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Radio Communication Concepts: 25 February Wireless Comm Sys TE 40 - TCC 15 (2006) 1
Radio Communication Concepts: 25 February Wireless Comm Sys TE 40 - TCC 15 (2006) 1
Concepts
25 February
Radio Waves
To start we need to cover some basic concepts that
relate to radio frequency systems beginning with what
radio waves are, as they are the medium used to carry
the signals in a wireless network
Radio waves are electromagnetic radiations
Electromagnetic radiations can be characterized by
both frequency and wavelength
For the frequencies to create wireless data networks,
the range is in or near the gigahertz frequencies. This
is just under 1 GHz to just under 100 GHz, specifically
700 MHz to 95 GHz
25 February
Radio Waves
Frequency being the number of complete oscillations
per second of energy in the form of waves
In terms of the length of these waves, they range from
428.6 mm to 3.2 mm
The wavelength is the distance a radio wave will travel
during one cycle
That is the distance between identical points in the
adjacent cycles of a waveform
There are
formulas to compute wavelength or
frequency
Note
The actual speed of radio waves is the speed of light, which is
299,792,458 meters per second, but rounding to 300,000,000 is
sufficient for this purpose
25 February
Radio Wave
s(t) = At sin(2 ft t + t)
25 February
Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance between identical points in the
adjacent cycles of a waveform. In wireless systems, this
length is usually specified in meters, centimeters, or
millimeters
Wavelength
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25 February
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Frequency
Frequency is the number of complete cycles per second in
alternating current direction. The standard unit of frequency is
the hertz, abbreviated Hz. If a current completes one cycle
per second, then the frequency is 1 Hz.
Kilohertz (kHz)
Megahertz (MHz)
Gigahertz (GHz)
Terahertz (THz)
25 February
Frequency Spectrum
Designation
Very Low Frequency
Low Frequency
Medium Frequency
High Frequency
Very High Frequency
Ultra High Frequency
Super High Frequency
Extremely High Frequency
25 February
Abbreviation
VLF
LF
MF
HF
VHF
UHF
SHF
EHF
Frequencies
9 kHz - 30 kHz
30 kHz - 300 kHz
300 kHz - 3 MHz
3 MHz - 30 MHz
30 MHz - 300 MHz
300 MHz - 3 GHz
3 GHz - 30 GHz
30 GHz - 300 GHz
Free-space Wavelengths
33 km - 10 km
10 km - 1 km
1 km - 100 m
100 m - 10 m
10 m - 1 m
1 m - 100 mm
100 mm - 10 mm
10 mm - 1 mm
Spectrum
800
850
900
869
DAMPS
890
GSM/NMT
915
870
EGSM
960
894
935
915
925
890 905
TACS
872
ETACS
905
960
935 950
917
950
940 958
PDC
AMPS
824
849
869
851 866
851 869
894
896901
UP-SMR
930931
902 928
ISM
1800
1785 1805
1900
2000
2500
1880
1850
1910 1930
1990
ISM
25 February
940 941
929 932
PAGING
PCS
940 945
901902
NPCS
1700
PCN/DCS 1710
960
2400-2483.5
10
25 February
11
Prefixes
Common prefixes seen in RF include
m milli - 1/1000
Such as
5 mw = .005 watts
k kilo - 1000
Such as
3 kg = 3000 grams
M Mega - 1,000,000
Such as
2 MHz = 2 million Hertz
G Giga - 1,000,000,000
Such as
100 GHz = 2 billion Hertz
25 February
12
Terms
Common terms used include
Watt
This is the unit of measure for power
Energy
This is power times time
Voltage
Electrical potential
Current
Electrons on the move
Hertz
Cycles per second
The number of times a signal goes through a complete up and down
cycle, which is also the signals frequency
25 February
13
Tx Power
Tx is short for Transmit
All radios have a certain level or Tx power that the radio
generates at the RF interface. This power is calculated as the
amount of energy given across a defined bandwidth and is
usually measured in one of two units:
1. dBm a relative power level
referencing 1 milliwatt
2. W a linear power level
referencing Watts
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14
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15
Rx Sensitivity
Rx is short for Receive
All radios also have a certain point of no return, where if they
receive a signal less than the stated Rx Sensitivity, the radio
will not be able to see the data.
