Marine Engineering Roy L Harrington 1971

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a Group of Authorities
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ROY L. HARRl NGTON
Engineering Technical Pepartmelit

Newport News Shipbuilding and
Published by
THE S ~ C I E OF
~ Y NAVAL ARCHITECTS AND MARINE ENGINEERS
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One World Trade Center, Suite 1369, New York, N.Y. 10048
@ Copyright 1971 by
The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 78472362
Printed in the United States of America
Second Printing 1976
TMrd Printing 1980
Since 1942 and 1944 when the two volumes of MARINEENGINEERING

were published, the
basic body of knowledge constituting marine engineering has greatly increased. Recognizing
was substantially out of date, the Society in 1964 underthat the original MARINEENGINEERING
took the task of compiling a reviged edition. That same year a Control Committee was ap-'
pointed by the president to guide the revision, carrying on the objective of the original work,
that of producing a comprehensive treatise reflecting the important technical progress of the
last several decades. Also, the intent is that this text should complement the Society's two companion volumes, Principles of Naval Architecture and Ship Design and Construction, which deal
similarly with the subjects of naval architecture and ship construction practices.
When the task of revising the original MARINEENGINEERING
was undertaken, it was quickly
found to be considerably larger in scope than anticipated. The original text had to be completely rewritten, not simply revised. At the putset, it was decided that, for ready use and
reference, the text should be a single volume limited to about 850 pages. Therefore, discussion
of engineering subjects.covered in other textbooks had to be greatly abbreviated. Every effort
has been made, however, throughout the text to make reference to appropriate source material
for the individual or self-taught reader as well as the resourceful teacher (who may in some
cases prefer to use his own references).
Each chapter is written by a separate author (or authors). The committee felt that this
precept should be continued because of the advantages of professional specialization it affords.
Some unevenness in style results, but this has been minimized by the technical editor. In
May, 1968, Mr. Roy L. Harrington was selected as technical editor by the committee. Mr.
Hanington received a Society scholarship in 1960 to pursue an M.S. degree in marine engineering and also has had twelve years of technical ship design experience in a major shipyard. With
this background, plus his extensive literary capability, he was considered well equipped to
bridge the academic and the practicing professional points of view of the Society members.
This book is not intended to be either a handbook or conversely a definitive text on any specific
engineering discipline which may be used in marine engineering. Its purpose is to acquaint a
person already familiar with basic engineering fundamentals with the various engineering disciplines and applications which constitute marine engineering. The need for such a book becomes
apparent when it is recognized that many practicing marine engineers have had little formal
education in the field of marine engineering as such, but instead have come into it from other
related engineering activities.
The Control Committee appointed to guide the revision of MARINEENGINEERING
consisted of:
Ernst G. Frankel
Jens T. Holm
William E. Jacobsen
John R. Kane
John H. Lsscaster
'
Lauren S. McCready
Andrew I. McKee
Laskar Wechsler
John B. Woodward I11
Robert E. Yohe
There have been so many technological advancements since the original MARINEENQINEERwas published that the'content of this book bears little similarity to the original text. For
example, in a manner of speaking, a nuclear power chapter has been substituted f o ~the old
reciprocating steam engine chapter, and other differences are almost as dramatic. However,
the same basic philosophy was used in writing both works except that, insofar as practicable,
this text covers naval practice in addition to merchant practice.
In order to ensure that this book is comprehensive and factual, and accurately represents the
consensus of opinion of the marine industry as a whole, the chapters were subjected to a series
of reviews. After the manuscripts were prepared by the authors and reviewed within their
respective organizations, they were then reviewed by the editor, Control Committee, and selected
members of the marine industry who were experts in each particular area. The entire Sociehy
owes a large debt of gratitude to this last group as they were largely responsible for transforming
good manuscripts into excellent manuscripts.
With few exceptions, it is a gross injustice to suggest that the chapters have been prepared
by only the authors indicated. In several cases, the contributions of single individuals who
assisted were almost as large as that of the author; and in $1 cases, the comments and discussion
provided by the Control Committee and other members of the marine industry were an invaluable
asset. Mr. John Markert (author of Chapter 19) accurately expressed the sentiment of the
chapter authors when he stated that the generous cooperhtion and assistance received from the
numerous contributors, often persons not acquainted with the author, were a revelation; it
should, however, be noted that such cooperation is characteristic of the marine fraternity.
An accurate listing of those who assisted in the preparation of this book would include many
names. Several hundred people made direct contributions (by assisting in the preparation of
manuscripts, supplying reference material, reviewing manuscripts, or supplying illustration
material); and when those who made indirect contributions are added, the number of names
would become even larger.
- It is, however, considered proper to acknowledge some of the contributions as follows:
Mr. Catlin (Chapter 3) acknowledges the valuable contributions of Mr. George W. Kessler,
vice resident. Babcock & Wilcox. Mr. L. E. Triggs, chief engineer, Marine Dept., Combustion
~ n ~ i h e e r i~nc.,
n ~ , Mr. W. I. signell, chief marine engineer, J. J. Henry Co., Inc., and Professor
J. T. Holm, Webb Institute of Naval Architecture, in the development of the chapter dealing
with boilers and combustion.
Dr. Illies (Chapter 8) states that he received help from a large number of individuals while
preparing the low-speed directrcoupled diesel engine chapter. The material that was made
available by diesel engine manufacturers (MAN, Fiat, Sulzer, Burmeister and Wain, Gotaverken,
Stork, and Doxford) was particularly helpful as was the valuable advice and personal assistance
that ww provided by Mr. Klaus Knaack.
Mr. Semar (Chapter 9) acknowledges the contributions made by Mr. W. S. Richardson, the
Falk Corporation, Mr. Norman A. Smith, General Electric Company, and Mr. Frederic A.
Thoma, DeLaval Turbine, Inc., in the development of the chapter on reduction gears.
Mr. J. F. Sebald (Chapter 13) acknowledges the valuable contributions made by Mr. P. D.
Gold of the Worthington Corporation, Mr. William J. Bow of the Foster Wheeler Corporation
and Mr. J. J. Biese of the Ingersoll Rand Co. h providing illustrations and for their critical
review of the manuscript. The cooperation of the Heat Exchange Institute and The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers in permitting the publication of technical data and the technical support provided by Gilbert Associates, Inc. are also gratefully acknowledge4.
Messrs. Smith and Nickerson (Chapter 16) gratefully acknowledge the assistance provided
by Mr. A. Taplin of the Naval Ship Engineering Center, who prepared the active fin stabilizer
section of the hull machinery chapter.
Mr. Stephenson (Chapter 18) gratefully notes that the machinery arrangement illustrations
and many of the piping diagram illustrations in the piping systems chapter were included with
the permission of Mr. W. L. Baptie of American Mail Line, Ltd.
The typical chapter author is a highly competent engineer who enjoys his field of specialization and has devoted the majority of his life to it. By studying the various chapters, it will
become apparent that a book such as this is published only once per generation.
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Division 1
Introductory
1'
Chapter I
J. R.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS I N MARINE ENGINEERING
KANE,
Director of Engineering,
Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company
1. Intrbduction ..........................
2. Concepts and Concept Formulation.. ....
3. Ship System Formulation.. .............
4. Development of Main Propulsion System
Requirements.. .....................
%. ~ a i Propulsion
n
Plent ~rade-offStudies.
6. Preliminary Design Considerations. . . . . .
7. Specifications. ........................
8. Final Design and Working Plans. . . . . . . .
8 9. Tests and Trials. .....................
1
2
5
11
18
31
33
35
Power Plants
Chapter I1
THERMODYNAMICS AND B E A T ENGINEERING
Jws T. HOLM,
Professor, Webb Institute of Naval Architecture
J. B. WOODWARD
111, Professor, University of Michigan
1. Review of Fundamentals. ..............

2. Heat Transfer in Boilers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Internal Thermodynamics of the Steam
Tutbine. ...........................
Page
PW~
38 4. External Thermodynamics of the Steam
Turbine ............................ 55
5. ~herniod~namics
of steam Cycles. . . . . . . 61
/ 49 6. Waste Heat from Diesel and Gas Turbine
i
Engines ............................
73
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Chapter I11
BOILERS AND COMBUSTION
EVERETT
A. CATLIN,~ a x i n Engineer,
e
The Babcock & Wilcox Company
1. Classification of Marine Seam Generatom
2. Considerations in the Selection of a Boiler
Chapter I V
pa@
78 3. Boiler Pesign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
90 4. Boiler Operation.. ..................... 125
NUCLEAR MARINE PROPULSION
ROBERT
T. PENNINQMN,
formerly Manager of Nuclear Maxine Engineering, Advanced Products
Operation, General Electric Company
Page
page
1. Basic Fundamentals. .................. 130 3. . Nuclear Propulsion Applications. . . . . . . . 149
2, Reactor Design Considerations. . . . . . . . . 138
vii
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STEAM TURB1,NES
WILLIAMI. H. BUDD,Assistant to Manager of Engineering, Marine Systems, DeLaval Turbine, Inc.
unrtpucr v
Turbine Control.. ....................

Rotors and Blades. ..................
Norzlea, Diaphragms, and Stationary
Blading.. ..........................
Casings &adPackings. ................
Lubrication and Bearings. ............
Main Propulsion Turbine Operation. . . .
Auxiliary Turbines. ..................
1. Nonreheat Main Propulsion Turbines. ..

2. Reheat Main Propulsion Turbines. .....
3. Main Propulsion Turbine-Nuclear
Cycle. .............................
4. Combined Steam and GaB Turbine Main
Propulsion Cycles. .................
5. Turbine Speed, Number of Stages, Dimensions. ....................... : .
Chapter X
ELECTRIC PROPULSION DRIVES
W. E. JACOBBEN,
Manager, Marine Systems Engineering, General Electric Company
1. Introduction.. ........................ 334
2. The Diesel Direct-Current Drive System. 339
3. The Turbine Direct-Current Drive System 347
180
185
4. The Turbine Alternating-Current Drive
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
5. The Diesel Alternating-Current Drive
System. ........................... 356

6. Electric Couplings.. ................... 360
190
193
196
199
Chapter XI
201
PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND

SHAFTrNG SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS
Assistant Chief Engineer, Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company
C. L. LONG,
Chapter VI
GAS TURBINES
A. 0. WHITE, Manager, Advanced Applications Unit, Medium
Electric Company
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Basic Considerations.. ..................

Arrangement and Structural Details. . . . . .
Accessories. ...........................
Controls. .............................
Centrifugal Compressor Design. .........
206
213
218
219
222
6.
7.
8.
9.
Page
~k Turbine
Operation, General
Axial-Flow Compreseor Design. . . . . . . . .

Turbine Design and Construction. ......
Combustion Systems. .................
Bearings, Seals, and Lubrication. .......
Introduction.. ........................ 362 b5.

2. Arrangement Considerations.. . . . . . . . . . . 365 e 6 .
p - 3 . Shafting Loads.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 -7.
' '/4. Shafting Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 8.
b- 1.
1. Introdrtction. ......................... 246

2. aaracte$tics of Diesel Engines. . . . . . . . 251
Bearings.. ............................
Propellers. ...........................
Torsional Vibration.. ..................
Longitudinal Vibration.. ...............
379
384
388
393
9. Whirling Vibration.. ................... 397
225
229
235
239
Division 4
Auxiliary Co~aponents
MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES

LASKARWECHBLER,Technical Director, Machinery Systems ~ i v i s i o n ,Naval ship ~ n ~ i n e e r i n ~
Page
PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS,

COMPRE$SORS, AND EJECTORS
Supervisor, Centrifugal Pump Engineering Departmen;t, DeLaval Turbine, Inc.
G. W. SOETE,
Page
page
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3. Marine Uses for Diesel Engines. . . . . . . . . 257

4. Design Considerations. ................ 261
1. Centrifugal Pumps.. ................... 401 4. Rotary Pumps.. ...................... 432

2. Reciprocating Steam Pumps. ........... 422 \.-5. Forced-@aft Blowers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
3. Power Pumps.. ....................... 428 L. 6, Compressors.. ......................... 440
7. Ejectors.. ............................ 444
LOWSPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DIESEL ENGINES

KURTILLIES,
Professor, Technische Universitat Hannover
Pege
1. survey of Principal &acteri&ics. ..... 280
2. Engine Subsystems. ................... 292
Chapter XI11
JOBEPH
F. SEBALD,
Consulting Engineer and Special Consultant to Gilbert Associates, Inc.
3. Overall Considerations. ................ 303
Transmissions
REDUCTION GEARS
HAROLD
W. SEE~AR,
Manager, Technical Support, Marine Mechanical Dep&ment, westinghouse
MAIN AND AUXILIARY CONDENSERS
!*
Page
Page
1. General C~aracterhtics................. 450

2. Condenser Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
3. Surface Condenser Performanm. . . . . . . . . 473

4. Performance Predictions from Design
Geometry.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
Chapter X I V
HEAT EXCHANGERS
CHARLEB
D. ROBE,Vice President, AquaXhem, Incorporated
PHILIPLIU, Chief Thermal Design Consultant, Research and Development, Aqu*Chem,
corporated
Electric Corporation
page
v
1. Introduction.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 3. Gear Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

2. Tooth Design Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 v 4 . Applications.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
page
page
1. . Introduction. ......................... 488

2. Heat Transfer in Shell-and-Tube Heat
Exchangers..
496
3. Heat Exchanger Applications. .......... 514
In-
.......................
ix
Chapter XV
DISTILLING P U N T S
Division 6
Supporting Technology
C ~ I D.WROBE,Vice President, AqueChem, Incorporqted

page
Page
1. Distilling Plant Designs. ............... 530
2. Distilling Plant Design Considerations. .. 550
Chapter XVI
HULL MACHINERY
IRVING
W. SMITH,Mechanical Engineer, Office of Ship Construction, Maritime Administration
ARCHERM. NICKERBON,
JR.,Senior Engineer, J. E. Bowker Associates, Inc.
v
Chapter XX
1. General Design Consideratioqs. .........
ptlge
564
L-
2.
'
570
WATT V. SMITH,
Head, Friction and Wear Branch, Materials Department, Naval Ship Research
and Development Laboratory, Annapolis, Maryland
J. M. GRUBER,Vice President, Waukesha Industries Corporation
I
I
page
Hull Machinery Installations.. ..........
page
ELECTRIC PLANTS
Chapter XVIII
1. Machinery Space Arrangement.. ........ 670
'2. Piping Design Details.. ................ 676

;'3. Piping Systema........................ 682
"
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
JOHN
W. MARKERT,
Professional S u p p o r t A i r Conditioning, Office of Construction Management,
Public Buildings Service, General Services Administration
1.
2.
3.
4.
Page
2. Applications.. ........................ 796
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
W. LEE WILLIAMB,
Assistant Bead, Materiala Department, Naval Ship Research and Development
Laboratory, Annapolis, Maryland
M. ROBERTGROSS,Head, Materials Engineering Branch, Materials Department, Naval Ship Research and Development Laboratory, Annapolis, Maryland
1.
2.
3.
4.
Prefacing Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corrosion of Metals.. ..................
Fatigue ...............................
Behavior at Elevated Temperatures. ....
Page
Page
810
810
817
821
5. Applications of Materiala.. .............. 824

6. Glossary of Metallurgical Terms Used in
Materials Engineering.. .............. 835
PIPING SYSTEMS
Manager, Piping Design '~epartment,Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry

E. E. STEPHENBON,
Dock Company
',
Pa%e
1. Automation System.. ................. 791
Chapter XXII
6. Lighting and Power Distribution. ... :... 640

7. Interior Communications.. ............. 654
8. Electronic Navigation
and Radio
Communication..................... 659
9. Wiring Application and Methods. ....... 663
605
607
614
621
635
AUTOMATION
W. 0. NICHOLS,Chief Engineer, Central Technical Division, Shipbuilding Department, Bethlehem

Steel Corporation
Division 5
Sl~ipboard Systems
Introduction.. ........................
Generating Plants. ....................
Switchboards and Panels. ..............
Powe~Equipment. ....................
Lighting Fixtures and Equipment. ......
Page
1. Review of Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770 ""2. Bearings.. ............................ 778

\--~
3. Lubrication System. ................... 785
Chapter XXI
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION
Intraduction.. ........................
System General Requirements. .........
Design Criteria and L o 4 Components. ..
Piping Systems.. ......................
710
718
726
734
5.
6.
7.
8.
Air Handling System Resign.. ..........

Air Handling Equipment. ..............
Beating and Cooling Equipment. .......
Refrigeration Equipment.. .............
745
756
763
766
Chapter XXIII
PETROLEUM FUELS
Manager, Technical Services, Marine Sales Department, Mobil Sales and

CARLE. HABERMANN,
Supply Corporation
Page
Page
1. Fuel Manufactureand Characteristics. ... 842
2. Fuel Procurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
page
INDEX.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858
CHAPTER I
J. R. Kane
General Considerations in
Marine Engineering
Section 1
Introduction
The first efforts to apply mechanical power to the
propulsion and operation of ships date back to the early
oighteenth century, nearly concurrent with the start of
the Industrial Revolution. By the beginning of the
nineteenth century, almost a full century before the
Wright brothers made their first sporadic flights in a
glider at Kitty Hawk, ~ t e a m - ~ r o ~ e ships
ied
had become a commercial reality, and marine engineering
was born. Considering such an early beginning, it
mems paradoxical to have to say now, well along in the
twentieth century, that it is difficult, if not impossible,
to write a definitive text on the subject. Such is the
case, however, since the field continues to enter new
oras of activity and evolution.
One of the reasons this subject is difficult to treat is
that ships have never been simple products but, to the
oontrary, require an exceptional number of specializations to plan, design, and build. Thus marine engineering is not as simply categorized as, for example, civil,
machanical, electrical, or chemical engineering, but is an
integrated engineering effort comprising parts of many
ongineering disciplines directed to the development and
dosign of systems of transport, warfare, exploration, and
tlstural resource retrieval which have only one thing in
earnmon; namely, that they operate in or upon the
crurface of a body of water.
The field of engineering activity designated as naval
wrohitecture and marine engineering is concerned with at
let~stthe following areas:
Ocean engineering. The conception, design, construction, and operation of vehicles, submersibles, and fixed
or floating structures and their integration into systems
for the conduct of oceanographic research, exploration of
ocean resources, and the utilization of ocean resources
are encom~assedin this categorv.
The division of responsibilities between the naval

architect and the marine engineer differs from one
activity to another. However, the marine engineer is,
in general, responsible for the engineering systems
required to propel, work, or fight the ship. More
specifically, the marine engineer may be responsible for
the main propulsion plant, the powering and mechanization aspects of ship functions such as steering, anchoring,
cargo handling, heating, ventilation, air conditioning,
electrical power generation and distribution, interior and
exterior communication, and other related requirements.
The naval architect, in general, is primarily concerned
with the hydrodynamic and hull form characteristics of
the ship, the structural design of the hull, the control
aspects of the vehicle, habitability considerations and the
ability to survive and endure in the service environment.
The naval architect, assisted in appropriate areas by the
marine engineer, is responsible for the overall arrangement or configuration of the ship extending to both the
exterior and interior arrangements. I n addition, the
naval architect is generally charged with the responsibility for the overall esthetics of the design, the interior
decoration, and the general suitability and pleasing
Inland waterway and ocean transportation. The con- quality of the architecture.
usplion, design, construction, and operation of vehicles
Certain aspects of the design of marine vehicles are
utilizing the waterways and oceans, especially the ocean difficult gto clearly assign as the responsibility of either
murfaces, for transportation of commodities, goods, and the naval architect or the marine engineer. The design
personnel, are included in this category. The integration of propellers or propulsors is one of these, being in the
of tho operation of these vehicles with land transport& minds of some a hydrodynamic device in the domain of
tion via harbor and terminal facilities is an extremely the naval architect, and in the minds of others to be an
hportant consideration. In the case of small boats, energy conversion device similar to pumps, turboymbts, and cruise ships, transportation may be secondary machinery, and the like, thus in the sphere of the marine
h lsi~ureor sport as an objective.
engineer. Hull vibration, excited by the propeller or by
Naval engineering. This category includes the con- the main propulsion plant, is another such area. Noise
aegt,ion, design, construction, and operation of naval reduction and shock hardening, in fact dynamic response
rtcrfaoo ships and submarines and their integration into of structures or machinery in general, usually must be
wsrf~bre systems. Means of appraising the military the joint responsibility of both the naval architect and
effrotivenessof these systems and the optimal utilization the marine engineer. Cargo handling, cargo pumping
of thoir properties are major considerations.
systems, environmental control, habitability ,. hotel
MARINE ENGINEERING
services, and numerous other such aspects of ship design

all involve joint responsibility and interfacing between
the naval architect and the marine engineer.
The traditional distinctiowbetween naval architecture
and marine engineering in t k multifarious aspects of
ship selection, design, construction, and operation are
tending to disappear, to be replaced by broader concepts
of systems engineering and analysis. Because of the
multidisciplined nature of marine engineering and naval
architecture, they have been particularly affected by the
impact of the explosive growth of technology during
recent years. Prevalent use of the electronic computer
has been particularly influential, in that complex rnathematical analyses once considered prohibitively laborious
are now routinely made. By providing the ability to
rapidly conduct an increased number of computations,
readily store and analyze data, and simultaneously
consider a larger number of factors, the computer makes

mathematical simulation of complex problems feasible
and is leading to a better optimization of designs.
Furthermore, due to the period of large-scale industrial
development into which we have entered, there is
increasing acceptance of the principle of planned
technology which affects systems of all sorts, including
marine transportation, oceanography, and recovery of
ocean or ocean-bottom resources.
By surveying the series of inventions and innovations
which have established the present state of the art of
marine engineering, it becomes apparent that engineering
in the ocean environment is characteristically a dynamic,
continuously advancing technology. As a result, this
text must be considered an interim report of the processeis
that are developing in a broadening marine engineering
field.
Section 2
Concepts and Concept Formulation
2.1 Early History. In about the year 1712, an enterprising blacksmith from Dartmoor, England, by the
name of Thomas Newcomen, successfully developed a
rudimentary steam engine for the purpose of pumping
water out of mines. This engine consisted essentially of
a single-acting piston working in a vertical open-topped
cylinder. The piston was packed with hemp since the
state of the metal-working art was very primitive and a
tolerance of about one-sixteenth inch out of round or
"the thickness of a thin sixpence" was about the best
that could be expected. The piston was connected to
one end of a rocker arm by a chain without a piston rod
or guide. The differential working pressure was derived
primarily from the vacuum which was created below the
piston by water spray into the steam space a t the end of
the upstroke. The steam and water valves were worked
by hand. Some sixty years later, radical improvements
were made by James Watt, whose name is more frequently
associated with the early development of the steam
engine. I n the course of time, numerous other.improvements followed, of which the most important was
probably the double-acting inverted vertical engine
which proved to have so many advantages that it has
remained standard ever since.
Accounts of the work of men such as Savery,
Newcomen, Papin, and Watt in connection with the
invention and development of steam engines are truly
exciting [I, 2,3].l Despite the much earlier development
of steam engines, their application to the propulsion of
ships was not undertaken until about 1784. Attempts
to adapt the early steam engines to ship propulsion were
carried out almost simultaneously in America, Scotland,
Numbers in brackets designate References at end of chapter.
and France, and a t least seven reasonably practical

steamboats were developed before 1807 when Robert
Fulton inaugurated the first commercially successful use
of steam marine propulsion in the small wooden paddle
wheel vessel Clermont [I]. The Clermont operated up the
Hudson River from New York to Albany, a distance of
150 miles, in about 32 hr.
Although paddle wheel vessels were promptly adopted
for river service, twelve years elapsed after the launching
of the Clermont before the steamer Savannah made the
first ocean voyage from America to Europe. It should
be noted, however, that even in this instance the
machinery was not operated continuously during the
outbound leg of the trip and the inbound leg was made
under sail.
The era of the paddle wheel steamships reached a
climax about 50 years later when the steamship Great
Eastern was built. This was a steel-hulled vessel almost
700 f t long and 22,000 tons burden, which is large even
today for a cargo vessel, and which had the principal
fault that it was too advanced for its time.
The introduction of the screw propeller in 1837, which
was a revolutionary development, similarly did not
immediately displace sailing vessels. As late as 1860
the speed of the best clippers still exceeded that of any
steams hi^ and the greater d art of the work a t sea continued td be accomilished inder sail.
B y the year 1893, the year of the founding of The
Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, the
screw propeller.. driven by a triple-expansion steam
engine had become the,predominant means of propulsion
of seagoing ships although t addle wheels were still used
with river-and- excursion steamers. Steam was almost
universally produced by Scotch boilers and coal was the
GENERAL' CONSIDERATIONS
c o w o n fuel. The steam turbine and diesel engine were

yet to make their debut.
The decade from 1893 to 1903 was a period rich in
marine engineering development. The early reciprooating steam engine reached the point of development of
the six-cylinder quadruple-expansion engines of 10,000
indicated horsepower supplied with steam by Scotch
boilers a t 200 pounds pressure. The use of electric
power generated by engine-driven "dynamos" a t 100 to
112 volts was increasing rapidly. Water tube boilers,
which would eventually replace the Scotch boiler on the
seas, had become established in England and in the
United States.
An important milestone in marine engineering was the
development, by Sir Charles A. Parsons, of the first
successful application of the steam turbine for marine
propulsion; this was accomplished aboard the Turbinia,
a small vessel similar to a torpedo boat. The rotative
speed of the Turbinia's three series turbines was about
2000 rpm, and they were coupled directly to relatively
primitive screw propellers in a triple shaft arrangement.
Parsons was dismayed on his earliest trials to discover
that the wheels more or less "bored a hole in the water,"
developing disappointingly low driving thrust. Much
developmental work was necessary before this new
prime mover was successfully adapted to the requirements of marine propulsion.
In what must certainly be considered one of the
earliest efforts at model tank testing of propellers,
Parsons investigated the subject of cavitation and
succeeded in redesigning his propellers (three per shaft
were ultimately employed) such that in 1897 a t a naval
review of the British fleet a t Spithead, England, the
Turbinia astounded the British admirals by steaming
past smoothly a t a speed of 34 knots, belching smoke like
an angry bull tossing dust. Lord Kelvin described this
development as "the greatest advance made in steam
ongine practice since the time of James Watt" [4].
Prior to 1893, a number of internal-combustion engines
were attempted using anything from gunpowder to gas.
One of these was a radically different type of engine in
which the combustion air charge was compressed to a
pressure and temperature above the ignition point of the
fuel; it was patented by Dr. Rudolf Diesel, a German
engineer, in 1892. There were very serious Wculties
to be overcome with the diesel engine, development
proceeded slowly, and it was not until fifteen to sixteen
years later that a successful commercial diesel enginc of
25 hp was produced. Once this had been achieved,
however, rapid progress waq made, and in a few years
many firms in Continental Europe were actively building
diesel engines with as much as 500 hp per cylinder.
Already a t that early date experimental cylinders of
2000 horsepower were under test.
The challenge to the coal-fired low-pressure reciproaating steam engine came from the steam turbine and the
'dio~elengine about the same time a t the turn of the
aantury. World War I retarded developments, however,
etld maintained the supremacy of coal for a little while
longer. After the war, oil found preference either as

diesel engine fuel or for raising steam. It also reduced
crew requirements and made fuel storage an easier task.
The historical developments noted in the foregoing
were beginnings which, when viewed against the techniques and materials available a t the time, were magnificent conceptions. No effort has been made here to
include the full roster of great names and pioneer events
in marine engineering. However, some familiarity with
the background of the early days in marine engineering
is highly recommended for those entering this field to
develop an appreciation of the hopes and disappointments, the dreams and disillusionments, and the blood
and sweat which lie behind the present state of the art
[I-81.
2.2 Broader Concepts-Systems
Analysis. The
concept which motivated the majority of the early
attempts in marine engineering was quite simple; namely,
to develop a superior system to overcome the vagaries of
the wind and the feebleness of muscle power in the
propulsion of ships. However, marine engineering today entails much broader system requirements and concepts than most developments of that time. By way of
introduction, one particular historical undertaking is
given special note since it contained, in a primitive way,
elements of systems analysis.
In 1776, a year which should strike a familiar note with
most Americans, a Connecticut Yaxikee named David
Bushnell built the Turtle, the first submersible craft to
make an undersea attack during warfare. The Turtle of
the American Revolution, so called because it could be
likened to two turtle shells clamped together, was built
of barrel staves and iron, contained ballast tanks which
were flooded to submerge, and was moved by primitive
spiral screws. Reference [8] contains an interesting
description of the Turtle and its precocious concepts.
The Turtle was not by any means the first successful
submersible craft, but was one of the most significant,
since among other things it was one of the earliest, and
perhaps boldest, attempts to develop a military system
involving an evolutionary marine vehicle.
The operational concept of the Turtle d i e r e d somewhat from most other inventions of that era since it
related in a primitive way to an entire system. It was
intended that the pilot dive the vessel under the water
in order to evade lookouts on an enemy vessel, attach a
time-delayed explosive mine to the ehip's bottom, and
make a safe escape. The initial target of the Turtle was
Admiral Howe's 64-gun flagship, HMS Eagle. The
story of this initial venture is fascinating; the Turtle did
not in fact succeed, kt.it came perilously close to doing
so. George Washington wrote to Thomas Jefferson a t
the time of the Turtle, "I then thought and still think
that it was an effort of genius, but that many things were
necessary to be combined to expect much from the issue
against an enemy who are always upon guard" [91.
Although the development of the first ironclads, the
Merrimac and the Monitor, almost a century later had
probably a more revolutionary effect on the evolution of
GENERAL CONSIDERA'I'IONS
MARINE ENGINEERING
STATE
SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES
DETERMINE
CONSTRAINTS
-\:
DELINEATE
SYSTEM
REQUIREMENTS
DELINEATE
DESIGN
REQUIREMENTS
- I
DEVELOP
DESIGN
ALTERNATIVES
~r
\
\
ln
=
&
PERFORM
TRADE-OFF
STUDIES
-ESTABLISH
OPTIMUM
DESiGN
ii
1L
DELINEATE
DETAILED
SPECIFICATIONS
DETAILED
Fig. 1 - Functional processes in a systems analysis

.
warships, Bushnell's submarine is of special interest

because of the singularity of its operational concept and
its primacy. Actually it contained all the elements of a
modern problem in concept formulation for a planned
technological development: a mission objective or
primary task, an analysis of the objective to establish
specific operational requirements, trade-offs concerning
alternative methods of accomplishing the mission,
constraints imposed by limitations of techniques,
materials, manpower, money, and time, and last but
not least, the necessity of obtaining the interest and
support of the controlling authority for what must have
seemed, in this case, to be a radical venture.
In the early historical stages of the basic engineering
process, the concepts formed and the decisions made,
although frequently ingenious, were of sufficiently
narrow scope that a single individual could become
intimately familiar with all facets of the undertaking.
The stakes were high for a successful development;
rugged individualism was the rule since society had not
yet embraced the role of technological development, and
support by the existing governing bodies was scanty or
nonexistent. Success depended to a large extent upon
intuitive perception and upon chance. Today, in this

age of institutionalized knowledge and electronic computers, such factors are still important, but are being
largely transcended by systematized approaches and by
team activity. The ship, which once was viewed as a
highly subjective entity, possessed of feminine and
almost human attributes, is now looked upon more
objectively as a link in a transportation system, a
military platform, or as a medium in a system of transferring people, commodities, national presence or
authority, and the like from one point to another.
From a functional point of view, a ship is a most
complex vehicle which must be self-sustaining in its
element for long periods of time with a high degree of
confidence. A ship is perhaps the most multipurpose
vehicle having more built-in functions than any other
type; and, as a part of a transportation or military
system, the ship envelope contains a greater variety of
components than any other vehicle in the system. A
ship's mechanical, electrical, and structural systems are
quite complex and are further complicated by the fact
that they must be environmentally oriented.
Due to the complexity of ships and their interfaces in
transportation networks, the design of optimum ship
systems cannot practicably be undertaken in a random
manner. The design of complex systems involving ships
is best accomplished by utiliing the systems analysis
approach [lo-141 as schematically illustrated by Fig. 1.
I n this way, the design process can be organized in
logical steps so as to ensure that, when completed, every
facet of the design has been given proper treatment. As
indicated in Fig. 1, a systems analysis is initiated by
establishing a system objective. Beyond that point the
systems analysis approach is a continuously iterative
process with each of the functional processes possibly
having an impact on those remaining. For example,
referring to Fig. 1, the initial system objective could
be to transport cargo between two points at a given
rate and a t the lowest possible cost. Proceeding with
this objective, constraints such as time and capital
limitations must be established. Since the constraints
may alter the original objective (e.g., preclude transporting cargo at the desired rate or make higher rates
attractive), the original objective must be reevaluated.
The various aspects of the design process continue until
all factors in the analysis are compatible, at which time
the design is complete.
In more general terms, a combination of theory and
facts (including a careful statement of the constraints
upon the system) is used to ~roducean abstract study or
model of the actual situation. The model, in turn, is
combined with a set of aims to produce a plan of action
or a proposed technical approach. Working with such
analyses and with checks against experience and data
gives rise to a body of correlated information which feeds
back to modify the designs which are acceptable, the
facts which are relevant, the controls which are efficient,
is
and the aims which are realistic. Systems engidng
the term for such a process when limited to basic

engineering processes. Systems analysis is the more
general term for the process when social and economic
factors in addition to basic engineering processes are
included. Operations research is the name of the process
when operability, that is, the optimum deployment or
utilization of components, men, and machines, is the
principal objective. Work study is another term of
related connotation, although in this case the emphasis
is placed on optimum utilization of man, and reduction
in manning requirements, by taking a fresh look at work
patterns and habits that have come to be taken for
granted.
The objectives and constraints upon which the policy
for systems analyses is based have differing motivations
for military systems and for merchant marine transport
systems; but in both instances they ultimately reduce to
the same base-cost
effectiveness. I n the case of
merchant systems, the proposed system must be cost
effective as compared to other potential investments in
order to command the necessary venture capital under
the free enterprise system, or they have to be justified
for governmental support by subsidy. Military planners
are charged with the national defense, but there is in
fact a limit to the amount of money available for such
purposes as there are more military systems competing
for funds than can be supported by the funds available.
Consequently, the analysis of military budgets becomes a
process of identifying systems, or combinations of
systems, which have the maximum military cost
off ectiveness.
Cost effectiveness seems simple to comprehend, but
usually is difficult to quantify [15]. In general, the
expression denotes a measure of the degree to which the

achievement of the tasks or missions of a system (e.g.,
revenue earned or national protection provided) has
been maximized relative to the costs associated with the
system. Since the effective life of a ship is approximately twenty to twenty-five years, a period long
enough for economic and political factors to undergo
substantial change, the projection of life cycle costs
associated with ships is inherently less accurate than life
cycle cost estimates made in connection with vehicles
such as automobiles or aircraft which have a much
shorter life cycle. When conducting life cycle cost
analyses with ships, which are relatively long lived,
considerably more importance must be attached to the
events which occur during the early stages of the ship's
life. There is little question that the basic vehicle will
perform satisfactorily for a 25-year life; however, there
have been' many cases in which ships have been reequipped, modernized, jumboized, converted, etc., a
number of times during their lives. As a result, the
credibility of projections for the first five or ten years of
a ship's life are considerably better and are often given
more weight than more distant forecasts. However,
despite the uncertainties associated with long-range
forecasts, attempts to project them are being made and a
new branch of systems analysis termed assurance engineering has been developed to give numerical expression
to characteristics such as reliability, maintainability,
logistic aupport, operability, safety, and similar factors
which augment the standard design performance
estimates traditionally made. Also, producibility analyses, requiring a combination of design and industrial
engineering skills, are sometimes made to assure a design
best adapted to economy in construction.
Section 3
Ship System Formulation
9.1 Mode of Utilization. Before proceeding with a
mview of the marine engineering phase of a ship system
formulation, which as indicated by Fig. 1 does not
oornmence until the broader aspects of the system have
boen tentatively formulated, it is useful to review some
af the broad considerations. In particular, the modes
in which ships can be utilized and the payload and speed
oharacteristics of ships are of great importance in that
they must be compatible with the overall system
oonsiraints..
From the viewpoint of utillation, marine vehicles
mny be classified in the following three categories:
in terms of deadweight and cubic requirements, must be

very carefully analyzed as the latter will have a controlling effect on the vessel configuration.
(b) As a mobile fighting base. Seaborne bases for
force groups, weapons systems, missiles, aircraft, or
other sJrstems of warfare either tactical or strategic and
either offensive or defensive are included in this group.
In this instance, the design of the ship is subordinated to
the military system and weapon requirements except
for certain inescapable essentials such as seaworthiness,
habitability, etc. Payload in this case will generally be
defined in military terms relating to militaw effective(a) As a link in a tramportation ~ s t e m . Inthis case, ness, and the speed requirement will be a function of the
payload, mean effective speed between t e d n a l s , turn- expected speed of the hostile forces and the successful
mound time, and the number of vessels are the ~rimary accomplishment of the n~ission.
vmiables and must be considered in relation to their
(c) As a* special-purpose vehicle or platform. This
gffeot on the initial and daily operating costs as well as category includes many diversified craft which have little
tho other facets of the transportation system. Payload, in common except that they all work or operate in an
GENERAL Cob
MARINE ENGINEERING
I
Table 1
A Comparison of Constraints Imposed upon

Merchant and Military Ship Systems
Tramportation market potentiak cargo and/or passengers

Type of tran ort system contexnplated:?ulk, break bulk,
containerl passengeFcar o
combinatmliquid and buk
etc.
Most likely itine
terminal
facilities, h a r b ~ h t a t i o m ,
c d limitatiom, and fueling
ports
Linking services: shore d@ribution systems, new termma1
facilities, cranes, and so on
Competing services
Socio/political considerations
and union relations
Economic projections, financial
support, government subaidii&etc.
Technologid development,
state of the art
G c t o bodies, such as ABS
and U%G
Fig. 2
Specitlc power Venus speed for various vehicles
ocean or waterway environment and that much support

for the systematic design of them is derived from the body
of marine engineering knowledge obtained from less
specialized vessels. Oceangoing tugs, salvage vessels,
oceanographic research ships, submersibles, dredging
vessels, yachts, ferryboats, towboats, pushers, barges,
hydrofoil craft, surface effect ships, and many others
are examples of such special-purpose craft.
Category (c) does not lend itself to generalization
beyond the fundamentals of naval architecture and
marine engineering. Neither, one might conjecture,
do (a) and (b). However, the constraints to be considered
in determining system requirements so as to ensure a
reasonably optimum design configuration do parallel
between merchant and military applications to rs surprising extent as indicated by the comparison in Table 1.
3.2 Payload and Speed Considerations. I n addition
to the constraints dealing with the mode of utiliiation,
payload and speed considerations have a strong influence
on the selection of the type of vehicle employed. Payload and speed constraints are important in that they
restrict the types of vehicles which are feasible for
parti~ularapplications. Figure 2, parts of w h i ~ hwere
taken from references [16-201, is an informative com-
Type of war situation anticipated

Tactics, strategy, mission pro-
,,
Most like1 operational locale,

support8aaes, replenishment
means, etc.
Force pou compatibility, potential dies
Enemy threat in weapons and
ship types
Socio/political considerations
Fiscal environment and budg e t pressures
~
Technolo 'cal development,
state o&he art
Military specifications
parison of alternative means of transportation in that

the feasiblerange of speed for the various types of vehicles
becomes evident.
Although payload considerations are still a factor,
size restrictions are less stringent in connection with
ships than with the alternative modes of transportation.
An investigation of a systematic family of ships (a parametric study in which size is the principle characteristic
that is varied) will demonstrate that ships are not sizelimited and can be built as large as one may wish without encountering limitations from the laws of physics.
Dimensional analysis will show that geometrically
similar ships of a diierent scale will float at the same
proportionate draft since both the water displaced
(buoyancy) and the weight of the ship tend to increase
as the cube of the scale. A corollary conclusion from
such systematic investigations is that displacement
ships are not particularly weight-sensitive.
Vehicles such as fixed-wing aircraft, hydrofoil craft,
planing boats, and surface effect devices in general are
weight-sensitive and size-limited as may be seen from a
simple dimensional analysis. Such craft derive their
support in flight from lifting surfaces of various types;
when geometrically similar but larger versions of a prototype are considered, the weight of the craft, including its
payload, increases approximately as the cube of the scale
ratio while the area of the lifting surface increases only
as the square. As a result, the unit pressure loading on
the lifting surface increases directly with the scale. The
increase in size of fixed-wing aircraft over the last
several decades has been achieved largely by increasing
the forward speed by almost an order of magnitude and
by greatly refining and improving the lifting character-
istics of wings and fuselages by means of extensive

research developments. As the speed in flight is
increased, the basic configuration of the aircraft must be
changed appropriately also, because, as compared with
diplacement-type ships, vehicles in the aircraft or
surface-effectsupported category tend to be size-limited
and weight-sensitive.
As may be evident from Fig. 2, the displacement type
of vessel has very definite limitations with regard to the
speed at which it can be efficiently driven. The inherent
speed limitations for ships are most appropriately
expressed in terms of the so-called speed-length ratio
(the ship's speed in knots divided by the square root of
the ship's length in feet) in conjunction with various
ratios of the ship's dimensions such as the beam-draft
ratio and the prismatic and block coefficients (see
reference [21] for a comprehensive treatment of this
subject).
The most spectacular growth in the size of ships has
been in tankera. During the early 19509s,the so-called
supertankers were in the cargo deadweight range of
20,000 to 30,000 tons; whereas during the latter 19609s,
tankers as large as 200,000 to 300,000 tons were being
built with projected giants in the 1,000,000-ton range
appearing feasible. The theoretical problem of optimizing a transport system would appear to be simply that of
maximizing payload times mean effective speed from
point to point while a t the same time minimizing initial
costs and yearly operating costs. If this were the only
consideration, ships would be in much greater favor as
compared with aircraft than they are.
Systems analyses of typical transport missions usually
include another highly important factor which puts a
great premium on higher speed; namely, flexibility, or
the ability to be in the right place at the right time with
the right payload. The great increase in the speed of
communications and the resultant great increase in the
rapidity of affairs in recent decades has resulted in a
higher premium on speed and time in many instances
whether justifiable or not. Aircraft, therefore, usually
transport a substantial proportion of the people, special
equipment, and lighter commodities in which cases speed
is of great importance, while ships continue to carry the
larger proportion of the heavy cargos and commodities
and bulk cargos in both military and nonmilitary transoceanic routes.
3.3 Deflnition of Fundamental Requirements. The
constraints imposed by the intended mode of utilization
and requirements regarding payload and speed will
Ittrgely define the fundamental requirements of the ship,
and an analysis of the ship system can now be conducted
for the purpose of establiahing a reasonably optimum
aolution. All of the positive constraints upon configuration should be identified in the analysis, but as much
freedom of selection retained as possible. Once the
objective and the constraints have been clearly stated,
tho analysis may often proceed to the development of a
u~oful abstract model for the system. Parametric
&dies, in which the prin~ipalindependent variables are
varied systematically, using the electronic computer as

appropriate, are often made. The sensitivity of the
system to variation of the independent variables begins
to emerge and can be identified. Because of its value in
decision-making, the sensitivity of system characteristics
to such systematic variation of the system parameters is
often specifically explored in a formalized sensitivity
analysis. Exercise of such techniques should result in
sufficient background to support decisions regarding a
policy and a plan of action. This plan of action will
generally result in decisions which will further limit the
range of variables to be considered; for example, the
range of the size and the numbers of ships required may
be more confined, notional ship design arrangements
may be selected, approximate manning requirements
determined, first approximation of costs projected, and
so forth. A description of some of the procedures which
may be used during the preliminary design of a ship is
given detailed treatment in references [22-31.1.
In the case of cargo ships, the fundamental concept of
the cargo transportation system must be established at
this point as the design of the entire system is predicated
on this decision. General cargo transportation systems
which employ intermodal containers (i.e., systems in
which cargo is packed in containers that are transported
by trucks, ships, barges, and trains in any combination
before being delivered and unpacked) are becoming
increasingly popular. The use of intermodal containers
offers several advantages, the major one being the
minimization of the number of times the cargo must be
handled on an individual basis with a corresponding
reduction in damage, pilferage, and handling costs.
The iterative process of assessment/adjustment described in the foregoing results in an initial design
configuration baseline which is essentially a preliminary
statement of the ship system requirements. Such ship
system requirements include the followingfor a merchant
vessel :
a
a
a
Payload (cargo/passenger capacity and description)

Sustained sea speed and endurance
Number of containers, holds, refrigerated spaces,
etc., for balanced service
Limits to overall diiensions such as length, draft,
Beam, etc., for operability on required service
Loading-discharging methods and capacities
Hotel requirements such as heating, ventilation,
air conditioning, galley, public spaces, power,
and lighting
Crew or manning requirements
Automation and mechanization objectives
Reliability and logistic support objectives
Special requirements for navigation and communications
Maneuverability (steering, handling, stopping,
and backing)
Anchoring and mooring
MARINE ENGINEERING
POWER P
M I S S I O N PROFILE
L ~
Main Propulsion System

Shaft horsepower
Propeller rpm
Specific fuel consumption and bunker capacity
Space and weight objectives
Adaptability to ship configuration
REQUIREMENT
A c n v SELECTION
OST / EFFECTIVENESS
@QUIP AVAIL &

CHUACTERlSllCS
I F CYCLE COSTS
CONFIGURATION
OI SYSTEMS
Auxiliary Ship Systems

Power and lighting
Steam-galley, deck, and heating systems
Heating, ventilation, afid air conditioning
Firefighting, bilge, and ballasting
Fresh water
CONSUMAILES &
tNDURANCE
Fig. 3
3.4
M & R AND
LOGlSllCS SUPPORT
Hull Engineering Systems

Anchor handling
Steering engine and bridge telemetering control
Cargo handling gear, such as winching systems,
burtoning, and swinging boom
Crane systems
Bulk cargo systems, self-unloaders, etc.
Container systems
Palletized systems
Tankering systems, such as cargo piping and pumps
Propulsion machinery preliminary design spiral
Speciflc
Marine
Engineering Requirements.
The broad requirements of the ship system as just

established must be translated into specific performance
capabilities by the naval architect and the marine
engineer. Since the requirements established a t this
point are broad (e.g., unmanned engine room), subsequent investigations may show that some of the requirements cannot feasibly be fulfilled; in which case, all
considerations must again be re-evaluated. Most of the
broad requirements of the ship system cannot be analyzed
independently of the others; and further refinement of
each, to a degree, involves yet another iterative design
process which is analogous to a slowly closing spiral
that gradually approaches a point of fixation. Figure 3,
which was taken from reference [23], is a diagram of, this
sort of iterative spiral. The marine engineer utilizes a
procedure similar to that indicated by Fig. 3 when
performing the design comparisons and trade-off studies
required to establish specific design requirements in the
area of his cognizance. Such specific design requirements will generally be of the following classifications:
Electronic and Navigation System

Commupication, exterior and interior
Radar
Loran, Decca, RDF, etc., navigational aids
Military electronics, sensors, command and control
systems, weapons directors, tactical data systems,
and electronic countermeasures
The procedures which are used when designing the
engineering aspects of a ship may best be illustrated by
outlining the process of designing a ship from a marine
engineering viewpoint. This is done in the following
sections and is initiated by a review of the procedures
used in developing the main propulsion system requirements.
Developme~~tof Main Propulsion System Requireme~~ts

4.1 Overall Considerations. The basic operating
requirement for the main propulsion system is to propel
the vessel a t the required sustained sea speed for the
range (or endurance) required of the vessel and to provide
stopping, backing, and maneuvering capabilities. I n
the case of a military vessel, which rarely operates a t its
maximum rating, the speed requirement may be partly
stated in terms of a mqimum flank or burst speed,
which need be sustained for only a short percentage of
the operating life of the vessel, in conjunction with a
more efficient lower speed for long-range endurance. A

further restriction is that the main propulsion system
must fulfill all of the basic operating requirements at a
cost within that allocated during the preliminary
studies of the ship system; otherwise the preliminary
studies must be re-evaluated.
Many factors must be considered in selecting the main
propulsion system. Reliability is of the utmost importance since the safety and security of the vessel will
depend upon it. Specific fuel consumption, bunker
GENERAL
cot
capacity, type of fuel required, fuel availability, space

and weight requirements, and the adaptability of the
propulsion system to the overall ship configuration are
closely related to the type of plant selected and must be
evaluated. Comparative costs, that is, first costs and
operational costs, are also major considerations in tradeoff studies.
Before entering into the process of selecting the main
propulsion plant, it is necessary that the power required
for sustained operation and endurance be tentatively
determined. Since the space and weight requirements
for the propulsion plant can have a significant effect on
the ship configuration, and since the dimensional and
form characteristics of the hull and its approximate
displacement are required in order to arrive at an estimate
of the propulsive power required, it is apparent that the
marine engineer must coordinate his activities with the
naval architect from the earliest conceptual design stage
in an iterative preliminary design process such as that
discussed in the previous section and illustrated in the
preliminary design spiral, Fig. 3.
4.2 Determination of Ship Resistance. The general
subject of ship resistance falls within the domain of
naval architecture as opposed to marine engineering.
For this reason, a detailed treatment of the subject is left
to reference [21]; but for completeness purposes, some of
the considerations involved warrant a brief review. The
most reliable means of determining the resistance of a
ship is to construct a scaled model of the underwater
portions of the ship and conduct model resistance tests
at one of the towing tank installations. .However, for
several reasons such a procedure is far from feasible
during the preliminary design phase: one is that sufficient
time is not available; another is that the ship dimensions
frequently change during the preliminary design phase;
and another is that repeated testing would be prohibitively expensive.
When tentative values have been established for the
ship payload, sustained sea speed, and principal dimensions, an approximate assessment of the ship's resistance
aan feasibly be obtained by utilizing the results obtained
from a series of tests with systematically varied hull
forms. There are principally two such test series: the
Taylor's Standard Series [32, 331 and the Series 60 [34].
The Speed and Power of Ships [32], which was the original
presentation of the Taylor's Standard Series data, is in
tm exceptionally clear and concise form for preliminary
design purposes and is a classic that is extensively used
by practically all design activities; if not used directly, it
la a t least used as a standard for evaluating the relative
merits of any particular ship configuration.
Although the use of series test data to estimate the
resistance of ships is straightforward, the process nevertheless entails a considerable amount of tedious labor.
In the event that the accuracy of an estimate is somewhat
I&a important than the rapidity with which it can be
made, a statistical method similar to that developed by
Johnson and Rumble [28] can appropriately be used.
Johnson and Rumble developed a simple approximate
statistical method of estimating the weight, displacement, speed, power, and other principal characteristics
of a wide variety of dry cargo ships and tankers by averaging plots of a substantial number of actual designs. A
number of marine engineering design activities have
reduced their data on existing design series to a similar
basis such that it is suitable for programming on an
electronic computer; this enables approximate investigations of the parametric type to be made rapidly.
As noted previously, reference 1211 contains a detailed
discussion of the methods which are employed to obtain
resistance estimates for ships.
4.3 Selection of the Propulsor. Once the ship speed,
requirements and resistance have been tentatively
established, it is necessary to select the type of propulsor.
With considerations restricted to the type of propulsor
for the moment, as indicated by Fig. 4, which was taken
from reference [35], some types are inherently more
efficient than others for particular applications. The
abscissa on Fig. 4 is in terms of the Taylor power
coefficient,B,, which is defined as:
where
N = propeller rpm
P = power, hp
V4 = speed of advance, knots
The efficiency of propulsiop devices, including jet
propulsion, is presented in a somewhat similar manner in
reference [36].
The selection of the propulsor may not be a simple
process, particularly in marginal cases, because in order
to establish the type of propulsor it may be necessary to
a t least tacitly select the type of main propulsion
machinery. For example, the gain in efficiency offered
by selecting contrarotating propellers versus a Troost B
Series propeller (discussed further in the following), for a
cargo ship, must be assessed in light of the impact on the
main propulsion machinery and shafting arrangements.
Similarly, the selection of the number of propellers may
be a multifaceted problem.
I n general, vessels may be single, twin, triple, or
quadruple screw. That is to say, the total power
required to propel a vessel may be distributed (usually
equally) between one, two, three, or four shafts and
propellers. From the point of view of initial and operating costs, fewer numbers of propellers are preferred, but
the magnitude of the ship effective horsepower requirements or restraints on the propeller diameter may force
a multiple-screw arrangement because of excessive
propeller loading and the attendant danger of cavitation
associated with unduly small propeller diameters. I n
addition, there may be other factors in a given case, such
as less vulnerability, more maneuverability, or take-home
capability in the case that propeller damage may be
likely in service, which favor an arrangement with a
larger number of propellers. )
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
MARINE ENGINEERING
BP
Fig. 4
Cornparim of opfimum ettlckncy valuer
There are several extensive systematic series of fixedpitch propellers which have been model-tested and are in
a form convenient for design selection purposes. Of
these, probably the most suitable for design approximation is the Troost B Series of three, four, five, six, and
seven-bladed propellers although there are others
which may be used [21]. I n the usual case, the maximum
propeller diameter that will provide adequate propeller
submergence for the operating draft of the vessel and
provide ample tip clearances as well as adapt to the stern
configuration of the vessel so as to minimize propeller
blade frequency excitation forces may be used for
propeller selection purposes. The propeller design
established during the preliminary design phase is
generally very close to that obtained from later, morerefined design studies.
A trade-off study must be made between the propeller
rpm which is required from a maximum propulsive
efficiency viewpoint and propeller rpm constraints
imposed by prime mover/transmission size, weight, and
cost considerations. The propeller rpm which is necessary to achieve a maximum propulsive efficiency is
frequently considerably lower than that which is feasible
from the viewpoint of the prime mover/transmission
(due to the greater torque and hence machinery size
associated with lower propeller speeds). Furthermore,
attainment of the maximum propulsive efficiency does
not necessarily constitute the most cost-effective system.
Propeller characteristics are in general such that the
propeller can be designed to operate a t an rpm somewhat
greater than that corresponding to the maximum
propulsive efficiency without incurring a serious efficiency
fv diiemnf Wpcn of propulm
'
penalty. Whiie no significant penalty in efficiency is

incurred with propeller rpm's slightly greater than that
for peak efficiency, significant savings in the first costs,
size, and weight of the prime mover/transmission can be
realized due to the lower torque rating (with the power
remaining the same). The most cost-effective propeller
rpm is selected by conducting a trade-off study which
balances the propulsive efficiency against the size,
weight, and cost of the prime mover/transmission.
4.4 Establishment of Propulsion Plant Shaff Horsepower Rating. Good practice dictates that a ship's
propulsion plant be rated such that the desired ship

speed can be attained with reserve shaft horsepower
capabilities. Factors to be considered in establishing
the reserve capability include fouling and roughening of
the hull, roughening of the working sections of the
propeller due to cavitation or erosion, and erosion and
deposits on the internal flow passages and working
elements of the prime mover and power plant parts; all
of which result in a significant performance degradation
(approximately 5 to 15 percent) in time. It is also
important that the vessel have a reasonable ability to
maintain speed in moderately rough seas and adverse
weather conditions. The usual practice for providing
such a margin is to utiliie the parameter sustained sea
speed, which is defined as that speed which is obtained a t
some percentage of the installed maximum shaft horsepower, during trials, a t design load draft, under favorable
weather conditions, when the vessel and engines are new,
and the hull is clean. The percentage (or the so-called
service factor) of the maximum shaft horsepower used to
establish the sustained sea speed is ordinarily taken to
be 0.80 for cargo ships, which may be continuously

loaded during the various legs of a voyage, and 0.90
for tankers, which in general are loaded on the outgoing
leg of a voyage and in b a a s t during the return leg.
However, depending upon the itinerary, the type of
maintenance that is predicated, and mean time between
dry docking and overhauls contemplated, the service
factor used in a particular case may be somewhat
Werent.
4.5 Selection of Main Propulsion Plant. Considerations concerning the selection of tbe main prop h i o n plant cannot be deferred until the propulsor,
propulsion plant rating, etc., have been established,
which may be suggested by the order of this discussion.
Instead, the type of main propulsion plant is generally
assumed a t the time the type of propulsor is established.
Nevertheless, a final review of the main propuleion plant
selected is one of the last tasks accomplished.
Selection of a main propulsion plant entails the marrying of a power geeerator/prime mover, a transmission
system, a propulsor, other shipboard systems, and the
ship's hull. A myriad of possible propulsion plant
arrangements may be considered by the marine engineer
in making the selection. As indicated in Pig. 5, even
when the range of considerations ia confined to the mo8t
popular drives for fixed-pitch and controllable-pitch
propellers, tbe number of permutations open to the
marine engineer is sizable.
It may be noted from Fig. 5 (which neglects infrequently used arrangements such as, for instance, directdrive steam turbines or the out-of-date reciprocating
steam engine) that in modem ships only large-bore,
slow-speed diesel engines are directly connected to the
propeller shaft. Transmission devicea such as mechanical speed-reducing gears or electrical generator/motor
transmissions are otherwise required to make compatible
the relatively high rpm necessary for an economical and
small prime mover and the relatively low propeller rpm
nece8sary for a high propulsive efficiency. In the case
of steam turbines, medium and high-speed diesel engines,
and gas turbines, the high rpm inherent in a compact
prime mover design and the low speed suited to the
marine propeller is reconciled with speed reduction
geah. Gear ratios vary from relatively low values for
medium-speed diesels up to approximately 50 to 1 for
a compact turbine design.
An electricd transmission has attractive features,
dthough its first cost tepds to be somewhat high; in this
owe, the prime mover drives a generator or alkrnator
STEAM TURBINE(S1
n ~ v ~ n LLEICUTS
w ~ u ~
WITH
DIESEL ENGINES
IEDIUI
8,,ED0n
IRCVCRSI*.l
MECHANICAL
c,,BINATloN
REDUCTION GEAR
A:."S::.lnIvEnwI*.l
4.N.D,%JY,"."ty&
-
y;r;~~~;;~~~;;;;~~;~
DIRECT
SHAFTCOUPLED
cnA'TrvCE~WtOWpEnpOn*AuC~~
INOM nEvCReIN0)
COMBINATION DIESEL
ENGINE AND QAS TURBINE
DIESEL, UEDIUI S ~ ~ E D O R U I ~ U S ~ E D ,
MECHANICAL
REDUCT I O N GEAR1nEvEn.Iu.J
IncvCnsINeI
FIXED
PROPELLCR
eA,~Un,lNE,Hc,vvOU
""'ICVEm8~*~)
-1
ELECTRIC DRIVE
lnEvnn#lu.)
DIESEL ENGINC~S)
'OW ""O
InIVEn#luo)
'
GAS TURBINE
unrw ourv on UIOU P C R ~ D R ~ A M C E - luo*nEVEnsI~@~
ELECTRIC DRIVE
IneVcn8Iue)
MECHANICAL
REDUCTION GEAR
MECHANICAL
REDUCTION GEAR
d--
CONTROLLABLE
AND REVERSIBLE
PITCH PROPELLER
DIESEL CNGINES
.,,,,,
8,EEoon ,
,,,,,
tao*
~LVIIOIUSI
Fig. 5
Alternatives in the wlection of a main propulsion plant
which in turn drives a propulsion motor having a large

