Hedge, T Key concepts in ELT Tricia Hedge Fluency ‘The term fluency has acquired two rather different meanings in ELT. The first is similar to typical dictionary entry. For example, ‘fluent’ is defined by Chambers Concise Dictionary as ‘able to speak and write @ particular language competently and with ease.’ in this meaning it is normally restricted to language production, and in ELT it is normally reserved for speech. It is the ability to link units of speech together with facility and without strain or inappropriate slowness or undue hesitation. Faerch, Haastrup, and Phillipson (1984) include fluency as a component of communicative competence, and define it as ‘the speaker’s ability to make use of whatever linguistic and pragmatic competence they have.’ They distinguish three types of fluency: © semantic fluency, ie. linking together propositions and speech acts (also known as coherence); © lexicai-syntactic fluency, i.e. linking together syntactic constituents and words; © articulatory fluency, i.e. linking together speech segments, Non-fluency in an English language leamer is discernible in frequent pauses, repetitions, and self- corrections, as in this extract from the speech of an elementary learner: I enjoy... er..: enjoyed... er... making this .. .¢r.. homework . . . on pronunciation . pronunciation... but... um... you know... I have... there are lots of mistakes. .. so. . . you see... ithelps .. . itis helping me to... imp... (Coughs)... make better . . . my English This learner is beginning to compensate for this non- fiuency by using the fillers ‘you know’, ‘you see’, in the pauses while he deals with his linguistic uncertainty. It is noticeable, too, that he uses the communication strategy of paraphrase when he fails to produce ‘improve? and says ‘make better’ instead to increase his fluency. ELT Journal Volume 4713 July 1993 © Oxford University Press 1993 ‘This first meaning of fluency relates to competence in the learner. Course books in the seventies often contained fluency drifls aimed at increasing the Teamer’s ability to link syntactic segments with ease. For example, the teacher would set up a chain drill and provide each student with a different prompt in tum which they would have to insert in the correct position syntactically, as in: Ss: L went to the theatre last night. T: (my aum’s house) S: I went to my aunt’s house last night. T: (visited) S: I visited my aunt’s house last night. T: (yesterday) + ele ‘More recently teachers have debated whether it is possible to teach gambits, such as fillers, to compensate for fiuency. A second meaning of fluency has developed in relation 10 the goals of ELT and the nature of classroom activity. Brumfit (1984) argues from a definition of fluency as ‘natural language use’ and defines the aim of fluency activity in the classroom as to ‘develop a pattem of language interaction within the classroom which is as close as possible to that used by competent performers in the mother tongue in normal life.” He lists a set of criteria necessary for achieving fluency activity. These have been simultaneously developed and expanded by a number of other writers and can be summarized as follows: ‘© the language should be a means to an end, i. the focus should be on the meaning and not on the form. Other writers have made similar distinctions e.g. message/medium (Krashen), meaning- focused/form-focused (Ellis) © the content should be determined by the learner who is speaking or writing © there must be a negotiation of meaning between the speakers, i.e, the learners must be involved in interpreting a meaning from what they hear and 275 teconstrting wha! to say, not relist on te teacher fr textbook to provide the lenguage © the ‘normal processes of istening, reading, speaking, lc. willbe in play e.g improvising apd paraphrasing in speech fe eacheritervention to correct should be minimal 436 Dis distracts om the message. In Brom sview,feny atvsies will give students the epporiunty fo prodice and understand items of language which they lear in fom-focued ork ot accuracy work. Iie Sgneant tat hs definition at feney covers all of the language sks: His Suggestions for ceating nara langage inthe tlassoom inlude creative wring clas iba, Sd project work Much ELT material. Klippe! 