This is also stated in dBm or W.
A particular radio has a receive sensitivity of 82 dBm. At this
level, a Bit Error Rate (BER) of 10-5 (99.999%) is seen.
The actual level received at the radio will vary depending on
many factors.
25 February
16
Radiated Power
In a wireless system, antennas are used to convert electrical
waves into electromagnetic waves. The amount of energy the
antenna can boost the sent and received signal by is referred to
as the antennas Gain.
Antenna gain is measured in:
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17
There are certain guidelines set by the FCC that must be met
in terms of the amount of energy radiated out of an antenna.
This energy is measured in one of two ways:
1. Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP)
measured in dBm = power at antenna input [dBm] +
relative antenna gain [dBi]
2. Effective Radiated Power (ERP)
measured in dBm = power at antenna input [dBm] +
relative antenna gain [dBd]
25 February
18
Energy Losses
In all wireless communication systems there are several factors
that contribute to the loss of signal strength. Cabling,
connectors, lightning arrestors can all impact the performance
of your system if not installed properly.
In a low power system every dB you can save is important!!
Remember the 3 dB Rule.
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19
-3 dB = 1/2 power
-6 dB = 1/4 power
+3 dB = 2x power
+6 dB = 4x power
Sources of loss in a wireless system: free space,
cables, connectors, jumpers, obstructions
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20
FCC Guidelines
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21
1000
f = frequency in megahertz
v = velocity of the radio wave, which is the speed of light in meters
per second, in this case divided by 1000
w = wavelength in mm
v
w
100
f = frequency in gigahertz
v = velocity of the radio wave, which is the speed of light in meters
per second, in this case divided by 100
w = wavelength in mm
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22
v
f
1000
w = wavelength in mm
v = velocity of the radio wave, which is the speed of light in meters
per second, in this case divided by 1000
f = frequency in megahertz
w=
v
f
100
w = wavelength in mm
v = velocity of the radio wave, which is the speed of light in meters
per second, in this case divided by 100
f = frequency in gigahertz
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23
25 February
24
Planes
Electromagnetic radiation fields consist of two planes
It is necessary to understand what a plane is in relation
to a wave front as it has an effect on the ability of two
ends of a wireless radio link to communicate
These planes are
E Field Electric Field
Exists in a plane parallel to the antenna
25
Planes
Antenna
Vertical
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E Field Orientation
26
Planes
Antenna
Horizontal
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E Field Orientation
27
Polarization
Radio frequency signals are said to be polarized
The polarization aligns with the E field
In that the direction plane of the electric field lines
determines the polarization of an electromagnetic
wave
If the electric field lines are parallel with the surface,
then the polarization is horizontal
When those electrical field lines are perpendicular to
the surface, the polarization is vertical
The antenna construction and type determine the
polarization of the radio wave
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28
Polarization
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29
Polarization
For frequencies below 1 GHz, vertically polarized
radio waves propagate better near the earth than
horizontally polarized ones
Horizontal polarized radio waves will be canceled out
by reflections from the earth
Above 1 GHz it makes little difference
It is important that the sending and receiving antennas
in a wireless communication system both use the same
polarization
Failure to do so will cause a reduction in the useable
signal
25 February
30
Signals
A signal in a RF or radio frequency system is produced
by an electrical current flowing through a conductor
The antenna turns this current into invisible waves
moving through the air from the transmitting end
Then at the receiving end the invisible waves are
turned back into electrical current on a conductor
The invisible airborne waves are signals
Signals can be
Analog
Digital
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31
Analog Signal
An analog signal is one that varies continuously from
one value to another in the form of a sine wave, which
is a waveform that represents periodic oscillations in
which the amplitude of displacement at each point is
proportional to the sine of the phase angle of the
displacement
Sine itself being the trigonometric function that for an
acute angle is the ratio between the leg opposite the
angle when it is considered part of a right triangle and
the hypotenuse
In other words, the current or voltage varies with the
sine of the elapsed time
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32
Analog Signal
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33
Digital Signal
A digital signal in contrast goes instantly from one
value to another
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35
Modulation
Modulation is how an information signal is added to a