number of poles which is either coupled directly to the
propeller or drives the propeller through a low-ratio
reduction gear. Electrical drives may be either a-c or
d-c; an a-c transmission is somewbt favored since it is
lighter and cheaper, but it involves special design considerations in order to provide satisfactory maneuvering
torque characteristics and becomes more comple~than a
d-c transmission especially when the 'prime movers are
diesel engines which may be stalled if J o e too abruptly.
Reveming may be accomplished by stopping and reverb
ing a reversible engine, rts in the case of many reciprocating engines, or by adding reversing elements in the prime
mover in the case of steam turbines. It is geperdljl
impracticable to provide reversing elements in gas
turbines, in which case a reversing capability must be
either provided in the transmiwion system or in the
propulsor itself. Reversing reduction gears for mch
tralismissions are available up to quite subs$antial
powers, and controllable and reversible-pitch propellers
also have been used with dim1 or gas turbine drives.
Electrical drives provide reversing by dynamic braking
and ener@zing (plugging) the electric motor in the
reverse direction.
Section 5
Main Propulsion Plant Trade-Off Studies
8.1 Fundamental Concepts. The design of the maahinery plant, like many other general design projects,
I@y consists of a correlation of a number of units end
elements into a functioning system which gives a desired

performance. This entails selecting components, adjusting each to the constraints imposed by all others, and
MARINE ENGINEERING
12
arranging them so as to achieve the required system

performance, a satisfactory configuration, and an equitable life cycle cost.
There are a number of design decisions which must be
made in formulating a main propulsion plant design.
For example, the prime mover must be selected with the
major alternatives being a diesel engine, oil-fired steam
turbine, nuclear-fueled steam turbine, gas turbine, a
combined design, or a special design such as that required
for surface-effect vehicles. And once the generic type
t been established then the major characterof ~ i a nhas
istics of the plant must be selected. Questions which
must typically be answered in selecting the major design
characteristics of the propulsion plant are: Should a
&&el plant be high speed, medium speed, low speed,
two cycle, four cycle, and the like? Or, in connection
with a fossil-fueled steam turbine plant, should the
boiler have natural circulation, forced circulation, or
no recirculation at all (once-through type)? With gas
turbine installations, there is the choice of simple or
regenerative plants. Innovations in nuclear technology
continue to provide new alternatives in the design of
nuclear plants.
The most controversial subject in marine engineering
is the relative merits of the various types of main propulsion plants and each type of plant has its own
advocates, who often exhibit excessive enthusiasm for
their particular type. Since a variety of types is used
more or less extensively in a number of ships, it can be
c~ncludedfrom this fact alone that all types bave their
~ l a c pand that the only way to determine the most
suitable choice of main machinery plant is to consider all
of the factors involved in each particular application.
The selection of a ship's main propulsion plant may be
influenced by previous practice, as is the case with most
complicated engineering systems. Ordinarily, pertinent
plans and essential data relating to the machmery of
other ships, some perhaps rather similar to the one in
question, will be available. If this information is
aivailable and in a proper form, first approximations can
often be made without detailed study, thereby reducing
the range and number of variables that must be given
detailed consideration in the preliminary stage.
There are many factons which should be considered in
conducting trade-off studies involving the various types
of main propulsion plants; the more important factors
are :
1 Reliability
2 Maintainability
3 Space and arrangement requirements
4 Weight requirements
5 Type of fuel required (including fuel treatment)
6 Fuel consumption
7 Fractional power and transient performance
8 Interrelations with auxiljaries
9 Reversing capability
10 Operating personnel
11 Rating limitations
12 Costs
I n addition, however, the selection of the type of

main propulsion plant can be influenced by intangible
personal factors reflecting the backgrofind or personal
preferences of those interested in the construction or
operation of the vessel, and greatly influenced by the
experience of the operating personnel available to them.
The aforementioned factor8 will be given a more detailed
discussion in turn.
5.2 Reliability. Of all the factors which must be
considered in selecting the most suitable type of machinery, reliability in service is one of the most important
and should be given proper emphasis. The design
effort devoted to this consideration has been receiving
increasing emphasis during recent years [37-44]. This
has been attributed to the increasing'complexity of the
more modern equipment and the increased reliability
requirements which are associated with the trend toward
reduced manning. Breakdown in the propelling machinery may mean the loss of ship availability (or even
the loss of the vessel), which is a very serious matter for
the owners and operators. Considerations other than
reliability, such as fuel economy, weight, space, and first
cost, which may seem to be important in the early
stages of the design, later become surprisingly insignificant when compared with irritating and costly service
interruptions which can result from inadequate reliability. Accordingly, developmental features should be
proven ashore where failures are of little consequence as
compared with failures at sea.
The method of establishing ratings of the various
power plant components should be analyzed for service
and design margins so as to ensure the high degree of
reliability required for the safety of the vessel. Assurance should be provided that reasonably conservative
horsepower ratings are used for design purposes since in
some cases there is a tendency for ratings to be stated as
that obtained on block tests under ideal laboratory
conditions as opposed to the lets-perfect environmental
conditions that are encountered in marine service.
Evaluating the service and design margins is d i c u l t ;
the type of fuels and the pressures, temperatures, and
pressure ratios used in the design have a significant effect
on the plant reliability. However, realistic trade-off
studies require that either the degree of conservatism
be consistent between various candidate power plants or
an allowance be made for the differences.
5.3 Mai~tainability. Both preventive maintenance
and correctiye'maintenance requirements must be considered in selecting the type of machinery to be used in a
propulsion plant [&50].
Preventive maintenance has a
direct impact on manning levels and operating costs. If
the equipment installed requires frequent preventative
maintenance, such as greasing, packing, cleaning, and
parts replacement, crew personnel must be provided to
carry out these duties. This is an important consideration as the cost associated with one crew member over
the l i e of a ship is a startling sum, particularly if he
must be highly skilled; additionally, the cost of the
materials required for preventive maintenance adds to
I
I
operating costa and can become significant especially

when special tools and equipment are required.
Corrective maintenance must also be considered in
light of the manning requirements (as regards both
manpower and skill level), materials, and tools required.
Furthermore, the various modes of equipment failure
should be studied in order to identify the failure modes
which would adversely affect the propulsion plant
operation (the effect could be either in terms of performance degradation, corrective maintenance requirements, downtime, or a combination of these considerations). Failure modes which have unacceptably adverse
effects should be further analyzed to identify methods of
reducing the likelihood or consequences of their occurrence (e.g., by means of redundancy or selecting other
design alternatives).
5.4 Spare and Arrangement Requirements. Some
years ago the minimum space required for the machinery
plant of a merchant ship was a relatively unimportant
consideration due to the tonnage laws in effect a t that
time. Formerly, if the actual propelling machinery
space exceeded 13,percent of the groas tonnage of the
ship, then 32 percent of the gross tonnage of the ship
could be deducted in computing the net tonnage, which
is the basis for tax assessments, harbor and canal dues,
etc. As a result, a special effort was then made to
ensure that the space required for the propelling machinery was a t least 13 percent of the gross tonnage of
the ship. The tonnage laws have subsequently been
modified, however, and such an artificial condition no
longer exists.
I n most ship desigd configurations, an intensive effort
is made to minimize the space required for the propulsion
plant. In general, the space required for the machinery
space is considered to be deducted from that which can
be used for other purposes (e.g., carrying cargo); and a
maximum effort is accordingly made to restrain the
dimensions of the machinery space. In some ships,
such as tankers, this is not as critical a factor.
Minimum space requirements are almost impossible to
generalize satisfactorily for different types of power
plants. There is no substitute for making at least a
preliminary ship arrangement layout to determine the
effect of the power plant on the overall machinerv mace
oonfiguration. In order to illustrate general dff%nces
in this respect between principal propulsion plant types,
representative machinery arrangements in typical merohant vessels are shown in Figs.
6,. 7,. 8, and 9 for a
slteam turbine, diesel, nuclear, and a gas turbine plant
respectively. There is a wide range of flexibility in the
design of the propulsion plants illustrated; therefok, the
oonfigurations shown should only be considered representative.
5.5 Weight Requirements; The importance of the
weight of a main propulsion plant varies depending upon
the particular application. I n the case of tankers,
whose cargo capacity is limited by draft restrictions, the
weight of the main propulsion machinery represents
oargo foregone. Cargo vessels, on the other hand,
13
seldom operate at their full load draft; furthermore, they

have chronic stability problems due in part to the
extensive amount of cargo handling gear located high
on the ship. As a result, the weight associated with the
main propulsion machinery, as such, is mildly advantageous in that it improves the stability of the ship.
I n general, naval vessels have chronic weight problems,
particularly since the advent of the major emphasis on
shock resistance; and shipboard equipment is carefully
analyzed from the viewpoint of weight reduction.
Representative pmpulsion plant weights (without
fuel) are shown in Fig. 10, where the specific weight
(the weight of the complete propulsion plant per unit of
rated shaft horsepower) is plotted versus shaft horsepower rating. Representative propulsion plant weights,
including fuel, versus the plant shaft horsepower rating
are shown in Fig. 11. This plot permits a proper
comparison to be made between petroleum-fueled plants
and nuclear plants; for the latter the weight of fuel is not
significant.
Propulsion plant weights have been greatly reduced
over the years. This trend is expected to continue,
particularly as regards nuclear plants, due to the
relatively large amount i5f research and development
expended on this type of plant.
5.6 Type of Fuel Required. Although solid and
gaseous fuels (coal, uranium, and natural gas) play
important roles in worldwide energy production, by
far the greatest proportion of the fuel buined aboard
ships is petroleum fuels. Virtually all petroleum fuels
are obtained by fractionating or cracking crude oils
obtained from the world's various oil wells. There is a
wide spectrum of petroleum fuels from which a choice
may be made; some of the more important alternatives
are given in Table 2.
Table 2
TYPEOF
DISTILLATE
Light
Petroleum Distillates and Their Uses

CLA~SIFICATION
Intermediate naphthas
Kerosene
Medium
Heav
&~du&
Gas oil
~ubricatin~
oils
Residual fuel oils
Refinery sludges
COMMON
UNRESTRICTED
USES
Aviation gasoline
Motor gasoline
Tractor fuel
Gas turbine fuel
Heating fuel
Diesel fuel
Not used as fuel
Boiler fuel
Refinery fuel
I n general, oils with higher viscosity are less expensive;

however, an additional major consideration js that
higher viscosity fuels have greater concentrations of
impurities and harmful constituents. The fuel oil
selected should be determined on the basis of the lowest
overall cost, taking into consideration factors such as
initial costs, handling costs, and equipment maintenance
costs which can be attributed to the fuel.
Factors which must be borne in mind, relative to
handling and equipment costs, when selecting a petroleum
fuel are fuel constituents, type of metals which will be
MARINE ENGINEERING
15
PLAN VlEW OF MACHINERY SPACE
PLAN VlEW OF MACHINERY SPACE
P L A N VlEW OF MACHINERY SPACE

P L A N VlEW OF MACHINERY SPACE
ELEVATION
ELEVATION
I BOILER
2. H.P. TURBINE
3. L.P TURBINE
4. REDUCTION GEAR
5. CENTRALCD~~TROLROOM
S. STEAM TURBO-GENERATOR
7 WORKSHOP
B. CONTAMINATED SThAM GENERATOR
9 DISTILLING PLANT
10. MAIN CONDENSER

I I. MAlN CIRCULITING PUMP
12.
13.
14
15.
16.
17.
THRUST BEARIUG
FORCED DRAFT FAN
STEAM AIR HEATER
UPTAKE
DEAERATING FEED HEATER
LUBE OIL SUMP TANK
Fig. 6 Steam turbine powor pknt
I. MAIN ENGINE
2.
3.
4
5.
6.
7.
B.
THRUST BEARING
MAIN ENGINE CONTROL CONSOLE
MAIN SWITCHBOARD
TuRBD-GENERATOR
DIESEL GENERATOR
DONKEY BOILER
FUEL OIL PUMP
9 MAIN AIR COMPRESSOR

10
ENGINE
I I. MAIN
STARTING
AIRFUEL
TANUHEATER
12. DISTILLING PLANT
I 3 LUBE OIL COOLER
14 AIR
COMPRESSOR
IS.
WASTE
HEAT BOILER
I S EXHAUST SILENCER
Fig. 7 Low-speed diesel power plant
I. NUCLEAR STEAM GENERATOR

2. MAIN BLOWER TURBINE
3
AUX BLOWER
4. H P TURBINE
5. L.P TURBINE
6.
7.
8.
S.
10.
REDUCTION GEAR
TURBO-GENERATOR
MAIN SWITCHBOARD
WORKSHOP
AIR COMPRESSOR
I I.
AIR TANK
12
13
14.
15.
1s
17.
18
19.
CONTROL CONSOLE
DISTILLING PLANT
CONTAMINATED STEAM GENERATOR
DEMINERALIZER
CAUSTIC B ACID STORAGE
COMPONENT COOLIN0 SYSTEM
LUBE CONDENSER
OIL GRAVITY TANK
MAIN
22 01
MAIN CIRCULATING
THRUST
BEARING PUMP
22.
23.
DEAERATING FEED TANK

LUBE OIL SUMP TANK
I. MAIN ENGiNE
a.
a.
4.
5.
6.
7.
a.
AIR INTAKE PLENUM

EXHAUST DUCT
COMPRESSOR
GAS TURBINE
REDUCTION GEAR
LUBE OIL SUMP TANK
STEAM TURBO-GENERAT~R
h.9
9. M I I N SWITCHBOARD
10. MAlN CONTROL CONSDLE
I I. THRUST BEARING
12. PORT USE BOILER
13. DISTILLING PLANTS
14. DIESEL GENERATOR
15. WISTE HEAT BOILER
18. STEAM DRUM
Ggs turbine power plant
Fig. 8 Nuclear power plant
degradation being dependent upon the type of prime

mover and its design parameters. It ia extremely
important that fuel combustion technology be properly
taken into account in any realistic appraisal of propulsion
machinery life cycle costs and in the selection of an
optimum fuel for a given set of circumstances.
Much material has been published on economic
oom~arisonsof ~uclearversus fossil fuels for shipboard
we. These studies are clouded by the fact that the
nuclear technology is subject to strong governmental
Influence. The Atomic Energy Commission closely controls the manufacturing of nuclear fuels in the United
Btates
rigid licensing procedures; however, there
several private firms which are engaged in the
production of nuclear fuels.
I n the case of very large-capacity central station

plants, where the cost of transporting coal is quite
important, nuclear fuel has appromhed economic
parity with f w i l fuels. However, ship power plants
generally fall into a small-capacity category as compared
to central station plants; consequently, widespread
application of nuclear power in merchant ships will
probably await further 'advancements in nuclear reactor
practice and technology.
Nuolear power for large naval ships is advantageous
in that it eliminates the requirement of frequent refuelings, thereby aueenting the shipPs military effectivenew Nuclear power b p&iCularly advantageous in
the case of submarines and has pmvided them with new
dimensions of operability, submerged endurance, and
military effectiveness.
16
MARINE ENGINEERING
The efficiency of gas turbine cycles is highly dependent

upon factors such as the turbine inlet temperatures, the
amount of regenerative heating, the pressure ratios, and
methods of staging and matching the characteristics of
the various compressors and turbines used. These are
discussed in Chapter 6.
5.8
SHP RATING OF PROPULSION PLANT (THOUSANDSI
Fig. 12
201
I
I
I
I
14
1 8 ' 2 2
26
50
34
38
42
SHP RATING OF PROPULSION PLANT (THOUSANDS)
Fig. 1 0 Specific weight of propulsion plants
SHP RATING OF PROPULSION PLANT (THOUSANDS)
Fig. 11
All-purpose fuel consumption
Weight of cargo ship propulsion machinery plus fuel for a 10,000mile voyage
As indicated in the foregoing, the selection of a fuel

n e e
success of the ship. An analysis of life cycle costs which
fails to take the maintenance factors and other various
aspects of the fuel selection into proper consideration
would not be expected to be meaningful.
5.7 Fuel Consumption. Differing types of propulsion plants have inherently different thermal efficiencies
and specific fuel consumption rates. A heat balance is
the fundamental tool used i n determining the fuel
consumption associated with a power plant, and it is
given a detailed treatment in Chapter 2 for a steam
turbine propulsion plant. Heat cycles related to other
types of prime movers are discussed, to the extent
deemed appropriate for a text of this sort, in the chapter
applicable to the type of prime mover under consideration.
The fuel consumption chmacteristics of various types
is a multifaceted process which may greatly i
of propulsion plants are expressed by Fig. 12, which

illustrates the relationship between fuel consumption
and size for the more usual propulsion plant alternatives.
The fuel consumption indicated in Fig. 12 includes that
required for the main propulsion plant, auxiliaries, and
normal hotel loads; no allowance has been made for
extraordinary service, such as the hotel load on passenger
ships, cargo heating and tank cleaning on tankers, and
cargo refrigeration. Figure 12 is not intended to be uaed
as a substitute for detailed fuel consumption calculations;
it is intended to illustrate only the general characteristics of the propulsion plant alternatives.
Once the general type of propulsion plant has been
tentatively selected, there are several design characteristics which may be selected to enhance the plant fuel
consumption characteristics. For example, with regard
to a steam turbine propulsion plant, regenerative feedwater heating using extraction steam or reheating of the
steam in the boiler after a portion of expansion work has
been extracted in the turbines typifies the methods by
which the thermal efficiency of a steam cycle can be
improved. In general, trade-off studies are required to
determine the most appropriate steam cycle. Trade-off
studies could consider such parameters as boiler superheater outlet pressure and temperature, condenser
vacuum, main turbine efficiency, number of stages of
regenerative feed heating, and selection of extraction
points.
In addition to the presentation made in Chapter 2,
several excellent studies have been conducted and
published which deal with the effect of cycle variations on
machinery plant performance [51-571. These studies
are useful in that they provide a sound basis upon which
preliminary decisions can be made.
Trade-off studies for the purpose of improving fuel
economy should similarly be conducted with gas turbine
or diesel propulsion plants. Cycles employing diesel
engines tend to have higher thermal effioiencies than those
employing steam turbines since the cycle works between
greater temperature extremes; nevertheless, the overall
efficiency of the total power plant can be improved by
the use of waste-heat boilers or exhaust-gas turbines.
Fractional Power and Transient Performance.
Except for short periods when leaving or coming into

port, most merchant vessels operate a t or near full
power. Occasionally, the operating schedules include
periods a t reduced speed that may be long enough to
require special consideration, but such lowering of speed
rarely goes below that corresponding to about one-half
power. The case of naval vessels is entirely different.
They are designed for high speeds for use on those
occasions when speed is of great importance. However,
most of the operating life of a naval vessel is spent a t
moderate speeds, roughly about 60 percent of the
maximum speed. Such cruising speeds require only
about 20 percent of the normal power for which the
machinery is designed. Good economy a t these low
speeds is as important as at maximum speed, because
it determines the cruising range of the vessel during
many operations. I n high-powered naval vessels, therefore, specid provisions are made for economy at low
ppwers. These usually include specially designed turbines (with cruising stages or stage arrangements which
can be operated in series a t low powers and in parallel a t
high powers), and auxiliary arrangements which are
especially designed for economical operation at low
powers.
I n some instances the service requirements of a ship
impose severe demands upon the propulsion plant. For
oxample, special-purpose vessels may be required to
operate for extended periods of time in an economical
aruising mode, whereas upon command they may be
mquired to reach maximum power in a matter of seconds,
A special propulsion plant such as the combined-dieseland-gas-turbine arrangement described in reference [58]
may be required to satisfy demands of this severity.
6.9 Interrelations with Auxiliaries. A considerable
number of auxiliaries are required to serve the main
tngines and for cargo support, cargo handling, ship
kbndling, hotel load, and the like. Since in most
instances there is a choice in selecting the type of prime
mover for the auxiliary equipment, interrelations
between the auxiliary equipment and the main propulsion plant must be considered in order to ensure that the
dvorall ship is designed in the most effective mqnner.
Auxiliaries can in general be driven by either steam or
dectric power; when the main engines are driven by
rteam, it may be desirable to also drive equipment such
Y generators, pumps, and windlasses by steam. In the
@$so of diesel and gas turbine drives, where steam is not
Os readily available, electrically driven auxiliaries may be
more appropriate.
A supply of steam for heating purposes is required on
moat vessels; the quantity depends on the type of vessel
~ n the
d service for which it is intended. If the vessel is
17
steam driven, the supply is easily taken from the main

boilers. For diesel or gas turbine driven ships, a boiler
or boilers will have to be provided for that purpose.
One economical method of doing this is to utilize the hot
exhaust gases from the main engines by passing them
through a boiler specially designed for this purpose.
Such a boiler may also be provided with an oil burner to
make up the deficiency, if any, and to operate in port
when the main engines are shut down.
I n tankers, where a large steam capacity is required
for heating the cargo and rather large quantities of hot
water are required for cleaning the cargo tanks, the
boilers for steam-driven tankers may be significantly
increased for this additional load. If the main propulsion plant is driven by a diesel or gas turbine, one or two
large boilers may be required especially for this purpose.
As may be seen, interrelations between the main
machinery plant and the auxiliary equipment can be an
essential consideration in the selection of the main
propulsion plant.
5.10 Reversing Capability. The provision of means
for stopping and reversing a ship is closely lrelated to the
type of prime mover selected. Propulsion plants that
utilize reciprocating steam engines, diesel engines, or
electric motors present no problem in providing reversing
capabilities because such components are intrinsically
reversible. Steam turbines and gas turbines, on the
other hand, cannot be directly reversed and require
special provisions. The common solution with steam
turbines is to provide special rows of astern blading in
the exhaust end of the turbine (in the low-pressure
region); in order to reverse, steam is admitted to the
astern blading rather than the ahead blading. The
solution with gas turbines is not as simple. It is generally
not the practice to provide astern blading in gas turbines; therefore special provisions such as electric drives,
reversing reduction gears, or reversible-pitch propellers
must be provided. In cases where maneuverability
requirements are severe (e.g., dredging vessels, tugboats,
vessels which frequently pass through locks), controllable
and reversible-pitch propellers may be used in conjunction with other types of prime movers [591.
5.1 1 Operating Personnel. The number and caliber
of the personnel required to operate a main propulsion
plant may be of major importance. Even though other
considerf~tionsof a particular propulsion plant may be
attractive, if difficulty is anticipated in obtaining
suitable operating ~ersonnel, prudence may dictate
that the plant be abandoned in deference to others. In
the past, the general adoption of new types of machinery
has been retarded as a consequence of this practical
cogsideration.
Over the years, fewer men have tended toward a seafaring life and as a result the total cost to man ships has
risen sharply. An adequate number of highly trained
men has not been available for ship manning and, as a
result, propulsion plants have become increasingly more
automated as a means of reducing the number of
operating personnel required (see Chapter 21 for a
1+
MARINE ENGINEERING
years, there yet remains a limit to the size of diesel

engine which is considered feasible. On the other hand,
the rating of the propulsion plant, as such, does not
impose a practical restraint on the size of a steam turbine
fig. 13 Relative imtalled cork of propulsion plank
J j c u ~ i o n of automation and controls). This is an

effective means of reducing operating costs and is expe&d to continue. It should however be noted that
automated ships will generally require more highly
skilled operati~gpersonnel. This, in part, offsets the
advantage of fewer personnel.
turbine
It is often said that the operation of
machinery requires less engineeriog or mechanical skill
than that required in connection with diesel engin%
exceptto the extentthat
This ie not entirely
board maintenance of the main engine is carried outby
to a
shipboard personnel on diesel
turbine &ips. The shorthigher degree than on
treliability of steam turbines is usually considered
and the turbine
to be slightly better than diesel
for
short
periods,
that is,
plant can sustain more
maintenance
of steamturbines can be postponed for
short perioda in many instances. Diesel engines cannot
be neglected without serious effects,and,
flexibility of maintenance policies is not recommended
for any typeof power plant, it is possibly less cmcial on
the steam plant than the diesel.
5-12 Rating Lim;+dions. There are practical limits
the power ranges in which the various
which
For example,
typesof pmpu~sionplants are f-ible.
which have been
even though the rating of diesel
has continued to increase over the
installed
The ratings of propulsion machinery tend to be disCrete rather than continuous; consequently an additional
rating limitation is imposed. As an example, gas
turbine designs have been developed for a limited number
of discrete ratings. If a gas turbine were desired with a
rating different from those available, the cost associated
with the development of such a special design would be
pn>hibitive; the same situation exists, although to a
,gomewhat lesser extent due to the larger number of
ratings available, with the other types of propulsion
plants.
5.13 Costs. The installed cost, which is one of the
most important considerations in making trade-off
studies, is also the most volatile- Pro~ulsionplant
price levels are strongly influenced by factors such as
material and labor costs, the similarity of a plant with
those previously produced, and ~ a n u f ~ t u r e rexisting
's
work backlog, and therefore are subject to fiuctuations
which depend on the current status of the industryof
Nevertheless, the relative costs of the various
plants along with the general relatiomhip of plant size
and cost are illustrated in Fig- 13- The data presented
in Figs. 10, 11, and 13 were largely taken from references
1% 611.
BY reviewing the factors enumerated in the foregoing

which should be considered in selecting the type of
marine propulsion plant, it may be noted that in every
instance the fundamental issue is economics. There are
three types of costs to be considered: initial
(e.g.,
installed costs), recurring costs (e.g.9 fuel consumption),
and contingency costs (e-g-,most aspects of
B~ using a technique such as the present-value concept,
the C O S ~ Sto be incurred in the future can be
their present value So that all of the costs associated
with the various design alternatives can be totaled and
compared, in light of their contingencies, in arriving at
the most advantageous alternative [62].
Setti011 6
Pnliminary Design Considerations
6.1 Introduction. Before the naval architect can
firmly establish the dimensions, form, and charactervalues for the machinery space and
istics of a
weight, requirements, fuel consumption, and other
engineehg quantities must be available to him. However, these quantities are dependent upon the vessel
dimensions and form. I n order that the analysis may
pmceed, tentative values must be selected initially and
subsequently refined as the analysis progresses. Esti-
mates based on sophisticated procedures are

warranted during the fomulative ~ h m e of
s a design
because the rapidly changing characteMcs of the
supporting data are not commensurate with the accuracy
of the calculation; overall methods of comparison which
may involve the use of results from previous parametric studies or systematic ft3milies
figuration are adequate and are more
Preliminary design procedures differ so
19
one design organization to another that no routine pro- increase in initial pressure to increase the thermal
codure can be described for this process. However, cycle efficiency 1 percent; or a 40 deg F increase in
Home guides regarding specific methods of establishing temperature will have the same effect. Chapter 2
tho engineering features of a ship can be reviewed. But contains a detailed treatment of thermodynamics and
it) order to proceed with s, typical example of further heat engineering considerations.
dcsign selection steps, it becomes necessary to make
It may be noted that the heat balance calculation is
noveral presumptions. First, it is assumed that an well adapted to electronic computer calculation, permitoverall study similar to those described in Sections 2 ting parametric studies to be readily made. However,
~ m d3 has been used to establish the payload and s u 5 in providing component data to the computer, care must
tained sea speed required of the vessel or vessels. be taken that it is reliable and accurate as the results will
Second, it is assumed that the shaft horsepower required be no better than the data entered. The effect of the
of the main propulsion plant has been established as following design variables on the thermal cycle efficiency,
outlined in section 4. Lastly, main propulsion plant tempered by practical considerations, would normally
trade-off studies, as described in Section 5, are con- be investigated at this point:
nidered to have been conducted and, for the purpose of
Boiler superheater outlet pressure and temperature
this section, that a rather conventional cross-compound
Condenser vacuum
eared steam turbine propulsion plant has been identified
Number
of stages of regenerative feed heating and
ILN the most advantageous type for the particular vessel
best extraction points
r~tldservice under consideration.
Steam reheating in boiler
Like other complicated engineering systems, much of a
Main turbine efficiency
nhip design is patterned after previous successful
Turbogenerator efficiency (condensing versus
practice. Ordinarily, pertinent plans of other ships,
noncondensing)
Nome perhaps rather similar to the one under consideraExhaust heat recovery from boiler stack gases
Oio11,would be available. Also, essential data relating to
Motor-driven versus steam-driven feed pumps
Illlosevessels and important particulars of the machinery
and auxiliaries
ad auxiliaries, their characteristics, and their ratings
Utilization of and balancing out of excess auxiliary
would normally be available. If this information is
exhaust steam
properly compiled, it is often possible to make useful
Desuperheated steam service requirements
Arnt approximations without detailed study and thus
Distillers, steam-air heaters, etc.
reduce the range and number of variables that must be
&on detailed study-to optimize a ship design.
Of the foregoing design variables, the largest direct
some of the more salient considerations in establishing gain in efficiency will come from increasing the boiler
tho design of an engineering plant for a ship, in addition superheater outlet temperature and the boiler
to the main propulsion plant trade-off studies described There are, however, several factors which cannot be
111 Roction 5, are reviewed in the following paragraphs.
ignored; boiler design pressure must be increased in
6.2 Propulsion Plant Steam Cycle. The propulsion proper proportion with the temperature in order to
plr~uthas been established to be of the steam turbine ensure that the turbine condition line does not lead to
typo; however, the precise steam conditions and cycle excessive moisture in the exhaust end of the low~rrbngementwould warrant yet another review. The pressure turbine as an erosion problem could otherwise
h e ~ tbalance calculation is the basic analysis tool for result. Furthermore, inerewing the boiler
delurmining the effect of various steam cycles on the outlet temperature and the boiler efficiency beyond
tharmal efficiency of the plant. Standard practices certain limits both lead to costly increases in either the
atrd allowances which are recommended in the prepara- boiler design or its mainhnance, or both, which must be
l ~ n l rof heat balances have been promulgated by the
taken into account. When burning Bunker C residual
~ l l l p '~~a c h i n e r yCommittee of the Society and are fuel oil, eutectic combinations of oxides of vanadium,
available in ~ e c h n i c a l kResearch Publication No. 3-1 1. sodium, and potassium can c a w slaggng and accelerated
111 tho absence of specSc component efficiencies and
erosion of tubing at relatively low metal surface temurvioing allowances during preliminary design, the peratures. Thus if low-grade residual fuel is to be used,
r@UXIlmendationsof this publication are most helpful.
it must either be treated aboard ship, or the boiler must
Many excellent parametric studies have been con- be specially designed to limit the metallic wall tempersduotml by various design agencies and several have been tures of the superheater tubes and supports; additionally,
~ublinhed[51, 52, 531 which cover the effect of steam the boiler should be designed for ready acceas into the
@~adltions
and cycle variations on machinery plant per- superheater for mechanical de-slagging, cleaning, and
f@lmalce. These may be used as a guide during initial tube replacement.
*l@otion and thus minimize the amount of detailed work
Another factor which should give rise
a cautious
ah& must be carried out later during the more refined approach in moving to higher design initial pressures
@@WO the design- Fmm parametric studies of this and temperatures is the increasing cost and difficulty in
Rnl'tt ollc can derive some useful yardsticks for design assuring the safety and longevity of steam piping,
n@lailiOn,
such as, for example, that it takes an 85-psig joints, valves, fittings, manifolds, and pressure bound-
MARINE ENGINEERING
21
23
MARINE ENGINEERING
desisns vary widely depending upon the type of cargo

handled [6&75]; however, some of the more common
types are as follows:
Winching system, burtoning or swinging booms
for dry cargo, i-e., break-bulk cargo or palletized cargo systems
Cargo crane systems, either shipboard or onehore
~ u l cargo
k
systems, such as self-unloadem
utilizing either standardized
Container
containers which lift On/& or standard truck
trailers which roll on/off
B~~~~systems, utilizing hrges which either lift
on/off or float on/off
systems, utilizing cargo
~ i ~ ~ i tankering
d
piping, pumps, and so forth
Barge raftlngsystems, ut&ing pushboats or
certain limik), radar su~eillance and warning

collision hazards (also within cedain limits), data
monitoring and recording of principal voyage data,
weather reporting, sounding, and fire detection.
Some of the facets of navigation which do not appear
to be readily adaptable to automation are: docking and
undocking; piloting in nanow channels) harbors, Or ,
territorial waters where local knowledge is emntial;
planning and laying-out of best course and speed, taking
into account all potential factors; decisions on slowing Or
proceeding with due caution in poor visibility ;maneuvering to prevent collision, determination of safe sea speed,
determination of best fix from position fixes, and judgment as to when to post lookouts in foul weatherEngine room control stations appear perfectly feasible
to permit the handling of even complex plants by a
single licensed officer. The gas turbine and the diesel
The relative
of the
in selecting the
types of cargo handlhg gear, such as the winch
desip aeociated with different rigging schemes, hydrau]$ally operated hatch covers, special types of cranes,
elevators, conveyors, and cargo pumping systems,
should be given a rigorous analysis during the preliminary
desisn shge. Close cooperation between the naval
archit& and the marine engineer is essential in such
and power requirements
analyees. The space,
be estimated very early in the design of a ship as
they may have an important impact on the deck
arrangement, the size of the electrical generating plant,
and indeed the configuration of the vessel itself.
Ca%o refrigeration, cargo hesting, ballasting requiremenh related to cargo handling, buttemorthing, etc.,
are all imporbnt servke load factors which may result
in peak loads not only on the electrical generating plant,
but also on the main machinery plant. They must then
be included in the design heat balances and electric load
anslyses from the emliest stage of the design selection
process. For a detailed discu$sion of dry, bulk, and
liquid cargo handling systems, see Chapter 16.
6.17 Autorntion rnnd Mechanization. Automation
and rnechaoieation of shipboard processes are important
means of improving the efficiency of ship operation.
These are subjects that are particularly well suited to
system engineering analyses in that the cost of developmerit, manufacture, installation, and maintenance of
such mechanized or automated equipment is readily
compared to the cost of hand labor. However, close
sight must be kept on the degree of reliability of autornation where it involves the safety and security of the
vessel; furthemore, the training and adjustment of
maritime labor to new conditions of operation must be
rnnsidered in addition to simple engineering feasibility.
There is potential for reducing the burden of bridge
duty and reducing the number of operating personnel
required for the saf. navigation of the ship by the
intraduction of rnonitonng and control devices in a
bridge coneole. Some of the facets of navigation which
are adaptable to automation and semi-automation are:
course steering, dead reckoning, position-fixing (within
engine appear particulady well adapted to automation

becsuse of the Simplicity of their control- However,
even the steamship with its more complicated plant has
been automated to a surprbing degree and developments
(see Chapter 21).
in this direction continue to be
6.18 Dynamic Effecfso Dynamic effects, principally
mechanical vibration but also noise and shock resistance,
must be an integral aspect of the preliminary design
process as the dynamic cha~acteristicsof the ship and the
dynamic requirements for equipment am largely established during the preliminary design stages* The
objective is to develop the design so that the desired
dynamic Characteristicscan be achieved in an effective
manner. Reafisticall~ conceived requirements with
regard to dynamic effects require careful and adequate
planning during the preliminary design stages in
that they may be met without excessive dimculty or
undue expense.
especially important insofaras
Vibration analyses
..
the design of the pmpulsion shafting system is concerned,

and particularly its relationship to the excitation forces
resulting from the propeller operating in a nonuniform
wake. Propeller exciting forces are diicussed in detail
in reference 1761 and main propulsion shafting systems in
Chapter 11 of this text. As may be noted in the latter,
the main propulsion shafting can vibrate in longitudinal,
torsional) and lateral modes. Each mode of vibration
must be dealt with during the early stages of design.
Modes of vibration of the ship's hull as a whole (i.e.,
as a free-free beam) are discussed in reference 1771.
T h m may be vertical, horizontal, torsional, or longtudinal and may occur separately or, in rare case*,
coupled. The calculation and re diction of the hull
vibration modes is quite complex since the hull girder is
far from a Simple homogeneous beam. Hull vibration
of this type, may be excited by s~nchronirationwith
periodic harmonics of the ~ r o ~ e l l forces
er
acting either
through the shafting, by the ~mpellerforce field interl
acting with the hull afterbody, or both. ~ u lvibration
may also be set up by unbalanced harmonic forces from
the main machinery, and in some cases by impact
excitation from slamming or ~eriodicwave encounter.
Tab*
ITEM
Mg~lltlllmrated power
'r'ho(+(Lsteam condition
( !otldnnmr vacuum
listof Machinery for

RATING
One set, cross compound, with

astern element located in exh
u tcasing
end of low-pressure turbine
24,000
at 105 rpm
850
F
28.5 in. H 925
g 8t maximum rated
power
24,000~~h,,
cargo
ITEM
Line Shaft Beanng8
gbr
Diameter
Length
Materid
Stem Tube Bean'ng
Type
Length
RATING
8
Re laceable shell, ring oiled

21& in.
In.
32%
Caet atex?] pedestal, cover and

Oil lubricated
27 in. forward bearing
54 in. aft bearing
Ductile iron and babbitt
Vertical, walk-in, five pas4 convection with automatic superheat control by desuperheater
Coil in steam drum
20,000 Ib/hr from 875 p i g , 930 F

to 775 psig, 575 F
345,000lb at 24,000 shp and 105

rpm
Aft of low-speed gear cssing
27% in.
2 4 f t 11Xin.
Solid forged steel, ABS Gr. 2
Superheat Control De.guper&

Descr~pt~on
Coil in steam drum, steam
Burnera
after third superheater pms
Number her boiler
3
Type
Wide range ateam atomking
Air quantity, cfm

Air temp in-out, deg F
Stm Pr=.-temp, pslgdeg F
Air press, drop, in. H ~ O
Ruting
116%
23,500
10048.3
29,400
100-275
62-453
62-453
0.6
1.0
MARIYE ENGINEERING
Table 3 (continued)
RATING
RATING
ITEM
~ l ~ ~ t ~ - m e c h adeck
n i dmounted
,
50 hp, 650 rpm, 230 volt d-c
20-ton cargo hoist

1 ~ t o cargo
n
hoist
14,500 lb at 105 fpm

18,000 lb at 85 fpm
8,800 lb at 185 fpm
14,200 lb at 116 fpm
8,800 lti at 85 fpm
1250 ft of 76 in. wire rope
800 f t of M in. wire rope
eretors
Drum storwe
Section 7
Specifications
31
MARINE ENGINEERING
GENkkAl CONSIDERA'I'IONS
Section 8
Final Design and Working Plans
16
Lifesaving Equip-
65 . Air Conditioningand
33
MARINE ENGINEERING
of contracts for ordinary merchant vessels where the

plans must be developed in a short time. Where
oOmposite Plans are not made, the elimination of
interferences and the treatment of wstems in accordance

with their relative importance must be accomplished by
the cooperation of the various design groups iivolved.
Section 9
The design and construction of a ship is culminated by
Sea trials are conducted as a means of demonstrating
broad array of tests which demonstrate that the ship is the adequacy and perfomance of those aspectsof a ship
in accordance with contract requirements. At the lower which cannot be realistically tested at dockside. sea
the test spectrum are those of a q ~ a l i @ - C ~ n t r ~trials
l
are bmadly classified into twogroups; namely,
"ature which are conducted to ensure conformance of machinery trials and maneuvering trials. ~h~ former
lnaterial properties to specified requirements, soundness deals with the mechanical and economical performance
of cmtings, dimensional accuracy, and the like. Tests of the boders, the proeelling machinery and their
nuch these are not Peculiar to marine equipment and auxiliaries, and tests of evapowtors and distillers,
Ihu standard quality-control Practices of the manu- together with the anchor
and steeringgear and
Iaaturer Or
are generally relied upon to other equipment which cannot be tested uader actual
nrluure the adequacy of equipment in this regard.
conditions at the dock. The latter involves calibration
Shop and installation tests include those tests which of navigating equipment, the
of the
n o m a l l ~conducted in the shop after assembly or in ship, and the speed-power characteristics of the ship.
tho ~esselat dockside after the installation of the
Tests typically conducted during sea trials are as
equipment or system to be tested is substantially follows:
aamplete. These tests are conducted to prove correct
Calibration of navigating equipment
rflnombly and proper installation and to demonstrate
Speed-power-rpm standardization tests
that control and safety devices are functional and
properly adjusted. References [81, 821 contain general
Economy power teats
Full-power endurance tests
guidelines which may be used in connection with shop
Ahead steej n g tests
ihd installation tests for merchant ships; similar,
Quick reversal astern and head reach
although generally more exhaustive, test requirements
Astern endurance tests
I0r naval ships are invoked in the specifications prepared
Astern steering tests
for eech particular ship.
Quick reversal ahead and stern reach
Anchor windlass tests
which strength is a major concern.
8.8 Electric Plant. The procedure for the final
'*lo COnektion Of Detail pian'' The
design of the electrical installation roughly parallels that
A
careful review is made of of a ship are made by a large number of
for the other
working simultaneously in several drafting departmentsthe probable electrical loads and the selected number The administration and practice of the dr*ting organizaand rating of ship,s service generators and emergency tion must aim at complete elimination of physical
generators. Vendors, pmposals are obtained and r e interferences between various parts and at a design in
viewed for correlation with the general design.
which each element is treated in acc~rdancewith its
The airing plans for power, lighting, and interior relativeimportance. W r e x a m ~ l e , a P o o r l e ~ o f v e n t ~ ~ ~
commu~cations mnsist of single line diapams and tion duct 4ould not be accepted merely because a
deck arrangement plans. The single line diagrams
in elementary form, the electrical interconnection perfect lead for a freshwater line or an electric cable is
of the various parts of each system. The diagrams desired'
sections of the
of the cables and c o n d u c t o ~ It is Customary to make, for
show the approximate
machinery
spaces,
composite
layouts
showing
everyalong the ship and through the decks. The deck
thing
in
those
Spaces;
i.e.,
structure,
machinery,
arrangements show the wiring on each deck and the
These may be to a
correct location of all appliances, fixtures and fittings, Piping, ventilation, and
scale
larger
than
the
~
s
u
a
arrangement
l
plans; and
develop
including radio and navigation equipment.
possible
interferences'
"lVe
to
ing these wiring plans, consideration is given to carrying
Or other large
Occasionally, in the case of
capacities and voltage drops, directness and simplicity of
leads, protection, support, and accessibility.
important vessels, such composite layouts are made cf
8.9 null Machinew. The marine engineer is usually practically all machinery spaces This procedure is,
concerned with the deck machinery and other mechanical however, slow and costly and cannot be afforded in the
36
MARINE ENGINEERING
37
An
Anal~si*' Naval Engineers Journal,
64 D. M. Mack-Florist and R. H~~~~~~~
dlAn
Economio
February 1965.
Feasibility
Study
of
U
n
i
w
States
Bulk
Carriers,
49 A' J' Ruffini~
standard Navy Maintenance Marine Technology,vol. 3, no. 2, ~ ~ r1966,
i l
and
Management system (3-M System),JJ
65
W.
j
.
Dormm,
'dcombimtion
Bulk
,,
Bureau Of ships Association of senior Engineers, March
Marine Technology,vo~.3, no. 4, October 1966.
66 A. W.
Feck andTankem
J. 0. Sommerhalder,
'Cargo,,
50 A. Goldman and T. B. Slattery, Maintainability: pumping
in M~~~~
and Bulk Carriers,
A Majw
of SYskm Efectiveness, John Wiley & ~
~T
r ~ i 4, no.
~ ~ July, 1967.
~
~
~
Sons, New York, 1964.
67
Leslie
A.
Harlander,
"Further
Developmenh
of
a
51
W' Giblon and Cheater W'
"Effect container
System1961.
for the West Coast-Hawaiian T
~
~
Of
Conditions and Cycle Arrangement on Marine
Trans.
Power-P1ant Performance as ~eterminedby the Elec68 James J. Henry and Henry J. Kamch, ,,Container
tronic Computer," Trans. SNAME, 1961.
52 H- M. Cheng and C. E. Dart, "Cycle and Ships, " Trans. SNAME, 1966,
69 5'. G- EbelJ "An Analysis of Shipboard cargo
Economic Studies for a 25,000-Maximum-S~pSteam
Power Plant for Singlescrew Tanker InstsllationJ Cranes, " Trans. SNAME, 1958.
Trans. SNAME, 1958.
70 E. Scott Dillon, Francis G. Ebel, and Andrew R.
53 M. L. Ireland, Jr., H. W. &marJ and N. L. Goobeck, "Ship Design for Improved Cargo Handling,
Trans. SNAMEJ 1962.
Mochel, "Higher Steam Conditions for ShipsJ
0hiner3'JJJ paper presented to the International Con71 John F. Meissner, "World Development and
foreace of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, 1951. Movement of Iron Ore, Trans. SNAME, 1962.
54 W. L. Coventry, "Fundamentah of Steam
72 -Harry Benfod, Kent C. Thorntan, and E. B.
Turbine The-odynami~s,' Trans. Institute of Ma*
Williams,
"Current Trends in the Design of rron-ore
Bngineers, 1962.
Ships, " Trans. SNAME, 1962.
JJ
JJ
JJ
JJ
Trans. SNAME, 1965.
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT ENGINEERING
C H A P T E R II
-O,,,(HEAT
TRANSFERREDI
1.1 Basic Equations. The applied thermodynamics

problems of marine engineering depend on the conserve
tion of mass and the conservation of energy. The first
of these is conveniently expressed by the
sional steady-flow continuity equation
h?
+ 9+
Q1.2
h t i-iwt1,2
Typical applications of the general energy equation

occur where the working floid is being heated without
work being done (a heat exchanger), where work is
being done under adihbatic conditions (turbi~le wheel),
W = AC/v
('1 or +here mechanical energy is being degraded under
adiabatic conditions and without work being done (flow
against friction). The equations that apply in tbese
situations are esaily found by eliminating the inapproA = flow area, sq ft
priate terms from equation (4). An application is
C = flow velocity, fps
illustrated by Fig. 1.
v = specific volume of the fluid, cu ft/lb
Evaluation of the general energy equation usually
W s flow rate, lb/sec
requires assistance from other equations. The conThe second is conveniently expressed for the usual shady tinuity equation is one. Equations of state for the
one-dimensional situationby the general energy equation fluid involved are also frequently needed. The simplest
form is the familiar perfect gas equation
Enemy equation as applied la a single-stage turbine
Typical values of R are 53.34 for dry air; 53.5 for wet air
(40 percent humidity, 100 F); and 50.3 for flue gm (15
percent excess wet air and standard fuel oil)For perfect gases, the following state relations also
hold :
I Numbem
in brackete designate References at end of ckpter.
(10)
Carbon. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydrogen. . . . . . . . . . .
sulfllr... . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nitrogen ... . . .. . . .. .
Free moisture. . . . . . . .
0.8775
0.1050
0.0120
0.0040
0.0015
Charts PI, must be used. An alternative, particularly

adaptable to turbine design work when calculations are
1.0000
made by Computer, is to use the equhons from which
Other properties of flue w, such as its viacasity and
these tabulations are made.
thermal
are also needed, and are given in
Special relations for steam that are useful in nozzle Fig. 4. conductivity,
values for steamand air can be found in the
design are the equation of state
Steam Tables [ll and Gas Tables [2], respectively.
pv = 1.222 (h - 823)'
1.2 Heat Transfer. An investigation of the & *
(')
term in equations (2) or (4) entails a consideration of the
and the equation for isentropic expansion
principles of heat transfer. The transfer takes place by
molecular diffusion between bodies in contact, or by
pl.s = constant
electromagnetic radiation between separated bodies.
The following two are the corresponding relations for Diffusion between solids is c d e d
menone
the wet region
or both of the bodies are fluids, conduction is nearly
T = absolute temperature, deg R

R = a constant characteristic of a particular gsa
P = pressure, psf
J = mechanical equivalent of heat
= 778 ft-lb/Btu
g = gravitational constant
= 32.17 ft/sec2
z = height above an arbitrary datum, ft
Q = heat transferred, Btu/lb
W r = external work done, Btu/lb
p0.07v= 0.467 (h - 366)

p ~ . ~=
s constant
(11)
Units are psi for p, cu ft/lb for v, and Btu/lb for h.
These equations are for use only in the vicinity of normal
turbine state h e s , and not for use at high superheat with
low Pressure, with very wet steam, or in the reheat
region.
In boiler design work, the sensible heat, and specific
heat of the flue gas must be known. These are presented
in Figs. 2 and 3 for a standard grade 6 or residual fuel
oil of the composition (by weight) tabulated below
when burned in air with a 40 percent relative humidity
at a temperature of 100 F.
J. B. Woodwad, III
Review of Fundamentals
39
Re. 2 Selulbk heat of gases
MARINE ENGINEERING
where the subscripts o and i designate the outside and

inside surfaces of the tube.
Heat transfer problems frequently involve conduction
through successive layers of distinctly different conductivity. Formulas for this type of problem are
readily derived, as are formulas for the transfer of heat
through cylindric composite walls.
b. Convection. The convective heat transfer between a fluid at a largely constant bulk tempe~atu~e
TB
and a surface at temperature T is expressed by
Q = h j # ( T ~- Ts)
property of the material conducting the heat. It is

generally a function of temperature, particularly for
liquids snd gases, but the effect of temperature is
sufficiently weak that conductivity can be treated as a
constant in most problems. Fourier's Law can be expressed for one-dimensional problem as
(16)
where hj is the film coeficient of convective heat transfer.

major practical problem in applying equation (16)
in the evaluation of the fdm coefficient for the several
distinct mechanisms of flow and thermal behavior
possible in the fluid.
Single-phase convection occurs when the fluid involved
uoither boils nor condenses at the solid surface. Familiar
axamples abound aboard ship; for instance the water side
of condenser tubes, both sides of the tubes in liquid-toliquid heat exchangers such as lube oil coolers, and the
gtM side of convective heating surface in boilers are
typical locations where this mechanism is prominent.
Tho value of h, is generally a function of fluid properties,
of the fluid' velocity, and of its degree of turbulence.
Under conditions existing in a typical condenser tube,
far example, the value of h is likely to be in the neighborhood of 1000 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F, while on the gas side of
r boiler tube, the value of h j can be 10 Btu/hrmsq ft-
tho situation is described aa forced convection. When
= conductivity, Btu-ft/hr-sq ft-deg F'

= conducting area, sq f t
either dropwise or film condensation. The names are

quite descriptive of the processes. The rate of heat
transfer is much higher for dropwise condensation, and is
comparable to that for nucleate boiling, since the drops
quickly fall off as they form and thereby expose the
surface to more vapor. In film condensation, the condensed film tends to cling evenly to the surface, and so
forms a barrier between the surface and the vapor.
C. Radiation. All matter emits radiation of one or
more kinds. The thermal radiation of practical concern
requires only that the matter be at a temperature above
absolute zero, and so is characteristic of all bodies.
Thp radiation is electromagnetic, and at industrial
temperatures lies within the infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum; but the wavelength is a function of
temperature, and at higher temperatures it falls within
the range of visible light.
The radiation is not, however, monochromatic. A
curve of its intensity, IA,
against wavelength, A, shows a
considerable spread with a peak intensity at a wavelength
that is a function of temperature. The total energy
emitted is thus the integral of IAover all wavelengths.
For a black-body radiator, i.e., one that emits at the
maximum intensity at all wavelengths, the integration
produces the Stefan-Boltzmann relation
(17)
for T in degrees Rankine and Eb in Btu/sq ft-hr.
But actual bodies are not black-body radiators, and
their degree of imperfection must be accounted for by
equation (I7) becomes
[A]
4
= 1730.
Bodies for which this equation holds are said to be g ~ e g
k is constant, this equation can be integrated for a

slab of thickness x, having a temperature difference
between faces of TI - Tal to obtain
~f
If the conducting body is circular, as when heat is

transferred through tube walls, equation (12)is modified
always -ly
modified by the transport of heat by where r is the radius dimension, and
fluid in motion; this phenomenon
called convection. tube. Integration of equation
a. Conduction. Conduction follows Fourier's Law1
which states that heat is diffused at a rate proportional
to the temperature gradient; the factor of proportiond t y is known
the the~malconductwity, and is a
density differencescaused by expansion or contraction of

the fluid near the surface are the principal source of the
driving force, the situation is described as natu~alcon-
41
is the length of the
ges
MARINE ENGINEERING
-TI
I n pract.ice, heat exchange by radiation occurs between

bodies of different temperatures and different emissivities. The situation is complex because the geometrical
arrangements and sizes of the bodies are significant.
For an elementary case of two parallel infinite planes,
and of respective temperatures and emissivities Ti, 1,
T2, e2, the net energy exchange rate is
--
-11-
COUNTERFLOW
-1
l"b
PARALLEL FLOW
For a sphere or cylinder, enclosing a smaller sphere or

cylinder, the equation is
Fig. 5
Simple counterflow and parallel-flow heat exchangers
to the heat that it receives or rejects. If the fluids on

both the hot and cold sides of the heat exchanger undergo
a change of state, their respective temperatures are
constant, and equation (21) applies without change if S
is understood to mean the 'total heat transfer area.
On the other hand, if there are temperature changes,
the temperature difference in equation (21) is not constant throughout the heat exchanger, and in consequence
this equation must be integrated for application to the
entire apparatus.
The case where there is no change of state is illustrated by a simple concentric-pipe heat exchanger,
Fig. 5, in which the two fluids flow either in the same
direction (parallel flow) or in opposite directions
(counterflow). The temperatures of the two fluids are
plotted as a function of position for both exchangers.
Such a temperature differenceintegrated over the length
of the heat exchanger produces a mean temperature
difference;because of its logarithmic term it is familiarly
known as the log mean temperature difference. I n the
43
general case, the log mean temperature difference can be

written as
AT,
- ATmin
AT,
log. ATmin
AT,,,,
(23)
Equation (23) is the general expression for AT, for

both simple counterflow and parallel-flow exchangers.
I n condensers, boilers, and feed heaters, to list several
prominent examples, where a change of 'state rather
than a temperature change occurs on one side of the tube
wall, a derivation of the log mean temperature difference
again produces equation (23). If the heat exchanger is
multipass, equation (23) must be modified (see Section
2.1 of Chapter 14).
I n any case, equation (21)) when applied to the heat
exchanger as a whole, is written as
9 = USAT,
(24)
contributions will be additive. Thus, starting at the

I n boiler tube banks where the heat transfer fluid is a
radiating gas, heat transfer simultaneously Occurs by
both radiation and convection. Under these conditions
(in order for the two heat transfer coefficients to be
directly additive) it is often convenient to express the
radiation heat transfer in the form of the artificial heat
transfer coefficient
Section 2
Heat Transfer in Boilers
where
hrl, hj2 = convective surface coefficients at tube out-
T,, ti = metal temperatures at tube outside and

inside surfaces respectively
k = conductivity of the tube wall
X, = equivalent thickness for the circular tube
where the subscript G refers to the radiating gas and 8

refers to the tube surface (see Subsection 2.3 for further
discussion on this subject).
d. Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient. The typical
occurrence of heat transfer in power plant apparatus is
cold fluid through an inter- Addition eliminates intermediate temperatures, do-g
between a hot fluid and a
vening tube wall. Convection and radiation are in- assessment of U as
volved at the inner and outer surfaces, and conduction
is involved within the tube metal. The rate of heat flow
is summarized succinctly by
$ = US(T - t)
(21) BYa similar pmoess, U can be written for any number of
layers.
The practical pmcess of heat exchanger design is
where T and t are the bulk temperatures of the two fluids,
S is the surface area, and U is the ooerd heat transfer often aided by ern~irioalformulas for U which $ve
coefident. U is the net effect of the conduction, con- results of suffcient accuracy for industrial purposes.
vection, and radiation contributions. To illustrate the They are usually ~ r o m u l ~ a t e dby man~fa~turer's
~1
makeup of U, consider the transfer of heat from a hot associations to standardize methods of ~ a l ~ u l a & and
are
found
in
publications
such
as
references
[Bland
[71.
clean
tube
to
a
second
fluid
inside
the
tube.
gss outside
As a preliminary, note that the artificial radiation
e. Log Mean Temperame Difference. The fluid
coefficient ic, of the same dimensions as the convection flowing through a heat. exchanger undergoes either a
coefficient hj, is used so that the radiation and convection change in temperature or a change in state in response
[(&)( (&)I +
+ [ + ++
2.1 Types of Heat Transfer in Boilers. A boiler

may be divided functionally into four parts: first, a ~~~OSCFEFA USw(T8 - Tc)
chemical reaction chamber where the chemical heat of
LHV
q~ (to - to)CpR
fuel combustion k released and the reaction controlled;
= WF(R
1)
1
R
second, a steam generating section where heat is transferred to the tubes by radiation, convection, and con(25)
duction; th,ird, a superheater, where the steam is super- where
heated to the desired degree; and fourth, a heat recovery
U = convection heat transfer coefficient
section, employing air heaters and/or econombers
T
c = furnice surface temperature
where some of the remaining heat in the flue gas is exTB = furnace exit temperature
T F = effective flame radiating temperature
S w = convection surface area
where an overall U is estimated and an exit temperature

from each bank of tubes is calcdated. The designer
must h t estimate the performance of the furnace and
2-2 Heat Tmnsfqr in Boiler Furnaces. Furnace heat
transfer is principally radiation, and it is possible to
b p t the basic methods of Hottel in reference [5] to
evaluate a tohl emissivity in terms of furnace conditions.
The problem consists of equating the heat given up by
the omb bust ion gases to the heat transferred by radiaflon and convection to the f b a c e surfaces. The
q F = sensible heat of fuel above to

sensible heat of gas above to
C, = average specific heat of combustion air
R = air-fuel ratio
FA= arrangement factor
FE= emissivity factor
Q T =
~
The heat given up by the

gas is evduated
by ordinary s t o i c ~ i o m e t ~
means
c
and the use of a set
of sensible heat cumes (fig. 2).
The shape emissivity factor, FEFA,has been treated
by Hottel, and if the flame fills the furnace, it has been
demonstrated that
MARINE ENGINEERING
44
FLAME EMISSIVITY, EF
Fig. 6 Shape emiuivity factor versus Aame emiuivify fw various valuer of
cooled surface to cooled surface plus refractory surface ratio (Sc/Srl
THERMODYNAMICS
by the chemical breakdown of the fuel to basic constituents. The flame mass then consists of a cloud of
flaming fuel, carbon, some ash particles, and molecules
of carbon dioxide, water vapor, sulfur dioxide, oxygen,
and nitrogen. Of these constituents, the fuel, carbon,
and ash particles and the carbon dioxide, water vapor,
and sulfur dioxide molecules radiate. The gas molecules
radiate only in certain wavelengths, that &, they are not
grey. The solid particles radiate in all wavelengths.
These radiations are superimposed upon each other,
resulting in an overall radiation which is essentiay grey
in character, and the resulting emissivity is independent
of temperatufe.
Combustion of oil is not instanta~eous,especially
when residual oils are fired. The oil droplet first ignites,
then burns and breaks down into carbon and hydrogen.
The carbon appears aa minute flecks. These small
particles make up most of the radiation. Their concentration is a function of burning time, and of the rate
of flow of the gases through'the furnace.
An expression derived for cp by applying probability
theory is
"
TRANSVERSE
TUBE DIP,PITCH
0
10
12
14
18
18
20
22
24
FIRING DENSITY, WFIPF VF. LB/FT~-HR-ATM
Fig. 8 Wectiveneo factors f a water walls bared on ma1projected arm
Fig. 7 Furnace concentration factor
(26) where
fa
= emissivity of a cloud of i n f i ~ t ethickness,
assumed to be 0.95
(27)
where
ec = emissivity of the heat absorbing surface
e p = flame emissivity
S B = refractory surface area

S c = cooled surface area
F R C= a geometric factor, dependent on the extent of
cooled surface
An ?ppmximation of FRCto a reasonable degree of

accuracy is
SR
when 0 < -- < 0.5
(28)
FRC = g
Sc
'
where ST = S R SC
Faired intermediate values may be taken between the
two sets of limits quoted, as illustrated by Fig. 6.
The radiating temperature T p may be approximated
by
T p= ( T A ' T E ) ~ ~ ~
(30)
where TA' = adiabatic flame temperature with 100
percent theoretical air.
Evaluation of the flame total emissivity presents a
complex problem. The flame cloud consists of droplets
of fuel from the burner nosde which in turn are reduced
to smaller fragments by various air and gas currents and
P = furnam pressure, atmospheres

L = mean radiating path length; for ordinary
marine furnaces, L = 0 . 6 m
furnace volume, cu f t
an empirical concentration factor, a function
of a time parameter W p/PpVp qith WP
representing the pounds of fuel burned per
hour. Wp/P;Vp is a crude measure of
article life but better data on the flame path
is lacking.
The concentration factor, K, is evaluated from test
results on various boilers and plotted against the firing
density WP/PPVF, as on Fig. 7. This plot was calculated from the test results on five different boilers, all
burning residual fuels. The curve shown represents an
average of the test results with 10 to 20 percent excess
air.
It is necessary dso to consider the question of effective
cooled surface. A water wall consisting of tangent
tubes may be treated as a surface having an area equal
to the projected area of the surface. If the tubes are
widely spaced, exposing the refractory surface behind the
tubes, the simple projected area of the tubes is not
sufficient since the refractory receives some of the direct
radiation from the surface and returns only a portion of
this heat to the furnace; the remainder goes to the tubes.
The effective radiant heat absorbing surface (RHAS)
may be calculated by multiplying the projected area of
the walls, including backing refractory, by an arrangement factor from Fig. 8, for each area making up the
furnace envelope.
Solution of equation (25) is best accomplished by

trial-and-error methods by brealdog up the equation
into three simultaneous equations, as follows:
+ U%(TB
- Tc)
+ -
(ta
t*)CpR
In equation (33), the term LHV.+ q~
a t 1
is the total sensible heat released to the furnace per
pound of combustion products and may be replaced by
qpA, the adiabatic sensible heat. q ~ may
,
be read
from Fig. 2 at any assumed vdue of T g . With these
simplifications, equation (33) reduces to
,-..A
(32)
The solution may then be achieved by assuming vdues of

T B and plotting solutions for equations (35) and (36).
The point of intersection of the two equations is the
solution.
T A may
~ be evaluated by cdculating the adiabatic
sensible heat
The term U s- w ( T E - T c ) in aquation (32) is

Sc
generally negligible except for rear waIl impingement
effects. It is convenient to drop the term at this point
and correct for the effect later. For most marine
boilers the temperature of the radiant heat absorbing
surface (RHAs~is close to 1000 R (540 F ) , so the term
Tc/1000 is approximately unity. Since the value of
Tp/1000 is between 3 and 4, the relative value of
( T ~ / 1 0 0 0is) ~so much higher than 1 that the term
Tc/1000 can be taken as equal to 1 with little error.
Further noting that T P = (TA.TE)112,equation (32)
becomes
then Tnf may be read from Fig. 2.