984) has taken p the concep of feney tives, and presents tasks ‘hich conform tothe extra sbove, An example ‘would be students reading. a handout with ve Fropesals forhow to spend # weekend ad nsecing ‘onthe weekend hey would enjoy spending oper More ceri the criteria fr task design have been eveloped in relaon to spose sls ep. Dygate 1987, on speaking) andthe debate on Hivency the classioom has extended tothe roles of testers and Teamers and the appropriate management of dlsssroom leaning. Further reading Brum, C1984 Communicative Methodology in Language. Teachings The Rote of Feeney and ‘Aecraty. Cambridge: Cambege nivery Pr Bagi, M.1987. Speaking Onord Oxford Unies es. Faereiy C.K Hossrup, and 8, Pilipson, 1984 Learner lanpage and language ering. Chsedon Auiinerl aners ope F188 Keep Taig: Communicative tency Actives for" Language Teaching Cambege: Cambridge University Pres. Project Work {A projects anextended task which usually integrates language skills work dough a umber of activities, ‘These etivites combine in working towards an sgroed goal and may inslide planning. te gaering of information through reading, histening, imerviewing, ec, discussion of the information, problem solving, oral or writen reporing, and Sisplay. Brum (1984) gives an example in which advanced adult students elec 10 work in groups to prodoee a radio programme abou their own country. Arange of Topics, for example, ethnic groups, religion, 6 education, ae assigned to the groups, who research ‘ir topi and write and rehearse x seri Hutchinson, (1991) suggests a project on Animale in Danger for sccondary school pupils, i which they use Iinowledge from Seienoe and Geagrapty to research threatened species, write an arucle, and snake a poster. FiedBooth (1987) gives a more teacher- Sirected example suitable for junior Iearmers at an elementary level, in which they ae asked to collect food labels oF wrappings from tins, cartons, packets, et. fora period ofa week. These aze used to creas wall display witha map ofthe world sasrated with thelabels, whichareatached othe relevant counties Sf origin and export with coloured threads and pis, ‘The map is then used for orl practice and coniled wating Project work has been part of educational thinking and practice on expesctialleaming forthe greater ‘am ofthis cenaisy (Dewey, Kilpatiek, Mich Fey) land tas influenced the teaching methodology of Ccarrcsium subjects atthe sebool evel. Moe recently Since the migueventies, ae ELT. has espoured inciples of leamercentred teaching, earer sonomy, the negotiated. syllabus, coiaboreve Yearning, and. earning. through tasks, English langoage educstors have explored and exploited ine uadiion of project work, and i is now part of the ‘English language curielum in many contexts, LLoputke and Thomas (1991) use data from case studies of project work inthe UK, USA ané Geimany (o suggest tree types of project encounter project enable students to make contact with naive speakers, for example, American, or Brith visitors 0 their country. Tear projects encourage stadents 0 Use English language texts, either range of them to research # Topic or one text more intensively, for example, 2 play to read, discuss, dramatize, and eheare) Clas? correspondence projects invoNe Fetters, "audlocassetes, photographs, el as ‘exchanges between schoo! pupils indifferent Projects usually involve a nuaber of features: the study and use of autheric English language the study lish language ‘© an emphasis on student group-contred experience and de-emphasis of teacher-directed work ‘¢ the encouragement of student responsibility for planning, carying out, ard presenting the task (© a sequence of activities over period of tiie ex. planning, fekdwork, preparation of information, presentation 12 the use ofa ange of sills 1 activity extside the classroom inthe students" own Project-based learning hes been promoted within ELT for a number of reasons. Eesmers’ ase of Key concepts in ELT Innguage as they nepoitepar, rays and dts Infomation ard eas dtermined by genine Commuicaive needs. At se sang ve) pret Store encourages agination aa creat, sll {lscipine and rexporstiy collaboration, care Sd dy sits nd eros conte wor tough ‘rotation of kabwiedge pind Inches subjects Successful use_of project work will clearly be affected by such factors 26 avalbility of time geese Teamer taining, ndministrative Hexibity of instiutonsitimeabling, Received May 1993 Tricia Hedge Further Reading Brum, C. 1984. Communicative Methodology in Language Teaching. The Roler of Fluency dnd Accuracy. Cambridge: Cambridge Unversity Press Fried Booth, D. L. 1987. Project Work. Oxford ‘Oxford University Pres, Hutchinson, T1991. Imraduction to Project Work. ‘Oxford: Oxford University Press, Legutke, Ml. and H. Thomas. 1991, Process and ‘Esperience tn the Language Clessrcom Haslow: Longman, The author ‘Trlela Hedge the Etor ofthis journal