carrier signal
This is the superimposing of the information onto the
carrier
In an RF system a modulator generates this
information signal
Then it is passed to the transmitter and out the antenna
In other words it is modulated
Then at the other end the signal is demodulated
The way to think of this is like a letter
The envelope is the carrier and the letter is the information
The envelope is only needed during transmission
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36
Modulation
Modulation is why a perfect sine wave is desired
Modulators superimpose the information onto the sine
wave by making tiny modifications to the sine wave
If the sine wave is not perfect, these small changes
may be lost by the time the signal gets to the other end
of the link
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37
Modulation
Digital modulation
digital data is translated into an analog signal
ASK, FSK, PSK ( Shift Keying)
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation
shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
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38
digital
data
101101001
digital
modulation
analog
baseband
signal
analog
modulation
radio transmitter
radio
carrier
analog
demodulation
analog
baseband
signal
synchronization
decision
digital
data
101101001
radio receiver
radio
carrier
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39
Types of Modulation
There are three forms of modulation
AM Amplitude Modulation
FM Frequency Modulation
PM Phase Modulation
Combination modulation
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40
AM
AM changes the height of the sine wave as time goes
by
For example
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41
FM
FM changes the frequency of the sine wave as time
goes by, without changing the height
For example
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PM
PM changes the phase of successive sine waves
For example
A BC
A LEADS B BY 30 DEGREES
B LEADS C BY 30 DEGREES
A LEADS C BY 60 DEGREES
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PM
In general when you see phase modulation schemes
explained B stands for binary, which is only 2 points.
Q stands for quadrature, which is 4 points and 16 and
64 represent the higher number of points in the
modulation schemes
Every time the number of points is increased the speed
is increased, but interference tolerance is reduced
This is one of the reasons for automatic speed
reduction in the face of interference
Going from binary - 2 to 64 requires a really clean
signal
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44
PM Types
Some phase modulation methods include
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45
Digital modulation
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
simple
low bandwidth
susceptible to interference
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46
25 February
47
Sources of Noise
Noise consists of all undesired radio signals, whether
manmade or natural
Noise makes the reception of useful information
difficult
The radio signals strength is of little use, if the noise
power is greater than the received signal power
This is why the signal to noise ratio is important
Increasing receiver amplification cannot improve the
signal to noise ratio since both signal and noise will be
amplified equally and the ratio will remain the same
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48
Natural Noise
Naturally occurring noise has two main sources
Atmospheric noise, such as thunderstorms, from 0 to 5 MHz
Galactic noise, such as stars, at all higher frequencies
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49
Manmade Noise
Manmade noise is part of modern life
It is generated almost anywhere that there is electrical
activity, such as automobile ignition systems, power
lines, motors, arc welders, fluorescent lights, and so on
Each occurrence is small, but there are so many that
together they can completely hide a weak signal that
would be above the natural noise in a less populated
area
The most common sources of noise in the urban
environment are automotive noise, power generating
noise, and industrial noise
A Comparative Investigation on Urban Radio Noise
IEE Transactions on Broadcasting Vol. 50 Number 3 9-2004
25 February
50
Active or Passive
There are a number of components that are used in RF
systems
All of these are either
Active
or
Passive
25 February
51
Loss
All components exhibit one of two properties
Loss
or
Gain
52
Attenuation
Causes of loss or attenuation in RF systems and the
environments through which they transmit include
Water, regardless of how it appears or where it is found
including inside connections
When water is encountered in the air as the signal passes
through, the form of the moisture matters
At frequencies above 10 GHz attenuation from rain becomes
significant
When the raindrops size matches the wavelength
attenuation occurs
Raindrops vary in size from colloidal to about 6 to 8 mm
equivalent spherical diameter
Limits to the size of raindrops are due to the drag that occurs
as the raindrops fall through the atmosphere
25 February
53
Attenuation
At the maximum size the surface tension of the raindrop can
no longer overcome the force placed on the raindrop by the
atmospheric drag
Keep in mind that the determining factor in rain produced