Usually, the convective term in equation (25) is
negligible; but when a rear wall ie fitted, especially in a
shallow furnace, the convection effect of the flame
blasting against the rear wdl may be significant. An
equation for the surface heat transfer coefficient WRW,
based on the actual surface exposed to the gas, is
Where
= Prandtl number
k
GD
- = Reynolds number
F
MARINE ENGINEERING
invariably inside the tubes, with some type of extended

surface outside. There is a large variety of extendedsurface types, ranging from cast iron fins shrunk on
steel tubes, to stud fins, aluminum fins, and spiralwelded steel fins. Such elements are proprietary in
nature and performancedata must be obtained from their
49
manufacturers. ExtendedeUrface perfomance data are

usually acquired by
tests of the particular
geometric design.
See Subsection 3.12 of Chapter 3 for an example
calculation which illustrates the considerations involved
in designing boiler heating surfaces.
Section 3
internal Thern~odyna~nicsof the Steam Turbine
3.1 Nozzle Flow. A nozzle is a short flow passage of
converging or converging-diverging flow area whose
function is to convert thermal or pressure energy into
kinetic energy. It thus forms an essential feature of
both steam turbines and gas turbines.
As the fluid passes through a nozzle, no external work
is performed, and no heat is transferred, so that the
general energy equation reduces to
LOSSOFPRESSUREB~D~GRADAT~ON
OF ENERGY AT INLET
Fig. 13 Temperature f ador
Table 1
Tube Bank Depth Correction Factor, FD
EXIT PRESSURE
upstream. This degrylation is evident as a loss of

stagnation pressure and, hence, of the pressure difference
available to cause flow through the nozzle. ~t is
indicated on the enthalpy-entropy plot of the nozzle
process shown by Fig. 15.
There is
degradation of energy within the nozzle
itself, so that the exit velocity is not as high as ideally
ENTROPY, s
possible. The total degree of degradation is expressed
Fig.
15
The
nozzle flow procer
by the nozzle efficiency, which is thus the ratio of the
energy actually converted to kinetic energy to that
theoretically possible. In equation form, the definition
of the nozzle efficiency q N is
such as,the angle through which the fluid is turned,
nozzle
dimensions, and the ratio of approach kinetic
q N = C?/(&~J)
(50)
energy
to
the total kinetic energy developed. Empirical
h00 - hl'
curves, such as Fig. 16, give nozzle efficienciesfor bladeThe meaning of hl' and the derivation of equation (50) type turbine nozzles for dry or superheated steam. T~
are evident in Fig. 15.
determine the efficiency of a nozzle (either fixed or
An alternative designation of the degree of energy moving), the basic nozzle efficiency h-2 and height tor~ ~ ~ ~ e r is
s i given
o n by the velocity coefficient kN, rection factor f~ are read from Fig. 16 and the nozzle
which is the ratio of nozzle exit velocity to that ideally efficiencyis computed as
A, calculate L from equation (47) and multiply L by
ST= tramverse pitch, inches
sL= longitudiial pitch, inches
pressure of CO2 and HIO- Enter

pR,the total
~ i 14~at the
. average gas bulk t e m p e r b e , and at the
proper p R value,
~
read Q on the left scale. Then
reenter at the gas bulk temperatme and read h?/rQ On
the right scale a t the appropriate tube surface temperatme. hr is equal to the product E Q X h r / r ~ iincluded
in the result is a tube surface emissivity of 0.g5.
the
2.4 Heat Recovery Equipment That portion
hest transfer equipment that absorbs heat at ternperatures below the saturation temperature of the generated
steam is considered to be heat recovery equipmenta
the
Generally, such equipment absorbs the hest
d = tube diameter, inches

l-he e ~ s s i v i t y of flue gas is a function of its
temperature, the mem radiating length L, and the
pressure Pa of its rdiating constituents (pfiwatervapor and carbon dioxide). The flue gas
fuel oil in 15 percent
produced when burning
p
~
t i a pressure
l
of 0.114
excess air has a water vapor
atm/atmand a carbon dioxide partial pressure of 0.125 combustion air (gas air heater) or into the incoming
atm/&tm, a total of 0.239 atm/atm. Values of r~ for feedwater (economiser).
Combustion air heaters are generally of either the
this mixture are plotted in Fig. 14 for a range of gks bulk
temperatures and a range of P R Lvalues, where PRis in rotary regenerative type or are tubular, with air
atm/atm' and L is in feet. The curves are usable from through tubes heated by combustion gM p a s a d mound
the outside of the tubes in Cross flow- The mtar3' re10 to 20 pementexcess air without appreciable error.
and performance data is
generative type is
Plotted on the same figure is the value
manufacturer. Tubdm
best
from the proposed
air heaters can be readily evaluated by the methods
reviewed in the foregoing for tube banbe
~ ~ t ~ ~ d ~e~onomizers
d - ~ ~ are
~ femployed
a ~ e
of equation (20). TO determbe to the exclusion of bare-tube units- The feedwater
which is another
(51)
'
It may be seen that k~ is simply the square root of qN.

The nozzle velocity coefficient is a function of factors
kN2 = fLk2
(52)
For wet steam, a correction is necessary to,account
for the impingement of the slower moving droplets of
water on the back of the blades. l-his correctionis
taken by some authorities to be
1
111
MARINE ENGINEERING
"
'CHERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT ENGINEERNG

NOZZLE PARTITIONS
NOZZLE HEIGHT
'
*'
''
8 RADIAL CLEARANCE, IN.

D-CLEARANCE DIAMETER, IN.
C O N T R A C T lFACTOR
~~
DUE TO THROTTLING
OVERALL LABYRINTH PRESSURE RATIO FACTOR
NOZZLE OPENING
Fig. 20
N o d e nomenclature
Fig. 19 Blade and nozzle partilion nomenclature far a typical converging
'k
nozzle, section taken at mean diameter
C1, = tangential component of steam velocity leaving

and blades is a relative one, nozdes being considered as
fked and blades (or buckets) as moving.
Fok nozzles or blades below the critical pressure.ratio,
the area at exit is of primary importance. From Figs. 19
in the plane of the turbine wheel. Let m =
nozzles
d = diameter
T denotes the tip of nozzle
M denotes the diameter of nozzle
R denotes the root of nozzle
- -- -C=l r-T
W
8
As
A = L d ~ a m Esin al
..
(64)
,where A is the area at exit from the nozzle, in square

inches; L is the blade height in inches, and d~ is the
mean wheel diameter. al is the angle of the steam to the
plane of the wheel. Usually there is a small difference
between the actual steam angle, all and the geometric
angle a!. This angle arl - a; = 8 is known tis the
deviation angle and is a function,of both the angle
through which the steam is turned and the Mach
number, and approaches zero as the Mach number
approaches 1.0. In equation (64), al should be used
when its value is known.
VlnT
A C C E L E R A ~DUE
~ ~ TO
~ GRAVITY- 32.2 F T , / s ~ ~ >
PRESSURE BEFORE LABYRINTH, LBS/FT2

PRESSURE AFTER LABYRINTH, ~~~.~~2
STRIP THICKNESS ATTIP, IN.
PITCH OF STRIPS, IN.
CIZM= C z
v l n ~
VlnR
'
yln 7 specific volume.of steam leaving nozzles

A, = axial flow area in plane a t wheel
W~ =< total weight of steam flow
't
"
CARRY-OVERCORRECTION FACTOR FOR STRAIGHTTHROUGH LABYRINTH; UNITY FOR STAGGERED
The result of these requirements is a warped blade,

with generally pure impulse at the root and with a
large degree of reaction at the tip. Normally, the laat
few stages of the LP turbine are based on the free vortex
condition, with the other stages having reasonable
approximations of this flow. Obviously, as the turbine
size incremes, the blade lengths increase and the free
vortex design may be extended into higher-pressure
MARINE ENGINEERING
54
q-he rnmbined windage and friction losses may be

estimated by Kerr's equation as follow:
A h
hoO- h*'
I,
--
(72)
1 f hllo pressures Po for each stage are known, a they
bo in the design process, then a stage-by-stage

I ) I ~ ~ of
( J the conditions for each stage can be made on the
Mllllitrr chart (h-8 plane; see Fig. 18). When completed,
11ll)t is known the state line, or condition line, for
111. bllrbine,
shown by Fig. 22. It is
I ' * I ~ I ~ in the andysia of extraction point conditions,
"L'l"r
requirement is knowledge of enthdpiea
@A flitlotions of Pre8sures. However, the end of this
f1111fl(r
d
VI
hp = horsepower 10%
d M = mean blade ring diameter, ind a = b k diameter to root of blades, inE = peripheral admission fnx?tion
L = blade height, in.
iy = blade speed, fps
55
h e , known
the state h e end point (SLEP), represents the static enthalpy only, whereas the stagnation
e n t h d ~of~the exhausting steam must be known for
e
such Uses 88 condenser design. Thus the C
-- component
2gJ
is u s u d ~
added, and the resulting stagnation enthalpy
at exhaust is also plotted on the state line diagram at
exhaust Presswe. This component is that which
"presents the approach-velocity h p u t to a followkg
stage, in equatioq (62), but which, in the last stage,
must be wasted. ~t thus
forms the major part of the
t u b h e leaving or
loss.
Sectio~~
4
External Thenodynanrics of the Steam Tflrbine
''I
IWe Line for the

*@'
a hrbine
unnll
the
unit. The wheel horsepower output, thmttle pressure and temperature,and
is given by equation (68). exhaust
pressure are sufficientfor this task.
of Wa, WL, hoop hsO,and hpj
A
preliminary
step is to express steamflow in unitfom
@@Qmowllt. The total Power delivered into the turbine
a
a
steam
rate
(or
waterrate) thusly:
@h@fb
i h must
~ be expressed zw a summation of the
compounded stages
who01 horsepowers by
ENTROPY
fig.22
where
propulsi~nturbine state line
SR
W,SHP
2544
UEtW= SRVM
UEw = heel Used energy (see Fig. 22), Btu/lb

9~
leakage efficiency
- hr4 - hpf
(68)
= total steam flow entering stage, lb/hr
wL = leakage
flow, i.e., flow that byk'asses the

or moving blades, lb/hr
hp = power absorbed by windage
The wheel work per pound, based on total flow, is
enthalpies.
stage efficiencyis then the ratio of
~h~
work delivered to the shaft to the available
stage, or
,
=
or, as a close approximation
per
(74)
(75)
MARINE ENGINEERING
59
be read from the intersections of the shifted pressure

lines with the nonextraction state line.
The approximation outlined here is not quite adequate
for reduced-power conditions, or at unusually large
extraction flows. Other techniques, such as discussed
next, must be used.
4.4 Lambda Ratio. For large variations in flow such
as occur when reducing to 80 percent power Or less, it is
necessary to account for the change in efficiency because
'peed
of the change in the ratio of blade speed to
in SucCeS~ivestages. This can, of murse~be done by
returning to the original design and applying the theory
in Section 3 again. However,
prodiscussed for a computer this is a tedious operation and
normally carnot be accomplished in a timely manner,
especially for preliminary work. The designer must
(gq) therefore resort to other techniques based on external
that most desigoers and turbine

builders prefer to use
t6e s t r ~ g h tLine. since
the state line is ~ m primarily
d
for heat balance work, an error of 6 ~ t inuestimating the
e m in
enthdpy
at a given point resultsin a
extraction flow.
T~ arriveat a satisfmtory state line for fdl power, it is
then only neoeasary to comect, on a Mollier diagram,
the point of idtial PreBme and enthdpy, ho, with the
enthdpy a t 90 per cent of throttle
point of
pressme, and the state line end point (see Fig. 22).
ntraction ent.alpies csn then be read a t the appropriate
shell or stage pressure.
The
steamleaves the tmbine at a total enh, = hi
+ EL + (RL)(SHP)(2544)
since the pressure a t the condenser is very low, the
Every turbine stage has a value of U/Cf for which its
preame ratio from the point of interest to the condenser efficiency is a maximum (this is shown by Fig- 18 of
is typically supercritical, and maximum flow exists Chapter 5). For example, it is 0.5 for an ideal impulse
for the pressure a t that point. Under such conditions, stage. And although a propulsion turbine Consists of a
flow theory predicts that the flow parameter number of stages for each of which the ratio may be
W 6is
and in f m t hm a value of approxi- different, as when impulse and reaction stages are used
in the same machine,' there is always some vdue of
mately 0.40 for superheated steam when To is in degrees
d ~ Nfor whi& the efficiency of the entire turbine
R, po in psi, W is in Ib/sec, and A is in squme inches( ~L ~ Z~ ~ 1
Further, for modest changes in conditions
at a point
in is a maximum (Z implies sumation Over all
compared
to the
the
the
in
is
his parameter is known as Lambda, and is convenchange in Po, and A is fked, SO that the relation
r pofouom. m e premure a t a point should thus tiO*lly expressed
to the flow from that point to the
be
pediction is found to be essentially
condenser, and
true
in
practice;
it
is
further
theinpressure
is wherein the constants, kcluding 0.5 for U/C', are
pmportiond to the flow
pastfound
the that
point
question.
included in the numerical mefficient- The efficiency at
This additional distinction is necessary because some of
function of the Lambda
a point may be extracted downstream, ofi-design points is a
ateam
ratio X/Xo, i.e.
and therefore does not reach the condenser.
The principle stated in the foregoing is used to find
shell pessures a t extraction points, and from them the
extraction enthalpies following small changes in flowThe state line does not shift significantly because of Fig. 26 is a plot of the relative efficiency ofofa impdse
rsaeonable ortraction flows, 80 that the enthalpies can s g h t h/lo- This plot is
61
MARINE ENGINEERING
ICS AND HEAT ENGINEERING
BOILER
88% EFF
000 SHP ABS MAXIMUM
Eb ~ 0 . 8 5 2 7(SEE FIG.23)
a = FLOW, L W H R
h = ENTHALPY, BTUILB.
Fig. 34
Simple steam cycle
EXHAUST ANNULUS AREA = 25 FTP
f r ' I.O125(SEE FIG.24)
A = 1481.2-907.5 = 573.7
R L = 0 . 3 5 ~1 . 5 ~ 0 . 5
LEAKAGEaMECHANICAL LOSSES = 3.5%
ITERATION, STEAM FLOW =
W
PbxA
1163
.56
~ 0~02 5=.4360
~
BYadn
per hour, divided
(I.o)(-)
= 163,600
Le/HR
**. E L 5 10.8 (SEE FIG.25)
SECOND ITERATION, STEAM FLOW =

STEAM RATE =
E x s ~,Xf,xAEn0.8527x 1.0l.25 x 573.7-495.3

h,- .,E,
1481.2 495,3 = 85.9
hi
(I .04) (245i,:
!:60p)=
[63,800 LBIHR
RL X 2 5 4 4
hc. hi + EZ+ STEAM RATE = 999'0
Ag. 35 S t a h one and steam rate for cycle cafculationr
~ =, 5.46
' LB/SHP-HR
~ ~ ~
the m~chanicdequivalent
t# b a d and the efficiency. Thus
divided by the net

or 15,180~30,000=
O e 5 0 6 ' lb/sh~-hr. The heat rate is the quantity of *heat
t o produce one horsepower per hour and
144APvfQ~ t u / h r
~ ~ ~ u l aby
t edividing
d
the net heat added to the plant,
Per hour, by the horsepower produced.
MARINE ENGINEERING
'I'llo quantity of fuel required is determined by dividing

l d I ~fr~el
~ j heat output by the boiler efficiency of 0.88 and
IIIIII higher heating vdue of standard fuel of 18,500

llbl~/lb,to which is added 46 Btu/lb to account for the
ti~rlnibloheat added by the fuel oil heaters (100 deg F
rim tdt 0.46 specific heat) :
Ipuel required = 2509846,193 = 15,370 ,b/hr

(0.88)(18,546)
I)ividing by the 30,000 shp output, the specific fuel
~~t~ll~nrnption
is found to be 0.512 lb/shp-hr.
Sa2 The Regenerative Cycle. The power cycle shown
111 Itig. 36 is complete, but certain problems would arise
If oh a cycle were used. The feed temperature is
unkr('melylow;
a result, the economizer in the boiler
wclllltl condense sulfur ~roductsfrom the flue gas, which
wnrlld cause corrosion. Further, the feedwater would
IIELVI! high oxygen content (no deaeration is provided),
wal,trr
wlriuh ~ides.
would cause corrosion and pitting in the boiler
200 F
Q = 1050
Q=
---~ g 36
.
FLOW. LB/HR
h = ENTHALPY,
BTU/LB
Simple steam cycle with parasitic loads
ta&. ~ ~ ~ j + b l ~ - ~ and system leakage are

bssed on reference [gl. soot,blowing requires 760
lb/hr, and system l e h g e losses are taken as 1/2 percent
flow, or about 900 lb/hr. Both of
of the
mustbe replaced by makeup
these items
lost
feedwater introduced to the condenser.
~h~ t h e r d enerw added to each pound of water
by the feed pump is the same in the
example,
so that the thermal energy added to 177,920 lb/h. is
1,060,384 Btu/hr.
Uowance must be made for Pressnue and temperature

drops in the main steam line. It is customm
to allow
up to the nearest
about 2.5 percent on Pressure,
5 psi, and 5 deg I? for temperature. Thus, the
heater outkt conditions are taken to be 875 psig and
955 F. NO dlowance for loss is made in the deSWerheated system, so the desuperheater outlet enthalpy is
is
1250 Btu/lb- The total
is 2300 lbhr'
175,620 lb/hr and the demperheated
The flow of heat in the system illustrated by fig. 36
may be tabulated follows:
1l)rltrainedoxygen and air can be released by bringing

tlrn foodwater to a boil. By using steam, bled from the
t\~rl~iaas,
the feedwater can be raised to the boiling
I@lll~lorature
and held there in a deaerating feedwater
I r e ~ b in
r an efficient manner as the bled steam has al~entlydone useful work in the high-pressure turbine
befo~~o
being used for feed heating.
Illtrod feed heating may also be done after the dercrr~~l~ing
feed heater and feed pump. For highest
rflinioncy, there should be N-1 feed heaters, where N
(r lllro number of turbine stages, since this leads to
lncxirnum regeneration, but such an array of heaters
&r&dbleed points is not justified in marine service.
flbltbionary practice employs an extensive number of
Iie&llrrr8,but such plants are not restricted by the space
llmill~~tions
of a ship's engine spaces, and they develop
generally used in cycles where the feedwater is heated

to a maximum of about 285 F, so that economizers may
be used for heat recovery in the boilem. Where feed
temperatures are higher, gas air heaters ape
used.
Consider a simple single-heater cycle, using a deaerating feed heater, and otherwise identical with the
cycle of Fig. 36. Steam could be bled at the crossover
pipe between the H P and LP turbines at 60 psis and
1243 Btu/lb, and led through a pressure
set at 46 psia, to a deaerating heater. The bled steam
and the incoming feedwater could be sprayed together
resulting in a saturation temperature of 276 F, 245
Btu/lb enthdpy. Bleeding steam from the crossover
would reduce the horsepower developed since less
passes through the unit. To compensate for this, the
throttle flow must be increased.
Let QI = the quantity of steam bled in lb/hr
A&, be the increase in main throttle flow required.
m e n , using the figures developed in Fig. 35, the reducis
tion in heat available to the turbine
lost heat = Qr(1243 - 996.7)
and the flow needed to replace this heat is
AQt(l481.2
AQt
.............a.
..................
~ o t a l................................
.
175,620 X 1483.5 = 260,53%270Btu/hr

2,300 x 1260
2,875,000
263,407,270 B t u b
177,920 1 b b
r:
0.5084 QI
Then, leaving the exhaust of the LP turbine, the steam

flow would be
163,550
+ AQt - QI
163,550 - 0.4916 QI.
Employing the procedure used in Section 5.1, the heat

entering the gland exhaust condenser is
I b b
Btu/lb
Btu/hr
Leaving the main condenser 176,325 - 0.4916Ql

58.7
10,350,278 - 28.8691
Air ejector intercondenser. .
245
1250 - 93)
283,465
Air ejector after condenser.
245
1250 - 168
265,090
Gland exhaust condenser. .,
300
(1281 - 1681
333,900
Total.. .............. 176,325 - 0.4916Q1
11,232,733 - 28.8691
Fuel heating
at 200 F . .
1,050
~ b d
dram a t 200 F................
300
Air ejector after condenser drain a t 200 F.......
245
~ ~leaving
t dsurge t
and entering feed pump8 177,920
Feed -p
........................... 177,920
.fotd to boiler.. ......................... 177,920
- 996.7)
Equating these gives
The boiler output is t b n .
65
--
MARINE ENGINEERING
Ib/hr
Btu/lb
Leaving gland exhaust
,denser.
............. 176,325 - 0*4916&1 168
After condenser drain .....
245
~ h condenser
d
drain ....
300
168
+&I 1243
Bleed flow.. ..............
F.0.hater drain. ........
1050
168
~ ~ t r r ..............
l..
177,820 4- 0.50&1Q1
Since the DFT enthalpy is 245 Btu/lb,

(177,920 + 0.5084~~)245
= 11,500,693 + 1214.14~1
QI = 29451 lb/hr
The total flow to the boiler is
+ 6) = 48,416,143 B t u / b
to the boiler, and the boiler output is

(192,893 - 2300) (1483.5)
(2300) (1250)
Total boiler output
less feed input
Net heat input to boiler
= 282,744,716 Btuihr
2,875,000
= 285,619,716
48,416,143
= 237,203,573 Btu/hr
After condenser.. .......

245
G h d condenser drain. ..
300
Bleed flow. .....-......
NXo
fie1 oil heater drain.. ...
DFT outlet flow. ....... 177,560
+ lW1
11,500,693+ 1214.1+@1
1.04
41,:1!J0,787 Btu/hr.
The boiler output is

,
(192,537 - 230011483.5 = 282,216,590 ~ t u / h r

(2300)(1250) = 2,875,000
Total output = 285,091,590 ~ t ~ / h r
input = 48,326,787
Net heat from boiler 236,764,803 ~ t u / h ~
firbogenerator
Throttle steam conditions.. .850 pig, 950 F
Exhaust. .................
13,963
and the horsepower developed by the HP turbine
-1- (1481.2 - 1243)(149,322 29,451)/2544 = 16jog5

1.04
and the total is 30,058 shp~
hthe reduced
~
~ steam
, flow in the LP turbine slightly
increases the turbine efficiency, and the calculation
be repeated with a new ratio of AQr/Qz and a new
nonbleed flow. Since the exhaust enthalpy has been
changed, the equivaJent nonbleed water rate is :
Dividing the net boiler heat input by a fuel heating

value of 18,546 Btu/lb and a boiler efficiency of 88
gi~a
fuel oil requirements of 14,5341b/hr.
Dividing by the 30,000 shp o ~ t ~ u ~ r e s uinl tas specific
fuel rate of 0.4845 lb/shp-hr. Tbis is a saving of 5.4
percent over the simple cycle, and in addition the
boiler is protected from corrosion.
A further gain in efficiencyaccrues in this cycle. In
the high-pressure turbine, more steam Passes than in
the nonbleed condition, and less passes through the lowannulus is the same
prerrnve tw~lI1e.Since the
before, the volume flow is m-hced, and the h3aving
velocity
be less also. The apparent exhaust
flow is l63,30 - 0.4916 x 2 ~ 5 =
1 149,322 lb/hr (apparentflow is t h t t l e flow less any bleed but including
the gland leakoff steam). The exhaust annul- is
(177~600+ 0.5095Q~)245= 11,4799561
176,400
1 (1243 - 995.6)(149,322)/2544
-
Assuming the same pump efficiency, the feed P U P

per pound of wateris unchanged (iVe.,6 Btu/lb),
so that the generator load should have increased somewhat, but this can be balanced by the decrease in
boiler forced-draft blower power requirementsThe total enthalpy of the feedwater is
192,893(245
11,232,733 - 28.86Q1
41,160
50,400
25 sq ft, SO 149,322/(1.5)(25) = 3982, and from Fig- 25

the exhaust loss = 9.7 B
~ and
~ hw/ = g85*g
~
~+
9.7 = 995.6 Btu/lb, vice the 996.7 Btu/lb &own by
Fig. 35.
Then, the horsepower developed by the LP turbine is
177,920 + (0.5084)(29,451) = 192,893 1b/hr
Fig. 37. Figure 35 outlines the calculations for the

propulsion turbine. This calculation, and those sum1214.21Q~ marked below for
units,use the metho& and data
'I'I"' DPT outlet e n t h a l ~

is ~245 Btu/lb; therefore
Btu/hr
Iso4
W R = 1481.2
2544 = 5.448 Ib/shp-hr
- 995.6
Then, the throttle flow is

5.448 x 30,000 AQt = 163,440 + AQt
and
A Q ~= (247.4/485.6)&1 = 0.5095Q1
and the exhaust flow is

163,440 - 250
+ AQ, - QI
163,190
0.4905Qr
where the 250 lb/hr is the gland leakoff steam.

Leaving the condeqser:
Main turbine exhaust.
163,190 - 0'4905Qz
Turbogenerator exhaust.
Makeup feed. ................. lS6O
Air ejector drain. ...............
,175,965
245 - 0.4905~1lb/hr
~ ~ t ...............
d..
......a
....a*.
'I'll~~
preparation of a heat balance is usually the first
?*P in initiating the design of a steam propulsion plant.
results of the prelimioary heat balance are the
ki~llmentalinput to purchase inquiries, and also for
lllfill Plant desifP tasks rui sizing of piping. The first
!wJ balance may be done from the approximate data in
~ ~ f c m n c[gl,
e but subsequently, data supplied by the
@f)tllponent
vendors is used to update the calculation.
In the last example in 5.2 a direct solution of the heat
balhaoe problem was presented. Obviously this problem
Would be more difficult if several bleed points are needed
nlwl rrlore heaters employed, especially if the bleed presU l l t ~vary with flow. The problem becomes even more
@~l~ll~lOx
if ships's service steam is added to the balance.
Wlliln a direct solution of the heat balance is possible by
b i @ i l la~ series of simultaneous eq~ati008,it i
s generally
Illor0 ~impleto use an indirect trial-and-error solution
b,Y na~uminga condensate flow leaving the main con-
rated capacity.. ........

.........13,600
lb/hr
1135 Btu/lb
Exhaust enthalpy..
consumption at
480 gpm and 1200 psig. . 12700 lb/hr
Exhaust Bnthalpy at 480
gpm and 1200 psig.. . .1139 Btu/lb
Main air ejector steam consumption
1st stage.. ............. .245 Ib/hr
2nd stage. ............. .245 lb/hr
Intercondenser drain
temperature.. .......... .I25 F
After condenser drain
temperature.. .......... .200 F .
Steam supply at 150 psia. . .I250 Btu/Ib
~ i ~ t i plant
l l i ~
Water production.. ....... .11,400 gpd
steamconsump~onfrom
low-pressure bleed at
Setting up in tabular form:
Total makeup feed.
+ O.M)gWr
...
.3330 lb/br
consumption) ...........lo00 l b / b
69
MARINE ENGINEERING
-------
TURBO-OENERATOR LOAD
L,
,
----- -
The f i s t step is to estimate optimum bleed points.

The feed temperature leadng the deaerating feed tank
has been set at 280 F to prevent the condensation of
sulfur products from the flue ges in the boiler economisers. To achieve this temperature, a pressure of 49
p$a must be available from the auxiliary exhauatlintermediate pressure bleed system. This pressure is
controlled by a pressure regulator installed in the bleed
systems. To provide heating steam when no bleed
steam is available (as for example, when going astern),
makeup steam is supplied from the desuperheated
system through a pressure regulator set at 45 psia. At
certain times, there may be too much auxiliary exhaust
regulator,
re
set at 53 psia, will
steam, so a b a ~ k - ~ r e s s ~
- dischmge excess steam to the main condenser. Thus
the auxiliary exhaust system can fluctuate only between
53 psis and 45 psis. This limit should be sufficient to
prevent the feed suction water from the DF'T from
flashing during maneuvering, especially if the DFT is
placed well above the pump (40 to 75 ft). Allowing a
7 percent pressure loss through the bleed/exhaust
system, the bleed steam at the turbine must be at least
7 percent hi&er than the desired 49 psia, or 53 psia.
operation to be
It is further desirable for this
able to continue bleeding to at least 65 percent flow in
the main turbine. Since the bleed pressure at any stage

is dependent on the flow through that stage, it is desirable
to select a bleed point at (53/0.65) = 81 psia. Note
that since this is a direcbcontact heater, there is no
terminal
temperature
The optimum
bleed difference.
point for the low-pressure stage is
then selected so that the temperature rise in the condensate is evenly distributed between heaters. ~ e a v i n ~
the condenser a t 1.5 in. Hg abs pressure and 90.7 F, the
condensate will be heated by the air ejector intercondenser and after condenser and the dand condenser
to a temperature of about 100 F. The temperature rise
to the DFT is 180 deg F, approximately half of which
should be achieved in the LP feed heater. ~ h u s ,a
proper condensate temperature leaving the LP feed
heater is 190 F. Since a 10 deg F' terminal difference is
usually needed between the heating steam and heated
water in shell-and-tube-type heaters, the steam entering
the heater must have a saturation temperature of 200 F,
corresponding to 11.5 psis at the heater shell. With a
10 percent pressure drop in the piping, the turbine bleed
point pressure must be 12.8 ~ s i a .
For the preliminary heat balance then, the LP bleed
point pressure is 12.8 psia at an enthalpy of 1138 ~ t u / l b
and the I P bleed point pressure is 81 psia at an enthalpy
lbb
Btu/lb
Btub
154,865
58.7
9,090,576
283,465
265,090
154,865 lb/hr
Note that in this calculation, the weight of the drain

is not added to the total, since the intercondenser &&n
goes to the condenser and the after condenser drain to
the freshwater drain collecting tank
shown on the
MARINE ENGINEERING
Entering the system

lb/hr
Chde-te from LP htr.. .......... 154,865
Drains from drain tank. ............
30,175
Exhaust from feed pump. .......... 12,700
Feed pump recirculation............
~lOO0
Bleed steam from turbine. ..........
Q
Total. ...................... 217,740 Qa
system .................. (217,740 + Qe)
(217,740 4- Qc)249 = 49,471,470

Q, = 4,650 lb/hr
14340 X 16.5 X 0.2445(278
1270 - 277
= 10,370 lb/hr
+ 1270Qc
- 100)
Btu/lb
Btu/hr
158 24,468,670
180
5,431,150
14,465,300
255.3 5,106,000
1139
1,270 Qa
49,471,470 + 1,270Qe
(217,740 + Qc)249
1270
249
'"-
(ho h ~ =
) 17,030(1481.2 1138)
2544
2544
= 2,297 whp
and the wheel horsepower of the IP bleed flow is:
= 1,247 whp
Total = 31,242 whp
EnteFing the subsydm
lb/hr
Condensste from mitt air ejedor
after condenser.. .................. 154,865
300
G h d steam from turbines. ..........
245
M . e air ejector after condenser drain. .
fistder mr ejector dram. ............
Makeup feed, taken at 75 F . ......... 3,330
Air heater drain.. ................... 10,370
Miec. heating drains..
1,100
Low-pressure feed hater.
Btu/lb
1281
168
9,639,130
384,300
41,160
...............
............
h v i the
~ subs &em
From gain t a d at 212 F............ (15,595 QL) 180
2,807,10
From LP heater at 190 F .
154,865
158 24,468,670
Total. ..............................................27,275,770
...........
+ I80 QL
+ 180QL
Equating incoming to outgoing total enthalpies gives

the air heater drain in the air heater coils. It should
also be noted that, in many cases, the low-pressure feed
heater is drained, via a drain cooler, to the main condenser. Also, sometimes, the entire drain tank is also
drained via a drain cooler to the main condenser.
The steam supply to the steam air heater is bled from
the 81 psia stage at 1270 Btu/lb. Allowing 7 percent
pressure drop in the piping, the pressure at the air heater
is 75 psia when rounded off. At 75 psia the saturation
temperature of the steam is 308 F and the condensed
drain enthalpy is 277 Btu/lb. There must be a temperature difference between heating steam and heated air
leaving the air heater; this terminal difference should be
between 25 and 35 deg below the steam temperature.
Choose, for example, 30 deg F aa a terminal difference,so
+ 1138Q~
= 27,275,770 + 180&~
QL = 14,580 lb/hr
Then, the drain tank flow is 15,595 + 14,580 = 30,175
lb/hr at 212 Fj and the condensate flow is 154,865
13,307,070
lb/hr.
The next part of the system is the deaerating feed
heater (or DFT). This unit receives condensate from
the LP heater and drains from the drain tank via the
drain transfer pump. I t also receives heating steam
from the feed pump turbine exhaust and bleed steam
he bleeder
from the intermediate pressure bleed.
steam is controlled by a pressure regulator set to maintain
280 F. A weight flow and heat flow balance for the
DF'T gives
-1139)(12,7m)
= 6.3 Btu/lb,
222,390
145 045
-=-L=
P6.A
3868
1.5.25
= 27,698 whp
is made for liquid compression.

The fuel rate is now calculated from the heating value
18,546
\
n@
wll001 horsepower of the LP bleed flow is:
+ L16.5 X 0.2445 X (278-loo)]

=
19,264 Btu/lb of fuel
The heat added to the superheated steam is
MARINE ENGINEERING
185,520(1483.5
'THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT ENGINEERING
- 255.3) = 227,855,660 Btu/hr
1 Ill1 rl~l1t111,ted
steam,
II I ' r
The enthalpy of the desuperheated steam is 1250 Btu/lb,

and the heat added to it is
and a low-pressure turbine. The
1 I' unit8 are mounted on the same shaft in the
tlg, with their high-temperature ends back to

'I'h~sthere are only two input pinions, as with
Ill0 crc,l~vc!ntional
nonreheat turbine.
I1rflflit:Cionsof a reheat turbine state line during
E b = 0.865
lflulll1lillllJ'.Y
design studies are more difficult than for llod the temperature correction may be computed aa
l l ~ ~ ~ l t ~ ~ Iturbines,
1 ~ ~ 1 1 ~ 0 since there is a wider range of
17l1tl 1 nt\(,crri~tics
that affect the line. The marine engineer
T 4100
ft =
r l l l l ( tolll! burbine designer must cooperate more closely to
~ l l ~ l l l l ~ c ! e11r design acceptable to both than is necessary
5000
(96)
f t = 1.01
11 nil 11l)lor propulsion plants. Nonetheless, as a first
R a l l ~ ~ ~ ~ of
l ( la
( ' suitable state line, the high-pressure turbine
The state line energy for the low-pressure turbine is
~ ; ~ l ~ r r1)rossure
~ ~ a b can be selected at about 20 percent
llr I
141~rottle
pressure, and a state line can be conE E L= EbftAE
(97)
l l ~ c l t ~ f l twith
l
an efficiency of 70 percent (excluding
E B L= 449 Btu/lb
ll~fll.11lg
lblld gear losses). A 10 percent loss of pressure
With an astern turbine loss of 0.5 percent [see equation
i l l ( 110 rfrI~oater
may be assumed. The balance of the
(78)1, a first estimate of the steam flow is determined
to be 138,400 Ib/hr from equation (83); therefore
c l l ~ l l lc ~
!tl~i
Ijlllll{,
16,870(1250 - 255.3) = 16,780,590 Btu/hr

For a boiler fitted with a steam air heater, a boiler
efficiency of 88.5 percent can be expected; therefore, the
fuel burned per hour is determined to be
227,8555660
16,780,590 = 14,349 ib/hr
(19,264)(0.885)
and the fuel rate is 14,349/30,000 = 0.478 Ib/shp-hr.
The results of the foregoing calculations are entered
on the heat balance diagram shown in Fig. 37. Since
the shp check was close and the f i s t estimates of the
steam consumption by the feed pump turbine and the
air heater were well confirmed, these results can be
considered final. If any of the checks had failed, the
process would be repeated with revised estimates based
on these results.
73
ENTROPY
RU. 38
&timote of state line for propulsion turbine with reheat
Section 6
Waste Heat from Diesel and Qas Turbine Engines
I
from Diesel Waste Heat. A large fraction

illput to an internal combustion engine is
r @ a l e ls* ~l!ll*ibleand latent heat in the exhaust gases.
*h+rrllpr l l u 1 ~fii~llificantfractions are lost via cooling of
)fi@lvl,
nlLtcr1 lube oil, and inlet air (turbocharged
nlllle@ "'ill1 ~bftercoolers only). For example, the
f ~ ~ ~ ~Ilt!atin~ut
l l ~ l going
l ~ ' into
~ ~the waste heat streams
hf H k\~l'boal~larged
two-stroke engine might be
(1
#f tl!fl
Ilfldl
0.35 to exhaust
0.15 to jacket water
0.05 to lube oil
0.05 to aftercooler
I I!r ~llnnt!loxlraust gas temperature is a t least 600 F
*&11111 111bf1,
it is feasible to extract part of its sensible

~lro(lllc~
usable steam. As the cooling water
I E + f l l l ~ l ' i l l J l l ' ( i~
! 1 ~than
~ s200 F, there are few uses for this
*'
I
'
One use of practical importance, how-
ever, is the operation of a vacuum distillb

for
freshwater production.
Steam can be produced in a heat exchanger (waste
heat boiler) in the exhaust duct. ~h~ maximum steam
pressure 9 b t ~ n a b l eis limited of course by the exhaust
gas temperature, but othelqrise the premure is set by
considerations regarding the use of the steamand the
quantity needed.
If steam is to be used solely for heating purposes, a
relatively low pressure, say 15 psig, may be adequate,
but usually the heat available is far in excess of lowpressure heating needs. Often, the ship service electrical
needs at sea can be met by waste-heat steam applied
to a turbine-generator. The higher the steam pressure,
the lower will be the turbine steam consumption, but
also the lower will be the quantity of steam that can be
produced. Figure 39 illustrates alternative steam
production at 50, 100, and 150 psig, showing that with
MARINE ENGINEERING
MINIMUM TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE("PINCH POINT*).
b~
4s
EXHAUST GAS FLOW 119.000 LBlHR
Z
4
6
8
1
0
1
BACK PRESSURE, INCHES H,O
IRect of back preoure and intercooler outlet tcwnperctture on exhaurt

tmpbroturq Sulser RD-type engine
taken by the external cooling devices. The evaporator

must not change the temperature of'return cooling water
from its specified range under any condition of operation.
6.3 Use of Gas Turbine Waste Heat. Exhaust gas
heat from gas turbines can produce steam in the same
manner as for diesel engines, and for the same purposes.
Since g&8turbines are generally less efficient than diesels,
the heat available tends to be greater than with diesels.
In fact, there is sufficient energy available to suggest
use of the steam in a propulsion steam turbine geared to
the propulsion shaft in parallel with the gas turbine.
Perhaps 20 to 35 percent of the total power can be
produced by the steam turbine, with a consequent major
improvement in the fuel rate obtained with the total
system.
The design objective in a combined gas turbine and
0.25
0.50
0 75
FRACTIONAL LOAD
pa. 40 Exhaust ROW and temperature, Sulzer RD engine
the same inlet temperatures more steam is produced at

progressively lower pressures. The minimum temperature difference, or "pinch point," as indicated, is
the governing consideration in the steam quantity
that can be produced. However, additional &earn is
sometimes obtained at a lower pressure in a second
boiler downstream of the fist.
The minimum temperature to which the exhaust gas
2 cooled is also a limitation, since the temperature
should not be allowed to drop below the dew point in
order to avoid corrosion in the cold end of the boiler.
Wade heat steam systems are designed in a variety
of forms, but generally contain the components expected
in a self-contained system. The designer, in making a
heat balance, will apply the same techniques outlined
earlier in this chapter. He must allow for the fact that
ZOO
400
wo
800
EXHAUSTGASTEMPERATURE,.F
1000
76
MARINE ENGINEERING
1 D. Q. Kern, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill

Iloolc Co., Inc., New York, 1950.
fi W. H. McAdams, Heat Transmission, McGrawllill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1942.
LEGEND
- ---------
AIRORGAS
SUPERHEATED STEAM
LOW PRESSURE STEAM
FEED AND CONDENSATE
DRAIN
,
GLAND LEAKOFF AND VENTW STOP V. NCHECK
V. 4 : ORIFICE
~
--
--
&coNTRoLv.
P-OR-T
A BACK PRESS.V.
PG=PSIG PA= PSIA P = LBIHR FLOW h = BTUILB

F = TEMP., DEG. FAHRENHEIT W = GAS FLOW, LBlHR
STEAM AND FEED CONDITIONS

SUPERHEATER OUTLET
2 8 5 PSlG
MAlN TURBINE THROTTLE 2 8 0 PSlG
MAlN CONDENSER VACUUM AT 108.7.F
FEED WATER TEMP. TO BOILER
CALCULATED FUEL RATE
617.F
612.F
I,NJ. 27.5 HG
260.F
(I "Standards for Steam Surface Condensers," Heat

Il)xcitiungeInstitute.
'I "Standards of the Tubular Exchanger Manufarilurcrs Association," Tubular Manufacturers Associa-
,399 LBISHP HR
BASED ON
lioll.
MAlN TURBINE NON-EXTR ST. RATE 0.BLBISHP HR

BOILER EFFICIENCY
46%
HHV OF STANDARD FUEL OIL
19,650 BTUILB
H A. Egli, "The Leakage of Steam through Labyrinth
PIRJLIH," Tram. ASME, i935.

FUEL
F W , = 10.700
LOST
9-47
74I0F
(1 "Recommended Practices for Preparing Marine

Htnrcm Power Plant Heat Balances," Technical and
#e~tinrchPublication No. 3-11, SNAME.
10 A. Norris, "Developments in Waste Heat Systems
klr Motor Tankers," Trans. Institute of Marine En&lrlnatwj, 1964.
I I R. M. Marwmd and C. A. Bassilab, T h e
l'lirrtnodynarnic Design of a Combined Steam and Gas
T'lrtdna
fl7-[IT-16, 1967.
VACUUM PUMP
(5-
MAlN
CONDENSER
2 . 5 " ~ABS.
~
MAlN FEED
DEAERATING
Q =5 8 9 7 6
MAIN
CONDENSING
PUMP
Fig. 45
Design-point,heat-balancediagram for a combined gas turbine and steam turbine cycle
steam turbine is fired by the exhaust gas. Observe also

that the gas leaves the boiler a t 440 F, and thus still
has considerable thermal energy available for the
production of additional steam at a lower pressure. A
second, low-pressure boiler is provided to make steam
for the deaerating feed heater.
The heat balance shown is for design power. It is
also of interest to see how the important parameters
change as the load is reduced. Figure 46, also from
reference [ll], illustrates this. Actually, the effect on
the system parameters is influenced by the manner in
which the plant load is controlled. For the example
given, the fuel flow to the gas turbine is controlled to
77
maintain a governed gas-generator rpm. The steam

turbine is uncontrolled, with the output being determined solely by the energy available in the gas turbino
exhaust.
References
1 Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Steam,

ASME, 1967.
2 Joseph H. Keenan and Joseph Kaye, Gas Tables,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1948.
3 Frank 0. Ellenwood and Charles 0. Mackey,
Thermodynamic Charts, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York, 1944.
ASME
3001
20
-Fig. 46
40
00
6 0 \"
100
PERCENT OF PLANT RATING
120
hdanannof a ,..rhed gas turKne and steamNrKne

cycle at fractional power
C H A P T E R Ill
Sedion 1
Classifisation of Marine Steam Generators
tained during the record-breaking runs at about 30 ~ s i g ,

which was about the upper limit of pressure during the
Civil War era.
1
BOILERS AND COMBUSTlON
MARINE ENGINEERING
type of boiler. ~t is with this type that attention is

focused primarily since it has been used most frequently
since World War 11.
while there have been many variations of the foregoing boiler types employed throughout the world, the
typesdiscussed are fairly representative and provide an
steam
adequate backgmund for an understanding
generator types and characteristics.
1.2 current lypes of Mer&."+ and Naval Boilers.
the Past100 years steam pressures and temperatures
have increased fmm 30 psig saturated to 870 psig-950 F
in mostmerchant vessels, and 1200 psig-lOOO F maximum (950 F
in mostpostWorld war 11 naval
vessels. A trend is apparentin large, high-power
installations where steamat 1500 psig-g50 F, and in
some instances reheat to 950 F, appears desirable.
~h~~~ installations will be used in increasing numbers
where economically feasible.
For the mostpart, widespread use of water cooling in
the furnaces is employed to reduce refractory mainheaters singly, or in
tenance. ~~~~~~i~~~~and
are used to obtain the desired overall
steamgenerator
efficiency. Attemperators are employed
in most new construction to control the steam temper*
operating range and thereby improve
ture over a
turbine performance. Desuperheaters are installed to
provide low-temperature steam for audiary purposes
throughout the ship.
~~~k~~ c residual oil is the most widely used fuel,
although in some instances diesel or other light fuel ofis

are used. Steam-atomizing oil burners, first used
aboard ships in the late 18001s,have returned to favor
with the advent of high-capacity low-cost evaporators
to supply the necessary water' This type of atomizer'
while providing an extremely wide range of operation,
results in a 1088 Of distfiled water which was, until
recently, too big a penalty to pay for its advantages'
However, improvements to reduce the consumption Of
steam, coupled with abundant distil1ed water, have led
to its widespread use, particularly in automated boilers.
Two-drum integral-fumac0
a Two-Drum
boilers, or D - ~ Y boilers
P~
ss they are Often
Of
many
and
called1 are made
steam drum and water drum connected by water
and boiler bank tubes. Superheaters are instal1ed
between the water screen and the boiler bank and may
have tubes arranged either vertically Or horizontallyr
depending in part on which arrangement best fits
machinery arrangement- Where required, the
temperature may be controlled by means of a control
desuperheater or attemperator located i n either the
location Of the Oil
or water drum. The hing front
burners is frequently dependent On the machinery
(mart 'Onarrangement and may be in the
Figures and indicate
ventional), roof, or sidewall.
some of these variations.
In most i~tallationssome form of air heater is used
with an economizer. The type and pmportions Of
these auxiliw heat exchangers depend On the 'yd0
arrangement. If two stages of feed heating are selected,
a steam air heater and an economizer are Often used'
'
81
MARINE ENGINEERING
83
fig. 7 Two-drum, top-fired boiler with verfical superheater and ecanamizer
Ilg. 6 Tw-drum,
single-furnace bolkr with horizontal superheater
*I~lnlr would be incompatible with natural circulation.

i'tco greatest disadvantage is the circulating pump
Ib~lf,which is a potential source of trouble and mainCFII~IIOO.
Fig. 5
Twdurnace, single-vptoke cantrolled superheat boiler
other furnace supplies heat to the superheater. Some

designs incorporate a part of the superheater (called a
primary superheater) in the reheater zone to provide
additional protection for the reheater and to obtain the
desired steam temperature characteristics [3]. The gas
flowing from both the reheater and superheater combine
in the main generating tube bank, and a single gas flow
path is maintained through the auxiliary heat exchangers
as in the single-furnace design.
c. Forced-Circulation Boilers. Ever since the first
boiler was used aboard ship, marine boiler designers
have investigated and experimented with various means
to reduce the size and weight of boilers. A boiler

arranged for natural circulation of the water and steam
requires low waterside pressure drops which can only
be obtained by installing sufficient downcomers and
risers. This adversely affects size and weight. By
supplying a pump to either augment or supplant natural
circulation, a smaller and lighter boiler can be designed
for a givengteam output (41. The circulation in such a
boiler is said to be controlled or forced. The chief
advantages of this are that very small-diameter tube^
with a high resistance to flow can be used in arrangements of heating surfaces and steam drum location^
'rlln LaMont boiler, shown schematically in Fig. 9,

la rr typical example of the forced-circulation type.
Wlllln wed abroad, it haa not found wide application in
Ill@~rrrtrinefield in the U. S. The LaMont boiler uses a
sltrgle clrurn into which the heating surface discharges a
wlato~ilatr
of steam and water. The circulating pump
e~teklnr~
ia supplied by gravity from this drum and forces
refiller lllrough the generating tube surface, which is
~ I ~ ~ I ~ ! I Jof
U Ia) number
~
of tube circuits arranged between
r! hlslllbibutingheader and the steam drum. The inlet
HI
P~I!II tube is fitted with an orifice to balance the flow
~ralrrhnnoowithin the various circuits. This is necessary
III 11l8bdnun adequate flow of water in each tube dependllrl ik oxpected heat input.
The furnace, oil burners,
sl~l~arl~nr~tor,
and economizer are similar to those of
$ 4 I ~111,ttl-airculation
boilers.
Fig. 8
Slngle-furnoce, gas-bypass reheat boiler
MARINE ENGINEERING
WATER INLET4
CONVECTION BANK
RADIANT HEAT
ABSORBINGSECT\ON
~ g 9.
Schematic of LaMant forced-circulafion boiler with economizer and

superheater
of 150 to 300 psig. Boilers of this type are usually built

only in small sizes and supply up to 7500 lb of saturated
steam per hour.
Because of the difficulties in maintaining feedwater
chemistry, adequate water flow through parallel tube
circuits which would be required for higher capacity
boilers of this type, and the control of superheated steam
temperatures, the once-through boiler is not well-suited
for marine propulsion purposes.
e. Supercharged Boilers. The superchased boiler
has the characteristic of using combustion pressures
higher than one atmosphere in the furnace to take
advantage of higher gas densities and higher gas velocities than are available in the usual marine boiler.
Figure 11 is a typical supercharged boiler. This unit is
an outgrowth of the Velox boiler which has been used in
a few stationary power plants for a number of years. In
I (11orlomisers of either the bare-tube or extended-surface

t ~ v l ~ [we
c r used to increase the temperature of the incoming
Iwlwuter by cooling the flue gases leaving the boiler.

Ail- I~oatersare used to increase the temperature of the
a~)~t~l)ustion
air so as to promote better combustion of
Iilln fuel. In the case of gas-to-air heat exchangers, air
I ~ ~ n ~also
c l r improve
~
the boiler efficiency by reducing
1,110 tomperature of the flue gases. By using low~ l r n ~ ~ u low-temperature
re,
exhaust or turbine bleed
3bnr1,rn to heat combustion air, as in the case of the steam
dlu I~oeter, the overall cycle efficiency is improved.
'I'llcmo various types of heat exchangers may be used
rrl~~yly
or in combination with each other.
a. Economizers. An economizer is a simple heat
u~c\l~nt~ger
consisting of a bank of tubes connecting an
I ~ ~ l nr~nd
b outlet header located in a relatively cool gas
Iel111 mrature zone beyond the boiler main generating
I~alllt. Supplied with water at a temperature near that
Iuavil~gthe last feedwater heater, the economizer supplies
~rlrlihionalheat to the feedwater by cooling the flue gas.
Irr lrlnrly installations the economizer is the final heat
cttallttnger in the exhaust gas path. I t may, however,
ko followed by an air heater where a higher efficiency is
typo# me forced circulated by the main feed pump. In

$~l~nt*rkl,
they are designed to heat the incoming feedwater
CII willliinabout 35 deg of saturation temperature. They
rre r~~rrangedfor counterflow of the water and the
The work of compression shows up, in good measure,

as an increased temperature of the combustion air. As
A- FAN
B-OIL BURNER WITH IGNITOR AND FLAME SCANNER
C- FURNACE
D-GENERATING COILS
E- STEAM SEPARATOR
F-STEAM TEMPERATURE LIMIT CONTROL
Fig. 10
Once-through boiler
d. Once-Through Boilers. The boiler in Fig. 10 is

an example of once-through boilers used for auxiliary
steam. Water is passed through the heating surface in
one continuous circuit by the feed pump. The boiler is
basically one long spiral tube arrangement composed of a
economizer and a transition zone, where
evaporation is completed, which surrounds the furnace.
The feed pump pressure determines the outlet steam
pressure, which may be 1200 to 1800 psig, dthough for
the usual marine installation the pressure is in the range
tive naval vessels.

The original Velox boiler, from which supercharged
boilers evolved, was a forced-circulation boiler. However, subsequent supercharged units have employed
circulation to avoid the extra complication of
the circulation pump.
f. .Waste-Heat Boilers. In vessels powered by
diesel or gas turbine engines, the exhaust gases contain
considerable available heat. Boilers placed in the stack
to reclaim this otherwise wasted heat are called wasteheat boilers. Usually they generate low-pressure saturated steam which can be used for purposes such as
tank heating, galley, and space heatingIf desired, they may be designed to bum oil when the
main unit is shut down. Basically, waste-heat boilert3
consist of a bank of generating tubes that are either bare
Or
or of the extended-surface ~ Y P - Either
forced circulation may be used.
1.3 Auxiliar), Heat Exchangen. In addition to the
steam generator, several forms of a d i a ~ heat exchangers are inwrporated in boilers to impr0ve the
efficiency and the overall operation of the plant
' h o nimplest economizer arrangement is the bare-tube

!,up0 ~ ~ this
n d was the form the first economizers took.
8flwuvcr, it was recognized that the use of extended
~ ~ l ~ ' f #tou oincrease the total heat-transfer surface for a
PII lorlgth of tube would provide significant increases
performance without penalizing weight and space
rullwidorutions adversely. Figure 12(a)shows anefficient
b41tn of extended surface in which flat studs are spaced
rb dlimclogangles around the circumference and at %-in.
IiikerfvaInalong the tube.
1h(tulldedsurface can also take the form of spiral fins
#@ldpd on the hlbes or of cast iron Or alu~linumgill rings
~~~~1111~d
01 shrunk onto steel tubes as shown by Fig. 12(b).
ba Air Heaters. The cooling of hot flue gases by the
iilPo1rlillb! combustion air is one of the oldest of concepts
Iily)r()ve boiler efficiency. In addition, heated air
~ I F U V ~ ~ ~an
O B additional beneficial effect by promoting
@@illd
lblld complete combustion of the fuel. This can
irn~ortancein the relatively small furnaces used
III lr\~tl*ino
boilers.
Alr htraters fall into two broad classifications, the
ke~~ll~~~!l'r~tive
and the regenerative. In the recuperative
bvlle, II(!IL~ from the products of combustion passes
1:
through a partition which separates the products from

the air. Tubular and plate-type air heaters are examples
of recuperative air heaters. In the tubular heater (Fig.
13) the walls of the tubes transfer the heat from the gas
to the air. The plate-type heater is not c o m m o ~ yused
in the U. S. in marine service. In it the air and gas are
separated by plates through which the heat flows.
In the regenerative air heater, heat is first stored in
the structure of the heater itself .as it passes through the
hot gas stream. The heat is then givenup to the air as
the structure turns through the airstream. The air
preheat& shown in Fig. 14 is an example of this type [7].
I t consists of closely spaced heating elements packed
into a revolving frame. The frame speed is constant
and is controlled by a small electric motor. The frame
speed is selected such that the elements will absorb heat
from the gas with a good temperature merential and,
at the same time, 'the elements will heat the incoming
combustion air to the highest possible extent. The
upper section of the air heater is in the cold-air zone and
also "sees" the coolest gas. It is usually arranged SO that
the heat-transfer surface can be conveniently removed
in easily handled s e ~ t i o ~ s - ~ a l l ~"baskets'-since
d
corrosion and fouling may occur there. These baskets
MARINE .ENGINEERING
is removed by steam traps. The latent heat of this

steam which would otherwise be rejected in a condenser
is returned to the boiler via the hot air.
1.4 Boiler Terms and Definitions. The. location of
some of the more important boiler elements are shown in
Fig. 5. For an understanding of marine boiler technology, a review of the applicable terms and definitions of
various essential boiler parts may be helpful. The
following terms and definitions are based on the standmds of the American Boiler Manufacturers Association
of a superheated vapor.
Boiler hand.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boiler arrangement is described by reference to the
location of the uptake gas
outlet with respect to the
designated front of the
Fig. 13 Tubular air heahn
Heating surface. . . . . . . . . . .
close all or e portion of a

steam generator unit.
may, in addition, be provided with a ceramic coating

similar' to porcelain enamel for protection against the
for treating the boiler water

are introduced.
Circulation ratio. . . . . . . . . . . The ratio of water entering a
are used as supply hbes to

supply water to a drum or
header.
fercrad circulation. . . . . . . . . Circulation in a boiler by
mechanical means external
to the- boiler.
Pllrnaoe screen. . . . . . . . . . . . One or more rows of tubes
arranged across the furnace
gas outlet.
Pursl~cevolume. . . . . . . . . . . The volume contents of
may flow from the steam

drum to the water drum or
header.
That surface which is exposed
'to the heating medium for
absorption and transfer of
heat to the heated medium,
including any fins, gills,
studs, etc. attached to the
outside of the tube for the
purpose of increasing 'the
heating surface per unit
length of tube,
'
'
steam, usually expressed as

the percentage by weight.
well system through which

fluid flows downward.
or box inside the steam
atural circulation. . . . . . . .
watertube boiler convection

bank which is normally
provided with a blowoff
valve for periodic removal
of sediment collecting in the
bottom of the drum.
Circulation of water in a
boiler caused by the difference in density between.
the water in the down.
comers and the watersteam mixture in the gen-
MARINE ENGINEERING
AIR IN
GAS OUT
t
AIR OUT
89
I
ROTOR
SEALS
I
G A S IN
(a) Assembly
(a) Assembly of typical section
(c) Crimped spiral fln

