.
M phng hin tng SBS, Peter Higgs v ng nghip sng to ra c ch BEH (Brout,
Englert, Higgs)28 bng cch gi nh l phi hin hu mt trng (x) v hng gi l trng
Higgs tc ng ln cc boson chun mang khi lng cho chng. Nguyn nhn no thc
y Nambu nhn chn ra SBS v su nh vt l xut c ch BEH? l s tm hiu ti sao
ht nh sng (photon ) khng khi lng li tr thnh c khi lng khi n di chuyn trong
cc vt liu siu dn in-t.
Sau Abdus Salam v Steven Weinberg (gii Nobel 1979) dng kch bn BEH xy dng
nn thuyt in-yu v tin on boson Z vi dng lc yu trung ha in tch m biu hin
c trng nht l s tn x n hi ca neutrino khm ph bi thc nghim Gargamelle29
CERN vo nm 1973.
Tuy W , Z c khi lng nhng khi lng ny khng ph v i xng chun SU(2) ca lc
yu, i xng ch b thu hp, che khut bi h thng vt cht trong chn khng (trng thi c
nng lng cc tiu), tng t nh photon tuy c khi lng trng thi siu dn in-t

30
(hiu ng Meissner) nhng i xng chun U(1) ca lc in-t u c b ph v trong ton
th.
IVe- S ph v t pht tnh i xng (SBS)
1- Vi khi nim s lc: Ta cn phn bit hai iu quan trng khi bn lun v tnh i
xng: mt l nh lut vt l din t bi phng trnh, hai l trng thi ca h thng vt l
din t bi nghim s ca phng trnh trn. S ph v t pht ca tnh i xng hm ngha
l nh lut (hay phng trnh) mang mt php i xng no , trong khi nghim s ca
phng trnh y li khng c ci i xng nguyn thy, tnh i xng b thu hp li nhng
khng mt i trong h thng vt cht. Tm ra phng trnh (hay nh lut vt l) l mt
chuyn, cn gii c c nghim s tha mn iu kin ban u no li l chuyn khc.
y iu kin ban u l nng lng cc tiu v nghim s tng ng gi l trng thi cn
bn hay chn khng. i xng b ph v mt cch t pht nu phng trnh din t nh lut
vt l th i xng nhng trng thi cn bn th khng. i xng khng b ph v hon ton
m n ch b thu hp, che khut bi vt cht trong trng thi cn bn.
Mt n d c th minh ha khi nim ni trn: ta n u mt thanh g do t thng ng
trn bn, lc n c i xng hon ho so vo trc thng Oz ca thanh g trc khi b n, lc
ny khng u i bt k mt mt phng thng ng no trong khng gian ba chiu, chng
hon ton bnh ng. Nhng h thng vt cht (thanh g b n) s cong i, khi cong nh vy
thanh g t n nm trong mt mt phng thng ng no c th, h thng vt cht ch
i xng trong mt phng hai chiu, n khng cn mang tnh i xng nguyn thy ca lc
trong khng gian ba chiu.
Cn trnh s hiu nhm v ngha gia mt bn l SBS theo i xng khng b ph v
(ch c trng thi vt cht l bt i xng thi) v bn kia l nhng i xng khc thc s b
ph v nh i xng gng (P), i xng vt cht-phn vt cht (CP) hay i xng hng v
SUF(3). S hiu lm ny ngay c W. Heisenberg v S. Weinberg cng mc phi lc ban u,
hai v coi SBS nh biu trng ca mt i xng xp x, b ph v thc s.
2- V trng thi cn bn c coi l trng thi i xng hon ho nht, n bt bin bi mi
chuyn i v do ta c th ngh rng ch c duy nht mt trng thi cn bn hay chn
khng, c nh ngha nh trng thi vt cht c nng lng ti thiu. Nhng c nhiu
trng hp khng phi nh vy, c th c mun vn trng thi c bn tng ng nhau,
chng sao phn bit, ta phi chn c th mt trng thi nht nh no xc nh chn
khng. Tnh i xng khng b ph v trong ton th, nhng b ph v mt phn no trong
chn khng, l SBS vi Hnh 9 nh mt n d.

Hnh 9 : Hin tng SBS qua mt n d: Th gii hon ton i xng chung quanh trc thng ng, khi em nh
nhn t nh cao cht (nhng bp bnh) ca nn. Sn di vnh nn (trng thi cn bn) vng chc nhng xa
trc thng ng, i xng thu hp trong vnh nn i vi em nh nm trn . Nm trong vnh nn, em nh
khng ng l c mt i xng khc nh nn

Hin tng SBS kh ph bin trong vt l m vt liu st-t (kim loi st hay kn) l mt v
d. nh lut c bn chi phi cht st-t th hon ton i xng trong s phn phi spin (coi
nh nhng la bn nh xu) ca cc nguyn t kn. Spin song song ca chng khng c mt

31
chiu hng no gi u th trong ton th khng gian ba chiu. Nhng trong mt thi nam
chm ca vt liu st-t, ngha l trong trng thi cn bn ca cc nguyn t kn, th spin song
song ca cc nguyn t ny li ch c mt chiu nht nh bc nam, vy trng thi vt liu st
t ch cn i xng thu hp trong .
Cng vy, siu dn in-t minh ha hin tng SBS. Tnh siu dn ca mt s vt liu
nhit thp l mt c trng ca vt l lng t, n khng c in tr, v th n trc xut
bt k mt in trng ln nh ngoi p t vo n. Hn na, gn vt liu siu dn th
thi nam chm b y ra ngoi, t trng b y ra khi vt liu siu dn, l hiu ng
Meissner- Ochsenfeld. Hiu ng ny c th l ci ngun cho xe la trong tng lai c nng
ln trn ng ray khi chy (tu m t) khng b lc ma st nn xe la chy nhanh. Nh vy
vt liu siu dn ngn chn tm truyn ca trng in-t, n l mt h thng vt cht trong
photon ch c th tc ng trong mt khong cch ngn, khc vi bn cht t ti ca sng
in-t c th truyn i v hn. Khi chuyn ng trong vt liu siu dn th photon, boson
chun ca in-t, b cn tr bi mt bc tng chn v nh vy photon tc ng ging nh
mang mt khi lng (Ch thch 4 ca IIb), mc du phng trnh Mawwell ca in-t vn
tun theo i xng chun.
Bc tng chn trong l thuyt siu dn ca John Bardeen, Leon N. Cooper v Robert
Schrieffer (BCS), gii Nobel 1972, l trng thi cn bn ca h thng vt cht vi mun ngn
cp Cooper, cp lin kt hai electron c spin i nghch v nh vy cp ny mang spin 0. Mi
cp Cooper mang in tch 2e nhng v c spin 0 nn nhng cp ny c th ho ng chung
sng ta nh mt ngng t Bose-Einstein. Mi electron th c n v c c tnh mnh m,
nhng mt hon cnh c bit no (nhit thp) chng li d kt i, mi cp tuy mnh
mai nhng khi t hp ng o li ha ng vn hnh nh mt dng chy thun khit ca
mun ngn in tch v vt liu tr nn siu dn.
Mc d trong mi trng siu dn, photon c khi lng 0, nhng i xng (x) eie (x)
(x) trong nh lut in-t khng b ph v m ch thu hp bi (x) (x) vi h qu l
s xut hin trng thi cn bn cc cp chn electron i nghch spin, s lng ca cc cp
Cooper khng bo ton m thay i khng ngng, minh ho s ph v i xng. Siu dn l
mt biu hin s ph v t pht ca tnh i xng chun; cng vi hin tng st-t, l hai
v d ca SBS.