attenuation is not the total amount of rain that has fallen, but
the instantaneous rainfall rate
Examples of the affect outside include
25 February
Rain causes about .08 dB of loss per mile for 2.4 GHz and 5.8 GHz
Fog causes about .03 dB per mile for 2.4 GHz
For 5.8 GHz the loss is about .11 dB per mile
Ice changes the effective design of an antenna, therefore changing its
performance
54
Attenuation
Inside a structure
The packaging material, such as cardboard, has a water content
This will affect the signal in a warehouse or manufacturing location
The products themselves in many cases have a significant water
content
In an office, hospital, or meeting environment the human beings
attenuate the signal, as humans are basically large bags of water
55
Attenuation
As the ITU formula shows a vertically polarized
antenna is less susceptible to rain fade
All of this is why a realistic site survey must be done,
the emphasis on realistic
25 February
56
Gain
If the signal gets larger before it exits the device, it is
gain
RF amplifiers produce gain
Gain is an active process in most cases, in other words
it requires a power source
Gain can also be the combination of signals from
different directions appearing together, such as the
main signal and a reflected signal
However, the total gain cannot exceed the original
level transmitted from the antenna in such a case
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57
Logarithm
We will next be discussing measures that use
logarithms
Why this level of complication
First, because humans hear things logarithmically
That is when a human says something has doubled in
loudness, the transmission power has actually
increased by a power of 10
This same concept of the increase in power is applied
to wireless communication systems
Second, because boosts or drops in signals are additive
or subtractive
That is one adds to the next or is reduced by it
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Logarithm
For example
A 10 dB signal encounters a 5 dB loss, then a 15 dB gain
The result is a 20 dB signal
10 5 + 15 = 20
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Bel
When work began on the first telephone networks a
unit of measure for the performance of the equipment
was required
As this was a voice network and as humans respond in
a logarithmic fashion to increases in frequency and
loudness, it was decided that a logarithmic measure for
the differences in signal levels would work best
The measure was named the bel
A bel is the logarithm of the ratio of two signal power
levels
The two signals differ by one bel if the logarithm of
their power ratio is 1.0
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Bel
In other words, if one signal has a power level 10
times that of the other, because the LOG10 = 1
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61
Decibel
Bels are fine, but not accurate enough, as they are too
large
The dB or decibel is used when discussing wireless
data networks
It is 1/10th of a bel
So 10 dB = 1 bel
The decibel is commonly used to measure power gain
or loss
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Decibels in Practice
The formula for gain or loss in dBs then is
P0
dB = LOG10
P1
dB = power ratio in bels
P0 = received power
PI = transmitted power
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63
Decibels in Practice
+3 dB means 2 times larger
Multiply by 2
Double the power
64
Decibels in Practice
+20 dB means 100 times larger
Multiply by 100
One hundred times the power
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65
Common dB Values
dB Increase
Factor
dB Decrease
Factor
0 dB
1 the same
0 dB
1 the same
1.25
-1
0.8
-3
0.5
-6
0.25
10
10
-10
0.10
12
20
16
100
-12
-20
0.06
0.01
30
1,000
-30
0.001
40
10,000
-40
0.0001
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66
dBm
As the bel and decibel are ratios between two power
values, such as input and output power, another
measure is needed to express power in terms of a fixed
reference point
This is the dBm
This uses 1 mW or milliwatt as the standard
1 mW = 0 dBm
So 10 dBm means a signal that is 10 dB above 1 mW
25 February
67
dBi
The dBi refers to the gain of an antenna in relation to a
theoretical isotropic radiator
This measure is used for antennas used for frequencies
above 1 GHz
25 February
68
dBd
This is the gain in decibels in relation to a standard
half-wave dipole antenna
0 dBd = 2.15 dBi
The dBd is used for antennas for systems transmitting
below 1 GHz
25 February
69
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the difference between the highest and
the lowest frequencies in a range
There is a relationship between bandwidth and
carrying capacity in terms of the amount of data that
can be transmitted
Although significant, bandwidth is not as important as
actual throughput, which is the amount of data pushed
through a real network
25 February
70
Propagation Factors
The propagation of the radio waves through the
atmosphere is how the information travels from one
point to another in a wireless data network
For the types of networks of interest here, this
propagation occurs entirely within the atmosphere near
the Earth
The Earths atmosphere is divided into layers
The troposphere is the first layer
It starts at the Earths surface and goes up to about 10
kilometers
Air in this layer decreases in temperature at a rate of