Fig. 15
(b) Replaceablebaskets
Fig. 14
Rotary regenerative air heater with replaceable cold-end baskets
. . . . . . . . . . . The plates, centrifugal sepaRadiant heat absorbing.. . . . The projected area of tubes Steam baffling..
rators, or baffles arranged
surand
extended
metallic
surface (RHAS)
to remove entrained watcr
faces as viewed from the
from
the steam.
furnace.
Included are the
--walls, floor, roof, and partition walls in the plane of
the furnace exit screen.
Steam or steam-and-. . . . . . . A pressure chamber located at,
the upper extremity of II
water drum
Heat-transfer apparatus for
Reheater. . . . .
boiler circulatory system i t 1
heating steam after it has
which the steam generateti
given up some of its original in the boiler is separated
heat in doing work.
from the water and fro111
A
tube
through
which
steam
Riser. . . . . . .
which steam is discharged
and water passes from an
a t a position above a watcr
upper waterwall header to
level maintained therein.
the steam drum.
~
Steam air heater
R1111~rlv)ater..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . A group of tubes which absorbs heat from the products
of combustion to raise the
temperature of the vapor
passing through the tubes
above the saturation temperature corresponding to
its pressure.
'I'rr11yr311l;-tube
wall. . . . . . . . . A waterwall. , in which the
tubes are substantially tangent to each other with
practically no space between the tubes.
I'llllr I I I I I ~ ~.. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . A group of two or more rows
of tubes forming part of a
watertube boiler circulatory system and to which
heat is transferred from the
products of combustion
mainly by convection.
Tube sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The part of the drum or

header which the ends of
the tubes penetrate.
Unheated downcomer. . . . . . A tube not exposed to the
products of combustion in
which water may flow from
the steam drum to the water
drum or header.
Watertube.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A tube in a boiler having the
water and steam on the
inside and the products of
combustion on the outside.
Water-cooled furnace. . . . . . . A furnace wall containing
watertubes arranged to
form a waterwall.
Welded, mono-wall, or. . . . . A waterwall in which the
membrane wall
tubes are welded together
(or to filler bars between
them) to form a continuous
furnace wall.
90
MARINE ENGINEERING
Section 2
Consideratiofls in the Selection of a Boiler
2.1 General. Many factors influence the design and
selection of steam generating equipment to produce the
required quantities of steam at the design pressure and
temperatures for a particular installation. Efficient
operation when burning the various fuels available
throughout the world is a requirement. The boiler also
must fit easily and conveniently within a minimum of
engine room space, yet be accessible for operation,
inspection, and maintenance. Although light in weight,
it has to be sufficiently rugged to operate dependably
under adverse sea conditions. Operation over a wide
load range, with a minimum of attention, and operating
characteristics compatible with a high degree of automation are also required. The factors used in both the
thermal and structural design must be conservative to
provide assurance that continuous operation over
extended periods of time will be provided with minimum
maintenance. Finally, the boiler must meet the rules
and regulations of the regulatory bodies.
2.2 Cycle Requirements. The design of a marine
boiler is directly affected by the heat cycle selected by
the ship's designer. Over the years steam pressures and
temperatures for marine power plants have advanced by
a series of broad jumps. After each jump there has been
a pause to consolidate the gaina, review the operating
results, and plan the next jump. In general, marine
steam conditions have not advanced as rapidly as those
in use ashore. In part this has been due to the relatively
small horsepowers involved and in part ta the demands of
the ocean environment. As the safety of the vessel and
its personnel is dependent upon a reliable power plant,
each new advance is made only after adequate experience
is accumulated with the last.
High steam pressures and temperatures may make
reductions in the size and weight of a given propulsion
plant possible, or permit a higher horsepower installation
in the same space. During World War 11,most combat
naval vesgels operated at 600 psig-850 F while steam to
450 psig-750 F was widely used in merchant ships. In
the postwar era the Navy advanced to 1200 psig-950 F
(nominal) for its combat vessel construction. In the
late 1940,s and 1950's a significant number of merchant
vessels appeared using steam at 600 psig-850 F and
850 psig-850 F. By the 1960's almost all new construction used 850 psig-950 F steam; several large
vessels used steam (in some cases with reheat) a t 1500
paig-950 F. Machinery plants utilizing steam st pressures of 850 to 1500 psig and temperatures from 950 F
to 1000 F are characteristic of most commercial steamships built during the 1970's.
The quantity of steam produced by a marine boiler
can range from as little as 1500 lb/hr in small auxiliary
boilers to over 400,000 1b/hr in large main propulsion
boilera. Steam outputs of 750,000 lb/hr or more per
boiler are practical for high-power installations.
2.3 Heat Balances. The fuel cost per shaft horsepower is one of the deciding factors in establishing the
characteristics of the boiler installation and whether or
not the installation is economically sound. The fuel
rate can be decreased by the use of higher steam pressures and temperatures or a more sophisticated cycle
can be employed by the use of reheating, economizers,
and/or air heaters, more stages of feed heating, etc. The
designer must analyze these factors in light of initial
cost, maintenance, weight, and space requirements
versus the savings resulting from increased thermal
efficiency.
As steam pressures increase, it is essential to use
additional heat-reclaiming equipment in the boiler unit.
This is because of the corresponding increase in saturated '
steam temperature which results in a higher gas temperature leaving the boiler bank and thereby reduces the
boiler efficiencyat a given firing rate.
Reheating the steam improves thermal efficiency but
requires larger boilers and special provisions to protect
the reheater during astern operation. High steam
pressures and temperatures, along with reheating, are
more likely to be used in installations of 30,000 shp and
up, where the value of the fuel saved may well justify
greater initial cost and cycle complication. In addition,
the utilization factor or load factor in such vessels is apt
to be much higher, giving added impetus to the establishment of more efficient designs [9].
It is from the detailed heat balances prepared by the
marine engineer that the quantities of steam and feedwater flow are determined. In the usual plant from two
to four stages of feedwater heating are used to supply
water to the boiler at temperatures from 270 to 400 F.
Boiler efficiencies of over 90 percent are possible.
However, to minimize corrosion and maintenance in the
cold-end heat exchangers and uptakes, it may prove
advantageous to limit the boiler efficiency to 88.5-90
percent with some fuels. Fuel oils vary widely in
quality and often contain significant amounts of sulfur
which can form sulfuric acid if there is condensation in
the exhaust gas path. Corrosion and maintenance costs
should be balanced against the possible savings in fuel
costs derived from a higher boiler efficiency.
2.4 Fuels and Methods of Firing. The characteristics of the fuels which will be available to the ship in
its usual trade should be established early in the design
process. This will permit the optimum selection of
equipment for burning the fuel and cleaning the boiler.
In addition, a suitable selection of uptake temperatures
and materials can be made for the entire boiler plant so
as to reduce corrosion and maintenance problems.
Most marine boilers are oil-fired, with wood, gas, and
coal-fired boilers less common. Wood firing is generally
confined to riverboats operating on streams with an
abundance of nearby timber and is not an important
i11nl oxcept perhaps in some remote parts of the world.

( I~r~-fired
boilers are used primarily on power or drill
Imrgtrs which are fixed in location and can be supplied
~ I I I I I I~hore. At sea, tankers designed to carry liquefied
~iul,~rrr~l
gas may use the natural boil-off from their cargo
&#a lllulks as a supplemental fuel. This cargo gas
I~~~iI-off
is collected and pumped to the boilers where it is
I~~rrncrtl
in conjunction with oil. The oil burners serve
BWpilots to provide ignition stability and also to augment
tire l l t r l ~ available
t
from the gas. The quantity of boil-off
~vrilt~ble
from the liquefied natural gas is a function of
r t r ~ hiont
r
sea and air temperatures, the ship's motion, and
It10 trnrgo loading, among other things, and may vary
I r c ~ nduy
~ to day.
C !old-lired boilers have persisted chiefly in older vessels
trljer~~l~irlg
on lakes and rivers, and in ferries, colliers,
tti&dI t~ndtowboats operating in coastal services. Their
t n ~ ~ l l l ~have
o r ~ decreased steadily year by year as labor
r114tw rino and air pollution control is expanded.
M o ~ lcoal-fired marine boilers used hand or stoker
n r i ~ ~ aThe
.
use of stokers, particularly the spreader
Bylre, gormitted firing rates per square foot of grate
l ~ ~ l r r u~tpproximately
o
40 to 50 percent in excess of those
tor ha~idfiring. This resulted in boilers which were far
nlura aompact and lighter than those designed for hand
I/glrrp; but even they were much larger and heavier than
u(i4rsd boilers designed for comparable steam outputs.
!3rllv~rizedcoal firing, widely used ashore, has seldom
Rri~usud a t sea since the,furnace volume necessary for
d@iii~m,Lmvel, low heat release rate, and satisfactory
kmbuatian requires a tall boiler. The high fly ash
kdllrg of the flue gas aggravates tube erosion, slagging,
dtaak emission problems.
Qilwwore used as boiler fuels as early as the 1870's but
f#d nos aohieve widespread use until the automobile age
fgqulrecl a world-wide petroleum industry. Compared
&$ ei,har fuels, oil is easily loaded aboard ship, stored,
lnbroduced into the furnace; and the firing equiplVequireslittle costly maintenance. The small
l$#i@unCof ash and contaminants it contains does not
mdre t,ha extensive ash handling facilities required for
ma6
@&jl
flrlng,
1) ~lrelrldbe recognized that fuel oils from different

WIFOPH,
while similar in heating value, have varying
r n ~ u n b aof contaminants which may be harmful in
mpiew ways. The major contaminants consist of

@@a of vfinadium and sodium. As a class, they are
~ l e A"a~h"and their presence must be fully taken into
l@@@~irt
by the designer. Likewise, the sulphur content
wry over a range from almost none to as much as
&f psroallt in "sour" crudes; sulphur has a decided
en the cycle efficiency which can be obtained
@t!t&rb tierious corrosion in the economizer, air heater,
a&&
~ptrtlees.
Tkr oompounds of vanadium and sodium affect the

11
af the superheater. If oils to be burned in a
trtde are especially rich in these constituents,

r sriperlla~tttorcan be designed with tube metal temCinltricrr lower than normal to avoid the possibility
91
of severe slagging and tube metal corrosion problems.

Cold-end heat exchangers designed with full recognition
of the sulphur content present in the fuel will experience
a minimum of corrosion and expensive maintenance.
A boiler designed to take advantage of low-cost
residual fuel oils can always burn lighter fuels if the
situation justifies it. However, a boiler with tightly
packed heating surfaces designed for light oils such as
diesel or aviation turbine fuels would not perform
satisfactorily on residual fuels for very long. Gas-side
fouling and oil burner and combustion problems in the
furnace could be anticipated.
2.5 Effect of Ship Delign and Other Machinery on
Boiler Design. Factors such as space, weight, and the
requirements of the regulatory bodies are major considerations in the design of a boiler. In addition, however, the prospective vessel owner or his naval architect
may have preferences regarding the boiler design and
specific design requirements. These preferences may
include the number of boilers, types of boilers and their
arrangement, locations of major connections, the use of
economizers and/or air heaters, fining, and evaporative
ratinga, and the type and method of firing. Life-cycle
costs can have a bearing on the preference likewise, since
the total cost and labor involved in maintaining a
previous design or construction may be reflected in the
owner's specifications and result in the selection of an
improved design and construction.
a. Space. The space provided for the machinery is
held to a minimum by the naval architect because the
space occupied by the machinery produces no revenue.
The boiler designer is usually required to adapt the boiler
design to the available space. The boiler height may be
limited by deck or machinery casing locations. The
fore-and-aft or depth dimension of the boilers may be
controlled by bulkhead locations, access, or tube renewal
space requirements as well as the location of control
consoles, main engines, etc.
To a large extent the aviilable space determines the
economy of the design. A height restriction is particularly serious, since it usually necessitates increased
boiler width or length to obtain the required heating
surface. This generally results in a marked increase in
boiler cost, weight, and the base area occupied.
b. Weight. With drum-type boilers, the minimum
~
efficiency is obtained with rninimuql
weight f o maximum
furnace depth, maximum tube length, and the maximum
number of tube rows. Limiting the height may restrict
capacity because of reduced circulation. It may also
result in tube slopes and in burner clearances less than
the minimum necessary for a good design.
In header-type boilers the width is changed by increasing or decreasing the number of header sections, and the
height is varied by changing the number of tube clusters
in a header. Because of reductions in the number of
boiler sections and the length of the steam drum, it is
readily evident that long, narrow, and high boilers lead
to minimum weight. Further, since the maximum
efficiency for a given heating surface is obtained with the
MARINE ENGINEERING
veatest numb& of tube rows in height, header-type these limits may be modified in the special specifications
boilers always should be arranged with the maximum issued for a particular class of vessel. m he Maritime
height, rnmimum length, and minimum width which are Administration follows a somewhat similar procedure
and usually establishes evaporative and furnace heat
compatible with the design conditions.
The minimum weight of any type of boiler will vary release rates for each design.
considerably with desi@ conditions;increases in evapora- . 2.6 Boiler Design Criteria. heo ore tical and practical
tive rating, burner capacity, or air pressure decrease the considerations have led to the establishment of boiler
weight of a boiler design@ for a specified steam output. design criteria in a number of areas not directly associated
With a fixed evaporative rate per square foot of heat- with the regulatory bodies' rules, which concern mainly
absorbing surfaoe, the weight of a boiler per pound of pressure-part scantlings and construction techniques.
generated will be less for boilers with greater steam The design criteria are most important in the areas of
output, since certah boiler parts remain fixed in size and combustion, heat absorption rates, circulation, and
pressure drops through the boiler system. They provide
weight over a reasonable range in capacity.
Weight is greatly dependent on space also. Generally the yardstick by which various boiler designs Can be
the larger the physical dimensions of a boiler for a given compared for their suitability for specific applications.
a. Combustion. At the heart of a successful boiler
output, the greater its weight.
is
a properly designed furnace and fuel burning systemThe
ocean
environment
is
no
place
Regulations.
to test unproven principles. This became evident in the If the fuel supplied to the furnace is not burned cleanly
construction when it was and completely within the furnace throughout the range
early days of
recognized that some rules and regulations were necessary of operation, it will not be possible to accurately predict
to protect life and property. These rules were not the performance of the evaporator-superheater comintended to inhibit the designer or innovator but rather bination. For example, the total steam generated may
for comparison of be insufficient, the steam temperature may be incorrect,
to provide a sound basis and
or the efficiencymay be lowered by incomplete combusnew designs with older successful designs.
tion
Or improper excess air.
Disastrous boiler explosions, common to both marine
A number of criteria by which combustion in furnaces
and stationary boilers, resulted in the establishment of a
boiler inspection senice and strict regulations can be gaged and by which different furnaces Can be
care, and operation of compared have been developed. In"general1 with the
governing the
steam boilers. In the design of marine boilers the exception of the furnace heat absorption rate which is
applicable regulatory rules and standards must be rigor- derived from the actual heat transfer calculations
ously followed. Most units built for American-flag developed for the furnace, they are empirical relationthe requirements of the United States C o ~ t ships with little theoretical value; however, they can be
ships
used to compare similar boiler designs provided their
Guard and the American Bureau of Shipping.
Boilers for naval combatant ships are built in strict limitations are recognized.
The criteria most fI'equent1~
used for these comparisons
accordance with Navy specifications, although for
are:
auiiliary naval vessels the use of the United States
Coast Guard or the American Society of Mechanical
rate per cubic foot of furnace volume.
Heat
Engineers codes often is permissible. For foreign-flag
~ i rrate
i per
~ ~square footof radiant heat absorbing
ships, the rules and regulations of other midatory surface.
bodies would apply. In addition, many shipyards and
Heat absorption rate per square foot of radiant heat
operators of large fleets have established their own absorbing surface.
supplementary rules and regulations.
Since the requirements of the various regulating and A brief review of these factors will sewe to indicate their
inspection groups differ, specifications must be clearly importance and usefulness.
The heat release rate per cubic foot of furnace volume
defined to assure fabrication and installation of boilers
which will be approved by the boiler inspectors. Fur- is useful in comparing geometrically similar furnaces,
ther, it is important that all competitive designs be to the but while widely used because of its simplicity, it is not
A design difference caused by the an important criterion. The heat released is the product
same
me of inapplicable specifications could be the deciding of the hourly fuel rate and its higher heating value,
factor in final cost or wei&t evaluations, particularly ignoring any heat above 100 F in the combustion air.
If radiant heat absorption rates, furnace gss temperaon high-pressure unito where a difference in pressurepart thickness might involve not only price and weight, tures, and furnace tube metal temperatures are satisfactory, the only limitation on the heat release rate Per
but also design and fabrication changes.
~~~t rules pertain to const~ctionand the inspection cubic foot of furnace volume should be that imposed
of materials, and establish very few by the ability of the firing equipment to maintain good
and
The use of a high1 yet satisperformance limitations. ~ l t h o u g hNavy specifications combustion conditions.
furnace volume heat r f ? l ~ ~late
e
peat1y
factory,
rates
per
cubic
foot
of
furnace
limit the heat
installation
of
high-capa~ib~
lightweight
facilitates
the
volume, per square foot of radiant heat absorbing
surface, and per square foot of total heating surface, boilers in a minimum of space.
BOILERS AND
'I'll() temperature within a boiler furnace can be
~llilll~rolled
to a large extent by the effective radiant heat
r~lno~~bing
surface (RHAS) present in the furnace [lo].
1 IPIIII is radiated from the flame envelope to thee heat
t~lluorhingsurfaces with the uncooled refractory surfaces
n i \ l ~ i as
r ~ ~an intermediary, receiving heat from the flame
ru~dl111cnre-radiating most of the received heat back to
1 II* ll~uneand cold surfaces. For a given heat input or
~ ~ " rate,
I I K the heat absorbed per unit area decreases
wlIllr ILILincrease in total RHAS. The greater the RHAS
~ I I * ~t'aaterwill be the total amount of heat absorbed by
(Itn Fllrnace. Therefore, the temperature of the gases
\
COMBUSTION
93
boiler has more demands placed on i i than a comesponding shoreside boiler. In addition, the heat input
and the steam output of the marine boiler are probably
higher than for a comparable application ashore.
It is customary to consider a momentary roll of 30 deg
from the horizontal and a momentary pitch of f5 deg
when computing static and dynamic loads. In establishing circulation, boilers are u s p d y designed for a permanent list of 15 deg and a permanent trim by the bow
or stern of 5 deg. The latter, when coupled with the
momentary pitch of 5 deg, means that in the fore-and-aft
direction, the boiler may be as much as 10 deg from the
horizontal. The arrangement of the tubes and steam-
..
.
MARINE ENGINEERING
boiler must likewise be capable of prolonged periods of
steady operation a t its design rating. Also, in port it
may be subjected to long periods of operation at low or
minimum outputs.
Cleaning, with the exception of the daily use of the
mot blowers or occasional attention to the atomizers in
the oil burners, is normally deferred to the annual or
biannual period when the vessel is in a shipyard for other
maintenance. This must be fully taken into account by
properly locating soot blowers so they are effective; by
using the optimum burner combinations for the range of
fuel-oil types anticipated to be bunkered; and by using
the best possible arrangements of economizer, air
heater, boiler furnace, and generating surfaces to
pinimize fouling.
must also include margins in the scantlings
The
---- desim
of tubes, supports, casings, and other parts exposed to
corrosive flue gases or waterside contaminants. Simple
and easily accomplished maintenance procedures can
also do much to assure that the boiler will be available
to meet the ship's requirements.
The duty cycle may also have a pronounced effect on
the number of boilers selected. A single boiler may be
employed in ships of up to about 90,000 shp. Two or
more boilers may be selected for higher power levels or
where redundancy is desired or required. Single-boiler
vessels have proven reliable in service and should continue to do so. This is in part due to the fact that a
boiler kept continuously in service reaches thermal
equilibrium and can have the waterside chemistry
optimized. In general, from a boiler performance point
of view, the least number of boilers which can deliver
the required steam will prove to be the best selection for

any particular vessel.
e. Automation. Widespread use of automatic controls @ndmonitoring equipment has made bridge control
of the power plant possible and has permitted a reduction
in the number of watch-standers in the machinery space.
These desirable improvements have added additional
-considerations
.to the problem of designing a suitable
boiler.
Of prime importance is a fuel burning system that can
respond rapidly throughout the range of operation from
standby to maximum power without a fireman's attention. It must do so to prevent excursions in steam
pressure and reduce water level fluctuations (shrink and
swell due to changes of the volume of steam present in
the boiler), which might
result in water carry-over into
the superheater [12].
Burners can be designed to operate over the full
boiler range with all burners in service, or other burner
types with less range can be sequenced, that is, placed
in or out of service on command by the control system.
Suitable flame-monitoring safeguards and purge interlocks are necessary in varying degrees of complexity
depending on the extent of manual supervision desired.
Feedwater regulators, steam temperature controls,
d a t a logging equipment for flows, pressures, temperatures, levels, etc. are all available from the simple to the
ultrasophisticated. The owner and his naval architect
usually select the scope of equipment and advise the
boiler designer so that the boiler and burner combination
can be made compatible with it. See Chapter 21 for
additional discussion regarding automation and controls.
-
atttl in part on the space available for the installation

ant l its operating requirements.
'I'ho quantity -of fuel required is determined from the
~ltwirod steam generator efficiency, the given steam
prtrnHure, temperature, and flow, the feedwater temperaI,II~'o, and the heating value of the fuel.
'I'ho fuel characteristics and quantities establish the'
I~lrlburning equipment to be employed. This in turn
ICI~H the excess air requirements. Combustion calculal l l r l r l ~are next made to determine the hourly quantities
rlf llue gas flowing through the unit.
The exit or stack
baa tomperature to which the flue gas must be cooled
b nohieve the desired efficiency is determined (Fig. 16);
R I I ~if experience indicates that it is attainable or otherw l ~ t r natisfactory, the design can proceed. If not,
a~rr~t~hor
selection of efficiency must be made and the
ealaulations repeated.
'I'ba furnace exit gas temperature is next calculated.
Ell@ value is dependent on the radiant and convection
11ewt-transfer surface installed in the waterwalls, floor,
tr~nf,t~ndscreen (radiant only) as well as the extent of
refractory present. Next, the gas temperature drops
&acl tho heat absorbed by the screen and superheater are
dsbarmined. The size and spacing of tubes and the
&mount of surface are assumed initially. These are
lhrn modified to provide the desired steam temperature
rrild cronservative tube metal temperatures as necessary.
V~uallyseveral screen and superheater combinations are
Invemtigated to determine the most economical solution.
r heater surfaces
ke gas temperast outlined, initial
aterials for tubes,
the heating surfaces established, the draft loss

all components is calculated. If the draft loss
the capability of the fan desired, the heat
drafts previously calculated are adjusted
he tube spacing, number of rows crossed
or height of the boiler components.' A
ers may be necessary
ce of draft require-
Section 3
3.1
General. The fundamental boiler design prob-
lem is to determine the proper proportions of the various

heatrabsorbing surfaces to use the maximum heat
available in the products of combustion. A proper
design will accomplish this at the lowest cost on a lifecycle basis. Each component must be integrated with
the other elements of the unit to provide a balanced
design in which the first costs and fuel, maintenance,
and operational costs will be a minimum over the useful
life of the ship. In no way must safety or reliability be
compromised by these cost considerations.
For the steam generator system, the following must be
considered :
1. Fuel burning equipment

2. Furnace
3. Boiler generating surface
4. Superheater (and reheater if used)
5. Economizer and air heater
6. Attemperator (or control) and auxiliary desuperheaters

7. Circulatory and steam separator system
8. Casing and setting
9. Cleaning equipment
10. Safety valves and other mountings
11. Feedwater and treatment
12. Foundations and supports
13. Combustion air supply system
14. Uptake gas duct system and stack
These considerations require many interrelated steps.
In most cases, a number of assumptions must be made
in order to initiate the design. ks the design calculations proceed, the assumptions are refined to achieve the
desired accuracy in the final analysis.
The first step is the selection of the basic type of boiler,
superheater, and economizer or air heater (or both) to
be used. This selection is based in part on preference
95
drops of water and steam through all comm the economizer feedwater inlet to the superuted. They, in turn, estabeconomizer design pressures
tho safety valve settings. A circulation analysis
@aprepared using the heat absorptions determined
. From this, the
bes are adjusted as
for each design.
er can make very
ntially reduce the
@,P
Fuel Combustion. The basic function of a
ilrp frirnace is to generate the maximum amount of

rrb Imm a given quantity of a specific fuel. A useful
RAOlATlON AN
REFERENCE 0
FOR UNITS WITHOUT STEAM AIR HEATER
STbCK GAS TEMPERATURE, F
Rg. 16
Efficiency v* stack gar temperature
secondary function is to generate steam in the furnace

wall tube circuits. The theoretical aspects of combustion have been well known for many years. However,
the achievement of good combustion within the furnace
of a relatively small marine boiler requires practical
knowledge and experience. Complete combustion can
be obtained provided there is sufficient time (a function
of furnace volume), turbulence (provided by the geometry of the burner assembly), and a temperature high
enough to provide ignition.
Combustion may be defined as the chemical combination of oxygen with the combustible elements in the
fuel. The common fuels have only three elemental
constituents which unite with oxygen to produce heat.
The elements and their compounds, as well as their
molecular weights and combustion constants, including
heating values, are given in Table 1.
Oxygen combines with the combustible elements and
their comgounds in accordance with the laws of chemistry.
Typical reactions for the combustible conatituents of
fuel oil, based on the assumption that the reaction is
completed with the exact amount of oxygen required,
are :
for Carbon (to COa)
for Hydrogen (to HzO)
for Sulfur (to SOa)
+
+
+
++
+
C
0 2 = COZ
AQ
2H2 0 2 = 2Hz0
AQ
2s
302 = 2508 A Q
where A Q is the heat evolved by the reaction.
The heat evolved or heat of combustion is commonly
called the "fuel heating value" and is the sum of the
heats of reaction of the various constituents for one pound
of the fuel considered. The heating value of a fuel may
96
MARINE ENGINEERING
1113 calculated from theoretical considerations or may be

clt!l,ormined, for an actual oil, by burning a sample in a
I)olnb calorimeter (see Chapter 23 for additional discusi4o11in this regard).
111 testing fuels by a bomb calorimeter to determine the
l l t r ~ b tgiven up, two values may be reported: the higher
([)I' Kr088 Or upper) heating value and the lower Or net
Il~~~ltling
value. For the higher heating value, it is
nafl''med
that any water vapor
by burning the
I1,Vtlrogen constituent is d l condensed and cooled to the
l11ll~i1~1
temperature in the calorimeter at the end of the
tsrl,. The heat of vaporization, about 970 Btu/lb oil, is
inoluded in the reported heating value. For the lower
~isrtl1iug
value, it is assumed that none of the water vapor
mnclo~~sesand that all the products of combustion
vermin in a gaseous state. In the United States higher
I ~ e ~ t ~ vdues
i n g are used as they are available directly
fl'c~lllthe calorimeter determinations and because of the
@stnll>li~hed
practice of buying fuel on a higher heating
vnlue basis. The lower heating values are generally
~irreclia European practice.
Fuel Analysis. For design and comparative
IrlitlptrNos, the standard reference fuel oil is #6 fuel oil
[@uelrur C) having the following characteristics [13]:
CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION
(percent by weight)
Carbon
87.75
Hydrogen 10.50
Total
100.00
tho following expression :
By weight
By volume
%OXYGEN%NITROGEN
23.15
76.85
21.00
79.00
The rare gases are included as part of the nitrogen

constituent.
Air is assumed to be supplied to the forced-draft fan
at a temperature of 100 F, a rklative humidity of 40
percent, and a barometric pressure of 29.92 in. Hg.
Under
conditions air has the following physical
prope*ies:
Dry-air density, lb/cu ft
MoistureJ lb/lb of dry air
Mixture density, lb/cu ft
Specific heat
0.0709
0.0165
0.0701
See Fig. 3 of Chapter 2
Based on the foregoing fuel and air standardsJ analysis

will show that the s~ic-,iometrical or theoretical
quantity of dry air to burn one pound of fuel is 13-75Ib.
From this, the following quantities of air for various
excess percentages are determined :
Excess air, percent
Dry air, It,
Moisture, Ib
Moist air, lb
Volume, cu f t (at
100 F, 29.92 in. Hg)
dry air
moist air (40% RH)
0
5
10
15
20
13.75 14.44 15.13 15.81 16.50
0.23 0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27
13.98 14.68 15.38 16.07 16.77
194
200
204
210
213
220
223
230
233
240
The ultimate analysis of the fuels actually encountered

in service varies from that of the standard reference
fuel. Figure 17 shows the effect of these variations on
98
MARINE ENGINEERING
BOILERS AND COMBUSrlON
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 2
Oil Burner Clearances
PARTIAL STUD TUBES
FULL STUD TUBES

TYPICAL STUD-TUBE WALLS
wider angle is employed to shorten the flame length and

produce a wide bushy flame while a narrower angle
increases flame length and decreases width. The
burner manufacturer should always be given the opportunity to review the projected furnace design so the best
possible installation can be obtained. Generally suito' able burner clearances are shown in Table 2. When
firing Bunker C oil, it is customary to use the minimum
clearances established by experience. These may be
Fig. 19 Change in efficiency vs. load
decreased perhaps by six inches, if distillate oils are
fired. Furnace depths of watertube boilers which are
front-fired are usually limited to a minimum of six feet
boilers the large amount of fuel and air to be introduced although there are highly rated boilers in service with
into the furnace necessitates a multiple burner instal- furnace depths of only five feet.
The selection of the oil burner must also include the
Each size burner has a minimum rate of operation type of atomizer to be used. There is a wide variety of
below which it becomes unstable and there is risk of atomizers from which a selection can be made. The
losing ignition. In part this is a characteristic of the alternatives include: steam atomization (internal mix),
burner, but the forced-draft, fuel, and control systems steam mechanical (external mix), straight mechanical,
also have an influence. The minimum rate is of great return flow, rotary cup, and others. Of these types, the
a much simpler plant results when all internal mix steam atomizer has the greatest turndown
importance
burners can be left in service at all times. When in and provides the smallest and most uniform particle
port or during rnanuevering conditions, the minimum size over its wide range of operation. Development0
oil flow capability must be less than that required by have materially reduced the quantity of steam required
the plant demand, if frequent safety valve popping or (80 to 120 lb/hr-burner depending on the maximum oil
steam dumping is to be avoided. Both of these actions capacity) so that earlier objections to the loss of evaporated water have been more than offset by the other
waste steam and lead to increased maintenance,
Burner sequencing can be used effectively to follow advantages. The uniform and finer article size has
the load demand where burners with limited range or provided more surface area for combustion of the fuel
lower
higher-than-desired minimum flows are used. Solid- droplets. This has permitted less excess air and necesstate, computer-controlled logic systems are often used draft losses since the high air velocity
to sequence burners; hovbever, this equipment canincrease sary to provide the turbulence to burn larger droplets i~
no longer required.
costs considerably [15].
The number of burners selected usually results in a
Care must be taken in arranging the burners to
provide for even air distribution to each burner within burner draft loss equivalent to about 35 to 50 percent of
combustion with a minimum of the total draft loss of the boiler unit. The burner draft
the windbox to
varies with the volumetric flow of air through it.
excess air. The clearances between the burners and the loss
At
any
given air flow, a change in the temperature of tho
to
prevent
interference
furnace walls must be
air
will
increase or decrease the draft loss in the ratio of
The
furnace
volume
must
be
large
and impingement.
enough to provide the time necessary for complete the change of absolute temperatures. In desiping a
to take place before the gases enter the super- boiler with an air heater, it is standard ~racticeto limit
heater screen. Satisfactory combustion has been ob- the air temperature leaving the air heater and enter in^
tained at furnace release rates of up to 1,500,000 the burners to no more than 600 F and refer ably l e s ~
to assure long life and prevent overheating of the burher
Btu/cu ft in marine boilers.
If the preliminary design ~ i e l d san excessive air
parts.
Each burner manufacturer has his own recommended
temperature,
the designer must reapportion the surface*,
clearances and the shape of the flame can be adjusted to
possibly
adding
a small economizer, to reduce the air
This
is
some extent to modify them when necessary,
done by changing the spray angle of the atomizer. A heater air outlet temperature to an acceptable value.
TANGENT TUBES
MEMBRANE WELDED TUBES

TYPICAL BARE-TUBE WALLS
Fig. 20
TUBE AND TILE
Furnace wall construction
1 02
MARINE EN
estimates of furnace exit gas temperatures were not

necessary because of conservative firing rates and the
use of saturated steam. Those units which generated
superheated steam usually had several rows of boiler
tubes between the superheater and the furnace. Consequently, a large error in the calculated furnace exit
gas temperature had very little effect upon superheater
performance. In units with superheaters located dose
to the furnace, however, the furnace exit gas temperature
must be determined accurately to assure a satisfactory
superheater design. In addition, an accurate determination of the heat absorption in the various furnace
waterwall areas is necessary to provide adequate water
circulation with a practical number of supply and riser
tubes.
When estimating the furnace gas temperature, most
designers use formulas based upon the Stefan-Boltzmam
law, which states that the heat absorbed by radiation is
proportional to the difference between the fourth powers
of the absolute temperatures of the radiating bodies and
receiving surfaces (see Chapter 2). However, in a boiler
furnace the exact determination of radiant heat transfer,
or heat absorption, is extremely complex and depends
upon: the furnace size and shape; the radiant beam
(mean distance from the radiating gas mass to the
absorbing and the re-radiating surfaces); the partial
pressure of the products of combustion; the amount,
type, and effectiveness of the heat absorbing surfaces;
the ratio of the heat absorbing to the refractory surfaces;
the type, quantity, and heat content of the fuel; the
amount of excess air; the temperature of the combustion
air; the latent heat losses; the emissivity of the various
surfaces and the radiating mass of gas; and the flame
luminosity. Designers usually calculate furnace exit
gas temperatures and heat absorptions by rational
methods and then, as a check, plot the calculated values
against empirical data derived from boiler tests 121.
b. Radiant Heat Absorbing Surface. In evaluating
the radiant heat absorbing surface, the flat projected
areas of the walls and tube banks are used. The spacing
of the tubes in the boiler bank adjacent to the furnace
has no effect upon the furnace temperature; but with
widely pitched boiler tubes, a large percentage of the
radiant heat is absorbed in the tube rows behind the
furnace row. Furnace waterwalls and roofs usually
consist of bare or covered tubes (Fig. 20) and, with
the exception of bare tangent tubes or welded walls, the
effectiveness of the absorbing surfaces is less than the
black-body coefficient of 1.0 considered for the furnace
rows of boiler tubes.
The furnace gas temperatures usually are not accurately estimated in preliminary analyses since the
general design characteristics are of primary interest,
and an approximate estimate of furnace gas temperatures
and heat absorption rates can be made with knowledge
of the boiler and the firing conditions. Thus, with the
assumed excess air, the heat content of the products of
combustion and the adiabatic temperature can be
determined. Further, the approximate furnace size
provides an indication of the water-cooled surface8 and

estimates can be made of the surface absorption effectiveness and the expected furnace gas temperature. In
approximations of this nature it is usually desirable to
estimate both the furnace temperature and the heat
absorbing surface on the low side when firing oil. This
increases the estimated furnace heat absorption and
assures a margin of reserve in the final design. However,
with coal firing it is more important to estimate the
furnace gas temperature on the high side to preclude the
possibility of operating with furnace temperatures above
the initial ash deformation temperature.
In a boiler furnace, both the furnace exit gas temperature and the heat absorption can be changed appreciably,
for a given firing rate, by varying the amount of radiant
heat absorbing surface. The furnace gas temperature
and heat absorption also can be lowered, at any firing
rate, by increasing the excess air (Fig. 21), except when
operating with a deficiency of air. The additional air
increases the weight of the products of combustion per
pound of fuel fired. This decreases the adiabatic
temperature since there is less heat available per pound
of products of combustion; and, as indicated by the
Stefan-Boltzmann law, lowering the radiating temperature reduces the heat absorption rate. Generally, the
radiating temperature is assumed equal to one third of
the adiabatic temperature plus two thirds of the furnace
exit gas temperature.
c. Heat Absorption Rates. The furnace heat absorption rate per square foot of radiant heat absorbing
surface increases with larger heat release rates. However, the percentage of the total heat released which is
absorbed in the boiler by radiation decreases with an
increase in firing rate, and varies from as much as 50
percent, or more, at the lower firing rates to about 15
percent at the higher firing rates; see Fig. 22. This
results from the fact that the adiabatic temperature
remains practically constant, except for changes due to
variations in excess air and combustion air temperatures,
over the entire range of boiler operation, while the
temperature of the gases leaving the furnace and
entering the tube bank increases with the firing rate.
Even though the furnace heat absorption rates may be
conservative, the furnace exit gas temperatures may be
excessive with respect to ash fusion temperatures and
slagging. This is true particularly in coal-fired boilers
where the gas temperatures entering the tube bank
should be less than the initial ash deformation temperature. Because of the lower ash fusion temperatures of
oil slags, they pass out of the furnace in a gaseous or
molten state and are not amenable to control by reducing
the furnace exit gas temperature. They must be
considered in the design of the superheater.
d. Tube Metal Temperatures. In boilers, the heattransfer rate across the boiling water fdm on the inside
of the tubes may be as high as 20,000 Btu/ft2-hr-F;
however, when estimating tube metal temperatures, a
transfer rate of only 2000 Btu/ft2-hr-F is usually
assumed in order to provide a margin against the resis-
103
EXIT-WITH 15%
FIRING RATE,PER CENT OF FULL OUTPUT

FIRING RATE,PER CENT OF FULL OUTPUT
I I l k c t of excess air on odlobotic tind furnace gar temperature
Flp. 22 Relotianhip of rodlon) heat absorption ond Aring rote
ratings, including port loadings. However, at t.he same

time they should not be so high as to cause high casing
temperatures or excessive furnace maintenance.
Because of the requirements for exceedingly lightweight and compact units for naval installations, evapntly, with a steam pressure of 600 psig orative ratings in naval boilers are 3 to 4 times greater
steam temperature) and a heat input than those common to most merchant installations.
Consequently, the furnace exit gas temperatures in the
full-power to overload range are about 2800 to 3050 F
when firing oil with approximately 15 percent excess air.
Adiabatic, or theoretical, flame temperatures are about
3450 to 3500 F with oil firing, 15 percent excess air, and
100 F combustion air. With combustion air temperaappreciable and it is good design practice t o tures of 300 to 350F, the adiabatic temperatures
L tolerance for variations in the quality of the increase to approximately 3650 to 3700 F.
Although furnace heat release rates vary considerably,
practically all oil-fired merchant boilers are designed for
heat release rates of 65,000 to 125,000 Btu per cubic foot
of furnace volume per hour at normal rating-approximately 15 to 20 percent of the corresponding full-power
heat release rates on naval boilers.
The heat release rate per square foot of radiant heat
a b s o r b i surface is generally in the range of 200,000 to
250,090 Btu per horn on merchant boiler designs.
104
-.
MARINE ENGINEERING
the minimum longitudinal tube pitch (direction parallel
to the drum and perpendicular to the gas flow) consistent
with good manufacturing practice and acceptable drum
design, unless the draft requirement or the type of fuel
fired dictates the use of a greater pitch. Manufacturing
and fabricating practices permit the use of +-in. metal
ligaments between 1-in. or la-in.-OD tubes.
The circumferential, or back, pitch (direction parallel
to the gas flow) of the tube usually is set to maintain
circumferential or diagonal ligament efficiencies2 equal
to, or better than, the longitudinal ligament efficiency
in the drums. Tube arrangements utilizing a minimum
back pitch reduce the drum periphery required for a
given number of tube rows and allow the use of smallerdiameter steam drums provided the steam drum release
rates are satisfactory. With such arrangements, the size
and weight of the boiler can be reduced.
When designing for high steam pressures, it is often
necessary to increase the tube spacing in order to improve
the ligament efficiency and reduce the thickness of the
drum tube sheet [l6]. If this is not done, large thermal
stresses may be set up in the tube sheet. It also i~
possible to maintain close tube spacing and yet reduce
the drum tube sheet thickness by using tubes with the
ends swaged to a smaller diameter.
The number of tube rows installed should be limited
so that an impractically large steam drum diameter i~
not required and so that heat absorption in the last tube
rows is adequate to maintain good circulation. The
tube length should be such that the total absorption per
tube does not result in too high a proportion of steam it1
the water-steam mixture leaving the upper end of tho
tubes.
b. Header-Type Boilers. Single-pass header-typo
boilers (Fig. 3) generally have two rows of 2-in. t u b e ~
above the furnace and if-in. or 1-in. tubes in tho
remainder of the bank. In these boilers a group or
cluster of fourteen 1-in. tubes can be substituted for ono
of nine la-in. tubes. Thus, in boilers having the samo
width, length, and number of tube clusters in height,
25 percent more heat absorbing surface can be installed
by substituting 1-in. for la-in. tubes. However, tho
advantages resulting from the compactness of the 1-in.tube boiler must be balanced against the greater tolerance
provided by the la-in.-tube boiler for poorer feedwatcr
quality. For the new header-type boilers that arc1
installed, chiefly in motor vessels for auxiliary steam
purposes and in drill barges and dredges, the feedwator
quality is apt to be such that the selection of larger tubo
sizes will offer more reliability.
c. Boilers Delivering Superheated Steam. Practically all marine boilers built recently deliver superheated steam from convection-type superheaters. In
these boilers, the generating tube bank is arranged in two
Naval boilers are designed for ratings four to five times

greater than those used for merchant marine boilers.
Radiant heat absorption rates vary greatly depending
upon the firing rate and the amount of cold (watercooled) surface in the furnace. Generally, a radiant
heat absorption of 120,000 Btu per square foot of cold
surface per hour is considered satisfactory for continuous overload operation of merchant boilers with
treated evaporated feedwater. This results in an absorption of about 100,000 Btu per square foot of cold surface
per hour at the full-load rating.
There are merchant boilers in continuous service with
radiant heat absorptions of approximately 150,000 Btu
per square foot of cold surface per hour; and most naval
boilers have been designed for radiant heat absorption
rates of 150,000 to 200,000 Btu per square foot of cold
surface per hour at overload rating, but operation a t this
rating is infrequent.
3.4 Boiler Tube Bank. The arrangement of the
boiler tbbe banks is established after development of the
preliminary furnace size. The simplest type of tube
bank is that of a boiler delivering saturated steam. Usually two sizes of tubes are used in such banks. The tubes
in the rows adjacent to the furnace absorb considerably
more heat than those in the other rows and, therefore,
should be of larger diameter to increase the water flow.
The total heat input to the furnace row tubes is the sum
of the radiant and convection heat transfers; in general,
the convection heat transfer is approximately 5 to 20
percent of the radiant heat transfer. This relatively
wide range in convection heat transfer results from
variations in tube diameter, tube pitch, gas mass flow
rate, and the temperature difference between the products
of combustion and the tube surface.
The number of tube rows installed is primarily dependent upon the circulatory system and the desired
gas temperature leaving the tube bank. The gas temperature leaving the boiler tube bank varies with
changes in steam pressure, firing rate, and tube size and
arrangement (the tube arrangement may be either
staggered or in-line). However, sufficient boiler heating
surface must be installed to obtain exit gas temperatures
which result in economical operating efficiencies and do
not require excessive stack and breeching insulation.
Generally, the exit gas temperatures should not exceed
750 F unless economizers or air heaters are used.
The resistance to gas flow can be varied appreciably in
drum-type boilers by changing the pitch of the tubes in a
direction perpendicular to the gas flow. This change is
not possible on header-type boilers because of the fixed
tube pitch and, therefore, variations in resistance to gas
flow must result from changes in boiler width, tube
length, and the number of tube rows.
a. Drum-Type Boilers. Mbderately rated drumtype boilers usually have 13-in. tubes in the furnace roes,
but these are increased to 2 in. in boilers of higher
rating. One-inch and I&-in. tubes are common in the
2 Ligament efficiency is the relative strength of the ligamenln
There is no standard pitch for tubes between
main tube
adjacent tube holes in a drum or header as compared with
in drum-type boilers. However, it is customary to use a drum or header having no holes.
BOILERS AND
suc~(~ior~~.
The section between the furnace and the
+!~~l~n~~ltoater
is known as the "waterscreen" and the other
F~UI~~~IO
installed
II,
beyond the superheater, is called the
" l ~ ~ ~ i l rbank"
ir.
or "generating bank. "
'I'l~ti~ i z eand arrangement of the waterscreen greatly
r1l;fecrln the design of the superheater. A superheater
I~~c~~iiCtsl
d.oser to the furnace behind a few rows of widely
j~ll.irl~n(l
tubes in the waterscreen provides a relatively
ili~l,
nl,nl~mtemperature characteristic over a wide range
~ r l1-abi11g
since the radiant and convection heat-transfer
titten tmd to .complement each other. However, a
i ? ~ i l l ~ r I ~ ~located
t ~ t e r farther away from the furnace
i.uiiat,inn behind a deeper waterscreen has a steam
i r ~ ~ ~ l ~ n ~ characteristic
ature
which rises steeply with
~IIIIIQ@B~MO~
rating, due to the greater effect of convection
11111LIIN reduction in radiation heat-transfer rates.
Navril boilers usually have waterscreens consisting of
t l l i ; ~or :four rows of tubes and merchant marine boilers
,
FIRING RATE. PER CENT OF FULL OUTPUT
Fig. 23
de a relatively constant steam

de range of rating.
Superheaters. The superheater must deliver the
ed ateam temperature during the operating life
t during the initial trials or test
cted performance must be mainvariations in firing
d excess air. The
necessity of unscheduled~oqtaiges
rder to maintain performance.
Temperature characteristics of radiant and convection superheaten
these two factors and the surface. Increasing the

temperature differential takes advantage of the available
temperature potential, while an increase of the heattransfer coefficient necessitates a larger resistance to gas
flow. Full advantage should be taken of a high temperature difference, but the entering gas temperature
should not be so high as to result in excessive tube metal
temperatures or high-temperature fuel ash corrosion
(these are primarily a matter of location). The change
in steam temperature with firing rate should be a
minimum in order to prevent excessive temperatures
during maneuvering and, again, this depends upon
location. Steam velocities should provide for good
distribution of steam, minimum tube metal temperatures,
and acceptable steam pressure drops; all of which require
correlating the effects of size, location, and the arrangeure dictates the thickness of the super- ment of the steam passes.
which in turn is an important factor in the
a. Types and Characteristics. The radiant and
of superheater pressure drop and tube convection-type superheaters are the two basic types.
They are, as their names imply, superheaters which
receive heat by radiant or convection heat transfer and
they may be arranged horizontaily or vertically.
In the radiant type the steam temperature decreases
with increased rating since the quantity of heat absorbed
by radiation does not increase proportionally with steam
flow; see Fig. -23. In the convection type, the steam
temperature generally increases with increased rating
are designed to have a because the heat absorption, due to greater heattransfer coefficients and higher inlet gas temperatures,
urface can be obtained by increases a t a faster rate than the steam output.
hcnt-transfer coefficient and the CemperaMost superheaters are a combination of the two basic
oducts of combustion and types in which the designer builds in a radiant combsorbed is the product of ponent to achieve a flatter temperature characteristic.
II 1
MARINE ENGINEERING
106
(a) Three-pass hairpin loop type
1 07
(b) Two-pass continuous loop type
~ i24~ Schematic
.
arrangement of hairpin and continuous-loop superheaters
GAS TEMPERATURE- F
108
MARINE ENGINEERING
Economizer elements (particularly the extended-surface

type) are more expensive than boiler tubes. In air
heaters, part of the advantage resulting from the
improved temperature difference is offset by the high
resistance to heat flow across the air flm [17]. Therefore, the proportions of component surfaces must be
studied carefully to obtain the most economical overall
arrangement.
The minimum temperature of the feedwater to most
merchant marine economizers vaxies between 270 and
280 F. The standard feedwater temperature for most
naval installatior~is 246 F. This lower temperature is
satisfactory because a premium fuel with a low sulfur
content is used.
Since the gas temperature leaving the economizer
cannot be less than the inlet water temperature, .it
follows that high feedwater temperatures limit the
obtainable efficiency. Consequently, with high feedwater temperatures, economizers are not often used
unless they are installed in conjunction with air heaters.
I n an air heater, the minimum uptake gas temperature
is dependent on the entering air temperature. Therefore,
the attractiveness of air heater installations is due to the
possibility of operating with a high boiler efficiency when
using feedwater temperatures in the range of 300 to
450 F.
When steam turbines are bled for regenerative feed
heating,'the plant efficiency is increased about 1 percent
for each 100 deg F rise in feed temperature due to the
reduced heat loss in the condensers. Whether this
improvement in efficiency warrants the expenditure
required for additional feed heating and other equipment
should be carefully weighed for each application.
The use of an air heater necessitates an increased air
pressure to the boiler unit because of the additional
resistance to air flow through the air heater. Air
pressures also must be increased when using economizers
because of the relatively high resistance to the gas flow
across the economizer, but, for boilers of the same size
operating at comparable firing rates, an air heater
installation will usually require a higher total air pressure
than will a unit fitted with an economizer.
w:1R
rlg. IU.
Air heaters are not pressure vessels, so the tubes can be
If the uptake gas could be cooled to a temperature
fabricated
from mechanical tubing (less expensive than
equal to the steam's saturation temperature by the use of
pressure
tubing)
that is lightly expanded into the tube
an infinite amount of heat absorbing surface, the
improved efficiency would only be 83.75 percent. There- sheets. However, economizers are part of the pressure
fore, air heaters or economizers must be installed to system and must be designed to withstand the main
increase full-load efficiencies to the 88-90 percent range feed pump discharge pressure, to operate without leakage,
usually desired. Further, the use of high evaporative and to withstand thermal shock.
a. Air Heaters. Increased efficiency and reduced
ratings a t any given steam pressure increases the need
boiler maintenance can be obtained by improving comfor additional heat reclaiming equipment.
When air heaters or economizers are installed, the bustion. Preheated air can improve combustion, reduco
proportions of the boiler, air heater, and economizer boiler sooting, and reduce the possibility of ignition loss
surfaces must be balanced. Usually, the temperature particularly at the extreme low end of the firing range.
Practically all of the older marine air heaters were of
differential between the products of combustion and the
the
tubular type; the regenerative types were not often
heat absorbing fluids in the economizer and air heater is
used.
However, in recent years, particularly for highgreater than that in the last section of the boiler tube
bank. This is advantageous in reducing the heat powered installations, the rotary regenerative air
preheater has found wide application. A typical
absorbing surface required for a given heat recovery.
Experience has shown that the diligent use of sootblowing equipment (particularly mass-action retractable
units) usually can keep superheater surfaces satisfactorily
clean for a year, or more, of opelation and that manual
cleaning and washing of the external heat absorbing
surfaces are required only during scheduled overhauls.
h. Reheaters. The design of reheaters involves the
same procedures and considerations that are pertinent to
superheater design. However, the steam distribution
and tube metal temperature problems are more critical
since reheaters must be designed for exceptionally low
steam pressure losses if a high cycle efficiency is to be
obtained.
Steam or combustion gas can be used as the heating
medium in reheaters. When steam heating is used, the
temperature of the reheated steam usually is limited to
550 to 600 F, since it is customary to use condensing
rather than superheated steam as the heating medium
because of the much higher rate of heat transfer.
The use of gas reheaters is necessary if high reheat
steam temperatures and cycle efficiencies are required.
Such reheaters may be fired separately or installed in the
boiler proper. Separately fired reheaters are not
common because they require an individual firing aide
and renewal
clearances. as well as additional piping,
-.
controls, breechings, firing equipment, fans, etc.
3.6 Air Heaters and Economizers. Air heaters
and/or economizers are necessary to obtain high boiler
efficiencies. Preference alone should not arbitrarily
influence the selection of either since the design of the
power plant and it? performance characteristics greatly
affect the choice.
The temperature of saturated steam at a pressure of
850 psig is 528 F and the temperature of the products of
combustion leaving the boiler tube bank would be, for a
conservative boiler design, approximately 150 deg F
above this value, or about 675 F. When firing oil, and
operating with 14.0 percent COs in the products of
combustion (approximately 15 percent excess air), this
uptake gas temperature would result in an operating
efficiency of only about 80 percent as can be see" from
nxt~rnpleof a regenerative air heater is shown in Fig. 14.

I l,n gastight casing forms part of the boiler forced-draft
rir nnd uptake gas ducts. The heater is separately
~llourltedabove the boiler and suitable expansion joints
mBoused in the ducts joining the two [7].
'I'l~eessential component of the heater is the rotor in
wllitill the heat-transfer plate elements are packed. The
aila for combustion is passed axially through one side of
Llln lutor while the flue gas is passed through the other
aliltr in the opposite direction. As the rotor turns, heat
I. nitltinuously transferred from the gas to the heating
r~l~*lrbco;
heat is also continuously given up to the air as
the lioated plates traverse the air side. Counterflow
I I tl~e
~
gas and air insures efficient heat transfer.
'I'l~n heat-transfer elements are made of corrugated and
flnl alloets which are alternately packed in the main secI11111 of the heater and in the cold-end baskets. The coldel111basket is designed to be readily removable for cleanilly or replacement when conditions warrant. For daily
elon~irig,a cleaning device consisting of a mass-action
ar~ol~
blower is installed. Air and gas bypass dampers
fiiw ctn integral part of the preheater and are useful in
rature
sion at
imize soot
ers can be made
air heaters are of the horizontal type
vertical type is no%often used since it is
stall considerably more surface for a
eat absorption than would be needed for the
e, it is customary
he gas across the
In the vertical type the gas usually passes
the tubes and the air crosses the tubes.
ontal tubular air heaters generally utilize in-line
&rrangements. These facilitate cleaning of the
far more
r heat transfer
isite
tubes
aximum
the heatacross and
y as about
and, thus,
ses with a
s, both the tube size
satisfactory, in most
bes with *-in. tube
de of the length of
ow, the number of
109
tube rows, and the number of gas and air passes. This
facilitates determination of the heat-transfer rates and
the heating surface. The preliminary assumptions are
then adjusted, if necessary, so that the surface arrangement and heat transfer provide the required heat absorption.
Gas and air flow patterns also must be analyzed since
maldistribution could reduce heat absorption, increase
fan power, reduce or elevate tube metal temperatures, or
restrict the capacity of the boiler unit.
Air heater designs are usually predicated upon inlet
air temperatures of 100 F, and exit air temperatures
ranging from 300 to 450 F at the normal full-load
operating rate. Design exit gas temperatures of 290 to
320 F are common for tubular air heaters and result in
boiler efficiencies of 88.5 to 88 percent. Regenerative
air heaters can be designed for lower uptake gas temperatures for a given risk of corrosion since for the same air
and gas temperatures the heating surface metal temperature is somewhat higher than that of the tubular heater.
Gas temperatures from 240 to 260 F are common for
regenerative air heaters with boiler efficiencies of 90
to 89.5 percent respectively.
Both the weight of the gas produced and the specific
heat of the flue gas are greater than that of combustion
air. Therefore, when firing oil with about 15 percent
excess air, the reduction in the temperature of the
products of combustion passing through the air heater is
about 13 percent less than the rise in air temperature.
In air heaters the heat-transfer coefficients across the
gas and air films are of about the same magnitude, and
high resistance to heat flow is encountered in the gas film
on both sides of the tube.
b. Economizers. Marine economizers can be
grouped into two general classifications, the "bare-tube"
and the Uextended-surface"types. They are generally
nonsteaming and are usually arranged for counterflow
of the water and the products of combustion. This
results in larger temperature differentials, and greater
heat absorption can be obtained. The counterflow
nt permits a higher boiler efficiencybecause the
temperature can approach that of the inlet
omizers use tubes ranging in size from to 2 in.
arranged in the form of either hairpins or continuous loops. The hairpin type consists of U-bend
tubes that are welded, or expanded, into headers.
Single or multiple rows of loops can be used as well as
two or more headers. I n the continuous-loop type, each
tube element consists of a length of tubing bent back and
forth to form the desired number of rows; the ends of
the tube are attached to the inlet and outlet headers,
usually by welding. Since only two headers a& required,
the number of tube joints is greatly reduced as may be
noted from Fig. 26.
There are many types of extended-surface economizers.
The most prominent are those having steel studs or
circumferential fins of aluminum, steel, or cast iron (see
Fig. 12). Features common to all extended-surface
110
MARINE ENGINEERING
cient varies as the 0.65 to 0.70 power of the gas mass flow
rate. Usually, if the economizer width is increased, a
reduction can be made in the height of the economizer.
Most marine economizers use counterflow arrangements with up-flow gas and down-flow water. The water
pressure drop at about 25 percent of the normal full-load
operating rate should be equal to, or greater than, the
static water head in order to prevent recirculation. This
minimum pressure drop requirement is not necessary
if parallel-flow, up-flow gas and water, nonsteaming
economizers are used, since the water pressure in the
outlet header always will be less than that in the inlet
Multiple water passes are often used in hairpin-type
economizers to obtain satisfactory water velocities and
pressure drops. These arrangements have both counterand parallel-flow relations between the water and the
products of combustion, and the calculated heat transfer
should be based on the average of the flow arrangements.
Most continuous-loop and extended-surface type economizers have a single water pass arranged for flow counter
111
bare-tube economizers the temperature drop across

I ~ I I tube
I ~ wall is small and, for all practical purposes, the
Iltll)(j rmtal temperature can be considered the same
( J I I L ~ of
411'
the water it carries. Tube metal temperatures
extended-surface elements also are about the same as
Idltl ldjacent water, although the tip temperatures of the

@xl,trrrdedsurface are considerably higher.
I't'udence, and often regulations, requires a check valve
11) Illlo connecting piping between the economizer and the
fltflfirndrum to prevent the loss of steam pressure in the
~Vnlltof an economizer casualty. Further, the valve
fanilitates filling the economizer, particularly since a
wnh@rhead of several feet is required to lift the check if
k l i troonomizer
~
is located above the normal water level,
h bypass line around the economizer will allow
rrl8arrition of the boiler with an economizer outage.
Ihbwover, few economizers are fitted with bypass lines
k~aarlaeof their cost and the piping r ~ o m p l i c a t ini~~
Fig- 27
Drum-type desuperheater
MARINE ENGINEERING
rlrr~rr sections and there is a definite transition zone

I~ebwoonthe heated downcomers and the riser tubes, the
111t~alion
of which varies considerably with changes in
I IIH boiler firing rate.
111 the U-tube analogy, there is initially a vertical
ja"mure plane a t the bottom on which the pressures
~ ~ n r l , oby
d the hot and cold water legs are equal. As
NOZZLE
u(111111pressure plane in the lower water drums, or

Ir@a(lurs,the pressure corresponding to the flow of water
Ilrrough the downcomers is equal to the product of the
I~oatlof water and its density minus the resistance to flow.
'I'lrk pressure must balance the product of the head of
wnt1trrin the risers and its density plus the resistance to
N~TE
IN ATYPICAL BOILER (SEE FIG 44) THE SIDEWALL AND ROOF CIRCUIT A,AND
THE SCREEN AN0 FLOOR CIRCUIT B ARE SUPPLIED BY TWO
DOWNCOMERS C. FURNACE FRONT AND REAR WALLS D AND GENERATING
BANK E ARE SUPPLIED BY HEATED BANK DOWNCOMERS F. A HEAD TO
WATER-STEAM MIXTURE F L W CURVE IS REQUIRED FOR EACH
INDEPENDENT CIRCULATING SYSTEM. AND WOULD BE SIMILAR TO
TF
=
'6
VENTURI-MIXING
AND THERMALSLEEVE SECTION
Fig. 29
Fig. 28
Uncontrolled and controlled steam temperature
External-spray desuperheater
ture to the design value. The temperature of superheated steam is a function of rating and for the usual
marine boiler rises as shown by the "uncontrolled curve"
in Fig. 29. To make the most effective use of the
materials in the superheater and main steam piping, the
final steam temperature can be controlled so as not to
exceed the design value. This can be accomplished by
passing a portion of the superheated steam through a
desuperheater in the drum. The location of the outlet
and inlet connections is usually "interpass"; a typical
arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 30. The desuperheated steam is returned to the last passes of the superheater where it mixes with the main flow to deliver the
design temperature [2, 3, 61.
A manually operated valve or an automatically controlled valve is used to regulate the temperature at all
rates above the "control point9' (that point on the
uncontrolled steam temperature characteristic curve
which crosses the desired controlled temperature line).
3.8 Circulation and Steam Baffler. The natural
circulation characteristics of the boiler and the type of
steam drum b a a n g are determined after the arrangemerit of the heat absorbing surfaces has been established.
Generally, because of the effect of the steam drum baffles
upon the circulatory system, simultaneous analyses are
made. circulation calculation procedures are in part
empiricaland in part theoretical. The purpose of the
is to establish a system of downcomers, riaers,
(a) Interpass, across

restricted pass
~ g 30
.
[b) External bypass,

three-way valve system
Interpass control desuperheater arrangements
and generating tubes which will insure that each tub0

receives an adequate supply of water in relation to the
maximum heat absorbed.
a. Circulation: Boiler Tube Banks and Furnace
Waterwalls. The circulation characteristics of f u r n ~ o
waterwalls and boiler tube banks are determined by tho
same procedure and, since the water-steam ratio
decreases with increased rating, the characteristics must
be established for the maximum contemplated rating.
In analyzing boiler cirqulation, it can be assumed that
each circulating system is, in effect, a U-tube [6, 181.
The riser section of the U-tube is that portion of the tubn
bank in which the flow of steam and water is upward a*
heat is applied. The downcomer section consists un"
heated tubes or those ~ o r t i o n sof the tube banks ill
which the heat absorption is considerably lower than "l
the riser section. Because of the difference in fluid
densities, heated tubes can act as downcomers for thf'
~ B @ Cdensities,
minus the riser friction 1oss-a quantity

as the net available circulation head [3].
111 most circulation analyses the steam geaerated in the
rlmr tubes is calculated and the water-steam flow, as
well r ~ t lthe net available head, is then determined for
V L P ~ O ~ water-steam
~R
ratios. In analyzing circulatory
@hrrl.noteristics,it is customary to graphically plot both
llro downcomer friction losses and the net available
sirolllntion heads for the assumed water-steam mixture
%ewu, As shown by Fig. 31, the flow tit which the
~ltr~dlt~ble
head minus the resistance to flow through the
~ C e ~baffles
nl
equals the resistance to downcomer flow is
that required to balance the circulatory system. From
F ~ flows
P
at the balance point the percentages of steam by
wlnnlo at the top of the riser tubes can be calculated.
Tho percentage of steam by volume a t the top of the
@@el'llubes must be such as to preclude overheating of
ih@tlibes. If the quantity is excessive, the circulatory
6YPb111 must be redesigned to provide additional downkmflrrr, or the size and contour of the downcomers must
)I atlonged to reduce the resistance to flow. It also
CW&y ho necessary to change the location, size, and
&llllt~llr of the boiler tubes to redistribute the heat
~Brrerptionand reduce flow resistance.
f 11 a satisfactory circulatory system, an adequate
@moullCof water must be supplied for each pound of
~ C ~ a gonerated.
nl
Therefore, if the percentage of steam
b,Y vol~lmeat the exit of the riser tubes is used as a design
@rlk@rlori,
it is necessary to vary the allowable percentage
MI @Irapressure changes since the percentage of steam by
vtllulno will increase as the pressure is reduced because
@f tlla irlcreased specific volume of the steam. Naval
Btrllera nro usually designed for water-steam ratios (i.e.,
k@l#irll
of water/weight of steam passing through the
#elrornLiag tubes) ranging between 5.0 and 10.0, and
hlel'bll~ttltunits usually fall in the range of 15.0 to 20.0
IC blra overload rates of operation. Lower water-steam
p ~ b l onro
~ used on naval boilers in order to reduce the
Crjlltlr ~ i a o and weight by minimizing downcomer
bt~trwtl
Fie. 31
Characteristic head venus water-steam mixture flow for circulation

calculations
b. Heated Downcomers. If evaporative ratings are

conservative and the gas temperatures leaving the boiler
do not exceed about 750 F, the first several rows of tubes
will function as risen with the remainder serving as
heated downcorners. As the firing rate increases, the
high-temperature
zone moves farther back into the
tube bank and additional tubes become risers while a
corresponding lesser number act as downcorners. If the
firing rate is further increased, the number of downcomers becomes inadequate, circulation is impeded, and
tube casualties may occur; when design analyses indicate
such circumstances, external or unheated internal
downcomers must be installed.
c. External and Unheated Internal Downcorners.
With conservative evaporative ratings, external downcomers 'are required for only those portions of the boiler
in which the tubes cannot act as downcomers (i.e., a
single tube row forming a furnace boundary, a shallow
tube bank installed between two furnaces, or tube banks
shielding a superheater from two furnaces).
If downcomers are required for the main tube bank,
they usually are located external to the tube bank even
though the arrangement requires longer boiler drums.
The use of unheated internal downcomers minimizes the
drum length and eliminates tubes in the main boiler
bank; however, unheated internal downcomers usually
enter the steam drum at high water levels and they may
lose water during heavy rolls or inadvertent reductions
STEAM OUTLET
upon the natural separation of steam and water. For

higher boiler ratings a positive means of steam separation
is required and compartmenbtype baffles, Fig. 32(b),
are frequently used.
Centrifugal steam separators are used primarily in
highly rated merchant and Navy drum-type boilers;
they are particularly desirable for boilers subjected to
rapid maneuvering, fluctuating water levels, or high
solids concentrations in the boiler water. Centrifugal
steam separators may be arranged either horizontally or
vertically in the steam drum as in Fig. 3 2 ( ~ ) .
The resistance to flow through centrifugal separators is
(a) TRIPLE PERFORATED

PLATE BAFFLE
115
MARINE ENGINEERING
llloat merchant units having 48 to 54-in. drums and most

llnval boilers using 46 to 60-in. drums. As power levels
Ill(:rease,60 to 72-in.-dia drums are used more frequently
101) provide the necessary room for steam baffles and to
lw()videthe capability of accommodating the shrink and
n w d l that occurs when maneuvering.
b- Headers. Headers for water walls or economizers
~ 1 . ousually fabricated from pipe stock. &llow forgings
1lltU' also be used especially for superheaters. They may
b~round or forged to a rectangular or other cross
@fl(ltion to facilitate tube installation. Tubes are
lll~lulledby expanding or by welding.
Htandard boiler and economizer tubes are fabricated
from either electric resistance welded or seamless stock.
t1:lo0tric resistance welded tubes are less expensive and
lllbvo been proven to be as dependable as seamless tubes
111 boilers and economizers. Superheater tubes are made
ULATING FIREBRICK
INSULATING BLOCK
ASBESTOS CEMENT
!TEAM OUTLET
supplied to the downcomers is greater than that of the

"frothy" water-steam mixture discharged from perforated-plate and compartment-type baffles.
e. Effect of Drum B d e s on the Circulatory System.
The steam-water flow through the steam drum baffles
is in series with all of the flow circuits in the circulatory
system. Thus, if the flow through one of the circuits is
increased, for example, by the installation of additional
downcorners, the flow through the steam baffles also is
increased. This imposes an additional resistance in the
circulatory system with the result that the flow
in downcomers will not increase in direct propodion
the additions made.
emperature to 130 F or less. Local areas, for

where superheater inlet or outlet nozl;les
( C) CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS
FIBERGLASS
ng. 32 Typlcal steam reparation equipment
st boilers are of double-casing comtruction. An
boilers, combustion gases are discharged into

ry space in the event of a leak.
( 0 ) BANK AND UPTAKES
materials vary. to suit the application; those

for a particular unit can be readily determined.
ral or strength members of the casing are used
art some of the loads of the pressure parts. The
ing bank and screen and furnace walls are
eolf-supporting; however, the casing may lend
these pads during rolling and pitching of the
it is not on an even keel- It is U S U ~
00 h o s u ~ ~ o r t tsuperheater
he
headers and the super' t'lbfis (wholly or in pad) , as well as the economizer
l'lrlbtcr
Or tubular), on the casing structLlre.
'
Fig. 33
Typical sections of boiler casings
Suitable access and inspection doors are required and

their location is an important practical aspect of casing
design. Provisions must also be made for differential
~expansion between the pressure parts and the casing and
between the casing and the boiler foundation and
surrounding decks, platforms, piping, etc.
In large boilers where welded walls are used, another
>
"
>
rF
'h
T L
.*.t.
\ *
MARINE ENGINEERING
117
MARINE ENGINEERING
MARINE ENGINEERING
give the operator a direct view of a light source which

shines through the boiler uptake and the combustion
gases. Another type employs a photoelectric cell and
provides a readout on a meter scale calibrated in smoke
density units; it may also be fitted to sound an alarm
when a certain smoke density is reached.
d. Instrumentation and Controls. The need for
operating instruments and manual and/or automatic
controls varies with the size and type of equipment, the
method of firing, the proficiency of the operating personnel, and the desired degree of automation. Chapter 21
covers the application of control equipment to ship's
propulsion plants.
For safe operation and efficient performance, information is required relative to the water level in the
boiler drum; burner performance; pressures of the
steam and the feedwater; temperature of the superheated (md reheated) steam; pressures of the gas and air
entering and the leaving principal components; feedwater and boiler water chemical conditions and particle
carry-over; operation of feed pumps, fans, fuel burning,
equipment; relationship of the
and fuel
actual combustion air passing through the furnace to
that theoretically required for the fuel fired; temperatures
of the water, gas, fuel, and air entering and leaving the
principal component parts of the unit; and feedwater,
steam, fuel, and air flows.
Icor many years, marine boilers have been equipped
with control equipment permitting steady operation at
sea with little operator participation except while
maneuvering. However, the trend is toward complete
automation of the boilers so that, with the exception of
starting up, they can be operated throughout the full
range from standby to full load without manual adjustTo attain fully automatic operation, the development
of adequate control components and system designs is
essential. The operating characteristics of the principal
and auxiliary items of steam-generating equipment must
be fully known since these characteristics affect the
degree of controllability, the scope of the controls
required, and the response obtained. These in turn
affect the safety of the installation and establish its
economic justification. As an example, where the
burners have a range of oper~tionor turndown capability
equal to or greater than that required by the boiler, the
necessity to sequence burners (or take them out of
service) is eliminated. This, in turn, eliminates many
decisions and functions that would otherwise be required
of an automatic burner management system, and a
simpler system may be selected.
The degrees of control which can be achieved, in
ascending order of sophistication, are manual, local
supervised manual, remote supervised manual, automatic (nonrecycling), and automatic (recycling). These
various types of control can best be delineated by
relating their functions to burner operation.
With the manual type of control, Fig. 40, a burner is
manually purged and ignited. I t may be automatically
modulated but it is stopped manually. Although no

operator function is ~erformed automatically, widerange burners can be used with automatic comb us ti or^
controls to facilitate dock-to-dock operation without
manual participation. However, without boiler and
burner monitoring devices, the operator must remain in
close proximity to the boiler to provide the necessary
surveillance.
In the local supervised manual system, Fig. 41, a burner
is purged and manually ignited, but certain ~ r o c e d u r e ~
and conditions are supervised by safety interlocks. ~ l l
manual functions are performed and checked by tho
operator a t the burner station during normal operation,
and if the demand for steam is within the capability of
the burners, unattended boiler operation is attained.
Monitoring and safety interlocks are ~rovidedto alter
the operation if an unsafe condition develops, and to
trip the burner and/or the boiler, if necessary. After 11
trip-out, the operator must take the necessary correctivn
action to clear the interlocks and recycle the burner
and/or the boiler.
The remote supervised manual system, Fig. 42, allow^
a burner to be purged and ignited by a ~ushbuttonor
selector switch, modulated automatically, and securcd
by a remote manually actuated pushbutton or selector
switch. I t also provides supervision of procedures by
safety interlocks. The burner is mechanized and all
operating functioris are ~erformedby mechanical device^
initiated from a remote control station which indicaton
whether or not each function has been performed correctly. This system of control does not relieve thtr
operator of burner manipulation. He must devote hin
undivided attention to the step-by-step procedures folstarting and securing burners, which is a time-consuminlr,
process. This control system can only be justified i l l
installations where the turndown capabilities of tho
burners do not match the turndown requirements of tho
boiler, and, the burners must be manipulated to covclr.
the operating range. Its application will not meet thtr
USCG requirements for an automatic boiler.
The automatic (nonrecycling) control system, Fig. 43,
involves a burner which, when actuated manually by 11
pushbutton, is purged, ignited, and modulated automatically; and although secured either automatically or
remote-manually, the burner does not recycle automatically. When start and stop sequences are manually
initiated from a remote control station, each function i l l
the start-up and stop sequence is performed and checltatl
automatically and all ~roceduresand conditions arc'
supervised by safety interlocks. Since the operator
may be required to initiate the start-up and securing of n
burner to meet load requirements, this control systenl
does not meet the USCG definition of an automatic!
boiler.
With an automatic (recycling) type of control systenr,
a burner is purged, ignited, modulated, and stopp(-tl
automatically, and the burner recycles within a prescribnd
load range.
3.12 Sample Design Problem. The steps followcxl
Fig. 40
121
Burner operation-local
manual control
Hlltrthm pressure, drum, approx.. . . . . .

Hll(rfbmpressure, superheater outlet. . .
nuperheated
185,520 Ib/hr
(losuperheated 16,870 lb/hr
Pntdwater temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . .
41:Hiciency (based on 13% radiation
auld unaccounted for losses and 15%
flxcess air) . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . . . . .
P'ud total heating value (standard
h n k e r C 4- added heat in air). . . . 19,264 ~ t u / l b
Pll(!l required. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14,349 lb/hr
Alr temperature, leaving steam air
houter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
811'flow (16.07 Ib/lb oil at 15% excess
nir) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . . . . . . .
Ylue gas flow = 244,937, say. . . . . . . .
245,000 lb/hr
fpol' the example, only one rate of operation will be

lalsul~btedalthough for an actual boiler design it is not
ilfitl@llfil to calculate three or more rates to establish
@l*kl'fi()~Ori~ti~
Curves of performance. Rated power will
orl(lulated since this establishes the design meeting
khr~ np(>eifiedefficiency and steam temperature. The
h m l - ~ ~ s fdata
e r are derived from the cumes and pro@@tlrlr.ao
of Chapter 2.
Boiler Layout. Two oil burners will be used to
@MPP~,Ythe total oil flow of 14,349 lb/hr at rated power
Mia ahout 8000 lb/hr each at overload. The necessary
@!@#r~lces
for burners of this capacity are obtained from
the ~(rlocted burner manufacturer. Based on this
!ltfl1rllll~tionand experience, an approximate furnace and
bll@l'
l h ~ o u is
t prepared (see Fig. 44) from which the
hlfllfitf(fvolume and heating surfaces can be estimated.
k~. Furnace Calculations. The furnace volume, cold
@ul.f#fltr,and
radiant heat abs~rbingsurface @HAS) are
Fig. 41
Burner operatiolr-local rupewhed manual conko]
MARINE ENGINEERING
To determine the shape emissivity factor, FBFA,the

following data are required:
VF = 2655 fta
ST = 1200 fta
S, = 1175 ft'
PF = 1 atmosphere
X. = tube equivalent thickness

=
Thotefore the firing density is [see equation (31) of
Fig. 7 of Chapter 2 the concentration factor

-K
la 0,086. The mean radiating length is L = 0.6q2655 =
ft. Equation (31) of Chapter 2 can now be evaluated
&odotermine the flame emissivity
123
=21 Dolog, O-D

Di
2
-22 log. = 0.182
1.67
= tube conductivity = 310 Btu/hr-ft-F
Next, by estimating the corrected furnace exit ternperature, T E ~to, be 2200 F the tube film temperature can
be approlrimated as
R I I ~from
EF =
~of furnace
~ exit~ temperature
i
~ and furnace
~
tabrorpriar
i
for an &/ST value of 0.98, FEFAis determined to be

bSd4 from Fig. 6 of Chapter 2.
In order for the calculation to proceed, it necessary
w u m e several values of the furnace exit
temperature.
bibking this assumption
*
ture and heat absorption can be calculated (See Sectio"
2 of Chapter 2)) based on the following furnace surfacO
The temperature coefficientf~ [equation (40) of Chapter

21 then becomes
f~ = 0.00003875T,r
0.95(1 - e- (o.o6a)(i)(s.a) ) = 0.353
FURNACE TEMPERATURE TE,
Ag. 45
= 1653 F
+ 0.1035 = 0.1675
With a flue gas flow W nof 245,000 lb/hr and two burners
having 2-ft thmat diameters, the flue gas weight flow rate
G is 39,000 1b/ft2-hr. Since the furnace depth D is

14 ft, the surface heat-transfer coefficient hRw can be
computed from equation (39) of Chapter as
~0.6a
,/&)a;
equation (36) of
Ohapter 2; Btu/ft2-hr
2,200
2,660
2,300
2,760
2,400
2,860
95,100
88,000
81,300
haw =
f r = 13.2 ~tu/hr-ft2-F
e246,000~o.ai4
TB~
= 2239 F
The adiabatic sensible heat in the combustion

can be computed from equation (37) of chapter
a fuel lower heating value of 17,500 Btu/lb and a fuOl
Ensible heat of 46 Btu/lb (100 deg F rise at 0.46
heat), for pedect combustion the sensible heat bemmo*
determined by the methods of Section 2 of Chapter
T & R Bulletin 3-14 [lo] to be:
Furnace volume = 2655 fta
Projected surface = 1200 fta
RHAS = 1175fta
Or
With a fuel higher rating value of 18,500 B t u m the

furnace ratings at rated power are:
Release rate =
LHV
QTAI
+ q~ 4- (ta - ~o)CPR
17,500
+ 46 + (278 - 80) (0.2445) (13.98)

13.98 4- 1
TUBE TRANSGAB
VEEBE
BACK FLOW
DIAM-
mture in the furnace is

From Fig. 2 of chapter 2 the adiabatic flame tempertLture, TAt,is found to be 3990 F or 4450 RWith 15 percent excess air
3.5
2.5
100
850
641 F at drum saturation pressure of 975 psia
The screen, superheater, and generating bank performance calculations may be conducted as follows:
126
MARINE ENGINEERING
This practice is expected to becO1'lr'

used after proper treatment (19, 201. In essence, this from corrosion.
common,
particularly
at higher steam Pressures an((
entails: the removal from the raw water of those con1
stituents which are known to be harmful; supplementary single-boiler installations. Filming amines introdl~(~~sl
treatment (within the boiler or connected system) of into the feedwater or steam lines also provide ~rotec1,l~)ll
impurities to convert them into harmless forms; against corrosion, but by forming a coating on the mrlftll
and systematic removal, by blowdown of boiler water surfaces rather than by changing the PH of the watts.
of
4.3 Boiler Water. Boiler water is treated within I ~ I I I .
concentrates, to prevent excessive
boiler
to prevent corrosion, the fouling of heat-absorblll#
solids within the unit.
surfaces,
and the mntamination of steam. T h i S r e q ~ i ~ " ~ ~
The ultimate purpose of feedwater and boiler water
the
injection
of chemicals into the steam drum W I I ( ~ I ~
treatment is to keep the internal surfaces free from
deposits of scale or sludge and to prevent the corrosion they react with the residual impurities in the feedwi~ln-I
of these surfaces. Hard-scale formations, formed by Properly controlled, internal treatment can mai111.nlll
certain constituents in zones of high heat input, retard boiler water conditions within satisfactory limits [6, 1x1
an al1c:~li111~
Corrosion is minimized by maintaini~l~
the flow of heat rnd raise the metal to higher-than111
boiler
water
and
this
condition
is
usually
expressed
temperatures. This can cause overheating and
The
PH
of
w;lt1'l
'<pH"
or
"total
alkalinity."
terms
of
the failure of pressure parts, Sludge, or solid particles depends upon the relative concentrations of the hydrorlbll
normally carried in suspension, may settle locally and
restrict the flow of cooling water or, in some cases, may (H+) and h~droxyl(OH-) ions. A PH of 7.0 corrl'
deposit in the form of insulating layers with an effect sponds to pure water and values from 7.0 d ~ w nto n b n l
similar to that of hard scale. Oil and grease prevent are increasingly acidic while values from 7.0 UP to I.1.(1
adequate wetting of the internal surfaces and, in areas are increasingly alkaline. The pH of a water sample ~':III
of high input, cause overheating; they also may carbonize be determined accurately by the measurement of its I ' I I ~ ~ '
and form a tightly adberent insulating coating. Corro- trical ~otentialor approximated by chemical indicals'~~
sion due to acidic conditions, or to dissolved gases, can which change color in certain pH ranges by reactil'l~n
weaken the boiler by the removal of metal. This with the solution. The pH of boiler water usually 1s
usually occurs in localized areas in the form of cavities maintained within the range of 10.2 to 11.5.
Total alkalinity (expressed in parts per million) I* I'
may result in complete
and pits which if
measure
of all reactives that have the ability to neutr:~l~m
penetration and leakage. Certain chemical reactions
acids
and
is determined by titrating a water sample W I ~ J I
produce an intereranular attack on the metal, leading to
I t is frequently expressed as "equiv:~I1~111
standard
acid.
embrittlement and fracture.
4.2 Feedwater. Virtually all oceangoing vessels use calcium carbonate," which has a molecular weight of 101)
feedwater evaporated from seawater for the boilers, and When determined in this manner, total alkalinity is 11111
thus, feedwater treatment is minimized. Some con- exactly comparable to the pH measurement of alkalil~ll.~.
tamination may be encountered in the distillate due to due to the buffering action which occurs in conll)lltr
the carry-over of water particles with the vapor and the solutions, but it is often used as a reference.
The removal of dissolved oxygen is desirable in 1111
reabsorption of nonoondensable gases but additional
boilers
but it is mandatory for high-~ressureunits. 11 ~ f l
However,
dissolved
~olidsremoval is not required.
customary in removing oxygen to supplement feedw:ll1c*r
gases must be removed to prevent corrosion.
Dissolved oxygen is usually the greatest factor in the deaeration by internal chemical treatment of the w:~lr~v.
corrosion of boiler surfaces in contact with water. I t using a scavenging agent such as sodium sul~hitewl1l('ll
may be in the makeup water or in the feedwater, as a combines with the oxygen to form a stable s0dil1111
result of previous contacts with atmospheric air, or it sulphate. Hydradne also may be used for the purl*~N~
may be added to the water by leakage into the system yielding end products of water and inert nitrogen. 'l'llllap
through low-pressure ppmp seals, storage tanks, etc. chemicals prevent the entrance or the retention of ( l m
Fortunately, most of the oxygen can be readily removed solved oxygen and are maintained in the boiler water rilh
from the water by the use of deaerating-type feedwater a small marginal excess.
The elimination of hardness in the boiler watcr 10
heaters.
Corrosion may be experienced in the condensate piping necessary to prevent scale and it can be removctl
and the preboiler system due to diswlved gases, such as injecting one of the combinations of sodium or potassi~llll
carbon dioxide, sulphw dioxide, or hydrogen sulphide,, phosphate and thoroughly mixing the compound I V I ~ ~ I I
in the water. These gases originate from the atmos- the boiler water. If the alkalinity is maintained at :I I ) ~ I
phere or from constituents in the boiler water. They of 10 or higher, the residual calcium ions entering wit111110
are released in the steam generators, intimately mixed feedwater are precipitated as an insoluble phospll~ll.
d a 11011
with the outgoiog steam, and finally exhausted to the sludge and the magnesium is ~ r e c i ~ i t a t eas
rr
Routine
control
adherent
magnesium
hydroxide.
condenser.
additioll
111
quires
the
adjustment
of
the
pH
by
the
Although it is not common marine practice to treat
water in the preboiler system, a few installations have sodium hydroxide, or its equivalent, and the mainter~;ll~~'@
of a moderate excess of phosphate ions in the boiler ~:11'1~1
I I S P ~cvclohexvlamine or other volatile amines to increase
BOllERS AND COMBUSTION

I I I * ~ I I l~lr~ny
factors, and a feedwater specialist should be
p~tlrwtll~crtlto establish specific procedures. However,
iltr* I.P@(II~R obtained will depend upon the diligence and
ttrtygrl(~y
of the routine sampling and the control measures
B + # I I l11trl~od
~
by the operating personnel.
rmal
wn;
tiny operation; inspection and maintenance; and
rlb8o. In all phases the handling of the equipment
or, but the overall
tions and operation
stic
127
govern the time required for start-up and also, to some

extent, for cooling after shutdown.
c. Boiler Cleaning. For mtisfactory and efficient
operation, a boiler must be kept clean on both the
waterside and fieside. With adequate attention to the
and by maintaining the boiler
prescribed limits, there
the waterside. The fireside, on the other hand, requires daily attention if the
steam temperature and boiler efficiency are to be maintained a t their optimum values.
Only distilled and deaerated water should be used for
feeding the boiler and for feed makeup. Total solids in
the boiler water should not exceed a
of 500
Suspended solids should
five percent of the total
lower than 2 ppm and
range of 10 to 25 ppm. The
o d d be in range of 10.2 to 11.5.
r (sodium sulfite) should range
maintained within these limits, will not form scale or
a steaming boiler should be given a good surface blow each

to maintain about 50 percent of the normal day. A test for total dissolved solids made before and
~bhrgpressure. This procedure facilitates the desired after the blow will indicate if additional attention is
g. required. The water drum bottom blowoff connection
frrCa
ing suspended or total solids in the
ce to reduce
shutdown,
nspect the
of normal
eheater)
flow.
POS-
allowed to deteriorate to the point

bakedqn sludges are found during waterside inspections, chemical analysis of the deposits will
indicate the cleaning method best suited for their
s and scale cutters through each tube, and
a high-pressure water hose. The entire
eaned as a unit more quickly and efficiently
ng. A specialist should be consulted to
procedure, which entails the use of acid
rinsing agents. The acid strength,
the temperature at which they are used .
are of vital importance if the cleaning process is to be
kept within safe limits. Excessive acid strength or
unneutralizpd acid remaining after cleaning will pit and
attack the metal possibly to the point that replacement
to facilitate the cleaning
surfaces of the superheater
well as the economizer and air
anged in in-line patterns which
rough which inspection and cleaning
hed. Staggered patterns are slightly
more efficient from a heat-transfer standpoint but are
more difficult to inspect and clean.
In extreme conditions, hand lancing or watermu.ashing
MARINE ENGINEERING
boiler and its cleaning equipment have all but eliminated

the need for hand cleaning. Soot blowers are used to
clean the fireside at regular intervals. The frequency
depends on the fuel ash characteristics, combustion
efficiency, and the rates of operation.
Air or steam can be used as the blowing medium;
however, oil-fired boilers almost universally use steam.
Steam is available in large quantities and at a low cost.
Air, often used in coal-fired units, is "puffed" intermittently to permit repressurization of the air receivers
by the air compressor.
Superheated or desuperheated steam can be used with
good effect. The steam should be supplied in a dry
state, and the supply system must have adequate traps
or be fitted with orificed drains to remove condensate so
as to prevent it from reaching the blower elements.
Three basic types of steam soot blowers are used.
The long retracting mass-action type used in superheaters; the rotary valve-in head line blower used in
boiler banks, economizers, and tubular air heaters; and
the stctionary-type unit which is used in hoppers and
where fixed directions of blowing are desired to remove
localized deposits, such as those forming on top of the
water drum.
The soot blowing system can be manually operated
or sequential pushbutton controls can be employed to
automatically program the cleaning process. Once
initiated, the automatic sequencing control opens the
steam supply valve, warms the lines, blows the soot
blowers in sequence, and then shuts dourn the steam
supply.
4.5
Boiler Storage
a. Dry Storage. When a boiler will be idle for a

considerable length of time and there will be ample time
available to prepare for its return to sewice, the drystorage method is recommended. To accomplish this,
the unit is emptied, thoroughly cleaned internally and
externally, dried, and then closed tightly to exclude both
moisture and air.
Trays of lime, silica gel, or other moisture absorbents,
are placed in the drums to collect the moisture trapped
in the air when closing the boiler. To insure against a
possible overflow of corrosive liquid after the moisture
has been absorbed, not more than 75 percent of the tray
capacity should be filled with the dry absorbent. Care
must be taken to prevent water, steam or air leakage
into the unit, and periodic inspections should be made to
make sure that there is no corrosive action' The
absorbent should be replenished as required.
b. Wet Storage. If boilers are to be placed in
standby service but must be available for immediate
operation, before shutting d ~ w nthey should be steamed
to stabilize the boiler water conditions and to remove
oxygen bubbles from the internal surfaces. The boiler
firing rate should then be decreased slowly and the steam
drum water level should be raised as high in the gage
glass as is consistent with safe operation while still
passing steam to the line. The hydrate alkalinity in the
boiler water should be increased to a minimum of 400

ppm, and, with the addition of sodium sulfite in thv
amount of 100 ppm, oxygen corrosion can be prevented.
During storage, boiler connections should be checkctl
for leakage and frequent samples of boiler water shoultl
be taken and analyzed. If analyses indicate that t h
hydrate alkalinity is less than 250 ppm, the water in thth
steam drum should be lowered to the normal operatirig
level and chemicals should be injected to bring tlic~
hydrate alkalinity back to 400 ppm. The boiler shoultl
then be steamed sufficiently to circulate the addctl
chemicals, following which the process of wet storago
should be completed in the usual manner.
c. Steam Blanket. The steam blanket method provides excelle~lt protection for short-time idle storagct,
but requires a continuous source of low-pressure steal11
(in order of 150 psig) and connections for maintainirr~
this steam pressure in the stored boiler. All vents arrtl
drains should normally be closed to allow the boiler arrtl
superheater to fill with condensate but the boiler can ht,
drained periodically if desired.
d. Nitrogen Blanket. The oxygen-free nitrogc!~~
storage method is one in which nitrogen gas at a presstlro
of 10 to 15 psig is maintained in the unit at all tirntbn
during its idle status. It can be used with very satinfactory results if the boiler, terminal valves, and fittirlga
are tight under normal hydrostatic pressure.
The boiler can either be emptied or a normal wahr
level maintained in the steam drum. The nitroger1 i#
admitted when the boiler pressure has dropped below
the gas pressure which will be maintained in the u~ril,,
Satisfactory protection against corrosion depends uport
system checks and the renewal of nitrogen, as necessary.
To ready a boiler for sewice after storage, the nitrogtl~~
supply is secured and the water level in the steam dr~llri
is raised to that required for lighting-off. Any nitrogt~ll
in the steam drum and superheater will be displaced I)y
the steam generated during the customary venting 01'
the steam drum and the superheater as steam pressure
is increased.
References
1 George W. Melville, "Development of the MnririiBoiler in the Last Quarter Century," The Engineer, 1!)1 I
2 G. W. Kessler, "Procedures and Influeriairtg
Factors in the Design of Marine Boilers," Z ' T ( L ~ I ~
SNAME, vol. 56, 1948.
3 W. I. Signell, "Marine Boiler Design Tod:~y,"
Trans. SNAME, vol. 76, 1968.
4 Carl D. Shields, "Boilers, Types, Characterisbieo
and Functions," F. W. Dodge Corp., 1961.
5 W. A. Fritz, Jr., and L. Cohen, "Development r u ~ t l
Evaluation of a Supercharged Steam Generafi,irl~
System," ASME Paper 62-WA-279, November 196%.
6 Steam, Its Generation and Use, The Babcock r ~ i i t l
Wilcox Co.
7 F. P. Bergonzi, G. Cooper, and J . F. Moorny,
"Heat Recovery Equipment for Modern Marine Cyeltm,"
SNAME Southern California Section, November lNitl.
H "Lexicon-Steam Generating Equipment, " AmerIjoiler Manufacturers Association, Newark, N. J.

i t "Marine Steam Power Plant State of the Art
riec~~it~ar,"
General Electric and Babcock & Wilcox, 1969.
10 "Boiler Furnace Performance Criteria," SNAME
'I'd It Bulletin No. 3-14, December 1963.
1 I Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46-Shippiw,
p~~ldinhed
by the Office of the Federal Register.
IS W. 0, Nichols, M. L. Rubin, and R. V. Danielson.
"Homo Aspects of Large Tanker Design," Trans.
IYNA ME, vol. 68, 1960.
13 "Recommended Practices for Preparing Marine
WI~rrrn Power Plant Heat Balances," SNAME T&R
ll\lllotin No. 3-11.
14 R. P. Giblon, K. M. Shauer, and I. H. kolih,
"L jnnign Considerations for Boiler Forced-Draft Systems, "
lllatb
Marine Technology, vol. 6, no. 4, October 1969, p. 406.

15 J. J. Banker and M. G. O'Harra, "Some Considerations for Automation in Marine Boiler Desim,
Combustion Equipment, Boiler Control and Burner
Control, " SNAME, Great Lakes Section, January 1966.
16 "Section I ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code-Power Boilers," the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
17 William H. McAdarns, Heat Transmission,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1954.
18 G. R. Fryling, Combustion Engineering, Combustion Engineering Inc., New York.
19 Eskel Nordell, Water Treatment for Industrial
and Other Uses, Reinhold, 1961.
20 "Betz Handbook of Industrial Water Conditioning, " Befi Laboratories, Philadelphia, 1962.
CHAPTER I V
Sectio~~
1
Basic Fur~damentals
The objective of this chapter is to
present a survey of the subject of nuclear marine propulsion that is directed towards persons having engineering
backgrounds but no experience regarding nuclear
reactors. For more detailed treatments on the subject
of reactor engineering, including such highly specialized
considerations as fuel dwign, reactor design, coolant
chemistry, nuclear instrumentation, and reactor safety,
reference is made to the comprehensive textbooks available on the subject [I-71.'
I n order to avoid security classification problems and
problems with 15 CFR Part 385, U. S. Export Regulations, p.rimary emphasis is placed on projected nuclear
propuls~onapplications for commercial merchant marine
ships as contrasted to naval propulsion applications. A
discussion of the differences in these requirements is
included in a paper prebented to the Society by ADM
H. G . Rickover, et al. [81.
1.2 Introduction. The idea of utilizing the atom as
a possible source of energy was first introduced around
1900 when i t was discovered that certain atoms could
spontaneously discharge charged ions capable of effecting
emulsion. This discovery of radioactivity
was discussed in 1902 by Pierre and Marie Curie. Later,
Einstein provided an explanation of the energy of radioactivity and of atomic energy in terms of the equivalence
of mass and energy. I n 1939, the real possibility of
converting mass into energy was demonst~atedfirst by
the discovery of nuclear fission and later, in March 1939,
by consideration of the possibility of a chain reaction. I n
a chain-reaction process, sufficient neutrons are produced
to provide for all system losses plus sufficient neutrons
to maintain the reaction rate of second-generation
fissions, each of which produces sufficient neutrons to
continue to maintain the reaction rate. By 1941,
sufficient knowledge had been accumulated to permit
preliminary experiments on subcritical assemblies, and
on December 2, 1942, the historical Chicago Stagg Field
chain-reacting pile went critical.
The most significant characteristic of nuclear power for
maritime application is the compact nature of the energy
source which has obvious advantages for many types of
1.1
Scope.
'Numbers in brackets designate References at end of chapter.
he power ~roducedby fission of

mobile power plants.
one gram of uranium per day is equivalent to about olw
megawatt. I n other terms, the fission of one pound
uranium is equivalent to the combustion of about 900
tons of 18,500 Btu/lb fuel oil. here fore, nuclcss
power permits the utilization of very large power pla1ll1~
on board ship without the necessity for very lar~ll
bunker storage or frequent refueling. ~ c o n o m i cstudicr
indicate that the cost ~enaltiesassociated with nuclct~s
power are sufficiently high that further innovations wil l
be required before nuclear power for ship propulsioll
will be able to economically compete with fossil-fueled
power systems; therefore nuclear power is attractive
only where the advantages of high power and enduranc;tl
override purely economic considerations, as is often th"
case for military purposes. With technological changrn
in methods of shipping which would emphasize significantly improved efficiency through total system integrrhtion, it is expected that higher utilization and largola
propulsion power requirements and revenue generatio~l
would tend to make nuclear propulsion more attractivtr.
I n general, the primary engineering ~ m b l e mfor nuclolu
reactors is to provide under all circumstances for t l l ~
removal of heat from the nuclear fuel. The energy
stored in nuclear fuel is in an extremely compact forni,
and it has the theoretical potential to release its totnl
contained energy in a short time. The high pow(:l.
density potential results in the necessity to provitltq
efficient, highly reliable, and sometimes unusual hen.1.transfer systems not only for the steady-state p o w ~ ~
operation and normal heat removal after shutdown, blr~
also for all emergency and accident conditions.
A major difference between nuclear propulsion a~ltl
foaril-fueled propulsion systems is the safety aspect 01
the nuclear reactor system; safety is a major considenltion with nuclear reactors due to the emission of radi~rtion, consisting primarily of neutrons and beta and
gamma radiations, from the fission products. Further
more, the fission product radiation must be considerotl
for a long time after the reactor is shut down or the spcnl~
fuel elements are discharged. Operating personnel mu~l,
be protected from the radiation by suitable shielding;
the shielding may consist of lead, water, steel, concrettr,
and other radiation-absorbing materials which in totll~l
are equivalent to six or more feet of concrete. ~ h i n
131
~liitrl(1adds considerably to the size and weight of the
minimum energy required to dissociate it into its component
1~1111~rice
and the provision of a sufficiently high level of
mlinbility to ensure a long service life must be considered
rial only in the formulation of the basic concept of the
I
J but~
~ in ~t h e ~procurement
~
~
of equipment and
ci~~rtryjonents.Strict adherence to codes and standards
a~rt1 aompliance with rigorous quality assurance programs
rluri~kgconstruction are the means used to ensure plants
Biological Dose. The radiation dose absorbed in biological

it is measuRd in rems,
Biologiul
The time required for a biological
system such as man or an anim$ to eliminate, by natural
processes, half the amount of a substance (such as radioactive materid) that has entered it.
Biological Shield. A mass of absorbing material placed
around a reactor or radioactive source to reduce the
radiation to a level that is safe for humans.
~aa~otors.Concrete and steel absorb gamma rays and

111?11trons
in reactor shields. A sheet of paper will absorb
rls lhttenuate alpha particles and a thin sheet of metal will
u b o all
~ except the most energetic beta particles.
Absorption. The process by which the number of particles
or photons entering a body of matter is reduced by interatrllion of the particles or radiation with the matter;
ui~nilarl~,
the reduction of the energy of a particle while
bsr~versinga body of matter. This term is sometimes
~~~roneously
used for capture.
h~tlvation. The process of making a material radioactive by
Immbardment with neutrons, protons, or other nuclear
&ha Particle. A positively charged particle emitted by