3- Hin tng SBS gip ta hiu ti sao boson chun photon, trn nguyn tc phi khng c
khi lng, cui cng li ha ra c khi lng trong hin tng siu dn. N qu l mt diu
php khin cho hai boson chun ca lc yu W, Z khi u khng c khi lng da vo
c khi lng. Trong c ch BEH, cp Cooper mang khi lng cho photon c thay th bi
trng Higgs (x) mang khi lng cho boson chun W, Z ca lc ht nhn yu (Ch thch
28).
Nhng hy cn mt vng mc quan trng phi vt qua. Thc vy, mt h qu tt yu ca
hin tng SBS (do Nambu nhn ra v Jeffrey Goldstone trin khai thm ri cui cng
Goldstone, Salam, Weinberg chng minh thnh mt nh l) l phi tn ti mt ht khng
khi lng, khng spin, c gi l boson Nambu-Goldstone (NG). Ta c th cm nhn bng
trc gic nh l Goldstone khi quan st em nh trn vnh nn (hnh 9). Em chng cn mt
mt cht nng lng no m vn c th di chuyn d dng sut quanh vnh nn v bt k
trng thi cn bn no trn vnh nn cng u tng ng nhau. Khng cn cht nng lng
no bin chuyn th cng ta nh da vo tc ng ca mt ht nht pho, khng khi
lng, khng spin, chnh l boson NG m thc nghim c th d dng pht hin.
nh l ny lm au u bao nh vt l khi mun p dng i xng chun v SBS khm
ph nh lut ca lc yu v thc nghim chng bao gi thy bng va ca boson NG bao gi

32
c (tr trng hp gn ng ca pion c khi lng rt nh so vi cc hadron khc), vy
boson NG l mt di sn cng knh ca SBS cn phi loi b.
P. Higgs v ng nghip thnh cng trong cch chng minh nht qun c s trit tiu
boson NG trong trng hp i xng chun nh x (v ch trong trng hp ny thi) m
trc Philip Anderson cng phc ho ra tng c s trit tiu ny trong hin tng
siu dn in-t. Mt cch tng qut th bt k ht no c spin 1 v khng khi lng (nh
photon chng hn) ch c hai phn cc (spin 1) trc giao vi vect xung lng k ca n.
Nu ht spin 1 c thm phn cc th ba (spin 0) nm dc trn k th n s c khi lng.
Trong c ch BEH, chnh boson NG spin 0 (coi nh phn cc th ba) mang khi lng
cho boson chun W, Z ca lc yu (Ch thch 28).
V i xng chun b ph v mt cch t pht do trng v hng Higgs to nn, trong khi
nh lut tng tc ca lc yu thc s vn tun theo i xng chun nn Gerard t Hooft v
Martinus Veltman thnh cng trong cch chng minh30 l lc yu cng hon chnh v ti
chun ha c nh lc in-t, hai v nhn gii Nobel 1999 v cng trnh ny.
Ta c th tm tt nm na l BEH t hai ch vi mt mi tn qua hnh nh tng trng:
boson chun ca lc yu khi u nh tnh nut ba boson NG cui cng tr thnh W+,
W , Z0 nng n. Khng nhng mang khi lng cho W, Z, trng Higgs cng mang khi
lng cho quark v lepton vi c im l nhng khi lng ny t l thun vi cng
tng tc ca chng vi boson Higgs.

Tm kt
Hin tng khm ph boson Higgs m CERN va tm thy du vt rt kh tin ngy
04/07/2012 (v mi y b sung thm nhiu d kin mi ngy cng chnh xc ca hai thc
nghim Atlas v CMS) l kt qu lao ng v am m khng ngng ca cc nh vt l khi
CERN quyt nh xy dng my gia tc khng l LHC c nng lng cao nht th gii sn
tm ht Higgs. N m u mt chng mi trong vt l v y l ln u con ngi khm ph
ra mt lc mi l, lc mang khi lng cho vt cht, c th coi nh lc c bn th nm ca
T nhin, bn cnh bn lc c bn quen thuc. y cng l ln u xut hin mt ht c bn
duy nht c spin 0. Cc ht khc u c spin khc 0: vt cht tng trng bi quark v lepton
c spin , cc boson chun W, Z, , g (ni kt v truyn ti thng tin cho cc vin gch c
bn ca vt cht tng tc vi nhau) c spin 1.
N gi ra cch tip cn mi v khi lng ca vt cht, khc vi quan im c hu coi khi
lng l ci g cho trc bi T nhin m khng ai hiu ngun gc su xa. Theo SM, khi
lng ca vt cht c to ra bi s tng tc ca chng vi trng Higgs trn y trong
chn khng ca v tr t V N Ln. Khi u tt c u khng c khi lng, do tng tc
vi trng Higgs m vt cht mang khi lng, nng hay nh ty theo cng tng tc ln
hay nh ca chng, cng tc ng mnh vi trng Higgs th vt cht cng c khi lng ln,
quark top tng tc mnh m nht, neutrino hay electron qu hng h, cn photon th hon
ton v cm vi trng Higgs.
Quan im v khi lng c th i khc t nay, s tng tc ca vt cht vi trng Higgs
trong chn khng lng t, mt v i no nhit, mi chnh l gc ngun ca khi lng.
ng qun l khi lng (tc nng-xung lng l gc ngun ca lc hp dn).
Nh mt li tm kt vi M Hnh Chun, xin trch vi cu m Einstein trnh by trong bi
ging v thuyt Tng i rng i hc Glasgow nm 1933: Kt qu cui cng rt gin d,
bt k mt sinh vin thng minh no cng c th hiu c mt cch d dng. Nhng ch c
th hiu c sau khi tri qua nhng nm thng m thm tm kim mt s tht m ngi ta
ch cm thy ch khng th din t chnh xc c. Ngi ta ch c th hiu c iu khi

33
lng ham mun ln n mc cung nhit, v khi tri qua nhng giai on tin tng ri
nghi ng, nghi ng ri tin tng cho ti mt lc no , bng hiu r c s tht sng sa.