about 2.5 C for every 300 meters of altitude gained
25 February
71
Propagation Factors
The second layer of the atmosphere is the stratosphere
It extends from about 10 km to 50 km
The air in this layer maintains a nearly constant
temperature of about -65 C
Above about 50 km and extending upward to more
than 500 km is the ionosphere
The ionosphere gets its name because the molecules in
it are ionized
Electrons have been stripped from the atoms by the
bombardment of the Suns rays and other high energy
particles from the Sun
25 February
72
Propagation Factors
These ionized particles with large quantities of free
electrons act on any radio waves that pass through the
ionosphere
Radio waves move from the transmitter to the receiver
using sky waves, tropospheric waves or ground waves
Sky waves bounce the signal off of the ionosphere,
where it is refracted back to the Earth
The other method, and the one of interest here, is by
ground wave
Sky waves operate in the 2 to 30 MHz range
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73
Ground Waves
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74
Ground Waves
A ground wave propagates directly from the
transmitter to the receiver
Ground wave propagation is affected by several
factors which determine how much of the radio wave
is readable when it arrives at the other end, including
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75
Ground Waves
The ground wave has three components
Direct wave
Ground reflected wave
Surface wave
76
Ground Waves
Raising the antenna at one or both ends helps to extend
this distance
The ground reflected wave bounces off of the surface
and then to the receiving antenna
Multipath as discussed later, is a result of the ground
reflected component and the direct wave component
arriving at the receiving antenna at different times
The surface wave follows the Earths curvature
It is most affected by the Earths conductivity and
dielectric constant
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78
79
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Relative Conductivity
Very good
Good
Fair
Rocky terrain
Poor
Desert
Poor
Jungle
Very Poor
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82
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Tropospheric Wave
Bending (refraction) of wave in the lower atmosphere
VHF communication possible over a long distance
Bending increases with frequency so higher
frequency more chance of propagation
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Ducting
At the frequencies of interest here sky wave
propagation is not much of a factor so the ionosphere
can be ignored
The only sky wave phenomena of interest is the
ducting phenomena
Ducting is a form of refraction
It is the bending of a wave as it passes through air
layers of different density
Ducting occurs in semitropical regions, when a layer
of air 5 to 100 meters thick with abnormal
characteristics forms
This is normally the result of a temperature inversion
25 February
86
Ducting
For example, on a warm day after a rainy period, the
Sun may heat up the ground and create a layer of
warm, moist air
As the sun goes down, the air a few meters above the
ground will cool very quickly, while the moisture in
the air near the ground holds the remaining heat there
A large difference in temperature occurs between the
air near the ground and the air at a height of 10 to 20
meters, resulting in a difference in air pressure
When a radio wave in the VHF or UHF range is
transmitted into this air mass, it may bend along the
temperature or inversion layer
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87
Ducting
This layer then acts as a channel or duct between the
transmitting antenna and an unusually distant receiving
antenna that normally would not be able to receive the
signal
Ducting is measured by the k-factor or refractivity
gradient
The k-factor can change frequently and different
regions have different values
A k-factor higher than 1 means a microwave signal
will tend to bend downward toward the earth
The result is the radio horizon is now much further
away than would normally be the case
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Ducting
In other words the signal will curve around the earth
when in more typical weather conditions, it would not
Moreover, if the k-factor is less than one, then the
microwave signal will not travel as far as expected
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90
25 February
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Environmental Factors
As radio waves move along in their journey from here
to there, they are acted upon by many things
Most of these many things are not good
Everything an RF signal encounters on its journey has
an effect on the signal
The effect is usually to make the signal smaller or to
changes its direction in some way
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Environmental Factors
These things that have an effect include
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93
4 possible events
Radio wave
shadowing
Radio wave
scattering
Radio wave
reflection
25 February
diffraction
94
95
For kilometers
C = 32.4
For miles
C = 36.6
25 February
96
Absorption
Free space loss is only the beginning of the losses
suffered by the signal as it goes from here to there