crarlain radioactive materials. I t is made up of two
rla~ltrons
an&woprotons bound together,hence it is identical
wihh the nucleus of a helium atom. I t is the least penetrat11lg of the three common types of radiation (alpha, beta,
gemma) emitted by radioactive material. I t is not
tlnrr~erousto plants, animals, or man unless the alphaemitting substance has entered the body.
baekgromd Radiation. The radiation in man's natural
is the breeding ratio minus one.

Burnable Poison. A neutron absorber (or poison), such as
boron, which when purposely incorporated in the fuel or
fuel cladding of a nuclear reactor "burns up" (is changed
into nonabsorbing materid) gradudly under neutron
irradiation. This process compensates for the loss of
reactivity that occurs as fuel is consumed and fissionproduct poisons accumulate, and keeps the overdl
characteristics of the reactor nearly constant during its
use.
C a p e . A process ih which an atomic or nuclear system
acquires an additional particle; for example, the capture of
electrons by positive ions, or capture of electrons or neutrons
absorbs a neutron and fissions, releasing additional neutrons. These ih turn can be absorbed by other fissionable
nuclei, releasing still more neutrons. A fission chain
reaction is self-sustaining when the number of neutrons
released in a given time equals or exceeds the number of
neutrons lost by absorption in nonfissioning material or by
escape from the system.
Cheinical Shim. Chemicals, such as boric acid, which are
placed in a reactor coolant to control the reactor by
absorbing neutrons.
132
prevents the neutrons from causing

neutrons, a control
further fission.
of a nuclar reactor containing the
core. The centn]
but not the
fuel elements and usually the
Cdtid
M ~ ~h~
~ ~ . mass of fissionable material
that will supporta self-sustaining chain reaction under
stated conditions.
Cross Section. A measure of the probability that a nuclear
reaction will occur. usually measured in barns, it is the
area presented by a target nucleus
apparent(or
(or
to an
or other nuclear
radiation, such as a photon of gamma radiation.
Cluie. ~h~ basic unit to describe the intensity of radioactivity in a sample of material. The curie is equal to 37
billion disintegrations per second, which is approximately
the rate of decay of 1 gram of radium. A curie is also a
quantity of any nuclide having 1 curie of radioactivity.
Named for Marie and Pierre Curie, who discovered radium
D e w Heat The heat produced by the decay of radioactive

fission
~~ h
~ ~Neutrons
~ ~ emitted
d t by radioactive
~
~
products in a reactor over a period of seconds or minutes
after a fission takes place. Fewer than 1 percent of the
neutrons
are delayed, the majority being prompt neutrons.
Delayed neutrons are important considerations in reactor
design and control.
Depleted U r ~ u m . Uranium having a smaller percentage
of uranium-235 than the 0.7 percent found in natural
uranium. ~t is obtained from the spent (used) fuel
elements or as by-product tails, or residues, of uranium
isotope separation.
~
~
~
~ isotope
~ off hydrogen
i
~ whose
. nucleus contains
is therefore about twice as
one neutron and one proton
heavy as the nucleus of normal hydrogen, which is only a
Deuterium is often referred to as heavy
single
hydrogen; it occurs in nature as 1 atom to 6500 atoms of
ndrmal hydrogen. I t is nonradioactive.
D h t - c Y d e ~~~~t~~ Syptem- A nuclear power plant
systemin which the coolant or heat-transfer fluid circulates
first through the reactor and then directly to a turbine.
Doppler Effect. The shift with temperature of the interaction rate between neutrons and reactor materials, such
fertile materials.
as fuel rods, structural materials,
The shift can appreciably affect the neutron density and
hence the reactivity of reactors.
D~~~ Rate. The radiation dose delivered per unit time and
measured, for instance, in rems per hour.
xleCtmn volt, ~h~ amountof Lioetic energy gained by an
through an electrical potenelectron when it is
tial difference of 1 volt. ~t is equivalent to 1.603 x 10-11
erg. ~t is a unit of energy, or work, not of voltage.
Enriched Material. Material in which the percentage of a
givell isotope present has been artificially increased so that
it is higher than the percentage of that isotope naturally
foulld in the material. Enriched uranium contains more
of the fissionable isotope uranium-235 than the naturally
occurring percentage (0.7 percent).
than that needed to
E~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ t More
i ~ treactivity
y .
is built into a
achieve criticality. Excess
reactor (by using extra fuel) in order to compensate for fuel
burnup and the accumulation of fission-pro4uct poisons
during operation.
MARINE ENGINEERING
Exclusion Area. An area immediately Surrounding a

reactor where human habitation is prohibited to assure
safety in the event of an accident.
Excursion. A sudden, very rapid rise in the power level of
a reactor caused by supercriticality. Excursions are
usually quickly suppressed by the negative temperature
coefficient of the reactor and/or by automatic Control
Fast Neutron. A neutron with energy greater than approximat el^ 100,000 electron
Fast Reactor. A reactor which the fission chain reaction
is sustained primarily by fast neutrons rather than by
thermal or intermediate neutrons. Fast reactors
little or no moderator to slow down the neutrons from the
speeds at which they are ejected from fi~siOning
Fissile Material. While sometimes used as a synonym
for fissionable material, this term has also acquired a
restricted meaning; namely, any material fiss~onableby
neutrons of all energies, including (and especially) thermal
(slow) neutrons as well as fast neutrons; for examplci
uranium-235 and plutonium-239.
Fission. The splitting of a heavy nucleus into two approxirnately equal parts (which are nuclei of lighter elements),
large amount of
accompanied
~
. by the release of a
energy and generally one or more neutrons. Fission
occur spontaneously, but usually is caused by
particles'
absorption of gamma rays, neutrons, Or
The
nuclei
(fission
fragments)
formed by
Fission Roducts.
the fission of heavy elements, plus the nuclides formed by
the fission fragments' radioactive decay.
Flux (Neutron). A measure of the intensity
radiation. I t is the number of neutrons passing through I
square centimeter of a given target in 1 second. Ex~res'ncl
as nu, where n = the number of neutrons per cubic centimeter and V = their velocity in centimeters per second.
fuc'l
Fuel Cycle. The series of steps involved in
refini1114~
It
includes
for nuclear power reactors.
the original fabrication of fuel elements1 their use in
reactor, chemical processing to recover the fissionah'
material remaining in the spent fuel, re-enrichment of th''
fuel material, and refabrication into new fuel elements.
Fuel Ellment. A rod, tube, plate, or other mechanica1 sh'~)"
or form into which nuclear fuel is fabricated for use in lb
reactor.
Fusion. The formation of a heavier nucleus from two lightul'
ones (such as hydrogen isoto~es),with the attendant relenfln
of energy (as in a hydrogen bomb).
Gamma Rays. High-energy, short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation. Gamma radiation
acconlpanics alpha and beta emissions and always accompa11icrm
fission. Gamma rays are very penetrating and are bc'flIa
stopped or shielded against by dense materials, such t~ lor''
or depleted uranium. Gamma rays are essentially sirnil&'
to X-rays, but are usually more energetic and are ~uclolll
in
Half-Life. The time in which half the atoms of a particullw
radioactive substance disintegrate to another nuc1ear
a seconc' "'
Measured half-lives vary from millionths
billions of Years.
Heavy water. Water containing significantly more thl~ll
heavy hydro~"l'
the natural proportion (one in 6500)
(deuterium) atoms to ordinary hydrogen atoms. Hcnvy
water is used as a moderator in some reactors becau'o I'
slows down neutrons effectively and also has a low crO"
section for absorption of neutrons.
I"tamediate
(e~ithermal) Neutron. A neutron having Neutron Economy. The degree to which neutronsin a
"IergY greater than that of a thermal neutron but less than
reactor are used for desired ends instead of being lost by
a fast neutron. The range is generally considered
leakage or nonproductive absorption. The desired ends may
b~ between about 0.5 and 100,000 electron volts.
include propagation of the chain reaction, converting
Ion* An
Or molecule that has lost or gained one or
fertile to fissionable material, or producing isotopes.
r ~ ~electrons.
~ r o
BY this ionization it becomes electrically Nudem Reactor, A device in which a fission chab reaction
Examples: an alpha Particle, which is a helium
can be initiated, maintained, and controlled. lts essential
minus two electrons; a Proton, which is a hydrogen
component is a core with fissionable fuel. ~tusually has a
lttom minus its electron.
moderator, a reflector, shielding, coolant, and control
t"nlzatlon Chamber. An instrument that detects and
mechanisms. Sometimes called an atomic ~
f
~ it ~
llloaBures ionizing radiation by measuring the electrical
is the basic machine of nuclear energy.
OIlrrent that flows when radiation ionizes gas in a chamber, Plutonium. A heavy, radioactive, man-made, metallic
making the gas a conductor of electricity.
element with atomic number 94. Its most important
Irotope* One or two or more atoms with the same atomic
isotope is fissionable plutonium-239, produced by neutron
llllmber (the same chemical element) but with different
irradiation of ~rani~rn-238.~tis used for reactorfuel and
hlomic weights. Isotopes usually have very nearly the
in weapons.
y
of high absorption cross section that
nllme chemical Properties, but somewhat diierent physical Poison. ~ n material
absorbs
neutrons
unproductively
and hence removes them
t@akage. In nuclear engineering, the escape of neutrons
from the fission chain reaction in a reactor, decreasing its
from a reactor core. Leakage lowers a reactor's reactivity.
reactivity.
Credible Accident. The most serious reactor Power Density. The mte of heat generated per unit volume
llucident that can reasonably be imagined from any adverse
of a, reactor core.
c'ombination of equipment malfunction, operating errors, Pressure Vessel. A strong-walled containerhousing the
~ l other
d foreseeable causes, The term is used to analyze
core of most types of power reactors; it usually also contains
'"la
characteristics of a reactor. Reactors are
the moderator, reflector, thermal shield, and control rods.
rlesigned to be safe even if a maximum credible accident Ressurized-Water Reactor. A power reactorin which heat
nhould occur.
is transferred from the core to a heat exchanger by water
Moderator. Material used in a nuclear reactor to moderate,
kept under high pressure to achieve a high temperature
I-Q-i slow down, neutrons from the high energies a t which
without boiling in the primary system. steam
is generated
t'iray are
Neutrons lose energy by scattering
in a secondary circuit. Many reactors producing electric
fi'llisions with nuclei of the moderator. A good moderator
power are pressurized-water reactors.
111~sa high scattering cross section and low atomic weight. Production Reactor. A reactor designed primarily for
'I1 each
there is a chance of absorption. +TO
large-scale production of plutonium-239 by neutron irradirt~ d u c ethis loss of neutrons during the slowing-down
tion of uranium-238. ~l~~ a reactorused primarily for the
I)roceSs, the moderator atoms also should have a low
production of radioactive isotopes.
~l@utron-absorPtion
cross section. A high-scattering cross Prompt Criticality. ~h~ state of a reactor when the fission
roction implies frequent collisions; these give the neutron a
chain reaction is sustained solely by promptneutrons;
that
[latter chance of being slowed down before it is captured
is, without the help of delayed neutrons.
lt1ld also reduce the average net distance traveled in slowing
Rad. The basic unit of absorbed dose of ionizing radiation.
clown so that leakage is reduced. Small mass results in a
A dose of one rad means the absorption of 100 ergs of
average energy loss Per collision (requiring few
radiation energy per gram of absorbing material.
c'ollisionfJ)and 80 reduces both opportunities for capture Radioisotope. A radioactive isotope.
unstable isotope
ll'ld
distance t~aveled. fhme practical materials are'
of an element that decays or disintegrates spontaneous~y,
(used in the form of graphite), beryllium and its
emitting radiation. More than 1300 natural and artificial
ciompoundg, and water.
radioisotopes
have been identified.
Yolecde. A p u p of a t o m held tosether by chemical Reactivity. A measure
of the departure of a nuclear reactor
foroes. A molecule is the smallest unit of matter which
from critic$ity. ~t is about equal to the effective multiofin exist by itself and retain all its chemical properties.
~licationfactor minus one and is thus precisely zero a t
NaturalCirculationReactor. A reactor in which the coolant
criticality. If there is excess reactivity (positive reac('lsua1ly water) is made to circulate without pumping, that
tivity), the reactor is supercritical and its power will rise.
IR, by natural convection.
Negative reactivity (s~bcriticalit~)
will result in a decreasNatural Uranium. Uranium as found in nature contains 0.7
ing power level.
IIercent
U-235, 99.3 percent of U-238, and a trace of Reflector. A layer or structure of material
the
U-234. It is also called normal uranium.
core of a reactor to reduce the escape of neutrons. I t is
'@utron. An uncharged elementary particle that has a mass
located between the core and the shield. Neutrons enterfllightl~.greaterthan that of the proton and is found in the
ing the reflector are scattered randomly, some of them
l'ucleus Of every
heavier than hydrogen. A free
many times; and a large fraction of them
may
lleutron is unstable and decays with half-life of about 13
return to the core; it is possible to design a reflector by
lainutes into an electron, Proton, and neutrino. Neutrons
which more than 90 percent of neutrons that would be lost
wstain the fission chain reaction in a nuclear reactor.
may be returned. The returned neutrons can then cause
Nautmn Caphue. The process in which an atomic nucleus
more fissions and improve the neutmneconomy of the
Or captures a, neutron.
The probability that a
reactor. Common reflector materials are graphite, berylgiven material will capture neutrons is measured by its
lium, and natural uranium.
l l ~ u ~ r capture
on
cross section, which depends on the energy Rem. The unit of dose of any ionizing radiation which
of the neutrons and on the nature of the material.
produces the same biologic$ effect as one roentgen of
134
MARINE ENGINEERING
power excursions.
with
h~
~ ~ Neutrons
~
~ ~in thermal
tl equilibrium
~
~
the substance in which they exist; most commonly, neutrons
with a kinetic energy less than 0.5 electron volts.
Thermal Reactor. A reactor in which the fission chain
reaction is sustained primarily by thermal neutrons. Most
reactors are thermal reactors.
Thorium.
A and,
naturally
radioactive
with atomic
number 80
as found
in nature,element
an atomic weiCt of
approximately 232. ~h~ fertile thorium-232 isotope is

and can be transmuted to fissionable uranium-233
by neutron irradiation.
uranium.A metal, symbol U, ninety-second element of the
atomic series. Natural urallium is a mixture principally
of the isotopes U-235 and U-238, the former being about
1/140 of the total. The nucleus of TJ-235 is capable of
absorbing a neutron of thermal energy and thereupon undergoing fission into two fragments, which fly apart with
great energy. The fragments are highly radioactive.
neutrons are released almost immediately in each
fission (the prompt neutronsf. A small fraction (delayed
neutrons) is released later in the radioactive decay of some
of the fission products. The fact that fission is induced by
bo
a state
Such
that their position
~ of excitation
~
.
exactly determined. Atomic nuclei are built UP of two
kinds of primary particles; namely, protons and neutronuThe proton carries a single-unit positive charge, equal ill
to the electron charge. The neutron is
electrically neutral particle carrying no charge. For Ib
given element, the umber of protons present in th('
which is the same as the number
ahmic
positive charges it carries, is called the atomic numb('r
of the element. It is identical with the ordinal numberof
the element in the familiar periodic table of the
Thus, the atomic number of hydrogen is one, of helium21
of lithium 3, and so on up to 92 for uranium, the elemelr'l
of highest atomic weight existing in nature to arY
appreciable extent. A number of elements heavier thull
92 have been made artificially.
The total number of pmtow and neutrons in an atomi('
nucleus is called the mms number of the element.
the
of both
and
are
''('
and the mas.l electrO1'r
unity on the atomic maSs
and is thereby slowed down.
135
MARINE ENGINEERING
3 37
(Icfinite probability of decaying in a given time; this charge collected on the

is equal to that carried
docay probability has a constant value characteristic of by the primary ion-pairs. ~ l t h there
~ ~ are
~ marked
h
Lhe particular
I t remains the same differences even among the instruments in each category,
imspective of the chemical or physical state of the i o n i z a t i ~ n - ~ hinstruments
~ ~ b ~ ~ fall into two types;
('lement at
accessible temperatures and namely, integrating and nonintegrating. with the
integrating instrument, the total.quantity of charge due
In a given
the rate of decay at any instant to a number of ionizing particles is collected over a
~ m ~ o r t i o nto
a l the number of parent period of time. I n the nonintegrating (or counting)
rrldioactive atoms of the isotope under consideration devices, on the other hand, each
capable of
present at that instant.
causing ionization is recorded separately.
The decay constant of the radioactive species is a
Integrating devices also can be divided into two
Ineasure
Of its decay probability. Radioactive decay is
classes, which may be referred to as electrostatic and
nn
pmcessi the actual decay rate being electrodynamic. Those
the
type are
by the decay constant and by the number of often called electroscopes, since they operate on the
the particular nuclei present.
same principle as the familiar gold-leaf electroscope,
The most
used method for representing the I n one form of this instrument, two thin sheets of
rate Of radioactive decay is by means of the half-life (the me given an electric charge.
long as no ions are
time required for the number of radioactive nuclei of a present, the leaves will retain their charge and will
given kind to decay to half its initial value). Because remain in the same position. ~ f however,
,
ions are
the
nature of the decay, this time is formed, those of the appropriate charge will be attracted
illdependent Of the amount of the radioisotope present.
to the gold leaves, causing a reduction in the charge and
Other Types of Radioactive Particles. Gamma a decrease in the actual repulsion of the leaves.
rliys are theelectromagnetic radiation released when the
For the detection of beta (or alpha)
the radianucleus emits its excess energy. These rays are tions are allowed to enter the chamber through
a
limilar in character to X-rays; they are highly penetrat- "window" of thin aluminum or other light material.
itkg and have short wavelengths. Although the term With the window "open" the instrument measures both
"gamma ray1' was originally used to describe the electro- beta and gamma radiations; but if it is
gamma
lnagnetic radiation which frequently accompanies radio- rays only will be detected.
llctive decay, the definition has now been extended to
Simple forms of integrating ionization chambers of the
irwlude such radiations of nuclear origin. The rays electrostatic type, not
larger in size than a fountain
ltre emitted when a nucleus undergoes transition from a
pen, are used extensively in health physics work to
higher-energy to a lower-energy state.
determine the total amount of radiation (or dosage) to
Gamma radiation is described in terms of its photon which an individual has been exposed over a period of
UnergY; for exampie, "1-Mev gamma rays." Apart time.
fmm the fact that X-rays frequently have lower energies,
I n an electrodynamic type of integrating ionization
the
difference
gamma rays and X-rays chamber, a constant potential is maintained between the
lwthat the latter are produced outside the atomic nucleus. electmdes by means of a battery. ~f ionizing radiation
The
X-rays which, as their name implies, enters the chamber at a suficiently high rate, the ions
have definite energies (and wavelengths) characteristic produced are swept continuouely to the respective elecof the particular element concerned result from transi- trodes and a steady current
flows. The strength of this
tion8 between electron energy levels of the atoms.
ion current is a direct measure of the rate of entry of the
Radiation Detection Equipment. The introionizing particles and hence of the radiation
duction of nuclear Power devices introduced a stringent ~h~ ion current may be measured directly, or it may be
tiomand for a ~ u r a t eand reliable instruments for the determined by means of a high-impedance voltmeter
connected across a mistance through which the current
'
significantly increased.
A
~ nuclear
~ b reactor
l ~
consists of fuel containing fissionable material, a moderto slow down neutrons (except in the case of f m t
reactom), a coolant to remove the heat generated by
fission, a neutron absorber or neutron leakage control
Although
device, and the necessary
the fuel form is different for vmious reactor types and is
of the reactor
closely
with the
coolant, the choice of the fuel material subject to fission
is limited to three possibilities; these are uranium-235,
produced in a
uranium-233 (an artificial
reactor by irradiation of the fertile material thorium), and
resulting from
plutonium-23g, or (an artificial
conversion of the essentially nonfisionable U-238 by
neutron absorbtion).
-7 bnvenion
and Breeding. Uranium-235 is the
in nature to any
only fissionable material
extent, but in plutonium production reactors (such as
those operated by the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission)
excess h i o n neutrons are captured by fertile uranium238 which is thereby converted into fissionable plutoonly 0.7
nium-239. since natural uranium
percent of uranium-235, it is expected that, with largescale use of nuclear reactors for power production the
available uranium-235 will be consumed at some point.
since nearly 140 times more nonfissionable uranium-238
is available than is the fissionable uranium-235, it is of
ways in which uranium-238
major significance to
could be utilized for power production. Although not of
immediate interest for marine propulsion, one promising
would be to use plutonium-239 to maintain the
fission ,,hain and at the same time regenerate more
plutonium by utilizing the available ura,nium-23s. If
a reactor were to regenerate the same amount of
plutonium-239 as it loss by fission, i.e., if the conversion
-6 lypeS
of ~ i ~ ~Material,
i ~
plies in nature are to be utilized as a source of Powor,

in
then eventually reactors must be
uranium-233 serves to maintain a fission chain and at
same time supplies neutrons for its regeneration from
thorium-232.
1.8 Isoto~es and Rate of Decay. In a nuclc'r
reactor the fission process results in liberation of
and also in emission of nuclew radiation of differcllll
kinds. In general, the remarkably large amount
per fis4i011
energy released in fission (about 200
nucleus) manifests itself in the form of heat result ill^
from the kinetic energy of fission fragments. Th''
radioactive decay, neutmnic reactions, and radiativr
emissions are not pmductive in a primarily pow('rproducing reactor and must be provided for in the
of shielding, reactor operating characteristics, alltl
otherwise in reactor design. The majority Of tlv'
naturally occurring elements are stable except for a
of the high atomic weight elements such radium. "l
unstable element undergoes spontaneous radioactin'
disintegration at a definite rate with the emission
the nucleus of an electrically charged particle (either ''I1
alpha particle, i.e., a helium nucleus or a beta particlr1
i.e., an electron). Often, the products Of decay '
themselves radioactive, expelling either an alpha Or I'
beta particle. After a number of stages of disintegrati0l1l
an atomic species with a stable nucleusisformedIn addition to naturally occurring radioactive slll)
stances, there have been pmduced artificial radioisotop(*
of all the known elements. These have been obtai'l("l
either by bombardment of stable elements with
particles in cyclotrons, etc., by the capture of neutro"n~
or as a result Of n ~ ~ l e fission.
ar
A few Of them exl'"l
alpha particles, but a large number, including most Of t'llr
fission products, are beta emitters.
For a given radioactive species, every nucleus h&rI'
wl('
Ionization chambers with current-measuring devices
container (e.g., a cylindrical vessel, which serves as the

a. Ionization Chambers. A number of different other electrode). The electrode to which the measuring
J1lstruments for the measurement of nuclear radiations instrument is attached is called the collecting electrode.
'perate On the ionization chamber principle, where the This is frequently maintained at ground potential while
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table1
Gas
IUolocnlar weight. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
'I'tlormal conductivity, ~ t u / h r - f t e ~ / f t
300 F... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
700 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1330 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vinoosit centipoises at:
.........................
200
700 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1330 F.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hl)o(?lficheat, Btu/lb-F, at:
200 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
700 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(330 F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1 ' O I I H ~ ~ Ya>STP,lb/fta . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Volumetric speclfic heat at STp,
I#1u/fta-F. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lltrl~~tive
heat transfer coefficient
('ompared to He for same gas
(,ur?peratureand same power output
1tt31atlvepumping power compared to
110 for same gas temperature and
mne power output. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lbflhtivepumping power compared
I,o He.. ..........................
lfdlbtlve cost of gas per IOOO fta at STP
Italative total activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
llflll~tivegamma activity. . . . . . . . . . . . .
g..
are sealed to prsvent a loss of fuel or