Ch Thch
Phn I
1

Nhng thut ng nh Lng t, Trng lng t, Ti chun ha, Spin, Sc tch, Quark,
Lepton, Phn quark, Phn vt cht, i xng chun, Ph v t pht, C ch BEH s dn
c cp, gii thch trong nhng phn II,III, IV.
Rt kh son mt cun sch gio khoa v ngnh vt l ht trnh c nhn, nhng nu
chn th c l y l cun sch hay v d c nht, c th s dng min ph trn
https://notendur.hi.is/~ath68/griffiths.pdf
Tc gi David Griffiths ca cun sch cho rng y l thi im a mn vt l ht vo
chng trnh c nhn vt l i cng.
Ti liu tham kho:
- Hi k ca hn 40 tc gi tiu biu (vi 14 gii Nobel) khm ph ra SM:
The Rise of the Standard Model, Ed. by Lillian Hoddeson, Laurie Brown, Michael Riordan,
and Max Dresden, Cambridge University Press (1997).
- Yoichiro Nambu, Quarks, World Scientific (1985).
- Steven Weinberg, The Making of the Standard Model, arXiv: hep-ph 0401010, (2004).
- V ht Higgs lin i n hin tng Siu dn in-t (c bit xem bi ca Anderson,
Cooper, Nambu) http://www.conferences.uiuc.edu/bcs50/video.html

Phn II
2

Vt en (black body) l mt vt ch hp th nh sng m khng phn chiu li, vy nng

lng n nhn c khng b mt i. T ng en c dng ch nh tnh cht c th ny.
Th d c th ca vt en l mt l bt kn nung nng nhit T v khi c mt l nh trn
thnh l, ta c th nghin cu ph bc x nhit pht ra qua l. Bc x ny ch ph thuc vo T
thi ch khng vo bt c hnh th, cu trc cng nh cht liu no trong l, iu ny
chng t bc x nhit ca vt en ch ph thuc vo s dao ng ca cc thnh phn c bn
chung cho mi vt cht. S dao ng ca cc thnh phn c bn chnh l ngun to ra
nhit ca vt cht. Nh vy ph bc x nhit ca vt en l mt trng hp hi hu trong
vt l c tnh ph qut tuyt i, l mt hm F(T,) ch ty thuc vo nhit T v tn s
ca nh sng bc x, mi tn s gn lin vi mt mu (t sang tm) ca nh sng.
Trong nhng nm t 1900 n 1905, dng nhit ng hc v thuyt in-t c in, Lord
Rayleigh trc tin (b sung bi Sir James Jeans) ri sau n Albert Einstein u pht hin
ra kt qu phi l l tng cng bc x ca vt en phi tng v hn. Nghch l ny c
gii p vi gi thuyt lng t E = h v ngy 14 thng chp nm 1900, Max Planck dng

34

gi thuyt lng t tm ra cng thc cho ph bc x F(T,) ca vt en, cng thc chnh
xc v ph qut n ni n p dng t l kn nung nng ca phng th nghim i hc
Berlin th k 19 cho n bc x nn ca V tr sau V N Ln m ngy nay hai v tinh
COBE v WMAP va o lng c tn d nhit lng phng x cch y khong 13.7 t
nm (gii Nobel vt l 2006). Bit u trm nm sau, th k 22, con ngi s o lng
c bc x ca mt vt en khc k d hn na, l l en lng t ha (theo J.D.
Bekenstein v S. Hawking) nn c th phng x ra ngoi chn tri ti kn ca n, l en
chng cn hon ton en na. Lng t khng cn l gi thuyt m tr thnh nguyn l nn
tng ca vt l ng i.
Tham kho: Nguyn Trng Hin, S o c hng s Planck, K Yu Max Planck, Ngi khai
sng thuyt Lng t, trang 203-234, nxb Tri Thc (2009).
Trong vt l ht, n v ca nng lng E l electron-volt (eV), l nng lng nhn c
bi mt electron t trong mt in th 1 volt, vy 1eV =1,6 10-19 Joule (J), cc bi s ca eV
l MeV = 106 eV, GeV = 109 eV. Do E= mc2 nn khi lng c n v l eV/c2. Electron c
khi lng bng 0,511MeV/ c2 = 9.1 10 31 kg.
3

Hm m e R nhc nh cch gii thch hiu ng Meissner vi thm su t trng L ca

hai anh em Fritz v Heinz London. Ht boson y l cp Cooper ca hai electron trong siu
dn in t .
4

Phng trnh Dirac (i mc)(x) = 0 c bn ma trn 44 Dirac ( = 0,1,2,3) km

theo bn o hm /x i vi bn to khng-thi gian x (x0 = ct, x), iu quen
thuc vi thuyt tng i.
5

My chp hnh ni PET (Positron Emission Tomography) dng trong y hc ngy nay l mt
ng dng trc tip ca positron, khi n ha t vi electron sn c trong c th con ngi th
cp positron-electron bin thnh tia bc x cc k tinh vi ri sng mi chi tit.
Trong c hc c in, mt vt c xung lng P quay xung quanh mt trc t cch n mt
on di R th momen gc ca vt l L = R x P. Mi vt th d ln nh cc hnh tinh hay nh
nh mt electron, quark, photon u c spin, mt thuc tnh quay ni ti ca vt, l momen
gc ca vt. Spin ca photon cng l l do ti sao chng ta c th xem c phim 3D.
Trong th gii ca lng t, ta hnh dung ht vi m nh mt con quay vi momen (hay xung
lng) gc ni ti, gi l spin J. di ca vect L (hay J) c th nguyn l ML2 T 1 vi M,
L,T theo th t l khi lng, chiu di khng gian v thi gian. V hng s Planck h = E/ c
cng th nguyn nh |J|, nn h l n v ca spin. Phng trnh Dirac cho bit spin ca
electron bng /2 = h/4 ta nh n phi t quay xung quanh mnh hai vng 4 mi tr li
trng thi ban u. V mang in tch v t quay trn chung quanh trc ca n nn electron c
momen t lng cc tc ng ging nh mt chic kim la bn nh xu. Spin m ra mt
phm tr mi cho vt l hin i, nhnh spin-in t mang gii Nobel vt l 2007 n
Albert Fert v Peter Grnberg vi hiu ng T tr Khng l m mt trong nhiu ng dng l
b nh MRAM cng cc u c, u ghi ca a cng trong my vi tnh.