Absorption is insertion loss caused by things the
signals run into
For the wavelengths of interest here the amount of loss
experienced by a radio wave from absorption depends
on the materials the wave encounters on its journey
and the effects of the Earths surface over which it
travels
These high frequencies with their short wavelengths
are absorbed by the Earth at points relatively close to
the point of transmission
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97
Absorption
In general as the frequency goes up, the more rapidly
will the wave be absorbed by the Earth
So straight line, long distance transmission at heights
close to the Earths surface is impractical above 2
MHz
Further the size of the obstacle in comparison to the
size of the wavelength is important
When short wavelengths as are used in these wireless
systems hit large obstacles, such as a tree, the signal is
blocked
Lower frequency signals are desired for this type of
non line of sight penetration
25 February
98
Absorption
In the types of systems used to create data and
multimedia networks for deployment outside, the main
absorption problem encountered is vegetation
There are no firm numbers for this problem, but some
general statements can be made
This absorption is due to the water content of the
vegetation and the frequency of the signal
25 February
99
Absorption
For full foliage trees in the Northern Hemisphere
research suggests these values for the absorption effect
of vegetation
870 MHz
.2 to 1.3 dB per meter of foliage or 11 dB per tree
1.6 GHz
.5 to 1.3 dB per meter of foliage or 11 dB per tree
5 GHz
1.2 to 2 dB per meter or 20 dB per tree
20 GHz
2 to 4 dB per meter of foliage or 23 dB per tree
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100
Absorption
Studies suggest that the wood part of the tree is the
major factor in tree related attenuation at frequencies
from 870 MHz to 4 GHz
With the leaves adding from 35% additional
attenuation at 870 MHz to 15% additional at 1.6 GHz
At 20 GHz the wood and leaves are both important
An ITU - International Telecommunication Union
study on this subject also states that the attenuation
caused by vegetation varies widely due to the irregular
shape of vegetation, as well as the wide range of sizes,
shapes, densities, and water content of the various
species
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Absorption
In addition to the attenuation caused by absorption,
foliage also causes scattering as discussed below,
especially at the lower frequencies around 900 MHz
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Absorption
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103
Reflection
Reflection is a change in direction of the signal caused
by something the signal cannot penetrate
The amount of reflection depends on the wavelength
and the material the object is made of
Reflection occurs when the object has a very large
dimension compared to the wavelength
As most of the wavelengths used in wireless systems
are very short in comparison to the objects they
encounter on their journey, most things in the
environment cause reflection
If the material does not absorb all of the signal, some
must bounce off or be reflected in another direction
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104
Reflection
A smooth metal surface with good electrical
conductivity does this
Reflection appears as multipath
Surfaces made of metal or water exhibit severe
reflection
Antenna diversity or modulation techniques are used
to help with this multipath problem
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Reflection
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Refraction
Refraction is the bending of a wave as it passes
through an object
It is not reflected off, but mostly passes through the
object
The signal that passes through goes off in a direction
different from that which it entered the object
The obstruction that causes the refraction is not always
obvious
Atmospheric refraction is an example of this
In atmospheric refraction when the wave front reaches
a area of less dense air it starts to travel faster than the
part of the wave front still in the more dense air
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Refraction
This causes the part of the wave front to bend
Ducting as discussed earlier is the common effect see
from this type of refraction
Usually refraction and reflection both occur at the
same time
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Refraction
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Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when a RF wave is obstructed by a
surface that has sharp edges or a rough surface, such as
the edge of a building or a hill
The signal moves around the object and back to the
other side
But a shadowed area appears behind the object
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Diffraction
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Diffraction
25 February
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Scattering
Scattering occurs when the radio waves hit a large
number of objects whose dimensions are smaller than
the wavelength of the wave
In the frequencies of interest here, common causes of
this are foliage, street signs, and other such things
found in the environment
In addition to the scattering caused by the leaves.