The fuel
fission products to the reactorcoolant under all normal
*he fuel elements are rnsembled
in fuel bundles that mnsist of from 36 to 1~ fuel m h
some
assembled in a square array. zirmnium
steel for
to
economic advantages as
the same fuel bumup bemuse of its lower
neutron capture characteristics. The selection of clad
materiall pellet diameter, and other details of the fuel
assembly depends upon the design optimization for the
particular application.
There is a significant amountof experience with
metallic fuel typesfrom the naval remtor program.
by a high enrichment of
These fuels are
uraium-235 and are usually fabricated in the form of a
msembled into a single fuel
multitude of fiat
a so-called
~~~h
fuel
plate
is composed
assembly.
picture frame construction where the uranium metal is a
sandwich with ,,ladding material on each edge and on
both front and back surfaees. The uranium metal is
usually metallurgcally bonded to the fuel cladding to
improve heat transfer.
ciharacteristiCs generally attributed to metal fuels are:
(1) high heavymatomdemity; (2) a significant and reliable
thermal-expansion coe~cient;(3) amenability to potentially inexpensive fabrication rnetho&j; and (4) high
thermal conductivity. ~~~~~~ldisadvantages of metal
(!) low melting temperatures; (2) high rates of
fuels
radiation-induced swelling; and (3) poor high-temperature compatibility with austenitio stainless steels. A
high thermal conductivity and low melting temperature
tend to ofisat each other in terms of the specific power
attainable, but metal fuels have the potential for somewhat higher specific powers than oxides.
may be considered.
~h~~~are other typesof fuels
conventional plant where the maximum temperatuE in

limited by the chemical reaction of fuel oxidation and
rate of energy release is a direct function Of the rate of
fuel injection, a nuclear reactor has no such limitation
A nuclear reactor hm a large quantity of
in the fuel contained within the Emtor) and the maximum temperature of the reaction is limited only by th'!
ability to remove heat or, more properly) by the
by
spondence between the heat removed fmm the
as
a
functio'l
the coolant and the Power level of the
,f the excess reactivity or neutl'0niCs Of the systemThis should be recognized as being true only On a
interest for
retical basis, since for Power reactors
marine pr0pUlSion the neutr0nics Of the system are
'I'
power
that operation at Power levels above
removal of the moderator, which has a negative Or
"shutdown" effect on the mactor, and all major 'ystemH
are designed to fail safe or shut the reactor dew'''
Nevertheless, the point is still valid that generally 'I1''
removl'l
most important aspect of l'HiCtor design is
Of heat
and the most important single
the coolant selection.
A number Of possible gas molants for reactor systen'*
have been considered. However, most Of the pOn*iOr
bilities can be eliminated, either by
'Ir
lurgical evaluations (air, hydrogen, carbon
by heat-transfer considerations (neon! argon).
n'''
ties of gases which are suitable for reactor
shown in Table [lo].
I n addition to relatively Poor heat transfer,am)1'
and neon
also has problems of neutrofl
very expensive. N i t w e n has a high n'utrOn-absorptiO1'
cross section and might cause nitriding at high
tures. Thus, the list of gaseous Coolants of interest fol
marine pmpulsion can be reduced to carbon dioxi(it"
''
141
Properties of Gases Suitable for Reactor

H2
2
He
4
0.125
0.199
...
0.097
0.135
0.172
0.010
0.015
0.020
0.023
0.033
0.044
3.47
3.51
3.60
0.0052
1.24
1.24
1.24
0.0104
0.249
0.259
0.279
0.0727
0 0178
0.0129
1.19
0.17
Na
cooling
Air
29
CO
28
0.018
0.028
COr
44
A
40
0.017
0.027
0.013
0.042
0.028
0.012
0.025
0.018
0.020
0.031
0.044
0.017
0.041
0.028
0.027
0.054
0.041
0.241
0.254
0.272
0.0748
0.250
0.262
0.283
0.0727
0.217
0.262
0.295
0.114
0.124
0.124
0.124
0.104
0.0180
0.0179
0.0180
0.0238
0.0129
1 .OO
0.73
0.73
0.72
0.79
0.68
1 .oo
2.2
2.2
2.2
4.0
10
9294
0.0456
4 0
0
7225
1284
4.0
60
0.51
0.5
0.17
1 .O
6
22.7
4.53 X 10-4 18.5
0
0
28
0.018
0.028
0.037
0.020
0.031
0.041
0.039
0.021
0.032
0.042
...
0.88
10
1.8
5
1 .O
1 .O
24
40
1392
137,065
(excess N?aCtiVityto overcome the poison effect Of shortlived radioisotopes immediately after shutdown)
Since the excess fuel a t start-up provides reactivity in
an
excess of that required to maintain
essential aspect of reactor control is to provide margin
There are, however, a number of disadvantages of for shutdown at all conditions. In addition, since the
water as a reactor coolant. As more advanced tech- power output of a given reactor is directly pmportional
nology is developed, it is probable that water will be to the neutron density or the number of neutrons Per
replaced by a reactor coolant that will permit more unit volume fuel, the control system must sense and
reactors. The general limitations associated limit any excessive rise of neutron flux during power level
with the use of water as a reactor Coolant are:
A water coolant provides the capability of direct

steam generation in a boiling-water reactor.
Water technologY is well known and system cornponents are available, reliable, and relatively inexpensive.
hecame, although the fast neutrons are slowed down to

herma1 energy, there is excessive neutron absorption in
tho water as compared to fissile capture of neutrons in
NEUTRON
ABSORPTION
Several important control characteristics of lightI N MODERATOR
water reactors Can be observed from Fig. 3. The most
l'nportant is that light-water reactors are nonauto(jlltal~ticin that, if the reactor power is increased (even
transiently) above the ability of the cooling system to
IVmove heat, the moderator-to-fuel ratio is reduced,
a
I
~'roviding a negative reactivity or shutdown effect.
Itemoval of moderator from the fuel region may be
llccom~lishedby either steam void formation or by
njoction of water. I n the case of boiling-water reactors
which are normally designed to operate slightly underWATER-TO-FUEL RATIO
and
be provided Fig. 3 Variation in reactiGv as a function of wo+er-to~fuelratio for an
'10take care of reactivity lost due to steam voids. From
idealized, homogeneous, thermally critical lightmwater
Ipig. 3 it can be seen that for undermoderated systems a
#hamvoid would displace some of the moderator,
""'ulting in a 'light reduction of reactivity. I n addition, good moderators, they
the energies of very fast
in temperature (mide from spectral effects) and neutmns ss a result of inelasticacattering collisions~
i'mssure
a
moderator (and therefore Elements such as lead, barium, or imn readily decrease
a)o1ant) can be expectedtoresult in changes in reactivity. the neutron energy down to about 0.05 M~~ where the
r'ight-water
are designed to have a negative hydmgen (elmtic) scattering cross
is relatively
moderator temperature coefficient. Themfore, a Cold large. Hence a combination of a moderately heavy or
r"ctor that is
but has not reached operating heavy element with hydrogen will
slow down
lamperature will be subcritical a t operating temperature. even neutmns of very high energies.
this provides good operating characteristics,
Essentially, every neutron that undergoes an inelastic
da~ending 'POn the magnitude of reactivity swing collision is
because of tfie high
between hot and
it does require sufficient excess probability
subsequent slowing down and capture.
rwctivity
to shut down in the cold condition.
Further, even in an elastic collision, in which case the
2'5 Shielding' For
such as marine decrease in energy may not be large, the acmmpanying
m"ctors, "IMiderable design attention must be given to change in the direction of motion of the
leads to
the attenuation of emitted nuclear radiations by an i n c m e d length of path through the shield such
that
lome
Of
Not only is such shielding the probability of slowing down and capture ia thereby
n@oessaq for the protection of Personnel, but a high increased. Consequently, as a first approximation the
r"diation backmund will interfere with the operation effectivenWsof a particular material for the attenuation
of
used in various aspects of reactor Opera- of fast neutrons is determined by the total fast-neutron
cross section, which includes both inelastic and elastic
the radiation
a reactor System includes scattering as well as direct capture.
'Ipha and beta particles, gamma rays, and neutrons Of
For maximum efficiency,a shield should attenuatefast
'brious energies, Only gamma rays and neutrons need be neutrons and gamma rays at such a rate that their fluxes
since these are
far the most penetrating. will be reduced to the maximum permissible values at
Any
which attenuates these radiations to a the exterior of the shield. hi^ requirement
be
"lfiCient
reduce all the others met if a
of
high
mavl
number
and
hydrogen
(or
b negligible value.
hydrogen pompound) were uniformly distributed in the
the reactor
three aspects; namely, proper proportions throughout the shield; hbwever,
'lowing down the fast neutrons, capturing the slowed- this is generally not a possibility for shipboard shielding
down
and
forms of gamma both because of ship arrangements and also because of
ruliution. since
of low mass numbers are the structural requirements for the heavy
used.
bat moderators, hydrogen in the form of water can
In marine propulsion maohm,
the weight of
shield
@'Itably be used ss the shield constituent for slowing is of major importance; if the shielding is too heavy, the
fast neutrons' However, at high neutron energies
reactor may not be suitable for its intended purpose.
'Iis acattenng cross
Of h ~ d m g e nis Very small;
this instance, the cost of the shield may be
considerable thicknm of hydrogeneous secondary in significance. In addition, shielding that
lluterial
be required to
down the fission results in a relatively concentrated loading distribution
'@'limns
Of highest energy. The situation can be
must be carefully considered since such load distributions
impmved by
an element of fairly may lead to problems with the ship,s structure.
'lKll mass
such substances are not
Wherever possible, advantage is taken in shield design
MARINE ENGINEERING
of the attenuating effect of distance, according to the categories according to their functions: (1) heavy elements to absorb the gamma radiation and slow down
inverse-square law, on the radiation intensity or flux.
very
fast neutrons to about 0.05 Mev by inelastic colliIf the operating personnel can be kept a t an appreciable
sions; (2) hydrogenous substances to moderate neutrons
distance while the reactor is in operation, a significant
saving in thickness of the shielding may be feasible. For having energies in the range below about 0.05 Mev; and
example, a shield may be made thinner at the top and (3) materials, notably those containing boron, which
capture neutrons without producing high-energy gamma
bottom if access is restricted to the sides.
To protect the heavy structural components surround- rays.
Heavy elements which have been employed in metallic
ing the core from possible damage from the heat form for ship shielding are iron and lead. Iron turnings
liberated upon absorption of radiation, a so-called
thermal shield is frequently introduced close to the or punchings, as well as iron oxides, have been incorreactor. It consists of a substantial thickness of a porated in concrete for shielding purposes.
Because of its high density and ease of fabrication,
dense metal of fairly high melting point (e.g., iron) lead is a good shield component. For gamma rays with
placed between the reactor core and the main shield, or
biological shield (see Fig. 1). The thermal shield energies in the region of 2 Mev, roughly the same mass
lead as of iron is required to absorb a specified fraction
consists of a material which effectively absorbs gamma of
radiation and inelastically scatters fast neutrons. Since of the radiation. However, a t both higher and lower
these two types of radiation carry most of the energy energies, the mass absorption efficiency of lead ill
leaking from the reactor, a large amount of the heat appreciably greater than that of iron.
The disadvantages of lead in reactor shields are its
~roducedin the shield will be released in the thermal relatively
low melting point and its softness. It cannot
shield.
carry
any
appreciable portion of the reactor system
If the circumstances are such that passengers or other
load
and,
because
of relatively low temperature limits, it
ship's personnel can be kept at a good distance from a
may require cooling.
reactor when it is in operation, it is usually desirable to
Masonite, with a density of about 1.3 g/cu cm, wun
do so. This may be accomplished by designating
used
as the hydrogenous material in some of the early
exclusion areas of several maximum permissible radiation reactors.
The number of hydrogen atoms per cubio
levels for passengers, ship's crew, and reactor operators centimeter is not much less than that for water. Is
on watch.
The reflector makes an important contribution to fast- addition it contains both carbon and oxygen, which can
neutron shielding. The reflector, especially for a thermal act as moderators.
As a general shield material, there is much to recomreactor, is invariably a good moderator (e.g., water,
mend
concrete since it is strong, inexpensive, tllltl
heavy water, beryllium, beryllium oxide, or graphite)
adaptable
both block and monolithic types of tollso that it will slow down an appreciable portion of the struction. toOrdinary
concrete of 2.3 g/cu cm density
moderately fast neutrons escaping from the core.
contains
somewhat
less
than 10 percent by weight of
Because of scattering, many of these slowed-down water when cured. Although
the hydrogen concentrrbneutrons are returned to the core, thereby easing the
tion
in
concrete
is
considerably
less than the concenh~lshielding problem.
tion
in
water,
the
larger
proportion
of oxygen (whioh
---An imoortant function of reactor shielding is to
acts
as
an
additional
moderator)
and
the calcium ntlrl
capture the neutrons after they have been slowed down.
silicon
in
concrete
compensate,
to
a
great
extent, for thcr
This is done by inelastic scattering and subsequent difference. Nevertheless, ordinary concrete
alone is nol
capture by materials in the shield that have a large
very
efficient
a
s
a
reactor
shield
material
since
it normtd ly
neutron capture probability. This is accomplished if a
contains
no
element
of
high
mass
number.
good moderating element such as hydrogen is present in
Various special ("heavy ") concretes incorporati IIK
addition to materials of medium or high mass number.
heavy
elements have been developed for reactor shieldi~~y.
I n addition, an effective shield provides for the absorpIn
barytes
concrete, for example, the mineral b a r y h ~ ~ ,
tion of the various primary and secondary gamma rays.
consisting
mainly
of barium sulfate, largely replaces t h ~
The penetration of gamma rays is a function of their sand and gravel aggregate
in ordinary concrete. 'I'l~n
energy but they are effectively absorbed by a material
density
of
barytes
concrete
is
about 3.5 g/cu cm. Thw ti
of high density. The shield material, such as iron or
shield
of
barytes
concrete
would
have to be no thiokrr
lead, which serves as the inelastic scatterer of neutrons
than
an
iron-water
shield
of
the
same effectivcncn~
will also function as the absorber of gamma radiation.
although
the
total
weight
of
the
barytes
concrete shioltl
Within the energy range of interest, gamma absorption
would
be
greater.
is determined essentially by the mass of the shielding
2.6 Safety [14]. Nuclear ships must comply wiC11
material. The thickness of shield required to produce a
the
rules and regulations of the cognizant agencierr,
specified absorption of gamma rays is inversely proportional to the density of the shielding material. Thus a inc1uding:athe United States Atomic Energy Comrni~~iol~
smaller volume of lead than of iron would be required, [15-191; United States Coast Guard [20-231; Uniloll
States Department of Commerce; National Bureau of
but the masses would be approximately the same.
Shield materials may be divided into three broad Standards [24]; International Convention for the Snfnbr
- --A
life at Sea [25]; the classification societies [26]; and

I411t: rules and regulations of agencies having cognizance
over the ports of call [27]. Attention is called to indusi8t+ir~l
safety codes, which may be applicable in part.
( lodes of this type include the American Society of
Mtwhanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
JYNJ, and the applicable ANSI and IEEE codes
)2!),301.
A riuclear ship should also provide a degree of safety
foruthe non-nuclear portions sufficiently high to ensure
rrdo operation of the entire ship. I n this respect proviriolls such as watertight subdivision, stability, fire
protection, bilge pumping, fire extinguishing, electrical
I~intullations,steering gear, astern power, and navigal,iotlul aids should be evaluated in order to provide for
tjl~omaximum practicable safety for the ship.
a. Containment. Containment constitutes the outer
rrl~c:losureor other systems or arrangements which are
provided to prevent the uncontrolled release of hazardous
atnounts of radioactivity to normallv accessible snaceu
--or t,he ship's environment in the
of an accident or
,tl,\lfunction of the nuclear system. I t is
tlInt any one of several containment methods may be
,no& suitable for a particular application. Separate
prossure-tight containment vessels or containments
~~bilifiing
integral portions of the ship's structure are
rrtttnples of containment systems that may be utilized.
111 the design of a containment system, the effects of
pul-ification of radioactive loops, pressure relief or
luppression systems,and systemswhich effectively
pmvont core meltdown or its consequences, should be
oI'
event
r -
145
should, therefore, be designed to contain, control, and

possibly suppress the release of radioactive material
which could result from any credible accident. Consideration should be given to (1) the pressure and
temperature of the coolant, (2) the energy released as a
result of any chemical reaction within the system, (3) the
nuclear heat generation, including afterheat, and (4) the
energy stored in the structure. The processes involved
in the release of this energy are heavily dependent upon
the type and specific design of the nuclear power plant.
Each system should be evaluated on an individual basis
to determine the pressure buildup in relation to the containment d-esign.
Missiles resulting from a malfunction of the system
components should not result in the release'of hazardous
amounts of radioactive or toxic materials to occupied
spaces or the ship's environment. The following components are typical of those which may be considered as
potential sources of missiles:
High-speed rotating equipment. The installation
such
withinthe
should be
kept to a minimum, but, if installed within the containment~
be
to reduce the probability of
rupture of the containment wall due to a failure of any
"tating
Rods. Positive means
be provided
to prevent
rods from being ejected.
'
within the pressurized system. These
should be located or protected so as to minimize the
p"bability
damage to the containment walls in case of
failure.
'he containment system should be designed to ensure

The primary objective under these circumstances
the basic integrity of the containment will be
should be to maintain the integrity of the containment
tained for any credible operating or twcident and, insofar as practicable, to prevent impairment of the
The following factors are typical of those secondary shielding when materials particularly sushiah should be considered:
ceptible to fire damage are used (e.g., lead, polyethylene,
Or
r Maximum credible pressure buildup within the
The containment should be designed to remain intact
b~tninmentdue to an accident to the nuclear system.
if the ship sinks in shallow water, and consideration
r Maximum credible internal missile.
should be given to provisions for decay heat removal.
0 Location as regards collision or grounding damage.
r Itupture of piping, ducts, or similar components Containment integrity should be maintained for a
~ i d eof the containment, and such components con- period of several years following such an incident in order
to provide sufficient time for salvage operations.
tod to and passing t h r o ~ g h ~ t hcontainment.
e
b. Shielding and Radiological Safety. Shipboard
r External fires and explosions on board.
shielding and radiological safety are intended to provide
Fires within the containment.
standardd for protection against nuclear radiation for
0 Binking of the ship.
personnel on board ship and for persons in the vicinity
Forces due to ship motion.
of such ships in conformance with the cognizant regular Itemoval of reactor decay heat in the event of loss
81 aeolant circulation and provisions for preventing the tory agencies. Inasmuch as all regulatory agencies
normally follow the recommendations of the Federal
!@&atorcore from melting through the containment.
Radiation Council [16, 171, the recommendations of the
e Leakage and measurement of leakage rate.
Federal Radiation Council should be considered to
All nuclear systems producing useful power contain anticipate changes to the criteria specified by the regula@ ~ O T Oenergy
~
indicated by pressure and temperature. tory agencies. It is the intent to provide standards for
l ~ d d r nuncontrolled release of this energy and any protection by means of shielding and control of personnel
&idltiunal energy that might be generated in a nuclear access so that passengers and shore personnel will not be
~ ~ l d ( !provides
nt
a potential mechanism for the diaper- exposed to radiation exceeding recommendations for the
~lo11of radioactive material. The containment system general population, and so that operating, maintenance,
MARINE ENGINEERING
Limits for
Table
Liquid waste Disporal
Discharge to h e Sea as Specified for the NS Savannah
Table 3

Radioactive GasWane
Specified for the NS Savannah
LIMITSON
limb
as
a~aseouswaste discharges are to be made while the

underway.
is
from shoreline at
depths greater
than 200 fathomsd
be used to pmtect against missiles and to provide con[311' The prime function "I
d- Health
tainment
in case of an accident to reactor co~pOneIltS.
individu'd'
waste DiSposal. Radioactive wastes health physics is to safeguard the
to nucl"lL'
c.
resulting from the hSion whose work is likely to
are defined
rn
the
end
which contain radioisotopes in significant radiations by taking all steps that are 'Onsidered
ncc(u
liquids, sary to minimize such exPosure. In addition there "11'
quantities. Radioactive wastes include
and grnes. Some examples of solid wastes are con- responsibility of making sure that nothing escaping fr''ttl
p ~ i C land
~ ,spent the nuclear plant, even in the event Of an accid('l'l"
taminated dirt, ,,hips, or other
a
~
~
~
which
i
has
~
become
~
e Would
~ represent
t
ion exchange
the ma*mum ranit''
The regulatory bodies
contaminated or radioactive may also have to be treated tion
exposure limits for personnel, maximum Permis~il'''
in The
the same
manner a waste.
purpose of a radiosetive wastedisposal system is concentrations of certain radioisotopes in air and wd''l'
and dispose of waste material
to mlleot, audit,
of any area
in a manner that limits the
and maximum permissible amounts Of such Such

may accumulate in the human body.
"lN'
rcc('lll
"'cl'datiom are subject to regular review a. increasing

""owledge is g ~ n e Of
d the effects of nuclear radiation on
'"lf'''lrt
' human body' Dosages are set at such low levels
Over many years is unlikely to cause
injury. On the Other hand, the levels cannot be so
low as to make operation of a plant impossible.
011 board
One of the Primary r~pomibilitiesof
I'O"lthphysicsisto monitor radiation. This involves the
'l('tcrmination
and recording of radiation dosages and
(lt)~c
rates at nUmerOUS locations. Radiation dosage is
rrloasured in terms of the energy absorbed from the radiaIli(l11~ and the dose rate is the time rate at which such
f'Jlorg~
is absorbed. I n general, the total dose (or dosage)
~*nouived
is the product of the dose rate and the exposure
curve observed on large central-station nuclear plants

has not been apparent in unitsof lower power levels.
I n fact, in 1969 the product lines for several manufacturer's of central-station units did not include power
ratings as low as 300 megawatts electric lmw(e)l.
ThereforeJ the Capital costs of around $2@)-$220/kw(e)
for
to capital costs
of grestermw(e)
than units must be
for unitsthat,
of 50based
to onmw(e).
In addition, it may kw(e)
be expected
parisom of fossil-fired marine and stationary units,
mobile Power Plants will cost about 35 percent more than
land-based units of the same rating. Studies 133-351
have indicated that fol large marine reactors of 70,000
to 50,000 shp, fuel costs will be as low as 2.2-2.0 mill/shp-
1A8
Table 4 Summary of Fuel Cost Data

P L A N A
T
CORE
Basis-year
Natural U $/lb UIO~
Conversion $/kgU
Separative work $/unit
Tmls com osition %
(U-235g f t after
.
separation processing)
Pu credit $/gm fissile
Fabrication $ / I t @
Spent fuel shlpplng
Reprocessing, $/kgU
Reconversion, $/kgU
Capacity factor
MARINE
1
2
1977
1974
8.55
8.10
2.29
2.29
26.00 20.00
0.20 0.20
Nf3
Swannah
3
1981
8.80
2.29
20.00
0.20
1
1968
8.00
2.50
30.00
2.53
8.55
7.89 8.00
114.00 100.50 87.50
6.00
6.00 6.00
29.10 31.80 31.80
3.00 3.00 3.00
70%
70%
70%
10.00
88.75
6.00
52.35
5.60
.. .
Table 5 Nuclear Fuel Costs, mills shp-hr

PROPOSED
PLANT
A
NS
Savannah
CORE
1
1974
2
1977
3
1981
Resis
1968
- -Direct costs
1.107 0.957 0.934 1.777
net uranium
-0.246 -0.200 -0.194 -0.450
plutonium credit
0.611 0.426 0.335
1.667
fabrication
shipping, repro., recon.
0.204 0.173 0.156
1.201
subtotal direct costs
1.676 1.356 1.231
4.195
Working capital
Outof-m-<
on uramum
on fab, Pu,shipping
and reurocessmg
Imre
'
on uranium
on fab, Pu, shipping
and reprocessing
Total cost, mills/shp-hr
0.132 0.107 0.096
0.528
0.025
0.017 0.014
0.030
0.317 0.323 0.320
0.912
0.072 0.064 0.058

2.222 1 .867 1.719
0.061
5.726
to UOz, and the cost of fabricating the U02 into fuel rod
assemblies.
Uranium occurs in nature in ores which grade from 2
to 5 lb/ton of ore. Yellow-cake can have several
chemical forms, including U308or Na2U207,a11 of which of U-235 is fissioned per mwd, and about 0.6 gm of plutoare yellow, hence the name. It is conventional to express nium is produced per mwd (i.e., the conversion ratio i H
costs in the units of $/lb UaOs. Historically, U30a 0.50). Later in life, due to fissioning of some of tho
prices were over $10/lb in the late 1 9 5 0 ' ~$8/lb
~ in 1968, plutonium, only about 0.6 gm of U-235 is consumed pclr
and $6/lb in 1969, all under AEC contract. Free- mwd, and no net gm/mwd of plutonium is producctl;
market prices have historically been comparable. The that is, plutonium is fissioned at the same rate it irr
U-235 content of natural uranium is 0.711 weight produced. Lifetime averages are about 0.9 gm/mwd 01
consumption and 0.3 gm/mwd of net fisuilo
percent, and it takes 14.3 lb of U&a to make 1 kg of 3.0 U-235
plutonium production. Therefore, the net consumptiolr
weight percent (w/o) enriched uranium typically required
of fissile material (U-235 consumption less net fisnilu
as fuel for a marine nuclear plant.
The process of enriching the U-235 isotope from 0.711 plutonium production) is only weakly dependent olr
w/o to the 2 to 5 w/o required by light-water reactors burnup, its primary dependence being on conversiot~
ratio. As a general rule, what burnup dependor~tn
requires that the uranium be in the form of UFs.
The process of enriching makes use of the mass there is tends to decrease the net fissile material depletiotr
difference between U-235 and U-238 isotopes. The cost as burnup increases.
When fuel is discharged from the reactor, it is cool(d
greater speed of the U-235 F6 molecules enhances diffusion through membranes more easily. The gaseous for about 6 months and then is shipped to the reproccrlpsing plant for recovery of residual fuel values. A
enriched UFs which comes out of the diffusion plant is
delivered in standard cylindrical gas bottles. The UFO shipping cask can be rented and will make several tl*il)r
is then converted to U02,the fuel form in wKich it is used. back and forth between the reactor and the procexsirrg
Direct fabrication costs include the cost of making plant. The shipping cost, therefore, is made up of C I L U ~ ~
UOz pellets, the cost of cladding and end fittings, the rental costs and transportation charges in about ~ ( ~ I I I L ~
cost of assembling pellets into fuel rods and assembling proportions.
Spent nuclear fuel has substantial residual value i n ilr
fuel rods into fuel assemblies, and the costs of inspection,
uranium
and plutonium, and ~ossiblyin other f i ~ ~ i o l ~
losses, and scrap recovery. Quoted fabrication costs
products or transuranic elements. The spent futd ir
can be specified to include all post-enriching processes
mechanically chopped and dissolved in acid, and the S ~ B O I ~ ~
and services up to delivery a t the plant.
fuel
solution then proceeds through several chomicrkl
The net cost of fissile material consumed in the reactor
process
steps to purify the uranium and plutor~i~lrll
is based on the reduction in U-235 enrichment associated
Provision
can also be made to recover desired spent-l'\~~l
- - -.
with hsioning of the U-235, less the credit obtained due
The uranium and plutonium produot 11f
by-products.
to the production of fissile plutonium, the latter being
the
plant
is
in
the form of a nitrate. The uraniur~r,i ~ t
produced from neutron absorptions in U-238. In a
practical reaction system, fission of about 1.3 gm of order to be marketable, must be converted to UFO.
Mining and milling costs and ore grade provide 1411c
U-235 will produce 1 megawatt-day (mwd) of energy.
I n an actual reactor, however, about 8 percent of the minimum cost of production, allowing nothing for I1rs
energy is produced by fissions induced in U-238 by high- exploration, depletion of reserve, plant write-off or prolil
energy neutrons, and some of the plutonium production A significant assessment of what represents reasorl~~lllu
I~
is fissioned. Therefore, a t the start of life about 1.2 gm prices (as distinguished from operating costs) C E ~ LIIY
round in the USAEC purchase agreement with United

Ntatesproducers. Through 1968, theAECcontinuedto
1 1 t h ~the W/lb
for later years however, the price
puid was equal to 85 percent of allowable costs plus
$1.6O/lb. Among the allowable coats was a fixed
M.64/lb for royalty and exploration costa. Based on
iistorical data, an allowable overhead of about $0.3O/lb
cjould be included among allowable costs.
Tables 4 and 5 are the results of a fuel cost analysis
(jonducted by the U. 8. Maritime Administration (351.
'I'he purpose of these comparisons is to project fuel cost
latimatea for advanced marine nuclear propubion plants
149
in the 75,OOU-shp range for three reactor cores and

compare them with NS Savanruzh data. For the
advanced marine propulsion systems, core 1 is designed
for 20,500 megawatt days per metric ton of uranium
(mwd/mtu) for 2.72 full-power years; core 2 is designed
for 25,900 mwd/mtu for 3.45 full-power years; and core 3
is designed for 28,700 mwd/mtu for 3.82 full-power years.
An
analysis
of Table
5 indicates
thatathe
marine
propulsion
system
would have
fuelfirst
cost advanced
incentive
of 3.5 mills/shp-hr over the NS Savannah with potential
for an additional 0.5 mill/shp-hr fuel cost incentive with
improved fuel performance.
Section 3
luclear Propulsion Applications
3.1 NS Sawnnah-Pressurized-Water Reactor [ 3 6
9
I n naval circles, the intereat in using nuclear
finorgy a t sea led to the launching of the nuclear submarine Nautilus in 1954 and subsequently to today's
r~~rolearNavy. The potential of nuclear energy for
rrommercial shipping influenced President Eisenhower to
moommend construction of a nuclear-powered merchant
rhlp: I n 1956 the Department of Commerce and the
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) were authorized to
develop and construct such a vessel.
On National Maritime Day, May 22, 1958, the ship's
ksol was laid, and a little more than a year later the NS
duvcmnah was launched as a successor to the earlier
~uvannah.
The NS Savannah has a length of 595 ft, beam of 78 ft,
&id draws 29.5 f t of water. She carries a crew of 110
L I I 9300
~
tons of dry cargo. Fully loaded, she displaces
90,000 tons. Like many modem cargo ships, she has
bkc, capability of carrying passengers and has cabins for
W. Her turbines develop 22,000 shp and her cruising
%peedis about 21 knots.
The Savannah's nuclear power plant is simple in
principle. Uranium, artificially enriched to ensure
nadily fissionable atoms, is contained in fuel elements
within the core. When the rods are withdrawn (see
Ng. 4) a chain reaction starts in the fuel. Fissioning
Unnium quickly heats the surrounding water to a high
bmperatlire; however, a pressurizer keeps the water
~ ~ l d,enough
er
pressure to prevent boiling (hence the
tlrrtne pressurized-water reactor). The hot water is
@lmulatedthrough the boilers, as illustrated by Figs. 5,
8, and 7, where it gives up part of its heat to generate
obaem. Steam from the boilers drives the main turbines
a d the turbogenerators. After passing through the
turbines, the steam is condensed and fed back to the
kllara. At full power the Savannah's reactor core gives
(IIheat energy equivalent to 80 megawatts.
Fuel for the Savannah is uranium enriched to an
bverltge value of 4.4 percent. This means it has more
Unaium-235 than the 0.7 percent in natural urtmniull..
This slight enrichment simplified the design of the fuel

elements and the reador by permitting the use of structural materials that are resistant to corrosion and
radiation. The uranium, in the form of uranium
dioxide, is compreased into pellets. These are slipped
into tubes of stainless steel called. fuel pins. Uranium
dioxide was chosen because it does not react chemically
with water, has a high melting point, and can hold its
shape a t the high-temperature and high-radiation levels
within a reactor. The fuel pins are assembled into 32
fuel elements, each containing 164 pins, for a total of
5248. These fuel elements are designed to the standards
UPPER GMD PUTE
LOWER GRID P U T
LamR FLOW
RAFFLE ASSEMBLY
F:. i Cutowoy of NS Awnnah'r complete reactor. Note cross-shopad

control rods (hat fit between fuel elernenh
MARlNE ENGINEERING
TOR VESSEL
uRBOGENERATOR
I--HEAT EXCHANGER
4-CONDMSING TANK
+LETDOWN COOLERS S-CONTAINMENT DRAIN
S-STEAM DRUM
TANK
6--PRESSURIZER
7-CHKK ~ A L ~ E
a-pu~p
-ATE
VALVE
Fig. 7 NS Savannah steam generating equipment
n9. 6 NS Savannah system arrangement
~ig.5
Shematic diagram of NS Savannah reactor circuit
set for land-besed nuclear power plants and in addition

the shock and vibration from
are made to
motion of the ship.
~h~ ~ a v a n first
~ ~ core
s
contahed 17,000 lb of
uranium-~35.
~ u r i n gits
,anium, of which 668 lb
useful life, about 130 lb of uranium-23S could be fissioned
cruise
within the core. with one loading she
300,000 nautical miles at a speed of 21 knots, increasing
to 23 knots when necesssry. This is equivalent to 12
the e&h at the quator. On such a journey,
trips
in whhh any conventional ship of the same size would
four to five times it. Own weight in fuel, the
saVannd
would use a quantity of nuclear fuel
less than one of her passengem!
~~~~~~~d among the fuel elements within the core
rods (see ~ i 4 and
~ 5).~ These
.
contain
21
neut.nsbsorbing boron. Depending on the position
within the core, a nuclear chain reaction can
of the
or shut down. Neutron detecbe
Cirmib that govern the drive
tom
can
mechanism for the mntml
These
maintain the ,,hain resction automatically at a d&d
level, be it full power for top speed, or just enough power
to run the ship's generating system.
reactor vessel contains the Savannd's
A massive
nuClem core. ~t is 27 ft high and hm an inner diameter
are 6.5 in. thick, with the
of more than g ft. ~ t s
to prevent
clad ~ t h
jH
upper head Of the reactor
the
core.
removable to permit loading and
~ o water
t
from the reactor (hot-water) loop is
circulated through a boiler wheresome of its heat is giver'
up to make steam in a separate (steam) loop. This
design isolates the turbine and engine room from any
radioactive materials in the reactor, for there is no 'per'
loop. Two
path from the hot-water loop to the
heat exchangers with independent pumps Were
to ensure reliable cooling of the reactor core.
per hour
boilers generate UP to 265,850 lb Of
PRSSUW varying from TI5 to 445 psi.
The Savannah's reactor and other system
that may contain radioactive materials are enclosed in
containment vessel. I n it are the reactor core in it'
the stem'
pressure vessel, the water Pumps, the
d r u m , and the p m u r k e r . F*re
shows how 'Omp ~ t l tyh a e parts tWe fitted into the containment
, ft long and 35 f t in
It a 1-e s t r ~ t u r e50.5
and its walls are carbon steel UP to 28 in. thick that
designed to contain an intemd pressure Of 18' psi'
a completO
This is more p m s w than would result
system'
rupture of the reactor's
When in operation, a nuclear Core gives off neutron#
unlavl properLy
and gamma rays that could cause
confined. Gamma radiation also is given Off by thn
Th"
radioactive materials that result
function of shielding to confioe these radiations
CO~~OS~O
The
~.
permit routine operation of the ship and to protect the

passengers and crew- The Savannah has two distinct
rats Of shields. The first is built around the reactor
vassel. It reduces the escape of neutrons and gamma
*diation s a c i e n t l y to permit the crew to enter the
Wntainment v ~ s e for
l short times after the reactor is
#hut down. The secondary shielding is outside the
sontainment
vmsel. It would serve to reduce personnel
exposure to radiation should a reactor accident release
radioactive materials within the containment vessel.
The primary shidd consists of a layer of water 33 in.
Chiok,
by a layer of lead. The secondary
lhielding is a combination of lead and polyethylene
lPreund
the upper pa* of the containment vessel and
oanorete around the lower portion.
Any
power plant creata radioactive wa~tes.
"'la
and 'lothing, used m i n s from water purifiers,
wiping
and other items may become contaminated
with rradiwtivit~. The standard practice is to collect
most such wastea for disposal, usually by burial on land.
liquid. and gases are also created during
BlMtor 'peration.
Some wastes are so slightly radio&Otive that
can be mixed with air or water and be
di'ohW& to the air or sea- The Savannah is equipped
OO1lect and store wastes, or to release them in diluted
Because there was no practical experience with marine

Of
Power, the Savannah was equipped with
WJXiliary electric "take home" power to bring her back
port
there be difficulty with her ~eactor. An
@isotric
motor was coupled to the reduction gear by means
a
so that the electric motor could drive the
m ~ l l e ar t a modest speed in the event of a failure in
mode of operation. Two diesel generators
WeM provided
furnish electrical needs and operate a
meling pump for the reactor.
BY virtue of its history of application in U. S. naval

vessels and the NS Savannah, the pressurized-water
reactor is a prime candidate for merchant &ips. ~h~
PWR offers the attractive characteristics of having a
light-water moderator and coolant, high power density,
and ability to follow the load. ~t is also
by high capital cost, high stored energy in the coolant,
and production of low-pressure saturated steam.
Considerable study work has been performed to
improve the design of marine prmurized-water reactors.
The primary innovation hae been the inclusion of a
once-through type heat emhanger in the reactor pressure
veasel. The operation of such a system was tested by
the German ship 0th Hahn in late 1967. hi^ change
should significantly reduce the capital costand size of
a marine PWR.
3.2 The Babcock 8 Wileox CNSG pressurized-water
Reactor [40, 41, 421. The Consolidated Nuclear Steam
Generator (CNSG) is a compact gressurized-water

reactor that is designed for merchant marine appliestions. The CNSG incorporates a once-through steam
generator which produces superheated steam at a
constant pressure over the entire operating load range.
The complete CNSG system consists of the reactorwith
its integrhl steam generator, pressurizer, reactor coolant
pumps, control and safety systems, amiliaw systems,
and instrumentation. The reactor can be shopassembled to impmve the quality control and minimize
the erection time. The compact vapor suppression
system provides both neutron attenuation and enew
containment at greatly reduced post-accident
The CNSG uses low-enriched fuel
fuel
costs approximately 40 percent below conventional fuel
costs.
The reactor for the Geman nuclear ship 0th ~~h~
is of the CNSG type.
The CNSG discussed herein was designed to power a
MARINE ENGINEERING
153
dance with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,

Elimination of field assembly and welding of the
Hootion 111, Nuclear Vessels. The vessel is fabricated primary system with the attendant problems of quality
Prom carbon steel and is clad on the inside with stainless control for the reactor coolant boundary.
Elimination of any significant source of cold reactor
The pressure vessel consists of a 162-in. I D cylindrical coolantkater that might cause a reactivity excursion.
nl~ellapproximately 69 in. thick, having an ellipsoidal
Limiting of the physical "target" size of the reactor
bottom head and an ellipsoidal top section.
coolant system as a consideration in ship collision
The suppression chamber of the containment is formed accidenb.
by the dry-well vessel and an outer concentric cylindrical
1, addition to the foregoing feat-,
the
preesure vesael- Venting
from the dry well pmw-suppremion
mangement for the CNSG proto the s u ~ ~ m i chamber
on
consist of pipea attached to
for m e r e containment at greatly reduced
(~~enings
in the d r ~ e lVW8el
l
wall and extending into incident p-ures
thus decreasae the magnitude of
the suppression water. lK-pressure rupture disks the driving force forand
h i o n product leakage and of resultt l o m d l ~seal these vent penetrations for humidity ing fission
dispersion. ~h~ decreased size of the
nontrol in the dry
and prevent bakeow of the containment
structure also enhances the ability of the
fluppreasionwater at extreme ship roll attitudes.
surrounding ship's structure to provide collision protecThe shielding design of the CNSG includes the use of tion.
I(jd,
water, concrete, and steel. Operational shield
3.3 . The c~~~~~~~~~
E~~~~~~~~~~ U N I M ~ presD
r"quinmsnts at
elevation a= met by the Con- surized-Water
Reartor 1431, with the ~
~
~
liderable quantity Of
in the equipment, Engineering UNIMOD preasurized-water reactor, plant
"le s"pp-ion
water in the mntainment, and the compaction is achieved by employing a self-pre88ul-ized
noncmte
The suppression water e f f ~ t i v e l y
reactor with the heat exchanger located within the
*ttenuatea the
flux, and the
shell
is
reactor
vessel. The elimination of external primary-loop
"lsd to
gamma rayS and opera ti^
components reduces the radioactive volume requiring
(fimw) gamma rays to
levels- The lead shielding and, hence, the shield size and weight. The
clllield furnished is for post-accident shielding.
reactor vessel with surrounding shielding is completely
The 270-mw(t) CNSG core is composed of 32 fuel encapsulated by the containment vessel.
Water within
uaaembly and 32 Cluster
The core has an the containment vessel provides a rwemoir for vapor
nlluivalent diameter of about 70 in. and an active length suppreeaion as well as providing part of the shielding.
of 84 in. The total contained uranium is 12,583 kg at
The reactor fuel is uranium dioxide
in stainaverage enrichment of about 4.1 percent. Radial lem steel tubing. ~h~ active fuel region is 42 in. in
Power flattening is accomplished by zone loading with diameter and 60 in. hi&. ~h~ twepasscore contains
61 fuel assemblies of which 36 are in the first pass.
CONTROL ROD DRIVE
the turbine at a 'Onstant

pressure OVUr
power level videe steam
permitted "('
105,m-shp containership. The
the
entire
load
range,
the
steam
system
is
for thh Shp requirement is 270 mw(t)pressure that is lower than
of the CNSG. The unique feature of have a desi%n
the steam design p"ssmes
the more
the CNSG isthat the major components
(which are ~ h a r a c t e rby
i ~increasing
~~
pressures at
vessel
as
shown
on
system are located within the reactor
on
powers).
he
steam
generaor
is
made
up
drives
Fig. 8. Primsry
and
coils
of
tubes
connected
to
feedwater
and
reactor fuel is lowsection mlLy
the top of the
vessel.
~ i The
~ Reactivity
~ ~ contml
l ~ is~ sheets
.
in four separate cimits' Each
emiched UOr
with
movablec~uster control rods and f&d operate independently Operation with One' two' "I
accomplished by
three sections is feasible if one unit must be isolated
lumped burnable poisons. of the oncethrough, forced- any reason. The tubes are made Of Incone'' whi(ll'
better heat transfer' and lig""a
The
generator is
in the aonular space permits thinner walls,
circulation type and is
than
'Ore and cOntr"l
betweeo the core and pressmv ~ e l .The once- weight
The reactor Vessel contains the
superspace' and ''I
thmugh desip enables the
to
turbine rods, steam generator, prmsurizer
heated
which
permits
an
improved
generahr'
I''''
provides a greatermargin for load changes internal suPPo*s for the 'Ore,
eECiency and
is desiwd in
*rithout moisture carry-over. since the generator pro- control rod drive line. The
of
MARINE ENGINEERING
most desirable, consistent with available
CIRCULATING
S t e m flow to the propulsion turbine is regulated at the

turbine throttle. The steam pressure is maintained
within a relatively narrow central band by regulating the
feedwater flow through a vanabledelivery feed pump'
h. crm ueim c#nbus+im E&me,-ing UNIMOD r e d o r
With a decrease in steam demand, for example, the steam
pressure will tend to increase, which provides the signal
to the feed pump for decreased flow. As a result, 10s~
along the total length of the exchanger, heat is removed from the stem generator and tho
an
into three downcomers located between each pair of primary water leaving the steam generator and
heaterchanger
out through the three pumps, the 'Ore
in temperature' The
is a
decresae in 'Ore power to match demand'
back into the r e ~ t o vessel
r
and down to the core idet.
The resotor vessel is
inside the
h i c
With reduced load on the steam generator, the
extends mund the vess%l, pumps, md the cold shut- inlet temperature rism, the reactor power d e c r e a s ~and
)
The average 'On'
the
core
outlet
temperature
falls.
~h~
space
between
the
canned
down mechanisms.
compensate for the reactivity
vessel assembly and the containment wall is filled with temperature rism slightly
gain
due
to
the
Doppler
broadening
effect and the
berated waterto a level above the reactor vessel h d .
remains
critical
a
t
the
reduced
Power
level. With
by
iron
and
~h~ principal radiation shielding is
water with lead added in local m a s for additional m
a self-pressurized rmctor, the reactor prmsure is detarattenuation. The reactor vessel, heat exchanger, and mined by the core outlet temperature. Hence, the
vessel intemals
a measurable contribution to the reactor pressure d r o p a t decre&aed power. Tho
shielding. Steel slabs rn employed in the annular primary loop, consisting only of the leactor, pumps, allll
region between the pressure vessel and Containment once-through steam generator, forms a self-contairld
vessel for the additional attenuation. The containment power regulating system with the negative feedbaok
by the inherent characteristics of the syst~nl
vessel is 16 ft in diameter and 34 ft high.
I n UNIMOD a major step h~ been made toward components. NO separate pressurizer is required and 1 1 ~
sidplifying principal components to permit maximum
functions need be imposed on this system.
utilization of factory preassembly. The total assembled
tion on for the much slower changes in nuclaw
weight of the plant is only 325 long tons and offers the characteristics due to fuel burnup is similarly ~rovidotl
This would mean
choice
of could
one-piece
installation.
UNIMOD
be prassnted
aa a complete uoit prior by self-regulating changes in moderator density. Fix*'
burnable poison in the core minimizes the total
the
to shipboard installation. adapt
For naturally
most
to assembly change due to fuel burnup. The excess reactivity
plant
has been
designedminimum interoonneotion. F~~ meawed relative to the end of the Core lifetime.
by modules
requiring
vessel assembly, shielding, and cold-to-hot reactivity control is provided by the poiw'l'example, the
four rnodulm, surmounted movable fuel clusters and represents tt'r
containment vessel can be installed
each weighing less than 10 long tons. The optimum only mechanical rod motion required for leactor
number of modules for a p&iculm application will The rods are fully withdrawn in coming up to the '''I'
depend upon the deof concumnt fabrication and condition and remain So during operation.
'
155
MARINE ENGINEERING
because Of the phase
larger pressure vessel would
in th('
change and the requirement to condense the
internal once-through stetirn generator.
~ l t h considerable
~ ~ ~ h experience with central-statio~l
direct-cycle plants has been obtained, there remains
reserve with regard to their application aboard ship.
The fact that the engine room would be a
area and thus require more planning of mutine inspectioll
is contrary to the usual ship policy. There also exist''
doubt whether isolation valves can be provided whici'~
tb'!
in the event of a nuclear accident, could
reactor compartment from the mmhinery mom. Rul"
NO. 501 of the "Provisional Rules for the C1assificatiO'l
of Nuclear Ships" of Lloyd's Register of ShippiT'~
whiol'
essentially states that plant components
the primary coolaht flows must be placed in the
ment vessel. Under this ruling, one would conclude that
only moto~generahrdrives could be considered for
direct-cycle marine BWR. It is anticipated that thca'
restrictions and reservations with regard to diroctl
nuclear marine cycles Can be removed with engineerilly
and development work, but the cost Of such
cannot be estimated.
A BW1'
f. Direct-Cycle BWR Radiation
reactor can be designed to operate within the allowable
dose rates set by the AEC and can be operated
board ship. However, the indirect-cycle PWRsystoTr'~
with suppression of disassociation gases by the use
hydrogen, stores small volumes of noncOndensibl'!*l
"
including radioactive gases, prior to
I'c%u~~,
gaseous waste discharge to the atmosphere il' "
negligible- Nevertheless, tl'i'
PWR system is
low level is far beyond the requirements for safety. ' I '
t~l!a
the case of the BWR system, fission gas leakage
fuel is unavoidably diluted with disassociated hydroW
is I'
oxygen. With normal air inleakage, the
me effectthat forced circulation produces on the and
w''''
measurable
r
e
k
a
~
Of
e
gaseous
Waste
which,
reectormpome is dependent on the pump characterand whether primary-driven jet pumps or within allowable limits, is significantly higher than It
istic
It may be expected t"ntl
feedwater-driven jet pumps are used. Feedwater-driven comparable P w R system.
jet pumps have the large advantage of eliminating difficulty will be encountered with licensing and i'*ifil
recimulation lines. The volume savings and reliability port entry without the benefit of a pmtotype react"r
which result from using feedwater-driven jet pumps are demonstration.
Concept'r
3.5 Appraisal of other Marine
more significant in a marine reactor than the capital C O S ~
reduction which may result from the removal of the All reactor Concepts other than the PwR, BW1'l
'Ir
gas-cooled thermal reactor have the disadvantage of ~ ' ( l b
recirculation lines.
lL irr
additional advantage of forced circulation is the having land-based predecessom (46, 479 481.
flow, his means highly unlikely that such systems would be abl(' '*I
of contmlling
that the plant can be instrumented to make a load change obtain acceptance without first being operated as cer"ml
movement. Reduced md move- station plants, unless they possessed extremely attractive
without requiring
merit makes the system safer and more reliable while characteristics. However, since consideration has b'n'h
given to these plants by othen, some remarks concerrli~k~
reducing wear on the control rod drives.
other possibilities are ifi order. There are two s~st('sla
either
naturalor
forcede. ~ f i cycle.
~ ~ t
circulation systems, the direct cycle must be used to be which have been considered in some detail, marinc gIs
economically competitive with the PWR. The savings cooled reactors and organic moderated marine
The marine gas-cooled reactor (MGCR) Program w"'
of recirculation
would mult from the
undertaken
to develop a high-temperature, gas-cOOll"l~
lines and pump in the naturd-ciroulation indirect
systemwould not overcome the disadvantages i n d u c e d . closed-cycle gas turbine Power Plant [49]- The pndn"'
I"
l-hese disdvantages are in the form of a variable- was initiated in 1958, and in late 1960 was
The reactor wua
of
reactor
development.
the
status
The
demity moderator and a. larger prmure vessel.
of the effects
~ l t h there
~ ~ is ~a good
h
that ship motionhave on reactor operational characteristia, it is anticipated that substantial work in this area
will be required in a marine BWR program.
d. p o n e d - ~ f i C ~ ~ system.
On
me capital costs
for the additional hardW- necessw for forced circulation on amdl land-based plants [less than 250 mw(t)]
being too large in
generally
have been
c o m p ~ s o nto the total capital investment to wammt
using them. l-his generalization is probably not true in
the case of a marine BWR, for a number of r e ~ O ~ One
.
originates from the
of the more important
problem of oontainment size. The P m s ~ ~ for a
is fixed by the requiment
,turd-circulation
that freesurface separation be used, and therefore an
increased power density doee not decrease the vessel
height.
diameter and has only slight effects on
in
the
p.essure
vessel
l-he amountof water
for the natural-circulation plant could be much as three
timee that contained in a. high-power-density system.
l-his amountof additional water can have comiderable
on the containment cost. Marine water reactors
usually have high containment pmsures (about 144
psig) because of the limited space available for containment volume.
separaA high-power-density BWR, using
tion and foxed cimulation, can improve the situation
considerably, since the amount of pressurized water can
be reduced. ~t also has more flexibility in the pressure
drop in its recimulation loop. For the latter reason,
several methods are available to stabilize the reactor as
well as to reduce the
of ship motion. A comiderable reduction in the effect of ship motion on power
has been obtained through use of forced circula-