Ta nh trong logic tin hc, hai con s 1 v 0 din t c v khng, ta gn cho k tnh mt
s lng t S, theo ht khng mang k tnh c S = 0, ht mang k tnh (nh baryon ,
baryon 0 , meson K ) c S = 1, phn ht (nh phn baryon , phn baryon 0 , meson K+)
mang phn k tnh c S = + 1. Coi hnh 5.

35

Hai ht proton v neutron tuy khc nhau v in tch nhng vn hnh nh ht nhau di tc
ng ca lc mnh, chng coi nh hai thnh phn ca mt ht duy nht l nucleon. din t
tnh cht ca lc mnh khng ph thuc vo in tch (proton hay neutron u nh nhau),
Heisenberg a ra khi nim spin ng v sp xp nhng hadron chia s vi c tnh chung
thnh tng nhm bi (multiplet), theo nu N ht c chung vi c tnh th spin ng v I
ca chng l N = 2 I +1, vy spin ng v ca nucleon l , ca pion l 1 (v c 3 pion +, ,
0). Ta nh mt fermion mang spin c hai thnh phn + v chiu ln vect xung
lng k ca n, thnh phn chiu ln trc Oz ca vect spin ng v l Iz, vi Iz ca proton l
+ v Iz ca neutron l .
Mt cch tng qut th spin ng v I c (2I +1) thnh phn Iz, cng nh xung lng gc L c
(2L +1) thnh phn Lz v spin J c (2J +1) thnh phn Jz, s tng ng v cu trc ca I v
J khin Heisenberg gi I l spin ng v. H thng meson K+ v K0 c spin ng v l , Iz
ca K+ l +, ca K0 l , Iz ca + l +1, ca l 1, ca 0 l 0.

Siu tch l khi nim m rng k tnh S (hay duyn tnh C hay y tnh B, ni chung l
hng v ca quark) c th p dng cho c hai trng hp baryon ln meson. Trc ht ta
cn bit rng trong cc phn ng chi phi bi c ba lc mnh, yu, in-t, s lng baryon
bao gi cng c bo ton, trong khi s lng meson th khng th, n c th bin i. Thc
vy trong cc phn ng (vit tt A B) nu A c baryon th trong B cng c baryon tuy c
th khng cng loi, th d + p n + + 3 hay + p + K. Ta thy r baryon (p, n,
) bao gi cng hin din trong c hai v (u vo A v u ra B), cn meson nh , , K
khng th. Cng nh s lng baryon, s lng lepton cng c bo ton trong cc phn
ng ca hai lc yu v in-t, lepton khng b chi phi bi lc mnh.
Ta nh k tnh vi hai con s 1 v 0 din t c v khng c k tnh, s bo ton baryon
c din t bi s lng t baryon b , baryon c b = 1, cn meson c b = 0. Siu tch c
nh ngha nh Y = b + S (hay b + C, b + B). V k tnh S = 1 nn siu tch ca baryon mang
k tnh l Y = 0 cn siu tch ca meson mang k tnh l Y = 1. V 3 quark cu to nn
baryon, vy quark c b = .
10

Ti chun ha (renormalization) l phng php gii quyt mt cch nht qun v cht
ch theo ngha ton hc nhng con s v hn m ta gp khi tnh ton. Mt v d ca v hn l
ly tch phn mt s vng kn no ca gin Feynman minh ha bi Hnh 4; tuy nhin
ch c mt s nh vng kn phn k thi. Ti chun ha hm l tch my i lng v hn
ra khi ci hu hn bng cch nh ngha, sp xp chng mt cch nht qun v c h
thng. V hn khng bin i m ch b tch bit.
(i)- Nhng con s v hn ni trn phn nh ci kh khn l theo thuyt tng i, mi vt
cch nhau khng th tng tc tc th; tha mn iu kin ny th cc trng lng t
hai im khc nhau y v z ca khng-thi gian phi tng tc mt im chung gi l tng
tc nh x (khong cch x = y z 0). Nhng vi nguyn l bt nh, khong cch x 0
a n nng lng E , vy khng ngc nhin ta gp nhng kt qu phn k. Ngay trong
c hc c in, nng lng t ti (self energy) ca ht im khng c kch thc cng v hn,
minh ho bi th nng Coulomb 1/R ca lc in t, hay th nng Yukawa e R /R ca lc
mnh khi R 0.
(ii)- c tnh phong ph ca QED ni ring (v ca cc tng tc khc nh QCD v inYu ni chung) l cc trng lng t (th d hai trng electron v photon) khng th t tn
ti ring bit, phi nng da vo nhau, tng tc vi nhau m pht khi, chng khng c t
tnh m ph thuc ln nhau (interdependent), electron c xc nh bi photon v ngc li
photon bi electron, chng ch hin hu trong s tng tc, chng cht vi nhau. Nh vy
khi lng m0 v in tch e0 ca electron trn tri (khng tng tc vi mi trng chung

36

quanh) khng th xc nh uc v electron khng sao tch bit khi photon. Cng vy khi
lng trn tri ca photon khng th xc nh uc v t n lun b rng buc bi cc cp vt
cht-phn vt cht nh electron-positron, tr phi ngay t u ta b buc n phi bng 0 v mt
tin no (i xng chun).