Swaying of the tree branches due to wind whether the
leaves are present or not introduces additional loss due
to scattering
Effect of Wind on Foliage Obstructed Line-of-Sight
Eric R. Pelet, J. Eric Salt, and Garth Wells
IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, Vol. 50 Number 3 92004
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Scattering
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114
Multipath Characteristics
A signal may arrive at a receiver
- many different times
- many different directions
- due to vector addition
. Reinforce
. Cancel
- signal strength differs from place to place
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Delay Spread
Signal follows different paths to reach same
destination.
So same signal may arrive many times at different
time intervals.
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Delay Spread
In digital system, delay spread causes intersymbol
interference.
Therefore, there is a limit on the maximum symbol
rate of a digital multipath channel.
Obviously, delay spreads are different in different
environment.
(roughly between 0.2 to 3 microseconds)
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Capacity of Channel
What is the maximum transmission rate so that the
channel has very high reliability?
- error free capacity of a channel
C.E. Shannons work suggest that signaling scheme
exists for error-free transmission if the rate of
transmission is lower than the channel capacity.
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Shannons work
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Okumuras model
- based on free space path loss + correction factors for
suburban and rural areas, irregular terrain, street
orientations
Sakagmi and Kuboi model
- extend Okumuras model using regression analysis of
data.
Hatas model
- empirical formula to describe Okumuras data
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More models
Ibrahim and Parsons model
- equations developed to best fit data observed at
London. (freq. 168-900 MHz)
Lees model
Use at 900MHZ
3 parameters (median trasmission loss, slope of the path loss
curve and adjustment factor)
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123
Interference Temperature
Interference among radio frequency systems is
currently minimized by coordinating frequency usage
or by limiting the power of a transmitter
In contrast the interference temperature model sets a
maximum noise level for an entire band
New systems can be placed in service beside existing
systems, if it is anticipated that the interference
temperature limit would not be exceeded
For this to work the interference temperature would
have to be monitored by the systems that would share
the spectrum
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Interference Temperature
This requires that cognitive radios be developed that
can sense the interference temperature and adjust
themselves accordingly
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125
VSWR
The equipment that is used to send or receive an RF
signal is put together with connectors and cables that
must all be electrically matched
This match is expressed by saying all of the
components must use the same impedance, which is 50
ohms for the equipment used in wireless networks
Not having a good match results in impedance or loss
being introduced
Of course loss is always bad in a system, unless put in
by an attenuator
Regardless of how carefully parts are put together,
there will be some insertion loss or leaking in this case
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VSWR
This leaking is measured by SWR or VSWR Voltage
Standing Wave Ratio, which is an indication of how
good the impedance match is
Common interpretation says that
127
Return Loss
Another measure of lack of match is return loss
The reason for return loss is that the signal does not all
actually just leak out into space, part is sent backwards
down the conductor
In other words, some of the signal is returned where it
came from
Common values of return loss, in dB, for various
VSWR values are
1.0:1 30 dB
1.5:1 14 dB
2.0:1 9.5 dB
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22 MHz wide
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FHSS an example
f5
f4
f3
f2
f1
1
10
11
12
TIME
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Hopset
Each
channel
1MHz wide
133
Signal Propagation
As the signal leaves the antenna it propagates, or disperses, into
space. The antenna selection will determine how much
propagation will occur.
At 2.4 GHz it is extremely important to ensure a that a path (or
tunnel) between the two antennas is clear of any obstructions.
Should the propagating signal encounter any obstructions in the
path, signal degradation will occur.
Trees, buildings, hydro poles, and towers are common
examples of path obstructions.
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135
Line of Sight
Attaining good Line of Sight (LOS) between the sending and
receiving antenna is essential in both Point to Point and Point to
Multipoint installations.