'Ieo moderated and was a 10.5-~exentenriched UO.
l'olium-cOoledplant. The reactor exit temperature was
be 1500 F~witha thermal efficiencyof 36.2 percent.
('onsiderable
development work in both the
lmoactorand turbomachinery was necessary.
The EBoRE project wa. an
gas-cooled
Program- Although the reactor
"ld plant were attractive from a weight and volume
'handpoint, the BeO moderator and 10.5-percent
"llriched
fuel entail a fuel cycle cost and capital cost
which are not Competitive with other nuclear systems.
disadvantage is that the plant was designed for
:r2,000 S ~ and
P would require considerable development
be scaled UP to the 70,000 to 100,000-shp range.
organic-moderated, p~ssure-tubereact~malso have
hencon~idemd~
but owing to the limited information
nvsilable very little can be concluded regarding them
511. The mostattractive feature of this system is
the possibility Of having low stored energy in a high
power level system. This advantage must be weighed
l'uainst
the disadvantages of providing a moderator
"loanup and makeup System, and the C O S ~of making-up
lor the moderator decomposed.
14 '*SafetyConsiderations for ~~~l~~~powerPlants

on Merchant ships, 9, SNAME T&R ~ ~ N
l ~l3-18.
. ~ ~ i
15 U. 8. Atomic E~~~~~
~
Title
~
~
i
~
of Federal Regulations; pa* 20, U. S. G~~~~~~~
Printing Office,Washington, D. C.
16 "Background Material for the Development of
Radiation protection Standar&, 19 ~
~N ~ 1,.~~
~e
rd
Radiation Council, U. S. ~~~~~~~~~t
printing Ofie,
Washington, D. c., 1960.
17 '*Bsokground ~ ~ tfor ~the ~D~~~~~~~~~~
i ~ l of
Radiation protection standar&, * R~~~~ N ~ 5,. Federal
Radiation Council, U. 8. ~~~~~~~~t
printing office?
Washington, D. c., 1964.
18 "Report of Committee 11on Permissible Dose for
Internal Radiation, 1959," publication 2, ~
~
commission on ~ a d i ~ l protection,
~ ~ i ~ ~ Pergamon
l
Press, New york, 1960.
19 "General ~~i~~ criteria for ~~~l~~~Power Plant
Construction Permits," ~ e d ~~~i~~~~
~ ~ ~32FR10213,
l
july 1967.
20 upart 5 & ~ pmUre
~ ~ vessels,j,
l ~ ~Title~
Code of Federal ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ t i ~ ~ .
21 "Part 37-Tank
Vessels," Title 46, Code of
Federal Regulations.
22 ''Part 79-Pm~enger ~&sels,"Title 46, Code of
Glasstone and A. Sesonske, Nuclear Re&r
Federal Regulations.
Dngineering, Van Nostrand, 1963,
23 "Part 99-Cargo Vessels," Title 46, Code of
J. M. Harrer, Nuclear Reactor Control Bngineering, Federal Regulations.
Van Nostrand, 1963.
24 "Maximum Permissible Body Burdens and MaxiA. Schultz,
of Nudear Reactors and mum Permissible Concentratione of Radio-nuclides in
l'ower Plants, McGraw Hill, 1961.
Air and in Water for Occupational Exposure," NBS
GLwtone and
Edlund? Elements of Nuclear Handbook, 69, U. 8. Department of Cornmeroe, U. 8.
lieactor Theorti, Van Nostrand, 1952.
Government Printing Office, 1959.
A. W. Kramer, Boiling Water Readma, Addison
25 'eInternational conference
on safety
of if^ at
Wesley Publishing Co., 1958.
Sea, 1960," Chapter 8 and Annex C.
Bureau of Shipping.
printing Office, 1958.

l1
of High Temperature Gas
Resotom," WASH 1085, U. S. Atomic Energy
commission, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1969.
la 'Maritime Gas Cooled Reactor Project ED-118'ummary, ' EC-l
S~AUS Report, Westinghouse
B10ctric Co., November 1961.
"LMFBR Pmgram
WASH 1101-WAsH
1110, U. s. Atomic EnermCommission, Clearing House
lor Federal scientific and Technical Information,
flpringfleld, Va., 1968.
32 E. K. Sullivan and R. P. Goodwin, "The Nuclem

Merchant Ship Prograq"
to mi^ Industrial F
~
~
Washington, D. C., November 1959.
33 N. B. McLeod, "The Economics of Nuclear Fuel
in Maritime Application," summary
~
~N U S~- ~ ~ ~~A , r
Contract No. PI-MA6384 PB 16g-935.
34 "Nuclear Capital Costs and Co8ts Trends In
Maritime Applications," 2784 Contrsct No. PI-MA66492, PB 173 348, Nuclear Utility Services, October 1966.
35 "Economics of Nuclear ~~~l in ~ a r i t~ i ~~ ~ ~ l i
tiom, " 2658, Nuclear Utility Services.
I!\\!
158
MARINE ENGINEERING
36 "Power Plant Description-NMSR

Project,"
BAW-1122, AEC Contract No. AT (30-3)-274, September, 1958.
37 G. E. Kulynych, "Description of the NS Savannah
NMSR," BAW-1164, Final Safeguards Report, AEC,
Vol. I, I11 through VIII, Contract No. AT(30-3)-274,
June 1960.
38 "Technical Safety Evaluation of the NS
Savannah," 4th Supp., Brussels, European Atomic
Energy Community Euatom, 1966.
39 "The Power Plant for the First Nuclear Merchant Ship (NS Savannah)," Nuclear Merchant Ship
Symposium, Contract No. AT(30-3)-274, August 1958.
40 "The Consolidated Nuclear Steam Generator
11-A Conceptual Merchant Ship Nuclear Reactor
Design." BAW-1280, Contract No. AT(30-1)-3206,
sep&ber 1963.
41 "The Consolidated Nuclear Steam Generator I11
A Conceptual Merchant Ship Nuclear Reactor Design
-Revision. " BAW-1289, (Rev. I), Contract NO.
~~(30-11-3206,December 1963.
42 Proceedings of Conference on Nuclear Marine
Propulsion, C0NF.-640810, August 1964, p. 55.
43 Proceedings of Conference on Nuclear Marine
Propul&on, C0NF.-640810, August, 1964, p. 107.
44 V. A. Mize, B. G. Voorhees, and F. Weinzimmer,
"Marine Boiling Water Reactor Nuclear Propulsion
System for 60,000 DWT Tanker," paper presented to

the Philadelphia Section of SNAME, February 1960.
45 '22,000 SHP Marine Boiling Water Reactor
Power Plant for Commercial Tanker, " Preliminary Plant
Descri~tion, Contract No. AT(04-3)-196, General
~ l e c t k CO:,
c August 1958.
46 "Nuclear Powered Tanker-Design and Economic
Analysis-Pressurized
Water Reactor,' George G.
Sharp, Inc., Contract No. AT(30-1)-2379, NYO-2860,
Combustion Engineering Co., January 1960.
47 Frederic de Hoffman, "Gas-Cooled Reactor
Concepts, * General Atomics Division, Nuclear-Powered
Merchant Ships Symposium, Washington, D. C., July
1957.
48 "Evaluation of Coolants and Moderators for the
Maritime Gas-Cooled Reactor," GA-570, Contract No.
AT(04-3)-187, General Atomics, December 1958.
49 K. A. Trickett, "A Review of the Maritime GasCooled Reactor Program," Maritime Gas-Cooled Reactor
Program, General Atomic Division, GA-2603, Contract
No. AT(04-3)-187, December 1961.
50 R. J. Gimera and R. E. Stanbridge, "Reference
Design for an OMR-Powered 38,000 DWT Tanker,"
NAA-SR-1851, Atomics International Division, Contract No. AT(11-1)-GEN 8, March 1957.
51 "Maritime Organic Moderated and Cooled Reactor," NAA-SR-3859, Contract No. AT(l1-1)-GEN-8,
Atomics International, May 1959.
CHAPTER V
I.
Steam Turbines
Section 1
Nonreheat Main Propulsion Turbines
1.1 Introduction. Although the early development
of steam power utilized the reciprocating steam engine as
s prime mover, the inherent advantages of the steam
turbine soon became apparent and have made it the
ohoice for all large modern steam propulsion plants.
Turbines are not size limited and can be provided for any
power rating up to the maximum likely to be encountered
in marine service. High steam pressures and temperatures can be accommodated safely and are limited only
by boiler problems. Rotary motion is simpler than
reciprocating motion and the unbalanced forces (that
produce vibration) which are present in many reciprooating machines can be eliminated in the turbine. I n
sddition, the turbine can efficiently utilize a low exhaust
pressure, and is characterized by light weight, minimum
apace, and low maintenance.
~h~ -fine
turbine operates in
with
the same basic fundamentals as its land-based counterparts in central station and industrial applications but
differs in many important respects. This chapter
emphasizes those features and characteristics peculiar to
marine applications which are derived from the special
requirements of marine propulsion or auxiliary drives.
The science, and often art, of turbine design is a highly
rpecialized field and a number of textbooks have been
devoted almost entirely to this subject [I-81.l Space
IImitations prohibit a complete, detailed treatment of
turbine design and, therefore, the scope of this chapter is
limited to information useful to marine engineers, owners,
and operators in connection with the application and
operation of marine steam turbines.
Turbines are umd to propel many types of vessels
having widely varying requirements with respect to
power, economy, weight, and arrangement. In the
dection and development of a turbine design for a
8geciiic application, the following factors must be
oonsidered:
(3) The turbine throttle steam pressure and temperature.

(4) The steam cycle arrangement, together with the
number and location of extraction points and
corresponding steam flows.
(5) The turbine exhaust vacuum for design purposes.
(6) The type of power transmission to the propeller.
(7) The astern operating requirements.
(8) Spacelimitations of the engineroom arrangement.
(9) The importance of machinery weight and size.
This chapter deals with the effects of these and other
factors upon the design of turbines.
1.2 Steam Conditions. Ever since the early days
of the steam turbine, efforts have been made fo improve
the steam conditions in order to increase the economy of
the power plant. Steam conditions of marine steam
power plants have tended to advance about every ten
years, with each advance followed by a period during
which experience has been obtained and the knowledge
gathered for another forward step.
Increasing the steam Pressure will reduce the heat rate
and steam rate until a pressure of about 2500 psig is
reached. A rough rule states that "Doubling the pressure will reduce the heat rate by 4-6 percent." More
accurately, a 100-psi increase in initial pressure will
reduce the steam rate by the percentages given in Fig. 1.
The gains decrease as the pressure increases because
the turbine efficiency suffers a t higher pressures. As
steam pressures increase, the specific volume of the
steam decreases; therefore, the nozzles and blades become
smaller a6d less efficient. A limiting pressure is reached
for every capacity of turbine a t which the gain due to the
improvement in Pressure is offset by the decrease in
internal efficiency. For this reason, higher initial
pressures may be used more effectively on large turbines.
The initial pressures given in Table 1are recommended
as practical upper limits for various sizes of propulsion
(1) The maximum ahead power needed to provide units. It should be noted, however, that somewhat
the desired ship's speed.
lower pressures are determined to be optimum when all
(2) The relative amounts of time spent a t maximum of the economic factors are considered. The pressures
power and reduced cruising powers.
given in the table have been chosen because thev ~ e r m i t
reasonable utilization of the pipe flange andAvalve
1 Numbere in brackets deaignate References at end of chapter.
dimensional standards of the American National
MARINE ENGINEERING
STEAM TURBINES
100 F INCREASE IN INITIAL TEMPERATURE
1100
VARY WITH CHROME.MOLY. CO#POSITION.

LIMITS ARE INDICATED BY THE SHADED AREAS.
CHROMEMOLY.
MOISTURE EXCEEDS 12%
MOLY.
INITIAL
750
TEMPERATURE
R ~ u in
& *am
~
rot. far i n u a d inHial prasure or -Proturn
-STANDARD STEAM CONDITIONS
CARBON
STEEL
Table 1
Recommended Initial Steam Pressures
INITIAL
PREBBURE,
RATEDBHP
PBIG
in Fig. 2. The r e d a t o n ,
8tandsrds Institute as
bodies require adherence to these standards for merchant
marine propulsion units.
Increashg the initial temperature will a h reduce the
hest rate and steam rate. As an approximation, a 15 deg
F increase in temperatwe at full power or a 25 deg F
d l result in a 1-pnent d e
increase at lower
M~~
accurately, a 100 deg F
crease in
rate
reduce the
increase in initial temperature
by the percentages given in Fig. 1.
unlike a change in initial pressure, a change ternafiects the specifio volume only a relativdy
amount. a rssult, the physical dimensions of
the parts
,,hanged only slightly, and an increase in
both
initial temperature d l improve the economy
large and small turbines about equally. Part of the
from an increase in
reduction in heat rate
is
i,,itial temperature
(at constant initial
from
caud
by an increase in turbine
present in the lower pressure
a reduction in the
stages. ~h~ rem~nderis due to the increase in the
available energy.
For a given initial pressure, t h m is a minimum initial

temperature below which the moisture content in the
low-pree8ure
of the turbine is sufficient to 12aw
r n d e a b l e erosion of turbine blades and lo= of &age
efficiency. A moisture content of 12 pement in the
exhaust is often accepted as limiting, and the c o r n
spnding minimum initial temperature. m Y be noted
from .Fig. 2. Certain combinstions Of P m u r e and
temperature have become widely accepted; these s b &fied conditions are indicated in Fig. 2. Although
'perate at
marine s t a m turbines can be designed
Or
higher)
practical
pmblems
in
tempemtms of
of
marine
boilers
tend
to
impose
an
the
upper limit Of g") F.
Concern has been expresad reg*ding the sudden
imposition of high tempersture upon a
astern turbine and exhaust casing; however, it is pomible
to accommodate the thermal shock and rapid e*ansion
without either distress or distortion1.5 Exhaust Vacuum. A moderate vacuum of
Hg
become pneraly accepted
a deaiy'
basis for merchant ProPuLaion turbines. This selectiol'
mmprOmLa 'Onis considered a reasonable
sidering the worldwide varbtionin seawater tempemtwo
of h d h * and mndensin13
and the she, weight, and
equipment.
LOWseawater t e m ~ e m t m
Perfit Uhvacuum
conversely, high seawater t e m p e ~ l ~ ~
limit
~
attainable Vacuum. It is often mcdtat the 'Onremsin On
~trU~ti0n to assure that the
specific trade route t h u g h o u t its useful life; therefom)
it is generally conaidered drsLable to design for 1'
PRESSURE, PSIG
Rg
Standard 'team carditim in relatiail t0 preUUrshmperatura service ratings for ANSI s*dard
valw, a d fltlings
good vacuum- In special cases where

SOrviceis limited
areas of low seawater temperature,
the increased
and weight of turbines designed for
higher than
vacuum should be subjected to an
oconomic evaluation.
The spec5c
Of steam increases rapidly as the
vacuum is impr0vd. For example, an ~ncreaseof from
28
in'
meM:W'
to a 30-in- barometer)
practically doubles the sPec5c volume. TOhandle this
at full load, it necessary
to increase pr0porti0nallY the flow areas of the turbine
atages at the exhaust end. A more detailed discussion
of exhaust losses is given in Section 1.7.
It is customry for high-speed, lightweight naval
to I'nakesome sacrifice ih economy by accepting a
hi@er exhaust Pressure (generally 2-5 P&) at hi&
power in Order to reduce the weight and size of turbines
condensers. At cruising Powers where economy is
more important, the vacuum approaches merchant
levels due to the reduced condenser loading.
vacuum is
for reasons other than
Oconomy. When the
element is developing
power, the ahead blading is being driven backward in
at essentiallJ' exhaust Premure. If the vacuum is
poor, the wiodage losses of the ahead &ages d l cause
fiangas,
more rapid heating and may limit the allowable qeed

or period of
operstion.
1.4 Nonextmdon Steam ~
~ when
t
~the . rated
full power, the initial steam conditions, and the exhaud
vacuum have been selected, it is possible to establish the
steam rate which may be
from well-designed
equipment. Figure 3 gives typical nondraction
rates for merchant type, geared-turbine units designed
for optimum pefiormnoe at full power with a
balance between efficiency,size, weight, and cost. ~h~
reduction in steam rate with improved steam conditions
is easily seen as well as the decrease in steamrate which
is po&ble with higher powered units. A method for
estimating s h m rates at other conditions is given in
reference [g] and chapkr 2.
Merchant vessels generally operate at or near full
power most of their service life; therefore, pefiormence
at partial loah tends to be leas important. A typical
variation in steam mte at fractional
that
representative of turbine designs which incorporate no
special features to enhance
pefiormnce
nozzle contml is shown by the
other than fiwdage
curve marked ~strsigh~thmugh,,in Fig. 4. When
partbl-power performanCeis impofimt, as in the case
of naval combatant vessels, Evemi means my be
163
STEAM TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
RATED FULL POWER. SHP
h.
TurEne ,barn raw, nwxtrocting, for merchaWPe
wed
turEna
ENTROPY
fig. 6 Turbine condition cum-reheat
cycle
steam plant cycle as discussed in Chapter 2. Connections for this purpose are provided at turbine stages
where the pressure is appropriate to the intended use.
Often, it will be found that the number of stages and the
corresponding stage pressures selected by the turbine
designer to give optimum turbine performance will result
Rg. 5 Typical extraction stage pressure c u m
in the desired extraction pressure falling between two
stages. Ip this case, it is usually best to select either the
higher or lower stage pressure rather than disturb the
amployed to move the point of optimum steam rate to a turbine design.
partial power and to reduce the low-power steam rates.
In general, stage pressures vary almost linearly with
Possibilities include an excess in total wheel speed at the apparent flow beyond the extraction point, and a
full power, the interstage bypass, the series-parallel curve such as Fig. 5 may be obtained from the turbine
turbine, and the two-row/onerow control stage. Dis- deaigner. In choosing the proper turbine stage for each
POWER FRACTION
,R
ramv-
power fra-
d various Wpes d tu&mn
STEAM TURBINES
hi = hw - E.L.
A straight line joining the "top point" and the "state

l i l k ~end
initial pressure ( P 3 and initial temperature (TI). A

state line "top point" is then plotted at initial enthalpy
and 90 percent of the initial pressure.
The "used energy" per pound of steam may be found
steam rate X external efficiency
EXHAUST PRESSURE
valve and piping arrangement to shift each system from

one turbine stage to another as the power varies.
The converse of extraction, called induction, wherein
excess steam in the plant is introduced to the turbine, *
generally discouraged. While this may improve the
heat balance, it (1) tends to congest the last stages of the
turbine, (2) may introduce large slugs of water from
syshms and thereby cause bid damage, and
(3) requires an automatic control valve to prevent
induction when at standstill, operating astern, or in the
event of turbine overspeed.
1.6 Condition Cuwe. The Mollier chart * a
representation of pressures, temperatures,
of s t , . ~t & consuperheat, and
heat
point" of steam
venient to plot on this ,,hart the
at any stagein the turbine; when th& & done for d l
stages of the turbine, a line drawn through the= points
is called the "condition curve" Or "state line. "
cwesn
for rated full power and for
The
powem are urnally obtain& fmm the turbine
desiper. They are
in defining the characteristics
of
throughout the turbine,
at, extrtwtion points and at the turbine exhaust.
In the eventthat a rnndition curve is not available, an
approximation of the fdl-power condition c-e
may be
made for preliminary pwp"as indic&hd in Fi. 6.
The initw point is esbbli&ed at the intersection of the
The external efficiency accounts for turbine bearing

losses as well as mechanical losses in reduction gears, and
for electric drive installations includes the motor and
generator losses. If these external losses are not known,
the following assumptions may be made:
TYPE OF DRIVE
EXTERNAL
EFFICIENCY
Gear drive, single reduction
Gear drive, double reduction
Electric drive
External efficiency at ~ s r t i a powera
l
may be approxiby varying the external loss (one minus external
efficiency) at full power as the 1.7 power of the propellor
speed.
~ h ,thalpy
,
of steam exhausted to the main Condenser is
h, = h, - used energy
The exhaust loss is caused by the velocity energy in
steam leaving the last row of blades which cannot b"
is converted to
recovered as useful work but
friction.
Exhaust loss
by dissipation in eddies and
includes any preasure-d~oplosses between the last who(r1
exit and the exhaust flange- The magnitude of the Ovor=
all loss depends upon the particular turbine desi~"l
steam flow, and exhawt vacuum.
a typical memhant propulsion turbine
total exhaust loss (E.L.) at full power with rated ~ x h a u ~ ( ~
vacuum is about 12 Btu/lb and at partia1 powers vari"*
flow I*'
approximately ae the Square of the ratio of
the absolute exhaust PressureThe enthalpy of s t a m at the "state line end point "
'*
point" gives a reasonable approximation to the

c~onditioncurve. The nature of the deviation from an
~UJ~urate
Curve is indicated by the dashed line in Fig. 6
ltlld is caused by the inability to obtain an average stage
nlliciency in the first and last stages of the turbine.
Il'ig~re6 also indicates the trend of the condition
~ u r v eat partial powers. Note that a t very low powers,
if the initial temperature remains constant, the exhaust
Irluby be superheated.
1.7 Exhaust Loss. Among the factors which deter1lliflethe efficiencyand size of a turbine, the exhaust loss
ifi one of the more important. Machines designed to
uporate economically at high vacuums are inherently
Ifir~l;er,but more efficient. For this reason the designer
Illuat strike a balance between the required economy and
llllo weight and size of the unit. In general, units
(Ifl~iWed
to operate during a large portion of their life at
lli~herpowers should have ample exhaust areas, whereas
rlllits which generally operate a t reduced power may be
tlo~ignedwith smaller exhausts, because the exhaust loss
reduces rapidly as the load decreases.
An understanding of the effects of high volumetric
lollding per unit of exhaust amulus area is useful. To
Illustrate, assume that the exhaust pressure of a typical
hrbine is reduced in a series of steps. Three conditions
B1.u encountered, as illustrated in Fig. 7. In condition I,
the back pressure decreases, the steam velocity (D2)
bh the throat of the last row increases until it equals the
b(R)ustic velocity corresponding to the steam conditions
Lb this point. The steam jet leaves a t the blade exit
Bll~le(7). With a further decrease in back pressure,
r~~resented
by condition 11, the throat pressure and
vO1ocit~remain constant, but expansion now takes
pluce beyond the throat causing an increase in the efflux
Vcrlocity(02") and a deflectionof the jet to angle r
8".
Qsudition 111is reached with a further decrease in back
ProSSure, when the axial component of the efflux velocity
peaches the acoustic velocity. Any further decrease in
bnak pressure will result in expansion in the exhaust
Or at the condenser inlet, but there d l be no
ol''mge in the conditions a t the exhaust annulus; and,
UlOmfore~ the steam rate d l not be affected. Thk
ee~lditionis sometimes referred to as "choking.
Turbine last-stage annulus areas ordinarily are sized
lo
6000 to 8000 lb/hr of s b m per square
fa* annulus area at 1.5 in. Hg abs; for other back
t)mssures, this range
vary inversely as the
bbnolutepressure. The lower of these values ~epreeents
mohineswhich have a very low exhaust loss and are
dfJni@edfor normal operation a t full load. The higher
Vrlue represents machines that, for economy in weight
and size, are designed with relatively small exhaust hoods
,nd are expected to operate at reduced load for the major
portion of their life.
Equivalent Nonextraction Sleam Rate. WhenIvm is extracted from a turbine, there is a
( A ~ D =, RATED STEAM
ASTERN
100
100
AHEAD
%AHEAD RATED R.P.M.
ASTERN
fig.
8 Turbine br4ue-ve~n-rpmrekatio&pr
1
reduction in the exhaust flow as compared with nonextraction operation at the same power; therefore, there
is a corresponding decrease in exhaust loss. hi^
improvement in p&omance is reflected in the so-called
* ~ u i v a l e n nonextrmtion
t
steam rate, which may be
1-2 percent less than the unonextractionsteamrate,, at
the same power. The equivalent nonextraction steam
rate, therefore, is based upon specific extraction steam
quantitim required by the pafiioular steamcycle and
power for each application and should be used in heatbalance ca!culations when extraction is involved.
1.9 Toyue and Speed Characteristics. ~h~ inherent
ability of steam turbines to maneuver rapidly is due to
their speed-brque chmacteristics. Curves of turbine
output torque for typical ahead and astern turbines are
plotted against speed in Pig. 8 at rated ahead steam flow,
The curves for the astern turbine show that the torque
available to decelerate the unit while it is still rotating
in the ahead direction increases as the ahead speed from
which the maneuver stads is increased. A similar
relationship for the ahead turbine torque assists in
decelerating the unit from astern rotation.
1.10 Machinery Arrangements. The steam turbine
is essentially a -speed
machine, whereas the propeller
MARINE E,NGlNEERlNG
is most efficient a t low rprns. In the early part of this

century, before the development of speed-reducing
devices, a direct drive was necessary. This inefficient
compromise produced large, heavy turbines operating
far below their most efficient speeds, while propellers of
small diameter turning at turbine speeds gave a poor
propulsive efficiency.
Hydraulic reduction was considered in the early days
but has had only limited application, chiefly because of
the low efficiency when compared to other forms of
speed reduction. Electric drive has enjoyed much wider
application than hydraulic drive, usually for special
annlications,
but reduction gearing is the common choice
-r r
for higher-powered installations.
Steam turbines, reduction gears, shafting, and propellers form a closely related system; and if an optimum
overall system design is to be achieved, it is important
that the total system requirements be considered in the
development of each component. This relates not only
to physical arrangement and choice of speeds, but also
to such things as the vibratory characteristics of the
overall system.
The most common geared steam turbine arrangement
is the compound unit consisting of a high-pressure
turbine and a low-pressure turbine driving a single
fixed-pitch propeller through reduction gears and shafting. A complete astern turbine generally is provided in
the l~w-~ressure
turbine casing.
I n lieu of the compound arr'angement, all of the ahead
and astern blading may be provided in a single casing at
a small sacrifice of 1-2 percent in efficiency. This
arrangement is suitable for rated outputs up to about
20,000-22,000 shp and offers a number of advantages
including decreases in space, weight, and cost, reductions

in oil and steam piping, and simpler foundations.
At least three arrangements of the low-pressure turbine
and condenser are in use. I n one, the low-pressure
turbine is supported by longitudinal girders forming an
integral part of its lower casing; the girders are supported
by foundation structure at the forward end and by the
gear casing at the aft end. This arrangement permits
the condenser to be hung from and located below the
turbine and has the advantage that thermal expansion of
the condenser does not affect the turbinegear alignment.
As an alternative, the turbine may be supported by
the condenser. I n this case, thermal expansion of the
condenser will raise the turbine centerline with respect
to the pinion, and this must be considered in the design
of the flexible couplings between the turbine and pinion.
I n a third arrangement, the condenser is located forward of the low-pressure turbine such that the turbine
exhausts axially into the condenser. This arrangement
has the advantage of reduced overall height but the
disadvantage of increased machinery length.
The detail design of foundations for machinery is tho
responsibility of the ship designer; however, it is in
order for the machinery supplier to review and comment
upon the machinery foundation drawings to ensure that
proper support is afforded the equipment and that no
undesirable restraints are imposed. Emphasis must be
given to the provision of adequate foundation rigidity
to avoid vibration conditions. This is particularly
important with respect to periodic variations in propeller
thrust which may excite longitudinal vibrations in tho
propulsion system. Reference [lo] gives a more complete discussion of foundation principles and problema.
Section 2
Reheat Main Propulsion Turbines
1.1
Reheat Principles. Marine steam propulsion
plants generally are restricted to steam temperatures of

approximately 950 F because of boiler slagging and
corrosion problems arising from fuel impurities, and this
imposes a constraint upon the turbine efficiency. Steam
temperatures higher than 950 F can be permitted with
the use of cIeaner, but more expensive, fuels or by
providing special fuel treatment systems. However, it is
difficult to justify economically either of these two
methods; consequently, if the efficiency of a steam
turbine is to be improved, other approaches must be
considered. The reheat cycle is the best means available
to achieve higher turbine efficiencies and better fuel rates.
I n the reheat cycle, steam is withdrawn from the
turbine after partial expansion and is passed through a
h e exchanger (reheater) where its temperature is
raised; it is then readmitted to the turbine for expansion
to condenser pressure. The increase in cycle efficiency
is due, primarily, to an increase in the mean effective
STEAM TURBINES
temperature at which the heat is added since the reheal.

part of the cycle increases the quantity of heat added nl
higher temperatures. A secondary but important effeoi
is the reduced formation of moisture in the last stages of
the turbine which improves the efficiency of these stago#.
Referring to a typical condition curve for a reheat cyclcr,
Fig. 9, it can be seen that reheat allows the use of high(w
pressures without the problems of higher temperatur~.
If the same moisture content were to be realized in r
straight-through cycle, the initial temperature wouLl
have to be increased from T Ito TI'.
2.2 Turbine Performance. The considerations entoring into the selection of initial steam conditions a ~ a l
vacuum for reheat plants follow those for nonrehnab
units. Marine reheat plants probably will continue to
have more modest steam conditions than land-ba~c~tl
applications because of lower power ratings and tlln
fact that the safety of a ship is dependent upon tl10
reliability of its power plant.
In the case of nonreheat marine power plants, turbine

piwformance is specified in terms of the nonextraction
sbnnm rate. This criterion adequately meets the require~rlonts of plant designers and purchasing activities;
IIII-thermore,it is easily demonstrated on ship trials, and
i tln variations are reflected correctly in that portion of the
I,otal fuel burned for main-propulsion purposes. When
l,lio reheat principle is used, nonextraction steam rate is
no longer a proper criterion of turbine performance, since
ii, does not recognix the addition of heat in the reheater.
'I'he steam rate varies with the reheat pressure that is
mlscted, decreasing as the prewre is dropped; and
nvon if, in addition to defined steam conditions and
vaouum, a specific reheat pressure is associated with each
alstlm rate, the result could not be used for comparison
of competitive turbine designs. This may be seen by
c~onaiderationof the reheat turbine condition curve, Fig.
1). Ipor example, two turbine designs could be developed
rrwh that each has the same initial and reheat ateam
cr)nditions, the same condenser vacuum, and the same
rlosm rate, but the corresponding plant efficiencies and
f ~ rates
d
could differ. The turbine having a higher
afliciency in the stages prior to the reheater and a lower
nlficiency following this point would require a greater
amount of heat to be added in the reheater at the expense
of increased fuel to the boiler.
It becomes necessary, therefore, to use some form of
b a t rate as the criterion of reheat turbine performance.
Ileat rate may be defined in several ways, but a stantlnrdized method for marine units has been suggested
( I I]. I n general, the turbine heat rate in Btu/shp-hr
1~ expressed as
Turbine heat rate

Heat added to turbine cycle by boiler (Btu/hr)
Power Output (shp)
I
S
The heat added is defined as

QT@T
i Where
h
*
(4)
&T
- ~ R W ) Q R ~ H H-RHCR)
(5)
= throttle flow, lb/hr
reheater flow, lb/hr

H T = throttle enthalpy, Btu/lb
h g =
~ final feedwater enthalpy, Btu/lb
HER
-- = enthalpy leaving reheater., BtuAb
- -,-HCA= enthalpy entering reheater, Btu/lb
Q R A ~=
heat rate may be defined on a nonextraction

1 bnisTurbine
which is relatively simple in that other components
1
Of the cycle are not involved. The demonstration of

Ao~lextraction heat rate requires a special test with
blaoders closed. Alternatively, an extracting turbine
heat rate may be defined in a manner similar to land pracblue Ill] wherein the feed heating arrangement must be
mmpletely specified. This type of heat rate can be
demonstrated during shipboard trials in the course of
regular economy runs but requires additional measuremants, more complex calculations, and more involved
I
ENTROPY
Fig. 9 Turbine condition c u n a e h e a t cycle
corrective procedures. Typical extracting turbine heat

rates are given in Fig. 10 for a five-feed-heater cycle.
2.3 G a s Reheat. Reheat may be accomplished by
returning the steam to a special section of the boiler,
called the reheater, where its temperature is increased by
flue gases. With a gas reheater, the steam can be
reheated to thelinitial temperature and maximum cycle
efficiency can be realized within the temperature
limitation.
The improvement in plant performance offered by the
gas reheat cycle is equivalent to an increase of about 125
deg F in the initial steam temperature of a nonreheat
plant. I n other words, a reheat plant with an initial
MARINE ENGINEERING
STEAM TURBINES
BASED UPON REHEAT CYCLES WITH THE FOLLOWING
CHARACTERISTICS:
THROlTLE PRESSURE, PSlG
FEED TEMP. TO BOILER, F
THROTTLE TEMPERATURE, F
REHEAT TEMPERATURE, F
EXHAUST PRESSURE, 1" Hg abs.
NO. OF FEED HEATERS
-850
426
- 5 -
1050 1450 18M)

446
419
502
950
850
1.5
MARINE ENGINEERING
STEAM TURBINES
Section 3
Main P ~ p ~ l s i oTnrbines-N~~clear
n
Cycle
171
172
STEAM TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
FLOW-
Fig. 13 Moisture baffles
Experience has shown that it is desirable to use a

corrosion-resistant material for all surfaces subject to
moisture impingement. Rotors and casings may be
machined from stainless steel, or carbon steel casings may
be faced in critical areas with a welded inlay of stainless
steel.
Although proper choice of materials alleviates the
corrosion-erosion problem it does nothing for the loss in
efficiency, and therefore steps must be taken to remove
as much moi&,ure as possible from the steam path. In
general, two approaches are possible: (1) internal
separation, which is used for both nuclear and nonnuclear
cycles and is described in section 7.4; and (2) external
separation, which is treated in the following.
3.5 External Moisture Separution. Moisture may be
extracted by removing the steam from the turbine and
treating it in an external separator. This method is
applicable to the cro~compoundtype of unit where the
pressure in the high-pressure turbine exhaust is about
45 psia and the moisture may reach 12 percent at full
power as illustrated by Fig. 12. If this moisture were
not removed, it would increase still further in expanding
through the low-pressure turbine and cause serious
erosion problems and a loss in turbine efficiency.
The ideal separator should be designed for maximum
moisture removal coupled with minimum pressure drop
and minimum space requirements. The power loss to
the overall plant is about 1 percent for every 1-psi
pressure dmp, compared with a power loss of 0.6 percent
for every 1percent of moisture entering the low-pressure
turbine. Thus, if a net gain in efficiencyis to be realized,
the sum of moisture and pressure-drop losses with a
separator must be less than the moisture loss with no
separator.
Many types and arrangements have been developed,
but in general external separators consist of a pressure
vessel having inlet and outlet connections to the crossover
piping, internals arranged to remove moisture, and a
drainage system. The separator may be located forward
of the high-pressure turbine and supported on the same
longitudinal girders, or arranged at the side of the 11111t

and supported by ship's structure.
The separator internals may include centrifug~~
I,
baffle, or wire-mesh devices. Centrifugal devices rotrllc*
the steam flow, which tends to drive the heavier wnl,c&~
droplets to the outer diameter where they are drained olI
The baffle t v ~ e function
s
by collecting moisture on tllcQlt
surfaces a n i then allowingVitto drain off. Baffles vrwv
from simple chevron styles to more elaborate arranKc!
ments having hooks and partially sheltered passages f o l
drainage as shown in Fig. 13. Wire-mesh types ~ I I I I ( *
tion similarly by collecting moisture through surfric.13
contact.
The design of moisture separators is not an ex!ic:l
science but rather the result of a great deal of testing r i t ~ ~ l
experience. It has been found that the steam ve1oc;il.u
configuration in the crossover pipe is complex ILII(I
includes secondary ROWS induced by the exhaust e l l ~ ~ w
and by the turbine-exhaust hood. This uneven veloc:iI(v
distribution may overload some sections of the separd,or
A large portion of the moisture in the high-pressl~w
turbine exhaust, up to 80 percent, has been found i n 1
consist of water running along the surface of the ~ ) i ~ n
wall. This suggests the use of a skimmer at the inl(l1.
the separator to avoid overloading the inlet portionr of
the separator.
Reentrainment of separated moisture may occur W I I ~ ~ I L
water on an internal surface is swept back into the V I L ~ M I I
stream before it can be drained, and must be avoitltttl
because droplets may be produced which are too sn1111l
to respond to subsequent separating efforts, or they sair
be formed in a late stage and thus escape.
Large droplets may split into smaller ones, a procB(!aa
called "droplet fracture" that makes separation moln
difficult. Such fracture occurs when there is a ltug*
relative difference in velocity between the vapor and i.ho
droplet, such as may occur when large drops are awol~l'
from a trailing edge. In addition, mechanical fraclliw,
or split-up, may occur by collision of a large drop wit11Ill1
obstacle.
Testing and performance verification of m~isl~ltrr
separators involve practical problems. The perforts
ance of separators is highly sensitive to the moislr~re
particle size. Since both the measurement of drop rim
and the artificial creation of moisture truly represent,rl.iv~
of that found in actual turbine exhausts are difficall., I[
not impossible, it has been found necessary to sr~lq~lv
saturated steam to a high-pressure turbine coupled l r ~o
power absorption device, then lead the exhaust conl,~ri~r
ing the required moisture to the separator on t80nl
After passing through the separator, the steam is tlac~l.
tled through a valve to a low back pressure at which l.Ile
steam becomes superheated, and its temperature mtly 11.
used to calculate thqresidual moisture at the sepnn~lnlr
outlet.
173
Section 4
Camhined Steam and Gas h r l ~ i n eMain Propulsion Cycles
'
4.1 COSAG Cycle. In some shipboard applications

tliesel engines, gas turbines, and steam turbines can be
omployed effectively in various combinations. The
prime movers may be combined either mechanically or
thermodynamically, or both. The brief discussion
which follows is concerned chiefly with the steam turbine
ss an element of a combined cycle and is limited to
ciombined cycles that significantlyaffect the size or other
trharacteristics of the steam turbines. For additional
iliscussions regarding combined cycles, see Chapters
1 and 6.
Insofar as steam turbine applications are concerned,
two combined cycles are commonly considered; these are
Ithe combined steam turbine and gas turbine (COSAG)
oycle and the combined gas turbine and steam turbine
(CdGAS) cycle. In the COSAG cycle the steam and gas
turbines are connected to a common reduction gear but
u *thermodynamically independent. The chief application of the COSAG principle has been in high-speed
11ava1 vessels of the destroyer type. Such vessels
~~orrnally
have a service profile which requires operation
J speeds above one-half power for only a very small
percentage of their operating life, generally less than one
. Accordingly, if this boost power were furnished
simple-cycle, aircraft-type gas turbines
having a relatively limited life, while the basic ahead
md astern power is supplied by a conventional long-life
but relatively heavier steam plant, there would be a
dgnificant reduction in machinery weight. The weight
lrsvad may be used in a number of ways; if it is used to
w r y additional fuel, an increase in cruising range of
Db-40 percent is possible as compared with a convenMona1 steam plant.
Rteam conditions suitable for a conventional steam
plant of the same power may be used for the COSAG
$yule and, therefore, there are no significant differences
(w the design of the steam turbines.
Boveral classes of naval vessels, including some British
h~troyers,have been built with COSAG machinery 1181,
bnd a shore-based prototype plant has been tested by the
V~li@dStates Navy [19].
4.2 COGAS Cycle. In the combined gas turbine and
~ C h mturbine (COGAS) cycle, both mechanical and
kenn no dynamic interconnections exist between the
cyales. The principle advantage gained by a thermodynamic interconnection lies in the potential for
Improved overall efficiency and for savings in space and
Wight. This is the result of the ability of the gas
turbine cycle to accept heat at a relatively higher
temperature level and the steam cycle's ability M reject

heat a t a lower temperature level. The disadvantage
of the high-temperature heat rejection in the gas turbine
exhaust is minimized by the partial transfer of this heat
to the steam cycle.
If the exhaust of a simple (nonregenerative) cycle gas
turbine is supplied to an unfired wasteheat boiler, the
available steam pressure and temperature is low when
compared with a conventional steam plant. For
example, a gas turbine having an inlet temperature of
1500 F may be expected to have an exhaust temperature
of 700-750 F. Heat recovery is dependent upon the
boiler design and the amount of heat-transfer surface,
but in practical cases the turbine inlet steam conditions
are limited to 200-300 psig and 600-625 F. The
efficiency of the unfired COGAS cycle increases with an
increase in the gas turbine inlet temperature but is
relatively insensitive to the gas turbine pressure ratio
and to the steam pressure. The steam portion of the
plant is relatively simple and there are no high-temperature problems. The reduced heat drop associated with
the steam conditions permits a corresponding reduction
in the total turbine blade speed that is required and,
therefore, fewer stages are needed; this being the case, it
is easily possible to use a single-casing steam turbine.
Both the steam and gas turbine outputs are supplied to a
common reduction gear. Overall propulsion fuel rates
of 0.40 lb/shp-hr, which are comparable to the fuel rates
of modern steam reheat cycles, are possible but consideration must be given to the cost of the more expensive
fuels required by the gas turbine.
The waste-heat boiler may also be fired, since 75
percent of the available oxygen is left in the exhaust
gases. In a sense, the exhaust-fired combined cycle,
therefore, takes the conventional steam cycle, relocates
some of its heat-exchange surface, and replaces the
forced-draft fans with a gas turbine. Due to the high
initial gas temperature, the power derived from the gas '
turbine, and the heat recovery in the boiler (which
reduces the hot exhaust gas loss), a net overall reduction
in fuel rate of 4-5 percent when compared with a reheat
steam cycle can be attained.
High-pressure, high-temperature steam conditions,
comparable to the normal nonreheat or reheat steam
cycles, may be selected for the steam turbines. Consequently, the design and arrangement of the steam
turbines suitable for fired COGAS cycles may be
generally s i e l a r to units normally supplied for nonreheat
and reheat steam cycles.
-"
MARINE ENGINEERING
MOISTURE
Section 5
Tllrbine Speed, Number of Sbges, nimensions
'I'heOretically there are
by which steam may be expanded in
two
basic methods
a turbine,
namely by impulse dges,
where the entire
stationary
nozzle, or by
pressure drop occurs in the
drop
is usually
maction stages, where the
moving blades, In
divided equally thh
between
and generally does not
sharpfixed
distinction
actual
eficiency of pure impulse stages can be
exist since the
improved by the use of pressure h o p in the moving
blades (the pressure hop
variesfrom about 5-10 percent
in the high-pressure stagesto 3&40 Permnt in the lowpressure stages). impulse stagesare more efficientthan
reaction stages at pressures above 4-00
psig, but
equal eEciencies may be realbd in the intermediate
and low-pressure r e ~ o n s . Indeed, there is little differenoe ih the blade profiles, heights, and angles between the
exhauseend blading of mmparable impulse and reaction
turbines. E~~~the so-called reaction turbines generally
use an impulse desip for their first or contml stage.
5.1
and fieaction.
in the
There are Pmnounwd difIemnws,
Of
number of Stages and the constructional
impulse and reaction turbines, as may be noted
Figs. 14-17'. The impu15e type is charactehd
by
'learanoes
individual wheels and dhphrag-1 large
between the blades and the caaasing,
and a
between the diaphragm Packings and the
diameter at the
high-pressure psking of relatively
first stage (see Figs. l4 and 15).
AS shown by Figs. 16 and 171 reaction turbines usual1y
in
employ a d n m - t y ~ erotor) Stationary
blade-tip
and
the casing, close radial or
which acts sa
a large-diameter h i g h - ~ r e s ~packing
e
Of
dummy piston to balanw theaial
the moving
in
the pressure drops
such
as
shown
in
Fig.
17)
which
double-flow turbines,
are inherently balanoed).
turbines
5.2 Variable S~.d*
Marine
operate through a wide speed range) and the
PACKING BOX
OIL DEFLECTOR
VALVE LIFT ROD
VALVE STEM LEAKOFF

NOZZLE DIAPHRAGM
JOURNAL BEARING
THRUST BEARING
AGES
--
PACKING BOX
OIL DEFLECTOR
JOURNAL BRG.
JOURNAL ERG.
AHEAD STEAM INLET
Ol L DEFLECTOR
175
STEAM TURBINES
BLADE RING
IMPULSE STAQE ROTATING BLADE
IMPULSESTAGE N O n L E BLOCK
178
MARINE ENGINEERING
STEAM TURBINES
80
E0
a
W
L
E0
K
K
W
5
m
4o
's
20
IMPULSE- 3 ROW
.2
.4
.8
.8
1.O
VELOCITY RATIO, UIC- BLADE SPEED

THEORJICAL STEAM VELOCITY
Fig. 18
Velodty ratio versus blade dflciency
called a Curtis stage) has a lower peak diagram efficiency,

as may be noted from Fig. 18.
Frequently, a two-row impulse wheel is used for the
first or "control" stage. Theoretically it has the energyabsorbing capacity of four single-row wheels and requires
less space. In addition, it is useful for control because it
permits the use of a lower first-stage exhaust pressure and
temperature which reduces leakage and rotation losses.
Because of this reduction in losses, there is very little
difference in the overall stage efficiency of a Curtis
control stage and the equivalent Rateau stages at the
design point. The overall efficiency of a Curtis control
stage at part load exceeds that of an equivalent Rateau
stage.
In some astern turbines, three-row velocity-compounded wheels are used. For this type, the maximum
efficiency is reached theoretically when the velocity ratio
equals approximately 0.16, as may be seen from Fig. 18.
The peak dciency ie less than that for a two-row wheel,
but it has the energy-absorbing capacity of nine singlerow wheels. Experience indicates that two- and threerow wheels reach their peak efficiencies when the velocity
ratios are somewhat higher than the theoretical values.
5.5 Single-Cylinder Turbine. It is possible to contain all of the ahead and astern turbine stages within a
single casing. While such an arrangement could be
built for any power output, single-cylinder turbines
generally are not considered for powers above 20,000-
25,000 shp. At powers below this range, the singlecylinder turbine has some definite advantages, such as
reduced initial, installation, and maintenance costs and
more simple gland sealing, gland exhaust, lubricating oil
supply and drain systems, overspeed protection system,
and machinery foundations.
The cross section of a typical single-cylinder turbine
is shown in Fig. 19. T h i n impulse stages are
provided in the ahead turbine; these consist of a two-row
wheel followed by twelve single-row wheels. The asten1
turbine consists of two impulse stages, a two-row wheel,
followed by a single-row wheel.
The steam rate for a single-casing turbine is approximately one percent higher than a comparable two-casing
or cross-compound turbine. This higher steam rate is
due to several factors; namely (1) the total blade speed i~
limited by the number of stages which can be accommodated on a single rotor of practical length and also by
the maximum rotor speed for which the ahead exhaust
stages can be designed, (2) the increased rotor length
requires a larger-diameter shaft and consequently
interstage leakage losses are greater, and (3) some
compromise is necessary with respect to the blade height
to diameter ratio selection.
5.6 Cross-Compound Turbine. Historically, marine
turbines have been built with as many as four casinm,
but these units were directly connected to'the main
shafts and operated at propeller speeds. The moder~i
C
I 80
STEAM TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
marine turbine, freed from the speed limitations of the

propeller by mechanical or electric transmission, normally
does not require more than two cylinders. A crosscompound turbine consists of a high-pressure and a lowpressure cylinder arranged so that the ahead steam flow
passes through both cylinders in series. The complete
astern turbine is incorporated in the exhaust end of the
low-pressure turbine.
The improved efficiency of a cross-compound unit,
when compared to a single-cylinder unit, is due to the
ability to provide suflicient stages to achieve an optimum
total blade speed. In addition, the high-pressure
portion of the turbine can be made smaller, lighter, and
more efficient by running it a t higher speed than the lowpressure turbine.
5.7 Double-Flow Turbines. As the rated power
and steam flow of a cross-compound turbine are increased, the required diameter a t the exhaust increases
correspondingly; and a point is reached where the size
becomes objectionable from both an arrangement and
a manufacturing viewpoint. To provide additional
exhaust area, the low-pressure turbines of high-powered
cross-com~oundsets may be designed to have a doubleflow exha\& as &own in Fig. 15. With this arrangemerit, the steam flow is divided and flows through two
equal-capacity low-pressure elements to the condenser.
Since the same total exhaust area can be provided a t a
reduced diameter, this construction permits the lowpressure turbine to operate a t higher rpm for the samtb
stress, which in turn makes possible a reduction in weigh I,.
It is customary to provide an astern turbine a t each
end of a double-flow rotor. The astern steam flow iti
controlled by a single throttle and the flow is dividctl
equally between the two turbines. The symmetricr~l
arrangement and equal division of flow results in tho
same pressure a t each ahead exhaust and therefore 11o
pressure differential across the ahead blading.
5.8 Design Selection. In trying to arrive a t the bo~l,
overall turbine design for a given set of conditions, tlrtr
designer is faced with the selection of proper values for rr
s e a t manv variables, including,
-. but not limited to, t,htl
number of casings, revolutions per minute for etrcll
rotor, number of stages, and the nozzle and blade heigl~b
for each stage. An optimum design could be arrived rrl,
by an interative process consisting of a comparison of rr
series of turbine designs in which each of the principr~l
variables, one a t a time, is tested through an approprith(rr
range. In the evaluation of the results, proper considoration should be given to weight, size, and cost as well nM
efficiency. However, a complex study of this typc in
seldom necessary because experience and comparirrorl
with similar designs aided by the judgement of thn
turbine designer make short-cut procedures possible.
/L
181
HAND CONTROL VALVES
STEAM
PRESSURE:
AFTER THROTTLEc'MAX.
POWER
y:'
r A F T E R THROTTLE LOW POWER
4VAILABLE ENERGY PER POUND OF STEAM

FULL POWERa ab
LOWPOWER= cd
Section 6
T~~rbine
Control
6.1 Power and Speed. Means must be provided to
vary the flow of steam through the turbine so that its
power output and speed can be controlled. Steam flow
may be varied by:
A throttle valve
w A throttle valve plus hand control valves
Bar-lift valves and cam-lift valves
Bypass valves
Variable boiler pressure
6.2 Throttle Valve Control. The most simple method
of regulating steam flow is by a throttle valve in the
steam supply to the turbine, as illustrated by Fig. 20.
If properly sized, the valve will have little pressure drop
when wide open; therefore, a t maximum power, practically full boiler pressure will exist a t the inlet to the
first-stage nozzles. As the valve is closed to reduce the
rate of steam flow, its pressure drop increases; consequently, a throttling or constant enthalpy process
occurs a t the valve and causes a thermodynamic loss
since there is a decrease in the available energy per
pound of steam. Figure 21 illustrates the reduction in
available energy as a result of throttling.
Because of throttling losses a t . lower powers, as
illustrated by curve A A of Fig. 22, throttle valve control
STEAM PRESSURE:
BEFORE THROTTLE
ENTROPY
Fig. 21
Efiect of thrMe governing
One nozzle group normally has about one half of the

total nozzle area and is controlled only by the throttle
valve, while each of the remaining groups is controlled
by the throttle valve and a hand control valve. Thus, if
the throttle is wide open, the nozzle area and therefore
the steam flow may be varied in a series of steps by
opening each hand control valve in proper sequence.
When the throttle valve and all hand control valves in
nervice a t a particular point are wide open, throttling
losses will be a t a minimum. The smooth curve AC in
Pig. 22 would result if it were possible to have an infinite
lumber of hand control valves.
Fig. 23
Throttb valve plus hand control~valves
With the limited number of valves that it is practical

to use, there are powers which cannot be obtained by
having combbtions of valves wide open or shut. Two
modes of operation are possible for these intermediate
powers. One procedure is to fully open as many control
valves as can be utilized and then partially open one
additional control valve to get the exact power desired.
The throttling loss of the partially opened valve produces the scalloped effect (or valve loops, as they are
alone is not satisfactory for ahead turbines, but it i~

generally used for astern turbines where high efficiciltiy
a t part load is not necessary.
6.3 'ThroWle Valve Plus Hand Control Valvmr.
Throttling losses a t reduced powers can be minimizetl if
the first stage is of the impulse type and its total noesla
area is divided into groups as illustrated by Fig. 21.
Y I S ~ STAGE NOZZLES
THROTTLE
Fig. 22
Typical efficiency nnver
fw various types of control
70
25
Fig. 2 0
Throttle valve control
50
75
THROlTLE FLOW. PER CENT
I
100
MARINE ENGINEERING
STEAM TURBINES
STEAM TURBJNES
MARINE ENGINEERING
184
form.
the Pilot valve B closed, the pree
dotted area equals the inlet presswe, and the
pilot and main
are held tkhtly down upon their
mats' men the
stem is lzted, the Pilot Valve
Opens firat,and the premure within the dotted area drops.
It is
to mntml the pressure in the balance
by limiting the lift of the Pilot valve SO that a
sufficient
force is exerted downward on the disk
to prevent chattering, which can be caused by instability
Of the
flow as the main valve starb to open This
of valve is widely used with marine turbines.
It is possible to substitute an extmwd h a n d - o ~ a t e d
Rlre in the
Alternatively a centrifugal pump may be

which case the discharge pressure t3Cts against a Piston
and an adjustable spring. The overspeed setti% is
obtained by an extrapolation of speed Versus spring
s e t t ~for
within the operating range- A
centr3ugal pump tends to act as a centrifuge, and
small air bubbles present in the lubricating oil tend to
collect at the center of the impeller. Unless this air i8
vent,,d, the pressurespeed relationship will be affected.
~t has generally not been considered necessary to
(D) BALANCED VALVE
provide overspeed protection while operating asten';
however, when the astern throttle is power operated for
Fig. 29 Vario- typer of valver
remote-control purposes, it is a relatively simple matter
to include astern overspeed protection.
A continuous supply of lubricating oil is essential for
Without
the resulting complications in subeystem controls and the safe operation of a turbine
of
lubricating
oil,
turbine
besings
may
adequate
operating procedures do not justify its use.
6.7 Ovenpeed and Low oil Pnssun on. fail in a matter of minutes. If the lubricatix-oil
a safe
a springOverspeed protection is desirable for every turbine that System Pressure
can reach a dangerous speed upon a loss of load. lnthe loaded piston will actuate the Pilot
will
of gesRd propulsion turbines this can occur if a to the servomotor, and the ahead
Operating
is broken, and periodic racing c l o ~ . Oil failure may Occur with the
propeller is lost or a
can occur in heavy weather when the propeller inter- a high ahead speed, and it is important that
the vePml
pit,&- be available to stop rotation of the shaft
rnittently emerges from the water due to the
ing.
speed-limiting governor is best suited for this is dead in the water. If this is not done, the coastilly
"
purpose since it will prevent an excessive speed while still period of most large vessels is so long that the
governor emergency lubricating oil Willbe used up as the propellnr
allowins continuous operationat the
setting (usually
to 15 percentabove the
is dragged through the
and the
rotati'''
continuous rating). ~ rdevices,
i ~ which shut off team may damage the gem and turbine bearin6s'
6.8 governor^ A governor generally is prOvidn'l
for the primary
flow completely,
aR notmachinery. overspeed
of propulsion
pmhfor the control of a turbineelectric prnPulsion unit. Tl''
'perate througl'
tion is Standard for merchant turbines but is not fitted governor is adjustable 80 that it
surface ship propu~s~on
units where wide range Of speed and is designed so that it
to
naval
simplification and reduced wek,t are important and approximately constant turbine 'pm irrespective Of 'Irn
where experience has indicated that, with but few load requirements a t the selected speed setting 'I'
exceptions over many years, the risk of dawerous principle, Such a governor is similar to the 'peed contn)lr
seater
overspeeding is relatively slkhtht. Overspeed protection of turbine-generator sets, but it has a
sre furnid"'d
is an ereential requirement when an electric drive is used, of speed adjustment. Governors
except
p o s s i b ~ ythat the generator for geared propulsion turbine
since there is the
overspeed-limiting protection.
m y lose its electrical load.
A typical overspeed
system is shown in
6.9 Valve Des*n. Three types Of
flow to a turbil'n
F ~z8.
~ . .The speed eemors me small pOsitive-displa~ commody used to control the
29(a) is siml"n'
pumps each driven by its corresponding turbine The single-seated Valve shown in
because Of ''l'
rotor and supplied from the -in lubriOatingngOil
system. but it requira a large lifting
The pump discharge pressures at any dvensped may be unbalanced presswe across the valve when in the clOM"'
varied by adjustment of the variable Orifices. The position.
ail'yl*
To reduce the force required to open the
disohsrge pRwures operate a pilot valve by acting
pilot
vniv@
agsiost a spring-loaded piston. ~h~ pilot valve in turn seated, balanced valves hafing an
F i u r e m(b) shows this desknin diafTanl
are
w
d
.
power oil to the proper side of a hyhadic
'
'"'
185
bypass valve for the internal pilot, as

in ~ i29(,,1~. .
Although it can be more nearly balanced because the
main valve disk is bed to the valve stem, and
is not susceptible to chattering, a hand-operated bypass
requires a @parah control, and it is pomible that the
operator may foget to
it.
The dOuble-eabd balanced valve can be used to
minimbe the force required to open the valve, butit is
seldom used with high-temperature, high-pressure marine
turbines a t locations where both
mustbe tight under
all conditions .Of operation. A valve of this design is
shown in diagrammatic form in ~ i29(d).
~ ,
Rotors and Blades

The lexth of each row of
turbine
is governed by the volume flow, the mean
diameter Of the flow path, the velocity Of the steam, and
the active arc through which flow takes Plwe. Blade
lengths gnerauy increase
the high-pressure to the
low-pressure end
the turbine, and the length of the
Lasestage
is determined by the selected level of
exhaust lea*
loss- Toward the exhaust end of the
as the
Of
increases, it is necessary
to
the Outlet angles in order to obtain sufficient
flow
however, this results in a decrease in efficiency
if
too far. sinceea~hbladeextends radially from
the
the
pitch is geater a t the tip than a t the
To keep this 'preading from causing
great a
lorn in efficiency due to
shape of the flow p s p
the length Of
having a uniform Cross section
their
len@h
is
generally limited to 20 percent
Of the
diameter Of the flow Path. This limitation
can be circumvented by the use of tapered and t*kd
having
vmY from the root to the tip
ae
tosuit the steam and blade velocities at each
'long the length. It is usually possible to reduce
the cross section from the mot to the tip, which decreases
the
at the
and permits a longer
for
the
same
limiting
stress.
The length of
tapered and
may
25 Percent to
as much as 33 prcent
Of the mean diameter of the flow
7'1 'ladeDesign'
When the angles and crowsectional shape of a blade

are established, a blade width is
such that the
calculated bending streseesare weeptable. Bending
stresses are caused by axial and tangential forces exerted
by the steam and by blade vibration. when the
centers of gavity of =tionsst
radii do not fall
on a radial line, bending stre69es
ala, will be introduced
by ppnWUgal forces.
The centrifugal fore due to the mass of the blade and
its rotation causes a tensile stresein the blade that with
10% blades is significant at the blade
This
varies with the blade len@h, the
of the blade
speed, and for blades of uniform
section it is
independent of the section shape or width. T~ minimi%
the centaugal foroes in the long blades at the lowpressure end of a tub'me, the blsdes are often
&ntrzugal forces and stressesare relatively steady in
nature and do not cause vibration or fatigue failures;
however, stresm due to centrifugal forces me
limited to one half of the yield strength of the
Blading must be d e s b d to kthand
bendiw
stresses under the worstconditiom of lo&%.
In the
caee of the control or first
the highest loadings
are experienced at reduced powers due to inCrebsed hest
dmps and velocities. F~~ turbines having bypaas
valves, the stages preceding the pointwhere the bypass
steam is ,readmitted
their maximum load just
MARINE ENGINEERING
FRACTION OF RATED SPEED
ng.30
Typical Campbell diagram
STEAM TURBINES
1 87
200
-
MARINE ENGINEERING
11.6 Securing fhe Turbine. The following procedure
Traces of water should be removed
traced to its source.