(iii)- Nhng nu hy tm dng e0, m0 tnh ton (ly tch phn nhng vng kn lng t)
mt i lng vt l no (nh momen t ca electron chng hn) th ta c th gp kt
qu nghch l l i lng phn k. i lng nh vy l mt hm s ca cc i lng
trn tri e0, m0 v mt thng s din t s phn k ca hm s (e0, m0, ).
Mt khc, ta bit l electron lc no cng bao quanh bi photon, cn photon bi cc cp
electron-positron, minh ho bi cc vng lng t (a), (b), (c); vy nhng i lng trn tri
m0, e0 ca electron v khi lng photon cng phi thay i theo th t thnh m (hnh a),
Ze (hnh b), (hnh c). Khi tnh ton m, Ze, ta cng ln na gp phi nhng con s v
hn. Cng nh , cc m, Ze, u l hm s ca e0, m0, . Phn k khng trong bn
cht ca electron cng nh ca lc in t tc ng ln n, m do gi thuyt electron trn tri.
(iv)- C 2 loi i lng: loi khng th xc nh (c th v hn) nh e0 , m0 v loi phn k
m, Ze, v . Ti chun ho in tch v khi lng ca electron l ghp ci v hn (Ze, m)
v ci khng th xc nh (e0, m0) vo in tch e, khi lng m ca electron m cc nh thc
nghim o lng, e v m d nhin u hu hn.
iu k diu ca ti chun ha m Feynman, Schwinger, Tomonaga (gii Nobel 1965) v
Dyson chng minh c l khi ta thay e0Ze = e, m0 + m = m v trong hm (e0, m0, ) thay
th e0, m0 bng e, m ri n nh khi lng ca photon bng 0, th (e0, m0, ) tr thnh mt
hm mi R (e, m) hu hn, khng ph thuc vo thng s . Hai i lng c th u
v hn nhng s ghp hp sp xp chng c th hu hn, l ngha vt l ca ti chun
ha; electron t do khng tng tc v electron trong nguyn t tng tc vi ht nhn, nng
lng t ti ca hai loi electron u v hn nhng nng lng ca electron m ta o
lng th hu hn.
Tomonaga gi ti chun ha l nguyn l t b mt thut ng thm m bn sc phng
ng vi hm khim tn chp nhn c ci bt kh t ngh, c ci tnh ton c. S tch
bit (nht qun v chnh xc theo ngha ton hc) gia hai ci v hn v hu hn c gi l
ti chun ha. Tuy nhin phi tha nhn rng n ch l phng php chn on bnh v iu
tr vn phn k ca cc l thuyt trng lng t trong bi cnh ca php tnh nhiu lon.
(v)- Vng kn lng t rt quan trng v trong n nem An khng c l do g phi ngng
bin u A1, c nhiu qu trnh v i lng vt l quan trng ch c th pht hin bi
vng kn lng t. Cu trc siu tinh t ca nguyn t Hydrogen v momen-t lng cc d
thng ca electron l hai v d. S tin on (c ch GIM) ra hng v duyn bi qu trnh
vng kn lng t lin i ti meson K l v d th ba.

37

(vi)- Mt tng tc ti chun ha c (renormalizable) nu nhng i lng phn k ch

gii hn trong mt vi con s, th d QED ch c 2 con s v hn khi tnh ton nhng vng
lng t vi bt k cp bc nhiu lon n no, hai con s l s thay i khi lng m v
s thay i in tch Ze ca electron bi photon. Trong cc tng tc ti chun ha c,
mt h qu tch cc ca i xng chun, tnh phn k ch nh nhng nh Log(E) ch khng
mnh m nh ly tha En, khi E .
11

Ch "quark" theo sau con s 3 ca cu 3 quark cho Muster Mark trong truyn Finnegans
Wake ca James Joyce gi cho Gell-Mann dng ch quark l lng ny t tn cho 3 loi vi
ht c bn (u,d,s) to nn cc hadron c bit n vo nhng nm 1960. George Zweig, mn
ca Feynman, cng ng thi nm 1964 a ra tng v vin gch c bn k l c in
tch phn s, nhng Zweig li t cho tn l ace, cn trc khi nh li truyn Finnegans Wake
th Gell-Mann gi chng l kwork. Nu Gell-Mann bit l c 6 (u,d,s,c,t,b) ch khng phi
ch c 3 (u,d,s) loi vi ht c bn ca vt cht chi phi lc mnh th chc ng chng dng
tn quark.
12

Tham kho: Jerome Friedman, Con ng dn ti gii Nobel, K Yu Max Planck, Ngi
khai sng thuyt Lng t, trang 163-172, nxb Tri Thc (2009).

Phn III
13

Tm k my thnh qu k diu ca cng ngh mang n cho i sng hng ngy:

(i)- Mng li ton cu (www) c sng to v dng u tin bi cc nh vt l CERN.

V hng ngn nh vt l ngnh nng lng cao ny u sinh hot nhiu quc gia tn mt
khp a cu khng phi lc no cng c th thng xuyn lm vic bn CERN, d dng
cng tc v trao i rt nhiu d liu, cng nhau phn tch tng hp nhanh chng cc kt qu
nghin cu, khong nm 1990 xut hin mng li ton cu. Cha y mi nm sau,
internet nhanh chng trn ngp th trng thng-truyn-tin quc t m in hnh l ng c
truy cp Google.
(ii)- Cuc cch mng s trong nhng phng tin truyn thanh, truyn hnh, quay phim,
in thoi v.v. c pht trin nh nhng khm ph v laser v cht bn dn m i din l
cc linh kin vi tnh, vi in t, quang in t.
(iii)- H thng GPS (Global Positioning System) xc nh tc khc cc a im trn
ton cu trang b cc phng tin vn ti, thng truyn tin. H thng ty thuc cn bn vo
my o thi gian v cng chnh xc (ng h nguyn t khai thc s dao ng tun hon ca
cc nguyn t vi m) c dng u tin vi mc tiu khoa hc thun ty kim chng
thuyt tng i rng trong v tr hc v thin vn. Theo thuyt ny nhp ca ng h
thay i vi sc ht ca qu t, trng lc gim trn cc v tinh GPS th tn s dao ng cng
gim theo, hay thi gian tri nhanh ln.
(iv)- Cng ngh lin quan n y t dng my gia tc ca cc ht proton hay electron, laser
trong gii phu, tr bnh, my chp hnh ni nh MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), PET
(positron emission tomography) trong ht positron (tc phn electron) c tn dng
ri theo s bin chuyn ca t bo.