Generally there are two types of LOS that are used discussed
during installations:
1. Optical LOS - is related to the ability to see one
site from the other
2. Radio LOS related to the ability of the receiver
to see the transmitted signal
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Fresnel Zones
3rd*
2nd*
1st*
* Fresnel Zones
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rn =
Site A
n d d
1 2
d +d
1
d1
Site B
d2
139
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142
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Antennas
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The type of system you are installing will help determine the
type of antenna used. Generally speaking, there are two types
of antennae:
1. Directional
- this type of antenna has a narrow beamwidth; with the
power being more directional, greater distances are usually
achieved but area coverage is sacrificed
- Yagi, Panel, Sector and Parabolic antennae
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2. Omni-Directional
- this type of antenna has a wide beamwidth and radiates
3600; with the power being more spread out, shorter
distances are achieved but greater coverage attained
- Omni antenna
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Yagi
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Parabolic
- used in medium to long links
- gains of 18 to 28 dBi
- most common
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Sectoral
- directional in nature, but can be adjusted anywhere from 450 to
1800
- typical gains vary from 10 to 19 dBi
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270 0
-3
-6
-15
-20
-15
-20
-30
-30
-10
dB
90 270 0
-3
-6
-10
dB
90
180
180
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Omni
-typical gains of 3 to 10 dBi
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Polarization
An antennas polarization is relative to the E-field of antenna.
If the E-field is horizontal, than the antenna is Horizontally
Polarized.
If the E-field is vertical, than the antenna is Vertically
Polarized.
No matter what polarity you choose, all antennas in the same RF
network must be polarized identically regardless of the antenna
type.
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Horizontal
Vertical
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Antenna Impedance
A proper Impedance Match is essential for maximum power
transfer. The antenna must also function as a matching load for
the Transmitter ( 50 ohms).
Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), is an indicator of how
well an antenna matches the transmission line that feeds it.
It is the ratio of the forward voltage to the reflected voltage.
The better the match, the Lower the VSWR. A value of 1.5:1
over the frequency band of interest is a practical maximum
limit.
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VSWR
Return Loss
Transmission Loss
1.0:1
0.0 dB
1.2:1
20.83 dB
0.036 dB
1.5:1
13.98 dB
0.177 dB
5.5:1
3.19 dB
2.834 dB
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Distance-to-fault
CHER-B-A04
M1: -3.728 dB @ 50.698 Feet
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
M1
Resolution: 259
BiasTee: OFF
Date: 06/27/2000
Model:
S332B
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10
15
40
35
30
25
20
Distance (0.0 - 60.0 Feet)
CAL: ON(COAX)
Output Power: -30.00 dBm
Time: 12:03:59
Wireless Serial
Comm #:
Sys00004096
TE 40 - TCC 15 (2006)
45
50
55
60
CW On
162
Environmental Effects
Ice and wind loading, Salt spray
Radomes used to improve performance in icy, windy
conditions (more common with larger solid parabolic
dishes). Wind loading can be reduced substantially by
using a radome.
Wind loading can produce vibration, which in turn can
produce azimuth errors. For longer paths, this can be
critical.
Installation - pay close attention to proper sealing of all
connector junctions.
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Times
Microwave
LMR types
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Andrew
Corporation
Heliax
166
Attenuation Table
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Physical Characteristics:
Bend radius
Diameter - transition considerations (interface jumper
cable use)
Environmental considerations
Plenum installation (fire retardant)
Special weather-resistant types
UV resistance very important in tropics
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Connectors
Your connector selection will be determined based on the
following:
- connector gender at antenna
- type of cable being used
- use of lightning protection
- gender of jumpers being used
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Connectors
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N-male
RP-SMA- male
N-female
RP-SMA-female
172
173
174
Antenna Gain
Antenna Gain
(dBi)
(dBi)
B
Path Loss (dB)
Field Factor (dB)
Connector
Connector
Losses
(dB)
Cable Losses
Cable Losses
(dB)
(dB)
(dB)
Tx Output (dBm)
Tx Output (dBm)
Received Signal Level
Losses
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Interference Countermeasures
1. Short Paths
2. Narrow Beam Antennas (high gain)
3. Frequency Selection
4. Antenna Polarization
5. Antenna Azimuth
6. Equipment/Antenna Location
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Conclusion
You should now be familiar with the radio frequency
concepts required to understand how wireless
networks operate
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