38

(v)- Hin tng siu dn in-t nhit thp (t st 0K n 165 K) l mt c trng ca

vt l lng t. Vt liu siu dn khng c in tr, in khng b tht tn nu truyn ti bng
dy siu dn. Hn th na, mt thanh nam chm gn mt vt liu siu dn s b nng bt ra
ngoi, khc vi in t iu kin bnh thng. Vi nhng c tnh trn v t trng cc k
mnh dui trng thi siu dn, c nhiu trin vng cho cng nghip ca th k 21, c bit
trong s sn xut, tch tr v chuyn vn nng lng. Mt v d l kh nng iu khin c
s tng hp nhit hch vi l phn ng nhit hch quc t ITER xy dng Cadarache min
nam nc Php. Ngoi ra cn phi k n kh nng ch yu ca siu dn trong cc ngnh lin
quan n in t (vi my tnh v d kin dng vt liu siu dn), n sinh hc (vi thit b
sensor cc k nhy bn), n vn ti (vi tu ha tc hnh nng ln bi t trng siu dn,
khng chm ng ray nn tu chy rt nhanh li an ton), n vt liu carbon nh fullerene
C60, vt dn in hu c.
Trong phng trnh Maxwell thc ra c 6 i lng vt l gm vect in E v vect t B
(mi vect c 3 thnh phn), nhng E v B c th suy tnh ra t mt t vect in th A vi
4 thnh phn. T vect A ny c coi nh cng c thao tc tnh ton d dng, n khng
th trc tip quan st o lng c, khc vi E v B. C mun vn in th A (x) khc nhau
mi im ca khng-thi gian (v c th thm bt vo A (x) bt k mt o hm (x)/x ),
nhng chng cho ra duy nht ch c mt E v mt B thi, minh ha tnh bt bin ca cc i
lng vt l bi php bin chuyn chun. Ci ty tin ca in th A vi hm (x) tuy vy
khng phi l mt tr ngi, tri li l khc v ta c th li dng iu kin m, ty trng
hp, thay th chun mc (x) ny bi chun mc khc d dng tnh ton, min l cui
cng phi kim sot kt qu tnh ton khng ty thuc vo bt k mt hm (x) no c.
Nm na nh o lng khong cch thi gian tri khng ph thuc vo loi ng h v n v
thi gian.
14

Trong phng trnh Einstein R ()R g = (8G/c4)T, h s ()Rg (m ring ng

tm ra v t thm vo ngy 25/11/1915) ng vai tr ti cn thit p ng lut bo ton
nng-xung lng T = T = 0. Trc nm 1913, Grossmann v Einstein cng tc
i gn ti ch vi tenx Ricci: R = (8G/c4)T, nhng v tri R v R u 0 trong
khi v phi T = T = 0 nn h s ()Rg phi thm vo v tri phng trnh o
hm ca R v ca ()Rg trit tiu nhau, khin cho hai v tri v phi u tun th nh
lut bo ton nng-xung lng.
15

Hiu s gia ng nng v th nng ca mt vt, hm Lagrange ng vai tr cc k quan

trng trong c hc c in cng nh trong c hc v trng lng t, n cho ta phng trnh
vn chuyn v qu o ca vt.
16

Thuyt Yang-Mills m rng thuyt in-t bi s thay th electron bng 2 thnh phn ca
nucleon l proton v neutron, nhm i xng U(1) ca in-t c thay th bi nhm SU(2)
ca Yang-Mills. i th nh sau:
(i)- Hon chuyn gia 2 vt th proton neutron c thc hin bi nhm i xng SU(2)
vi 3 ma trn 2 2 ca Pauli +, , 3 vit tt l vect ma trn . + chuyn n thnh p,
chuyn p thnh n, 3 gi nguyn vn p v n. ng hnh vi vect ma trn l hm vect (x)
cng c 3 thnh phn +(x), (x), 3(x) cho tch s .(x) ca hai vect v (x) l mt
ie
lng v hng. Lng .(x) v ei . (x) thay th, theo th t, (x) v e (x) ca php hon
ie
chuyn chun (x) e (x) (x) trong in-t. Vi nhm SU(2), ta c 3 ma trn Pauli ni
ring v vi nhm SU(N) ta c (N2 1) ma trn ni chung.
17

39

(ii)- M u l trng nucleon 2(x) (c 2 thnh phn proton v neutron) vi iu kin l

php hon chuyn chun 2(x) ei . (x) 2(x) khng lm bin i dng ca hm Lagrange
2(x)(i mc)2(x) ca nucleon. i hi ny a ti h qu l phi hin hu 3 t-vect
A (x), vit gn l vect A (x), l 3 boson chun ca nhm SU(2). Tnh ton ma trn cho ta
tenx F = A A + A A thay th tenx F = A A ca in-t. Chnh s hin
hu ca tch s vect A A , c trng ca l thuyt Yang-Mills, l do tnh khng giao hon
ca cc ma trn Pauli.

(iii)- T nhm SU(2) nguyn thy, ta m rng sang cc nhm i xng SU(N) khc. Boson
chun ca in t (photon) c thay th bi (N2 1) boson chun m rng A . Cc boson
chun Yang-Mills trc tip tc ng vi nhau qua s hng c m rng A A vi (N2 1)
thnh phn.
QCD l thuyt Yang-Mills vi nhm i xng SU(3)C gia 3 sc tch ca quark, v boson
chun ca QCD l 8 gluon. Ronald Shaw mn i hc Cambridge ca Abdus Salam
cng c tng tng t, trong lun n tin s ca Shaw nm 1954, ng cng tm thy
phng trnh (nay mang tn Yang-Mills) mc du khng h bit n cng trnh ca YangMills lc y cha in trn Physical Review 96, 191 (1954). Ngy nay thng tin khoa hc c
nhanh chng cp nht vi h thng arXiv.

Tnh cht c o ca QCD (do A A ) l boson chun gluon phi trc tip tc ng gia
chng vi nhau (Hnh e), khc vi boson chun ca in-t (photon) khng c tng tc trc
tip ny. Chnh s gn b gia ba gluon l gc ngun ca tnh cht "t do tim cn" v mang
gii Nobel 2004 cho ba tc gi David J. Gross, H. David Politzer v Frank Wilczek chng
minh c tnh cht ny. c gii Nobel ny, tt c ch l mt du tr, nh Politzer vui
v bnh lun trong din vn nhn gii.
Thc th, do tc ng ca cc ht o (ht m nng lng E, xung lng k v khi lng m
ca n khng tun th ng thc Einstein E2 k2c2 = m2c4 ca ht thc) trn ngp chn khng
lng t nn cc hng s tng tc khng c nh m thay i vi nng lng, mt c trng
chung cho cc l thuyt trng lng t ti chun ha. c tnh ny gi l hng s di ng
(running coupling constant); o hm (i vi nng lng) ca hng s di ng gi l hm
bta, vy ty theo hm bta dng hay m m hng s di ng tng hay gim. Trong QED,
hm bta dng, thc nghim cho em(E = 0) 1/137 v em(E = 100 GeV) 1/129.
Ti sao hng s li thay i tuy ch nh nhng nh hm Logarithm? L do l electron trn tri
lc no cng b vy quanh, trc ht bi nhng positron b electron ht gn vo (do lc
Coulomb), ri nhng positron y li b nhiu electron khc km thnh cp, c th lin hi
chng ngn chn lm kh khn cho photon thm d electron trn tri. Mun cng gn electron
o lng in tch ca n th photon phi c nng lng E cng ln vt qua ro cn
ca cc cp fermion o e e+ vy quanh electron trn tri, v hng s tng tc in-t em nh
vy tng ln vi E, minh ha bi Hnh d.
18

40

Hnh d: electron trn tri trung tm b ro cn bi mun vn cp o electron-positron (hnh bu dc xanh

vng)

Ngc li, hm bta ca QCD c du m, khi E th hng s di ng ca tng tc mnh

nh dn nh 1/Log(E) 0. L do l gluon khi thm d quark li c vi gluon bn (Hnh e)
km theo tr gip (iu m photon khng c) nn gluon d dng tin gn vo quark, mc du
cng b ro cn bi cc cp o quark-phn quark ging nh trng hp photon b ro cn bi
cc cp e e + trong QED. Nhng c nng bi cc gluon bn nn rt cuc cc gluon bn
thng c s ro cn ca cc cp o quark-phn quark. Chnh xc ra hm bta ca QCD
2NF 11NC , NF l s hng v v NC = 3 l s sc tch ca quark. V NF = 6 (ch c 6 loi
quark u, d, c, s, t, b nh ta bit nng lng di 200 GeV) nn hm bta ca QCD c du
m v QCD c tnh t do tim cn. Ngc li, nu trong thin nhin s lng hong v ca
quark NF 17 th hm bta ca QCD c du dng nh QED v mt i tnh cht c th t
do tim cn.

Hnh e: 3 v 4 gluon gn kt tng tc vi nhau.

Ci kh khn trong k thut tnh ton hm bta ca QCD l c 3 v 4 boson chun (gluon)
ca QCD trc tip tc ng v tr gip nhau (Hnh e), iu m QED thiu.Tnh ton nhc
nhn c hm bta ca QCD l c mt k cng, du cng hay tr y quyt nh tt c.
Khi Politzer (mi 24 tui) trnh by du tr cho thy hng dn lun n ca ng l Sidney
Coleman, mt chuyn gia hng u v l thuyt trng lng t i hc Harvard, Coleman
cho rng tr mnh lm v bt lm li. Wilzeck (mi 22 tui) cng Gross, thy hng dn lun
n i hc Princeton, cng tc mt thit trong vic tm ra du tr cho hm bta ca QCD.
Ngc vi t do tim cn ( nng lng cao) l n l hng ngoi hm l nng lng
thp (nh sng hng ngoi) th quark b cm t trong hadron, nng lng cao th quark c
t do. Vin ton hc Clay (Clay Mathematics Institute) treo gii mt triu dollars cho ngi
no chng minh chnh xc c tnh n l hng ngoi ca QCD. Ni theo ngn t vt l th
n l hng ngoi hm s hin hu ca khe nng lng 0 ta nh trong hin tng
siu dn in-t. Cng vin Clay ny nm 2004 vinh tng hai G.S. Grard Laumon v Ng
Bo Chu gii c mt phn ca b Langlands vi nhm unita.
Thc th nu boson chun A c khi lng M 0, th h s M2A A lm cho hm
Lagrange khng cn bt bin bi hon chuyn chun A (x) A (x) (x)/x .
19

Phn IV
20

Di s o ngc khng gian ba chiu x x, tnh chn l ni ti (mang k hiu P) ca

mt boson c nh du l dng (nu n khng thay i) hoc l m (nu n i du). Th
d mt vect ba chiu A c tnh chn l P m (vit tt 1 ) v A tr thnh A khi o ngc
khng gian. Tri li tch vect AB ca 2 vect A v B l mt vect trc (axial vector), n c
P dng (vit tt 1+ ) v AB khng i du m vn l AB khi o ngc khng gian. Tch

41

v hng A.B ca hai vect A v B l mt i lng v hng (scalar) c P dng, vit tt

0+. Tri li (AB).C l mt gi v hng (pseudo-scalar) c P m, vit tt 0 . phn loi r
rt cc meson, ngoi spin J = 0, 1 ra, chng cn mang thm tnh chn l P v mang k hiu
JP , cc meson , K, D, B u c JP l 0 , meson , K , , J/ c JP l 1 , meson A1 c JP l 1+,
boson Higgs c JP l 0+. H thng 2 pion trong trng thi cn bn c tnh chn l dng, cn 3
pion c tnh chn l m. Ngoi khi lng, in tch v spin, cc meson cn c thm k hiu
JP xc nh c trng ca n.

21

Cobalt nhng vo nhit cc thp trong mt t trng th b phn cc vi vect phn cc

S. Gi k l vect xung lng ca electron pht ra trong qu trnh phn r ca Cobalt phn
cc vi spin S. Spin hay phn cc ng vai tr quyt nh trong phng cch tm kim s vi
phm i xng gng v S.k l mt gi v hng, S.k S.k bi s o ngc khng gian
x x. Tng quan gia hai vect S v k l i lng gi v hng S.k, i xng gng b
vi phm nu S.k 0.
Ngoi nhm C.S.Wu ra, hai nhm thc nghim khc Leon Lederman v Valentine Telegdi
cng tm ra lc yu vi phm i xng gng trong + tip theo bi + e + e
vi phn cc. Spin l momen gc ni ti, vy nu spin s ca electron i ngc chiu vi
xung lng k trong phn r th ta c th hnh dung nh n quay t phi sang tri xung
quanh trc ca n.

22

Phng trnh din t lc yu thi tin SM l thuyt Fermi. Trong nhng cng trnh rc
r ca Enrico Fermi (ngi cha ca phn ng dy chuyn Uranium, tin thn ca bom ht
nhn A), nhiu nh vt l cho rng ng gp quan trng nht ca ng l phng theo lc
in-t m xut ra dng ca lc yu, n vn mang du n mi ti ngy nay mc du nhiu
thay i v cu trc.
M phng nh lut in-t l tch s ca dng in electron e (x) (x) vi trng photon

A (x), Fermi bn xut nh lut phn r ca n p + e + cng l tch s dng lc yu

proton-neutron p(x) n(x) vi dng lc yu neutrino-electron (x) e(x), vy nh lut

ca lc yu theo Fermi l GF{ p(x) (x)n}{ (x) (x)e} vi hng s GF 1.17 10 5/GeV2
trch t thc nghim. Ma trn mang tnh cht vect vit gn l V (JP = 1 ), v v tch s V.V
l v hng 0+ nn thuyt Fermi tun th i xng gng. Khi thc nghim chng minh s vi
phm i xng gng th Marshak, Sudarshan, Feynman, Gell-Mann, Sakurai nhn thy ch
cn thay th bng (1 5) trong m hnh Fermi l p ng s vi phm ny, v 5 mang
tnh cht vect trc JP = 1+. T nay s thay i mang tn (V A) phn nh cu trc (1
5), tch s (V A).(V A) ha hp c hai thnh phn tun th v vi phm i xng gng:
tun th do V.V + A.A (mang tnh 0+) v vi phm do V.A + A.V (mang tnh 0 ). Du tr trong
(VA) hm ngha cc ht khi phn r u c spin ngc chiu vi xung lng, spin quay v
pha tri (ch thch 21). Cu trc (V A) l tnh cht cn bn ca lc yu do thc nghim
pht hin m sau ny SM vn da vo xy dng thuyt in-Yu.
Tuy nhin d di dng V.V hoc (V A).(V A) th nh lut hiu dng Fermi nh tch s
ca 2 dng yu (- )(e-e), mi dng c 2 fermion vn t mu thun nng lng cao E
600 GeV. Ngun gc ca mu thun ny l thuyt Fermi din t tc ng ca 4 fermion t hi
chung mt khng-thi im x (pha tri Hnh f), iu gy mi phn k nng lng cao.
cng l l do thuyt ny khng ti chun ha c; cng trin khai bao nhiu ly tha ca
hng s tng tc yu GF th ta li cng gp by nhiu kt qu phn k, nhng con s v hn
c trng ip xut hin, khng sao x l ni.

42

Hnh f : Pha tri, 4 fermion t chung mt im (thuyt Fermi). Pha phi, 4 fermion tch ra bi boson chun
W thnh 2 dng - v e-e, mi dng c 2 fermion (thuyt SM). Pha phi thnh pha tri khi MW .

23

Tham kho Ch thch 18 trong on III: Sc ng hc lng t, QCD.

24

Lc yu c mt di tc ng RW rt nh, hn ch trong ht nhn nguyn t. Do nguyn

l bt nh th boson trung gian truyn ti lc yu phi c khi lng MW rt ln, MW
/cRW.
25

S hn hp ca hai neutrino e v c xut bi trng phi Nagoya Nht bn: Ziro

Maki, Masami Nakagawa, Shoichi Sakata vo nm 1962 trc khi Cabibbo xut hn hp
ca quark vo nm 1963.

26

Phn r bi lc yu (in tch thay i mt n v e, th d in hnh l neutron proton)

c th din t bng ngn t quark. Gi ba quark in tch +()e l Qi vi i = 1,2,3 i din
cho u,c, t, v 3 quark in tch ()e l qj vi j = 1,2, 3 i din cho d, s, b. Phn r Qi qj
vit ngn gn l UijQiqj. Hn hp cc quark bi ma trn 22 theo nh (cosc d + sinc s) u
v hn hp trc giao (cosc s sinc d) c nay m rng thnh ma trn unita 33, Uij gi l
ma trn CKM (Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa) vi ng cho Ui = j 1; U12 U 21 sinc;
U23 U32 (sinc)2 ; U13 U31 (sinc)3. Khi phn tch cc hin tng phn r ca cc
hadron mang k tnh, Cabibbo tm ra sinc 0.22.
(i) Chnh s trc giao gia hai quark u v c (U12 U 21 sinc) lm cho ng gp ca u b
trit tiu bi ng gp ca c v s trit tiu ny gii thch ti sao nhng loi phn r trung tnh
i hng v nh 0 + + li him khong 10 4 so vi nhng loi phn r in tch i
hng v nh + + + .
(ii) Vi phm i xng CP c phn nh qua mt pha 0 ca ma trn unita Uij. Thc th
nu bin phn r ca vt cht l T th bin phn r ca phn vt cht l T , vi phm i
xng CP ngha l T T , vy phn o ca T (pha ca ma trn CKM) phi 0. Ma trn unita
N N c pha 0 nu (N 1)(N 2) 2, hay N 3, vy phi c t nht ba cp Qi-qj hay su
quark mi vi phm c i xng CP.

27

Hai boson trung ho in tch W3 v X ca GNN l hn hp gia boson chun Z ca lc yu

vi photon ca in-t:
W3 = cosw Z + sinw ; X = cosw sinw Z
Cng ca lc in-t (din t bi em 1/137) v ca lc yu (din t bi hng s Fermi
GF ) lin kt bi h thc (sinw MW)2 = (em)/(GF2). Khi lng ca 2 boson chun W v Z
cng lin kt bi MW = coswMZ.
28

Thc ra c su ngi trong ba nhm c lp vi nhau hu nh ng thi cng xut c

ch mang khi lng cho boson chun (lc y internet cha c a bi lp tc ln mng
nh ngy nay cc nh nghin cu thng lm). Nhm th nht gm Robert Brout v Franois

43

Englert, xut bn ngy 31/08/1964; nhm th hai ring mt mnh Peter Higgs, xut bn ngy
19/10/1964; nhm th ba gm Gerard Guralnik, Carl Hagen v Thomas Kibble, xut bn
ngy 16/11/1964. Tt c u trn tp ch Phys. Rev. Lett. s 13.
Bi ca Higgs thc ra c gi cui thng 7 nm 1964 trc cho tp ch Phys. Lett. CERN,
nhng b t chi ng bn gi sang Phys. Rev. Lett. Ngi thm nh bi ca Higgs cho Phys.
Rev. Lett. chnh l Nambu.
Cn nhn mnh l ch ring Peter Higgs xut l phi hin hu ht c bn mang spin 0,
v nh vy c ch BEH c th kim chng bi thc nghim. Weinberg gi ht ny l boson
Higgs. Trng (x) c bn thnh phn , 0 , (0)*, ba trong bn thnh phn ny tr thnh ba
boson NG nm dc trn k mang cho ba boson chun W+ , W , Z khi lng. Thnh phn
cui, v trc giao vi photon nn khng mang khi lng cho n, chnh l boson Higgs vi
khi lng 125 GeV/c2 m LHC va tm thy du vt ngy 04/07/2012.

Nh vt l Nguyn Khc ng l mt trong cc tc gi ca nhm Gargamelle khm ph ra

dng lc yu trung ho in tch, tin thn ca boson chun Z; Phys. Lett. 46B (1973), 138.
29

Chnh nhng boson NG spin 0 lm trit tiu nhng phn k trng trng ip ip xy ra
vi W, Z spin 1 trong cc vng kn lng t thuyt in-yu tr thnh ti chun ha c.
30