by operation of the purifier. At regular intervals oil should be followed when securing a turbine:
sam~lesshould be analyzed to check Ph, viscosity,
(1) Close all turbine control valves and valves in the
-main
steam line to the turbine.
additives, water ccontent,and other properties.
(2) Open all turbine drains.
In the event that the lubricating-oil pressure is lost
(3) Engage and start the turning gear. This allows
for any reason, the low oil pressure trip will shut off the
ahead steam. If the vessel is underway ahead, it will the turbine rotors to cool uniformly while the oil circulacontinue to coast for some time. Due to the hydro- tion enables the heat transmitted through the shafts to
dynamic action of the water on the propeller, the be carried away from the bearings and thus avoid possible
propeller will continue to turn in the ahead direction and damage to the babbitt lining.
will rotate the engine. To avoid bearing failures, it is
(4) Secure the gland sealing and exhaust systems.
(5)
Keep the condenser circulating and condensate
extremely important that shaft rotation be stopped by
the use of astern steam until the vessel stops or oil pumps in operation at minimum speeds until the turbines
are drained, then secure.
pressure is restored.
The inlet steam conditions should be periodically
(6) Secure the first-stage air ejector jets but leave
monitored. If an abnormally high inlet steam temper* the second-stage jets in service for a few hours to draw
ture is permitted over an extended period, damage may air through the turbines. This should be repeated every
result. If the inlet temperature is too low, then two or three days to keep the turbines dry.
(7) When the turbines have cooled sufficiently to
moisture erosion will increase in the last stages of the
avoid bowing, secure all associated equipment.
low-pressure turbine.
(8) Circulate oil and operate the turning gear every
The operator should be constantly alert for any
abnormal change in noise level, for unusual sounds, and two or three days in port, covering all applicable parts
tor indication. of increased vibration, particularly with lubricant to prevent rusting.
during maneuvering. If such are noted, slow down
11.7 Emergency Operation. If either turbine of a
until the noise or vibration disappears Operate for 10
cross-compound unit is damaged to the extent that it
to 15 minutes at this reduced speed, then slowly increase cannot be operated, the other turbine can be run on
speed, taking a t least another 15 minutes to reach high-pressure steam by rearranging the steam and
operating power.
exhaust connections as necessary (see also Chapter 18
If the rotor becomes temporarily bent due to thermal for additional discussion on this subject). The damaged
conditions and rubs on the packing strips, heat will be turbine is disconnected from the reduction gear and
generated at the shaft surface on a small segment of its remains idle.
circumference. This will increase the shaft distortion
When operating with the high-pressure turbine alone,
and cause a harder rub, which will generate additional a special pipe is provided to exhaust directly to the
heat such that the rub becomes progressively worse, condenser. If the astern turbine is confined to the lowpossibly resulting in a severe casualty. Hence, it is pressure turbine, and this is usually the case, no astern
necessary to slow down, allow time for temperatures in operation is possible and the astern throttle should be
the shaft to equalize, and thus permit the shaft to wired shut to prevent its being opened by mistake.
straighten.
When the high-pressure turbine is out of service, high11.5 Prolonged Astern Operation. Main propulsion
pressure steam may be admitted directly to the inlet of
steam turbines designed for merchant ships generally are the low-pressure turbine and controlled by a valve in tho
capable of continuous astern operation at 70 percent of supply line which serves temporarily as a throttle. An
the ahead speed for one hour without danger of rotation orifice is generally fitted after the valve to limit the steam
losses causing overheating of the idle ahead blading. flow to an allowable value.
This performance is contingent upon the exhaust vacuum
The power output is reduced not only by the decreased
being at or near the design value. In addition, the& turbine efficiency but also by consideration of the gear
must be no steam leakage into the ahead turbine through loadings when operating with a single turbine. Gear8
the ahead throttle or extraction valves. If temperatures
driven by a single turbine are loaded to design torquo
in the crossover pipe and high-pressure turbine exceed values when the propeller speed is about 70 percent and
allowable values, the speed should be reduced.
corresponding power about 35 percent of the normal
It should be noted that if the inlet steam temperature the
ahead rating. It is generally recommended that tho
is constant, the astern exhaust temperature will rise with emergency speed should not exceed 70-75 percent of tho
a drop in speed since the exhaust is superheated and the normal ahead rating.
turbine efflciency decreases.
-
STEAM TURBINES
20 1
Section 12
A~~xiliaryTurbines
12.1 Introduction. For ateam power plants, steam shown in Fig. 43. The performance that may be
h~~rbines
are also commonly selected as prime movers for expected from properly designed multistage turbines is
wxiliaries such as electric generators, feed pumps, and indicated in Fig. 44.
tho cargo oil pumps of tankers. Many of the basic
Accurate control of speed is essential to maintain
1)rinoiples of steam turbine design and const~ction constant and correct frequency in an a-c electrical system.
cwtlined in previous sections apply generally to the Speed control is accomplished by regulating steam flow
mmnaller units, but the design criteria may be modified to the unit as directed by a control system utilizing the
h a u s e of the reduced power output and because of input from a speed sensor. Although there are several
ooanomic considerations. Some of the more important types of sensors and systems, in each case the flow
aunsiderations in this regard are discussed in the follow- regulation is achieved by the operation of nozzle control
leg sections.
valves supplying steam to the first stage of the turbine.
12.2 Ship Service Turbine Generators. The ship
A simple mechanical system is shown in Fig. 45(a) in
arvice turbine generator (SSTG) provides electric power which a flyweight assembly senses shaft speed. Two
for the operation of motors, lighting, communications, flyweights are mounted on a plate which turns about a
urcl hotel services. The electrical generating capacity vertical axis driven by the turbine shaft through a worm
mquired for a particular veml depends upon its type, and gear. Centrifugal force throws weights outward
it,* dze, and its propulsion power, but in most cases the and then compresses the stationary spring, thus lifting
elnotric power requirements can be met by the selection the vertical rod and moving the linkage and control valve
of a unit from a series of standard ratings which range until an equilibrium position is reached that corresponds
!rum 500 to 2500 kw as follows: 500,600,750,1000,1250, to the speed. The speed setting may be changed by
1600, 2000, and 2500 kw. These ratings have been adjustment of the speed changer. This simple form of
shown for standrtrdization purposes, as it minimizes the governor is used for small mechanical-drive turbines but
srlmber of frame &s required to be offered by rnanu- does not have sufficient force to operate large steamfwturers and thus reduces development costs. I t is control valves. To overcome this difficulty, a pilot valve
pmible, of course, to design and build nonstandard and servomotor may be added as shown in Fig. 45(b) to
ul~itsof any size that may be required, both above and form a mechanical-hydraulic system. The vertical rod
blow this standard range.
now operates the pilot valve to admit (or drain) highA typical SSTG consists of a high-speed, multistage pressure oil to (or from) the spring-loaded servomotor
gundensing turbine driving a generator through a single- cylinder. As the servomotor piston respqnds, it tends to
nduotion gear. These components are mounted on a restore the pilot valve to the neutral position. In some
bdplate together with the turbine drain, lubricating oil, cases the pilot valve is double ported and high-pressure
8lrrrhd seal, and gland exhaust systems to form an oil is directed to either the top or bottom of the servoIntegral unit. The turbine may exhaust to the main motor piston as required.
wndenser or to an auxiliary condenser. When the
An analysis will show that, with any of the preceding
wuxiliary condenser is supported by the bedplate, the arrangements, speed will vary slightly with load. The
turbine-gear-generator-condenser assembly is called a difference in speed between rated load and no load
"paokaged unit. "
divided by the rated speed is called the "regulation" or
Rteam and vacuum conditions for the SSTG normally "speed droop" and is usually about 3-4 percent. The
&rethe same as for the propulsion plant. However, to amount of friction in the mechanism is important, and
mrluoe the initial cost of the auxiliary turbine when steam the speed change above and below a mean required to
btrlnperatures are 950 F or above, it has been proposed produce corrective action is termed the "dead band" and
Miat, while at sea, steam be extracted from an early stage ia a measure of the "sensitivity. " When a sudden change
of illc main propulsion turbine a t a reduced pressure and in load occurs and the governor overcorrects followed by
blnperature, with an automatic shitover to a source of undercorrection, perhaps continuing for several oscilwprheated steam when at low powers and while in port. lations, the action is called "hunting. " A certain
Iaviqs in initial coats also may be realized by the amount of regulation is essential to minimize hunting.
Inmidlation of a multistage turbine for normal senice As both regulation and friction are reduced, the sensiwm~d B single-stage, back-pressure-type turbine for tivity is increased; however, the stability is decreased,
atn~rdbyservice in lieu of two multistage unifs.
thus a compromise is usually necessary, with the regulaA single-cylinder, multistage condensing turbine tion being kept as small as stability or freedom-fromplmrator has a lower efficiency than the main unit hunting considerations will allow. When a-c generator
~wilnarilybecause its rated output is much smsller. An sets are operated in parallel, it is necessary that each
kwla turbine generally consiste of five to eight impulse speed governor be adjusted for the same speed regulation
nlayos and operates at 8000 to 12000 rpm. A cross if each set is to take an equal share of the load regardless
lion of a typical multistsge condensing turbine is of the load variation.
STEAM TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
RATED LOAD
Fig. 44
- KW
Turbine-generatw steam rate
I n addition to the flyweight or mechanical type of

peed sensor, an hydraulic pump driven from the turbine
shaft may be used in a n hydraulic system. This pump
may be either a positive-displacement type or a centrifugal type and the system may be similar to the speedlimiting governor for main propulsion units described in
Section 6.7.
A third basic type of governor is available wherein
npeed or frequency control may be accomplished by a
combination of electric and hydraulic components (see
Fig. 46). The speed signal is obtained from the frequency of a small permanent-magnet alternator driven
by the turbine rotor; its LGC voltage impulses are
oonverted into a d-c voltage which is proportional to
~peed. A reference d-c voltage of opposite polarity,
which is representative of the desired operating speed, is
a~tablishedby manual adjustment of a speed-setting
potentiometer. These two voltages are connected to the
input of an electronic amplifier. If the two voltages are
equal and opposite; as occurs during steady-state
operation, they cancel and there is no voltage input to
the amplifier and therefore no change in its output
voltage.' The amplifier output voltage drives an electrohydraulic transducer, which directs the flow of oil to a
norvomotor that adjusts the governor steam valves to
maintain the turbines a t the speed corresponding to the
position of the speed-setting potentiometer. If the
Ourbine speed changes, the speed signal frequency and
Cherefore the voltage supplied to the amplifier change.
The difference between this voltage and the reference

voltage is supplied to the amplifier. The amplifier then
supplies an output voltage to the electro-hydraulic
transducer which causes the steam valves to increase or
decrease the steam flow to return the turbine speed to the
set value. Stability is achieved by a time delay in the
negative feedback around the amplifier. Since there is
only one speed a t which the speed signal and reference
voltages are equal and opposite, this type of control is
"isochronous"; that is, i t maintains the same turbine
speed regardless of load variation. A load sensor
measuring current in each lead of the generator is utilized
to anticipate speed changes and thus improve the
dynamic response of the control system. The load
sensors of several similar units operating in parallel may
be interconnected to ensure equal load sharing with
isochronous operation. Operation in parallel with an
infinite bus or dissimilar governors is possible by the use of
electronic components which introduce droop characteristics as required.
12.3 Single-Stage Auxiliary Turbines. Single-stage
turbines, sometimes called mechanical-drive or generalpurpose turbines, may be used to drive pumps, fans,
blowers, and standby generating sets. The need for
small turbines has resulted in standardized sizes up to
1500 hp with wheel diameters from 12 to 36 in. Rotational speeds vary from 600 to 7200 rpm; the lower
speeds apply to the larger wheel sizes used with directconnected turbines and the higher speeds to smaller
MARINE ENGINEERING
tion is generally 5-6 percent. Mechanical-drive turbines
$?$
are designed as complete units arranged for coupling to
SEED CHANGER
the driven unit.

The close-coupled, integral type of turbine-driven
pump, consisting of a single-stage steam turbine and a
single- or two-stage centrifugal pump mounted on the
same shaft, has achieved wide application for boiler
feed, fire, and tank cleaning services. Packaged units
of this type are supplied with a forced-feed lubricating
system, speed controls for either constant or differential
pressure regulation, speed limiting governor, and back'
pressure trip.
PERMANENT
MAGNET
ALTERNATOR
FREQUENCY
SENSOR
fRECTIFIER1
SHAFT
SETTING
WTENTIOMETER
References
CONTROL
VALVE
(a) Mechanical
SPEED CHANGER
Fig. 45
Governing
wheels associahd with geared units. The efficiency

generally improves with incmadng blade speed, as shown
is usually a large energy drop which
in ~ i 47.~ There
.
can be best handled in a twerowstage udng nozzles of
i d valves
~ ~ l may be
the expanding type. ~ ~ d i ~hand
and
claing
of nos&s to
provided to p e r ~ the
t
acoommodak major c,aoges in load. The speed
on the turbine shaft and acts
governor is often
directly through levers to a c t ~ t the
e inlet valve, usually
balancsd a ~ e - s e a t e dthrottle valve. Speed ngula-
1 John F. Lee, Theory and Design of Steam and Gas

Turbines, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1954.
2 Terrell Croft, Steam-Turbine Principles and
k
Inc., New York,
Practice, McGraw-Hill B o ~ Company,
1940.
3 C. B. Biezeno and R. Grammel, Engineerin(/
Dvnamics, Steam Turbines, Vol. 111, Blackie & So11
~ f m i k d London
,
and Glasgow, 1954.
4 E. F. Church, Jr., Steam Turbines, McGraw-Hill
~ o o Company,
k
Inc., New York, 1950.
5 L. E. Newman, Modem Turbines, John Wiley
Sons, Inc., New York, 1944.
6 J. K. Salisbury, Steam Turbines and Their Cycl~9,
John Wiley & Sons, I ~ c .New
, York, 1950.
7 B. G. A. Skrotzki and W. A. Vopat, Steam anfd
Gas Turbines, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inca, New
York, 1950.
8 A. Stodola, Steam and Gas Turbines, Peter Smith,
New York, 1945.
g "Recommended Practices for Preparing Marinn
Steam Power Plant Heat Balances," Technical all(l
Research Bulletin NO. 3-11? SNAME.
10 R. M. Cashman, "Design of Marine Machincry
Foundations, " Trans. S N m E , 196211 C. W. Stott, "Marine Reheat Cycles and S~stemfl
Evaluation," Man'ne Technology, ~ 0 1 .71 no. 31 ~ J ~ I Y
Marine Installation," Trans. SNAME, 1941.
C- K
13 R. p. Giblon, W. I. Signell, N. A. Smith,
Spears, and C. W. Stott, "A Modern Steam Reh(illb
Power Plant, " New York Section, SNAME, Octoh'r
1965.
14 R. H. "&gey, "High Pressure Steam for Marill0
Propulsion," Trans- SNAME1 1943Worthen, "The Or'
15 H. F. Robinson and ECarrier 8.5- b w e , " Trans. SNAME,
16 A. W. Davis, ''The Application of the ltnB"l"'
Cycle to Marine P r o ~ u l i o nwith special Referenm Id'
the C.P.R. Beaver Class TurbeElectric Cargo Lir~!r'l"
Trans. North East Coast Institution of Engineera l ~ ' "
Shipbuilders, 1946-47.
and R' .' Mn'''t''
17 C. H. Grow Jr-, J. T.
"A Modern 26,500 SHP stearn Tanker Power l'bu't
SENSOR
Q
T RANSFORMERS
Ro. 46 Electdc gwe-
the Reheat Cycle and a C ~ ~ t ~ ~Pitch

l l ~ b l ~
l'rO~ller," The Society of Marhe Port EMneers, N~~
York, September 1965.
24 R. 711. Nolan, "Vibration of Marbe-Turbine

Blading," Trans. SNAME, 1949.
25 'warJuok gwedieh Marine Tubine and (-jear
Jje~elo~ment,
" SNAME, Spring M e e t h , 196b.
26 R*Coats, "Pametrada standard TwbineS, present
and Future Outloak, " Trans. IME, 196.5.
NOTE: REDUCE THE STEAM RATE

GIVEN BY THE CHART 0.8% FOR
EVERY 10F SUPERHEAT AT THE
PRESSURE R A ~ =
O EXHAUST PRESSURE (PSIA)
INLETPRESSURE (PSIA)
47 Turbhr.
r a f~ single-stag. (2.row) auriliarl ,,,,h
GAS TURBINES
CHAPTER V I
C,
- LOW
PRESS.'COME
C2- HIGH PRESS. COME
A- 0. white
- BURNER
- HIGH 'PRESS. TURB.
12 - LOW PRESS. TURB.
B
Gas Turbines
TI
FT- FREE POWER TURB.

r
R
(A) SIMPLE
- REGENERATOR
I -INTERCOOLER
CYCLE
Section 1
Basic Considerations
1.1 Introduction. The gas turbine has developed
since World War I1 to join the steam turbine and the
diesel engine as alternative prime movers for various
shipboard applications. Each year its development
leads to improved performance and more attractive
costs of installation and operation to the point that it
gains on the other two prime movers as the economic
selection for main propulsion and certain auxiliary drive
machinery. This is caused by the fact that the gas
turbine inherently profits more than the other two from
component improvements and cycle improvements
allowed by aerodynamic, heat-transfer, and metallurgical
advances. Also, the gas turbine is attractive in that it is
inherently subject to ' "package" construction and
installation and to automatic control. Therefore, its
very numerous variations should be given serious
consideration in the selection of a prime mover for the
main propulsion plant and the larger auxiliiry machinery.
All gas turbine cycles are outgrowths of the Brayton
thermodynamic cycle. The Brayton cycle is an ideal
cycle in which the working fluid is a perfect gas (atmospheric air in most cases) which is compressed isentropically by a compressor, heated a t a constant elevated
pressure in a combustion chamber, then allowed to flow
through a turbine expanding isentropically back
- to.the
compressor suction pressure. The power produced by
the turbine is greater than the power required by the
compressor. The excess power is used to drive the ship's
propeller or some other a d i r y .
In gas turbines the efficiency of the components is
extremely important since the compressor power is very
high compared to its counterpart in competitive thermodynamic cycles. For example, a typical marine propulsion gas turbine rated a t 20,000 shp might require a
30,000-shp compressor and, therefore, 50,000 shp in
turbine power to balance the cycle. Thus, with 80,000
shp of machinery involved, a 1-percent improvement in
the component efficiencies would improve the cycle by
800 hp, which is 4 percent of the overall performance of
the 20,000-shp cycle. The corresponding steam turbine
cycle would have been improved by only about 1.05
percent if the counterpart component efficiencies were
improved by 1 percent. This example illustrates why
year-+year
developments result in such marked
improvements in the performance of gas turbines as
compared with alternative prime movers.
At moderate turbine inlet pressures and temperatures

and with the component efficiencies attainable when gas
turbines were first developed, the simple open-cycle gas
turbine operating with atmospheric air as the working
fluid and burning light distillate fuel was limited in output and specific fuel consumption (cycle efficiency).
However during the subsequent stages of progressive
development, the cycle efficiency has been greatly
improved by the following changes :
Higher compressor pressure ratios.
Higher turbine inlet temperatures which were
permitted by metallurgical and cooling developments.
Improved compressor and turbine stage efficiencies.
Increased compressor pressure loading per stage.
Improved combustion efficiency.
The introduction of intercooling in the process of
compression.
The introduction of reheating (a second comb us ti or^
chamber between the compressor turbine and
power turbine).
The introduction of regeneration (recovery of wasto
heat from the turbine exhaust and subsequent
addition to the compressor discharge air flow
before it enters the combustion chamber).
Further waste-heat recovery.
Different designs have used various combinations of

the foregoing to provide vast improvements in the cycb
efficiency and specific air consumption. These combinations modify but do not change the basic concept^
of the Brayton cycle. At the same time they introducu
complications into the arrangements.
Particular consideration must be given to the gaH
turbine cycle selected (i.e., the simplest Brayton cyclo
or the more complicated variations). The basic advantages of the gas turbine for marine applications are ita
simplicity and light weight. As an internal combustiorl
engine, it is a self-contained power plant in one packa~a
with a minimum number of large supporting auxiliarien.
The advantages this confers in space, weight, and reducorl
maintenance are very significant. A reduction in fuol
consumption is always desirable; but machinery cod,rr
must also be considered, and this too will vary with tlrtr
cycle and the arrangement.
1.2 Cycle Performance. The considerations ia-
( 6 ) REGENERATIVE
~ OUT 3
CYCLE
CIR
OUT
(C) REGENERATIVE CYCLE WlTH REHEAT
OUT
(1 REGENERATIVE CYCLE WlTH REHEAT AND INTERCOOLING
Rg. 1 Cyde arrangomonh
volved in the selection of the design pressures and
temperatures and the various components in the cycle combustion chamber (burner), from which it expands
nre best illustrated by a n example. For discussion
purposes, consider a gas turbine cycle in which the turbine
tjxpansion takes place in a "two-shaft " turbine, one shaft
baing the free turbine shaft which drives the propeller
lhrough a set of double-reduction gears. huther,
unsume a plant rating of 20,000 shp using a fuel with a
lower heating value of 18,400 Btu/lb. Ambient condillions are taken as 14.7 psia and 75 F. The common
r~llowancesmade for duct losses are 4-in. H 2 0 in the
irilet duct and 6-in. H 2 0 in the exhaust duct. The gear
IOM, about 2 1 percent, is allowed for in the performance
hut no allowance is made for miscellaneous hotel services and small non-engine-driven auxiliary power
rnquirements.
Figure l(a) shows the basic components of the simple
~rycle. Atmospheric air is drawn into the mmpremr,
where it is compressed, then heated under pressure in the
back to atmospheric pressure through a high-pressure

turbine (to drive the compressor), and free power
turbine (to drive the geared propeller). Figure 2 shows
the performance attainable with this simple cycle within
the limitations just discussed. It should be noted that
the values shown are not to be taken as absolute eince the
compressor, combustion, turbine, and other efficiencies
vary with particular designs and their state of development. Note that a t a turbine inlet temperature of
1600 F, a fuel rate of 0.45 Ib/shp-hr is attainable a t a
high optimum compression ratio of 15 to 1and that even
lower values a n be attained a t higher temperatures and
pressure ratios.
The performance indicated by Fig. 2 is very good
considering such a simple thermodynamic cycle. It is
nearly attainable with engines derived from aircraft jet
engines in which the jet's exhaust nozzle is replaced by a
specially designed power turbine. The jet engine's
GAS TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
208
SIGN COMPRESSION RATIO

fig. 2
Smple cyde pdormance
4 PdOnnance 0f a regenerative cyck wifh reheat
GAS TURBINES
210
21 1
MARINE ENGINEERING
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE. O F
Fig. 7 Typical effect of ambient temperature on rpecitlc fuel rate, shaft horsepower, and air fkw
gas turbine's overall performance. A change of only

10 deg F in ambient temperature will change the power
capacity of the unit by approximately 5 percent and there
are also significant changes in specific fuel consumption
and air flow. Figure 7 shows a typical ambient te'mperature correction curve for variations in these three
variables. Note that if a unit designed for a 75 F
atnbient is operated on a 10 F day, the engine output
can be increased 28 percent, the air flow can be increased
14 percent, and the specific fuel consumption is reduced
about 8 percent, provided the engine is designed to hold
up structurally and nozzled to pass the fuel flow a t the
increased power. This variation with ambient conditions can vary in a small way between designs and types
of cycles. However, Fig. 7 is generally valid for simple
cycles and regenerative cycles of any design to a reasonable degree of accuracy provided the machine is not
limited mechanically.
Both output and efficiency are very sensitive to pressure drops anywhere in the cycle, but those in the inlet
and exhaust system are the only ones which the marine
engineer can control. The inlet pressure drop is the
more critical one since it not only introduces an efficiency
loss into the cycle, but it also reduces the weight flow of
air. A pressure drop of 1 percent (4 in. water) in the inlet reduces the net output by 2 to 23 percent and increases
the specific fuel consumption by 1 to la percent while
a pressure drop of 1 percent (4 in. water) a t the exhaust
reduces the output by 1 to 13 percent and increases the
specific fuel consumption by 1 to 1 i percent. The
increase in fuel rate corresponds, of course, to the increase
in heat rate and reduction in thermal efficiency. Marine
units frequently are rated on the basis of 4-in. H 2 0 inlet
duct pressure loss and 6-in. Hz0 exhaust duct pressure
loss.
Typical variations in the weight of gas turbine

machinery and "all purpose" fuel consumption are given
by Figs. 10 and 12 of Chapter 1; these data are only
typical, and actual values for any specific application
vary not only with the type of unit considered but also
with the manufacturer and with progress in the state of
the art. Reductions in weight and improvements in fuel
consumption may be confidently expected in the future.
1.4 Combined Cycles. The gas turbine is a very
flexible power plant and can be applied not only alone
but also in combination with other prime movers.
Various combinations have been proposed and some of
them have been applied successfully. Some possible
combinations include: combined diesel and gas turbine
plants, abbreviated CODAG; combined steam and gas
turbine plants, COSAG; and combined gas turbine and
gas turbine plants, COGAG. In these cycles gas
turbines and other engines or gas turbines of two
different sizes or types are combined in one plant to
give optimum performance over a very wide range of
power and speed. In addition, combined diesel or gas
turbine plants, CODOG, or even combined gas turbine or
gas turbine plants, COGOG, (where one plant is a diesel
or a small gas turbine, respectively, for use a t low or
cruising powers, and the other a large gas turbine which
operates alone a t high ~owers)are also possibilities
11-31.'
- he gas turbine can also be combined with a steam
turbine plant in various ways. The designation COSAG
normally implies a cycle in which the steam plant and the
gas turbine are essentially independent, but they may be
geared to the mme propeller shaft [ P 5 ] . However,
-
'Numbera in bracketa designate References at end of chapter.
GAS TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
1.9 Operation and Maintenance. A further feature

of the gas turbine is its low manning requirements and
ready adaptability to automation. As indicated in the
wction on controls, the gas turbine inherently requires
builtrin automatic control systems to protect it during
~tartingand operation, since manual operation cannot
respond fast enough to meet the requirements. The
extension of the control system to provide fully automatic
control of all systems, including auxiliaries, is therefore
quite simple and is commonly provided on gas turbine
installations of all sizes and types.
The relative simplicity of the gas turbine has enabled
it to attain outstanding records of reliability and maintainability when used for aircraft propulsion and in
industrial service. The same level of reliability and
maintainability can be expected in marine service if the
unit is properly applied and installed.
213
Marine units derived from aircraft engines usually

have the gas generator section, comprising the compressor and its turbine, arranged to be removed and
replaced as a unit. Maintenance on the power turbine,
which usually has the smallest part of the total maintenance requirements, is performed aboard ship. Because
of their light weight, small gas turbines used for auxiliary
power, or the propulsion of small boats, can also be
readily removed for maintenance.
Units designed specifically for marine use and those
derived from industrial gas turbines are usually designed
for maintenance and overhaul in place. Since they are
somewhat larger and heavier than the aviation-type
units, removal and replacement are not as readily
accomplished. For this reason, they usually have split
casings and other provisions for easy access and maintenance. The work ca.n be performed by the usual
ship repair forces.
Section 2
An'angernent and Structural Details
Genemi Amngemeni* In addition to the
classificatiOn dependfig upon the choice of cycle, gas
turbines can be
acmrdhg to the mechanical
arrangement.
speaking, f 3 S turbines are either
"single-shaft" units in which the compressor and turbine
are attached to a single shaft, which in turn is connected
to the load; or multishaft units in which the
twbine~and sometimes the compressor, is divided into
sections, eachwith its own shaft which can run at different
and
Weeds. Each comPreSmr must be driven
by a section of the turbine, and the load can be driven
by One of thesections or by its own independent turbine.
Where the Compressor is divided into two successive and
sections with similar coaxial turbines in series, it
is
a "twin-s~ool" machine. When a
flingle ComPreSsor is used and the turbine is divided into
t~~
One
which drives the compressor and the
other the load at
speeds, it is known as a
"two-shaft " machine.
Both single-shaft and two-shaft machines can be used
in
service- The single-shaft units are most
oOmmonly used for generator drives, either a-c or d-C.
the a-c generator units are used only as auxiliary
power units where they run a t constant fn3q~encyand
'peed.
~ropulsionunits, where the propeller
must Operate Over a very wide speed range, a controllable
and reversible-~it~hpropeller or some eq~ivalent
varisble-s~eed transmiasion, such aS an electric drive,
be used with a single-shaft machine because of its
limited
range and poor acceleration characteristics.
For main ~ ~ o ~ u l s units,
i o n a multishaft machine is
'lormally used) the
arrangement bekg a two-shaft
unit with an
variable-speed power turbine.
-*
With this arrangement the power turbine and propeller

can be stopped if neceymry, and the gas producer kept
in operation for rapid load pickup. The use of variablearea nozzles on the power turbine increases fledbility by
enabling the compressor to be &tained
at or nw full
speed and air flow, down to low-power turbine speeh.
This makes nearly full power available by adding fuel
without the necessity of waiting for the
to
accelerate and increase the air flow. where low-load
economy is of importance, the controls
be arranged
to reduce the compressor speed a t low loah
the maximum turbine inlet and/or exhaust temperature
for best efficiency. Since a gas turbine inherently has a
poor part-load fuel rate performance, this variablearea
nozzle feature can be very advantageous. ~i~~~~ 8
illustrates a typical comparative
of part-loa,j performance curves for regenerative and simplecycle units.
The dotted curve indicates the min possible a t reduced
load by the use of a variablearea nozzle control for a
regenerative cycle.
The phisiml a m g e m e n t of the variouscomponents
(i.e., compressors, combustion systems, and turbines)
that make up the gas turbine is influencedby the thermQ
dynamic factors (i.e., the turbine connected to a cornpressor must develop enough power to drive it), by
mechanical considemtions (i.e., shafts must have adequate bearings, seals, etc.), and also by the neoessity to
conduct the very high ah and gas flows to and from the
various components with minimum pressure lossas.
2.2 Air Inlet Armngemenk. ~h~ provisionsfor
handling the large inlet and exhaust volume flows are
particularly important. Not only must the ductwork
to and from the unit be accommodated within the con-
2 14
MARINE ENGINEERING
PERCENT
SHAFT
HORSEPOWER
a.large plenum can be used, the compressor inlet can be

inserted in one wall of the plenum so that the air flows
axially into the compressor annulus. Model tests of
the inlet configuration are often conducted to identify
undesirable flow distortions and resonant conditions. If
tests are not conducted, a good rule of thumb is that the
engine inlet should be a t least two engine diameters
away from the bullhead or far side of the plenum.
An arrangement which is very satisfactory, both
aerodynamically and structurally, is show11 in Fig. 9.
Air enters the passage radially from the inlet hood, which
is large enough-that is, has low enough velocities-to
insure equal distribution and essentially uniform radial
velocities around the circumference. The air is then
turned in a n axial direction, and accelerated by the
reduction in passage area, to the plane of the inlet guide
vanes. The squeeze and resulting acceleration suppresg
vortices and smooth the flow a t the inlet guide vanes.
Struts tie the two sides of the casing together.
2.3 Exhaust Collectors or Hoods. Due to the higher
tmnneratures.
the exhaust volume flow is larger than that
----- Iof the inlet. Maintaining velocities that provido
reasonable pressure drops is, therefore, somewhat morc!
difficult. The high temperature also introduces expansion problems since the movement of the ducting due to
thermal growth must be accommodated without introducing high forces into the turbine structure. Tlai
allowable forces and moments depend somewhat up011
the size of the unit and must be specified for the partiaular gas turbine used.
The exhaust collector, or exhaust hood, is that part ol'
the turbine casing that collects the gases leaving the!
last-stage turbine wheel and conducts them to tllo
connection with the heat-recovery equipment or exhaunC
duct. It' usually, however, serves as more than n
collector. Due to the limited annulus area that can bo
provided a t the normal gas turbine exhaust temperaturcn,
GAS TURBINES
215
ACCESSORY DRIVE GEARS
POWER TURBINE
--
Fig. 8
Gas turbine part-load performance characteristics
fines of the ship structure, but the total system pressure

drop must be held to a minimum.
I n addition, the actual configuration of the air inlet
to the compressor is important. Unequal air flow into
the
annulus or flow into the annulus a t varying
-- . inlet
angles around the circumference (velocity and pressure
distortion) can reduce the efficiency by the effect on the
firstrrow entrance angles. Also they can cause blade
vibrations that can lead to early blade failure. Ideally
the compressor inlet should pull from an infinite plenum,
as with an aircraft jet engine in flight. Practically, the
engine must pull the air through a duct system; therefore,
some form of air inlet housing or hood must be used. If
Fig. 9
Large axial-flow compressor and turbine, regenerative-cycle,two-shaft industrial design
'
AIR INLET ASSEMBLY
Fig. 10 Axial-Row tompressor and turbine, simple-cycle, two-haft design
the axial velocity and the corresponding absolute

velocity leaving the last-stage turbine blading is usually
high, 400 fps or more. The energy represented by this
velocity, known as the leaving loss, is a rather high
percentage of the turbine energy, and so for good shaft
efficiency a s much of it must be recovered as possible.
To recover this velocity energy, some form of diffuser is
employed. Since a good diffuser takes up considerable
space, a judicious compromise usually must be made
between the space used and the energy that can be
recovered by the pressure rise in the diffuser. A typical
straight diffuser is shown in Fig. 9, while a curved diffuser
is shown in Fig. 10. Most authorities agree that good
diffusion cannot be obtained in a turn, so that the
diffuser efficiency of curved diffusers like Fig. 10 is
probably low. However, they obviously take considerably less axial length, which usually is an important
advantage.
I n addition*to its aerodynamic function as a diffuser
and collector, the exhaust hood must frequently act a s a
structural member and carry loads and bending moments
through the gas path. This is the case of the arrangement shown in Fig. 9 where the power turbine bearing
housing is supported by struts through the gas path.

I n some cases, particularly with single-shaft machines,
the rotor bearings may not require support through the
exhaust hood; but the inner wall of the diffuser usually
must be supported by struts through the gas path. Such
struts should be located as far down the diffuser as
possible, as any obstruction in a diffuser, even when
streamlined, markedly reduces its recovery efficiency ;
therefore, the lower the velocity region a t which this
occurs, the better. I n addition, provision must be made
for the thermal expansion (particularly during starting)
of the struts, which are completely immersed in the hot
gas stream. I n small units, distortion of the casings a t
the attachment points may be sufficient; but in large
units some radial flexibility is generally allowed. Tangential struts or a radii1 strut with a tangential spring
member a t the outer end are possible arrangements.
Air-cooled struts attached to cylindrical inner and outer
members that can distort sufficiently to allow for some
expansion can also be used.
The exhaust hood, or collector, is usually fabricated
from relatively thin material with suitable stiffening ribs
formed in the material or welded on externally. This
216
MARINE ENGINEERING
serves to stiffen the structure to prevent drumming or

resonances and also enables the structure to withstand
the internal pressure due t o the back pressure imposed on
the unit when heat-recovery equipment is used. Large
flat surfaces should be designed to withstand a t least
20 in. of water without bulging.
Materials for exhaust hoods are frequently stainless
steels, particularly for units with high exhaust temperatures. For large units, where thicker stock is required
to give adequate stiffness, carbon or low-alloy steels can
be used. In any case the exhaust system is usually
covered with some form of insulation (blanket, block,
plastic, etc.) to reduce the temperature of the exposed
surface.
2.4 Structural Arrangements. Structurally, the stationary gas turbine parts, compressor casings, comburc
tion casings, turbine casings or shells, and the related
structural supports for the mtor bearings must withstand
not only the internal pressure forces but also the external
forces imposed on the unit from its own weight and the
reactions from engine torque and external connections.
The casings must be designed for the internal pressure
forces and must also be checked as a beam, under the
reactions due to the weight of the components, plus
whatever "g" loading may be imposed. Rotor and
stator weights must be considered, and the supports are
frequently located so as to mini&
the bending
moments in the structure.
The calculation of the bearing housings and supports
cannot be based upon the weights of the rotors alone.
To insure the integrity of the unit in the event of a blade
or bucket failure, they should be able to carry the
centrifugal loads imposed by the loss of some credible
combination of bucket or blades within the tensile
strength of the members. The loss of two adjacent
vane sections or one complete bucket and dovetail is
considered a reasonable assumption.
Supports for gas turbines can take many forms. They
must support the unit and maintain it in line with the
driven equipment, while allowing for the axial and radial
thermal growth of the unit from cold to normal operating
temperatures. Several methods of support are shown in
the various illustrations, and it will be seen that small
units frequently use three points of support with one
centering key or gib, while larger units usually use a t
least four supports; more are used if the whole unit is
divided into several casings, as in compound cycle units.
2.5 Mounting in the Hull. In marine applications,
the gas turbine usually cannot be mounted rigidly to the
ship's structure. Normal movement and distortions of
the hull when underway would cause distortions and
misalignment in the turbine. This could cause internal
. rubs or even bearing or structural failure. The turbine
components can be mounted on a subbase, as shown in
Fig. 9, which is built up of structural sections of sufficient
rigidity to maintain the gas turbine alignment when
properly supported by the ship's hull. I n cases where
aircraft gas turbines have been adapted to marine use,
some form of tubular structure may be used, but the
purpose is the same. A rigid structural subbase also

provides a convenient mounting for many of the gas
turbine auxiliaries, particularly the lube oil tank and
other components of the lubrication system. When
properly applied, a three-point support of such a s u b
base will prevent ships' structural distortions from
rnisaliiing the various components.
2.6 Regenerators and Recuperators. The recovery
of heat from the gas turbine exhaust and its return to the
cycle to improve the overall efficiency are accomplished
with a regenerator or recuperator. Both terms are used
more or less interchangeably although the term "regenerator" is sometimes considered to be limited to rotary
heat exchangers in which a heat storage matrix is alternately exposed to the hot exhaust gases, and then to the
compressor discharge air stream, transferring heat from
the former to the latter. The term recuperator is then
reserved for fixed-surface heat exhangers in which the
hot exhaust is on one side of a wall and the air on the
other, the heat being transferred through the wall by
conduction.
Both types have been used successfully with gas
turbines although the fixed-surface type is far more
common. Considerable effort, however, has gone into
the development of various forms of rotary regenerators
for small engines because of their advantages of small
size, light weight, and high effectiveness. On the other
hand, work on fixed-surface types has also resulted in
reduced weight and space, so that both types arc
competitive.
Rotary regenerators have been built with the heatexchange element (or matrix) either in the form of a
flat disk or as a hollow cylinder. The choice of one or
the other is determined primarily by the geometry of tho
installation as related to the gas turbine components,
although considerations of the seal design between the
cold high-pressure chamber and the hot low-pressure
chamber can affect the choice.
Seal leakage and the "letdown" which occurs when a
section of the rotary matrix passes from the high-pressuru
region to the exhaust or low-pressure region offset tho
high effectiveness that can be realized in the matrix, a,
that the overall cycle efficiency is comparable to fixedsurface types. The matrix itself can be metal or ceramic,
in the form of wire, strip, plates, pebbles, etc. The
influence of seal leakage, let down, and pressure drop*
and their relations to the geometry of the regenerator arc!
given in references [13] and [12].
Fixed-surface recuperators were originally of convontional shell and tube construction, in some cases wit11
in. dia when used for mobilo
tubes as small as
applications where weight and space were important.
More common constructions with tubes M to 1 in. diu
were large and bulky, and considerable trouble wan
experienced in some cases with cracking of the tubn
sheets due to thermal stresses set up between the cold
shell and the hot tubes across the outer periphery of thla
tube sheet.
Present designs are usually of the "plate-fin" can-
GAS TURBINES
struction as illustrated in Fig. 11. Here the compressor

discharge air is between adjacent plates with the turbine
exhaust gas in the finned passages. The pressure load
is then carried by the fins acting as columns and transmitted to the outer casing where it is restricted by
"strongbacks" and ~iamied into the end structure.
Details of course vary between different manufacturers;
a typical arrangement and its development are described
in references [13, 141.
The materials used in fixed-surface heat exchangers
depend upon the temperature range in which they must
work. Where the maximum turbine exhaust tempera-
SS
&
CORRUGATED CENTERS
used, but the metal thicknems chosen should provide

an adequate allowance for minor corrosion. For turbine
exhaust temperatures over 1000 F. or where the. design
has been optimized for minimum weight with resulting
the astern rotor blade sections to reduce the rotatioh
thin-gage materials, corrosion-resistant materials such 10-s
-----.
as stainless steel or one of the Inconels are necessary.
Lacking an internal reversing method, marine gas
247 Reduction Gearing and Reversing Consideraturbine installations must be reversed by an external
tions. The gas turbine is a high-speed qachine with
output shaft speeds ranging from about 3600 rpm for means. Electric drives offer ready reversing but are
large machines up to 100,000rpmfor very small machines. usually ruled out on the basis of weight, cost, and to
some extent efficiency, except for special applications
Approximately 25,000 rpm is an upper limit for units
(Chapter 10). From a practical standpoint there are
suitable for the propulsion of small boats. With these two alternatives, a reversing gear or a controllable and
output speeds, a reduction gear is necessary to reduce the
reversible pitch (CRP) propeller. Both have been used
speed to the range suitable for a propeller. Smaller successfully in gas-turbine-driven ships. Reversing
units suitable for boats or driving auxiliary unit&, such as gears haye been commonly applied to diesel-propelled
generators in larger vessels, frequently have a reduction ships up $0 several thousand horsepower and have also
gear built integral with the unit. Larger units n~rmally been used in some gas turbine applications [I, 16, 17, 181.
require a separate reduction gear, usually of the double- CRP propellers likewise are quite common in smaller
or triple-reduction type.
sizes, and are finding increasing applications in higherThe gearing itself can be of any arrangement. S q l l e r horsepower qliesel and gas turbbe ships [19, 20, 211.
units with built-in gears frequently use a
or
One important consideration in choosing a reversing
star gear arrangement. Larger units use double-helical means for a gas turbine is whether it is a aingleshaft or
gears. Any of the gear types and arrangements d e
scribed in Chapter 9 can be used with a gas turbine to two-shaft machine. The singleshaft gas turbine has a
very limited speed range, in some cases only from 75 to
suit the rating, speed ratio required, and arrangement of
100 percent speed, while the load turbine of a two-shaft
the machinery in the vessel.
machine can be stopped by the application of sufficient
A gas turbine, in common with all turbine machinery,
while the gas generator continues to run. This
is not inherently reversible. Steam turbines can provide torque
means that a direct-geared, single-shaft gas turbine can
separate reversing elements built into the LP casing, but
only be applied in conjunction with a CRP propeller, in
this is not practical in a gas turbine as the rotation loss
order to be able to properly maneuver the ship, unless it is
of the astern elements rotating in the ahead direction a t
applied only as a boost engine where its limited speed
atmospheric pressure would be very high. The resulting range matches the requirements. A two-shaft -chinc
temperatures and losses would be unacceptable.
can be applied equally well with a reversing gear or a
Design studies have been made of a unique arrangement in which the astern bucket's vane section takes the CRP propeller. A reversing gear also provides a means
place of the shank of a long-shank bucket and which of disconnecting the shafting from the turbine. Such a
means should be provided if a single-shaft machine is
has its own variable-angle nozzle that can be closed
used so that it can be started and checked out without
off when going ahead [15]. This arrangement shields rotating the propeller and shafting.
0--
217
21 8
GAS TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
Sectiun 3
Accessories
~
turbine,
pumps
~
i andl Drbes,
i
~ The~gas ~
,kle bsially a complete, self-contained power plant,

for its operation. Fuel
requires cerbin
pumps (on liquid-fueled units) and lube-oil pumps are
always needed. A positive fuel pressure must be
supplied to the engine during all operating conditions,
including sta+up, These pumps can be independently
driven by electric motorsl
but are ususlly driven through
a reduction gar from the m i n turbine shaft. The
takes many forms; spur, bevel, worm,
a,essorr
or spiral gearing has been
depending upon the
configuration of the turbine and, in some cases, installation requirements
in the form of length or space limitaThe
Bimplest
gearing amrngement that will drive
tions.
(these include governors,
the required
tachometer generators, speed switches, etc., as well as
the fuel and lube oil pumps) is usually best. In any case,
the garing must be designed for the duty and l i e
,quired of the min unit. They are usually provided
by the gas turbine manufacturer as standard engine
3.2 Statiing ~ ~ , ,A igas
~ turbine,
~ ~ . like other
inter,l com~ustionengines, is not self-starting, and
Since the starting device is normally required Only

to about 50 percent speed, it is usually connected to the
turbine through some form of special clutch which
be disconnected during normal Operation. The
it
simplest, and probably most satisfactory, form Of
is a Simple jaw clutch, magnetically Or ~~~~~~~~~~~~y
be
engaged and Spring disengaged. Provisions
made for rotating the starter slowly during engagement
to make sure the jaws are fully engaged before
is applied; otherwise, severe damage
Alternatively, Some form of overrunning
can be
used, but Unless the clutch is of some slf-s~nchmnizing
form such as illustrated in Chapter 91 it is susceptible to
damage or failure if the starting device is energized
load
the gas turbine is still decelerating. The
under such conditions can be very severe, and few Overto
running Clutch de&ns have the torque
disengage
stand such Shock. The clutch should
Operating
completely a t Some speed below the
speed of the turbine shaft to avoid excessive wear On
mechanism.
3.3 Inlet Air Filters. Additional items
and
considered as accessories are inlet air filters and
exhaust SilenCerS. Pressure drops are Of -jar imporand exhaust
tance in gas turbine operation; therefore1
equipment mist be designed with
for the economic balance of size and Pressure
Gas turbines require clean air, as
compressor will eventually become coated with a layer
external means mustbe utilized to bring it up to the selfsustainingspeed. ~ h i ais the speed from which the
rotors can be accelerated by the ad&tion of fuel alone,
asdstance, and it is usually about 30 to
lvithout
50 percentof the gas-producer's full speed. On units
sbftaonly one starting
aith two or more
device can be used, although in certain industrial-type
gas turbines each shaft utilizes its own s*ting device.
Starting devices in common US include electric
motors, stearn turbines, air motors operating on stored
comprewd air, and small diesel engines, which must, in
turn, have their own starting systems. Other starting
systems include hydraulic motors fed from x%h-pressure
pumps or accumulator systems, and special r 0 t a r y - t ~ ~ ~
starting motors fed from high-pressure air supplies, sorne
EXHAUST
of which include the combustion of fuel to furnish
energy. For large units a ~lnallindependent
gas turbine m y be used to furnish the starting power.
In any case, it is important that the starting device
have adequate power to bring the Unit to the selfsustaining speed without requiring the addition of energy
from the main fuel supply sufficient to cause excessive
temperatures at the turbine inlet. That is, the fuel/air
ratio during the shrting cycle should be held close to
normal limits. This requires a relatively large energy
input from the starting device. Since the operating
time is of relatively short duration, the starting device
a n be highly overloaded or peak-load rated, particularly
if it is an electric motor. Starting times range from
seconds on a very small gas turbine to 1 to 2 minutes On
large aircraft-type engines and 15 to 20 minutes on the ~ i12~ Gas
. turbine installation on P G boats showing air inlet and exhaul)
arrangements
largest industrial-type units.
dirt, which reduces its capacity and efficiency and sound power level of a given design of gas turbine is a
results in a degadation of the entire engine or may even function of its size or power and is approximately
b u s a ComPressor blade failure due to stall. TO insure proportional to its rating. ~~~tof the noise is generated
air, most, n ~ n m r i n egas turbine installations are aerodynamicallyand is related to blade passing frequency
equipped with an air filter or clmer. In marine and, therefore, is in the high-frequency range (221.
a~~limtionsi
however, the nI0st important requirement
The m&jor sources of the noise radiated to the suris to keep
particles and water, n'hether in drops or as roundings are the inlet openings, exhaust openings, and
wsterl from entering the compre%~Or. For this gears. However, the entire machine radiates noise; the
reanon air
should be placed as high above the water sound intensity is related to the easing thickness or, more
as possible and must be equipped with effectivebaffles or exactly, to the casing mss. Noise radiated from the
eliminators to Prevent the entry of solid water. Behind casings is usually confined to the engine room, and its
the eliminators a demister should be installed to intercept effect h n be reduced and controlled by appropriate
water droplets. The demister can consist of an inertial sound treatment.
~ p a * ~or,r alternatively, of pads (similar to filter
The airborne noise, in both the inlet and exhaust, can
pads) of metal or synthetic fibers of controlled size and be attenuated to almost any required level by the use
'pacing to
the size of droplets passed. of suitable silencers. I n general, the greater the decibel
If the demister pads are
lvet, even with Sea~~ater,reduction in noise level required, the more expensive the
are also effective in stopping the ingestion of salt silencer and the greater its pressure drop, so a noise
and. other foreign particles and thereby serve as a filter reduction greater than n e c e w v should notbe used.
medium' A typieal
arrangement having an Specifying silencer performance, it is important that the
inertial-t~~e
separator is shown in Fig. 12. The type of sound-pressurelevel a t the turbine be given in each of the
under consideration and its above-water profile and octave bands and that the reduction to give the required
height above the waterline will dictate in large part the decibels at a predetermined radius be also specified for
tYpe of mist eliminator to be used.
the same octave bands.
If the engine room is used as a plenum, oil Vapors from
Since the sound attenuation in the surroundings
Other
can also adversely affect engine per- be ,yomewhat directional, the configuration of the inlet
formance.
and exhaust openings and their orientation should be
3A Inletand Exhaust
The gas turbine, carefully chosen. Of course the sound levels required
being a
-chine, generates a relatively large also depend upon the
service (e.g., eargo,
amount of noise of a w*de frequency spectrum. The passenger, or naval).
Of
Section 4
C0ntr0ls
The control system of a gas
turbine
perform several functions that are vital to
its
It must control the speed of the shafts
that make up the *m~lete unit, schedule the fuel flow
during starting and qther transient mnditions, prevent
Overtemperatures in the combustion and turbine system,
and prevent a dsngerous overspeed under any conditions.
The
system to perform these functions is
made up Of a number
separate devices corn'bed into various Systems; but the trend is for all the
to be inteerated into a single system, usually
Of the
type, that controls all the
operations of the unit.
4*2 'peed Measunhent and Control. A nonintegrated
system will mnsid of a speed governor,
Usuall~
the
or flyweight type, which
through a
relay system 6-e., a pilot valve and
piston) Operates the main fuel valve to regulate the fuel
flow
to
the Power output and the
speed Of the unit- For a single-shaft
mchkre, this is that is neces~rY1and a governor unit,
such as shown in l?k. 13, will meet all

The governor characteristics may be of the isochronous
or droop type as required.
For machines nith two or more shafts, additional
control usually must be provided with a twolhaft
turbine having fixed nozzle areas, the speed of the gas
producer section is normally controlled by one speed
governor and the output is a function primarily of that
speed. The power turbine speed, however, is independent and is a function of the power turbine and its
loading characteristics (i,e,, horsepower or torque vs.
rpm relationship of the propeller). T~ prevent overspeeding on loss of load, a supplemental speed governor,
wmetimes called a "topping governor,?, mustbe driven
by the power turbine which will override the min
governor and reduce the fuel supply should the power
turbine speed exceed the topping governor ~ ~ ~ t n- ~ ~ i ~
When a t ~ o - ~ h gas
~ f t turbine is equipped wit.
variable-area power turbine nozzles, an additional
control element is introduced which gives additional
flexibility in the control and charactefistics of the unit.
GAS TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
Not Only is the poser turbine speed independent of the

gas producer speed, but the speed can be contfolled over
A
a wide range of load and load
the
hydraulic relay system is normally used to
load turbine nozzle and thus setthe energy distribution
betNreenthe power turbine and the gas producer turbine.
The control function an be set up in several ways;
normally however, the gas producer speed, through its
the nozzle position to maintain the set
speed and corresponding air flow. The power turbine
speed, through a separate governing system, sets the
adjusts the outputto match the speed
fuel ,flow and
This, provides the maximum laad response,
the ah flow constant, the load can be changed
since
,pidly by merely varying the .fuel flow without risk of
overtemperature or compressor instability. Alternais desired and
tively,
maximum parbload
slower load pickup
be accepted, the controls a n be
if
an
arranged to vary the air flow with load by varying the

gas producer speed. This makes it possible to maintail'
the maximum turbine inlet temperature Over a wid'
range of load within limits set by the exhaust temperature control. liar m u l t i ~ l ~ units
- ~ ~the
a ~same
~
princiby the need
ples apply, but the problem is
to control more shafts and1in some a s e s l more than On'
combustion system (each having independent temperatures). A description of such 'ystems 's given
references [231 241.
the
Instead of a governor Nith
Or
signal can be taken from a tachometer
converted
to
a
magnetic speed Pickup, and the
and
modulated Signal which an
corresponding speed and output. Such systems an'
particularly advantageous for generating sets where
load signal can be fed into the electronic 'ystem to givs
regu1ation as
'*
load anticipation and thereby
'''
'
MARINE ENGINEERING
difficult to meet, particularly when pumping low

lubricity fuels such as JP-4 and especially JP-5. Only
pumps specially designed for the service will satisfactorily
and reliably meet the requirements.
One additional requirement of a fuel control system is
to divide the fuel evenly when there is more than one
fuel nozzle or combustion chamber. This is particularly
important with multiple combustion chambers, since
even individual nozzle arcs can only reliably meter the
air flow to within 3 to 4-percent accuracy, so that a
5-percent difference in the fuel nozzle flow can result in
an 8 to 9-percent variation in temperature rise. On a
1000 deg F rise this variation is 80 to 90 deg P, an
amount large enough to affect the life of the hot-gas-path
One way of assuring essentially equal flows is to use a
piston-type pump with one cylinder delivering flow to
each fuel nozzle. This gives a pulsating flow to each
nozzle, but provides an equal distribution between them.
An alternative method is to meter the flow to each nozzle
through a small gear pump element with all elements
being moupted on a common shaft and thus running a t
the same speed. The speed-control governor then varies
the fuel flow from the shaft-driven fuel Pump- The
speed of the gear elements is pmportional to the fuel flow1
and each element passes the same fuel flow regardless of
pressure variations due to differences in the individual
The control of the fuel flow during the startiIrg cycle

is an important function of the fuel control system to
temperatures at
prevent the development of
low speeds. ~~~~l~~ controls with means of metering
the fuel during the lighboff and starting cycle are
usually required. These controls can incorporate a
bias from the compressor discharge pressure, which is a
convenient measure of air flow, to set the fuel schedule

during acceleration, and in some applications a temperature override from the temperature control system. The
latter, if the system has adequate response times,
approaches an ideal way to set the fuel flow, since it
responds to the most important condition-temperature.
Maximum fuel flow and minimum fuel flow stops are
also normally incorporated in the control to prevent
overloading the unit under low ambient conditions and
flameout due to cutback of the fuel flow on sudden
reductions in load.
4.6 Overspeed Protection. The governor and speed
control normally control the shaft speeds within prescribed limits. However, as with most turbine machinery, a backup to prevent dangerous overspeeding
must be ~rovidedin the form of an overspeed shutdown.
Such a device should be applied to every shaft. Upon
reaching a speed of about 110 percent of rated rpm, the
overspeed trip mechanism shuts off all fuel to the unit.
In the case of two-shaft units, this is in addition to a
pre-emergency or topping governor driven from the load
turbine, \vhich acts to limit fuel flow to that corresponding to about 10a-percent speed.
~ h overspeed
,
trip can be mechanical in the form of a
centrifugal mechanism which, upon reaching the trip
speed, dumps oil from the fuel control valves or opens a
set of electrical contacts that similarly shuts off all fuel
flow. Alter~lativelya tachometer geneator or magnetic
speed pi~liupscan be used to generate an electrical signal
which interrupts the control circuits and shuts off the
fuel as the shaft reaches the set overspeed. Electrical
devices must be arranged to "fail safe" so that Once
Opens the
started, a Zero speed signal or lack of signal
control circuits and shuts off
Section 5
Centrifugal Compressor Design
GAS TURBINES
373
---
imparts kinetic energy to the fluid, the diffuser and scroll,

which are the major stationary parts, must convert the
kinetic energy into potential energy in the form of a
static pressure rise. Therefore, the higher the pressure
ratio required, the more important is the design and
corresponding performance of the diffuser.
The forward section of the impeller, usually called the
inducer, may be separate from or integral with the rest
of the impeller. I n any case, however, the aerodynamic
shape of the inducer is very ifiportant insofar as the
overall efficiency, capacity, pressure rise, and surge
performance of the machine are concerned.
5.2 Centrifugal Impeller Design. To achieve good
performance and high efficiency, the detailed aerodynamic design of the imfieller (rotor) and diiuser is
necessarily based on experience and usually a long
development period. Many approaches have been
taken in designing centrifugal compressor impellers.
The usual method employs a combination of velocity
Various detail factors are of importance in the final

design. Shrouded impellers are sometimes used where
Fig. 14 Centrifugal compreswr and radial-flow turbine, simple-cycle,
maximum efficiency is important, and stress conditions
single-shaft unit with single combustor and gearbox
will allow them, although quoted gains of 3 to 5 points in
efficiencyare debatable.
Axial thrust generated by the rotor can be minimized
by balance holes to the back face of the impeller or
abscissa may be expressed as
radial vanes or blades on the back face to create an
opposing pressure gradient. The thrust of double flow,
i.e., double entry, impellers is inherently balanced.
The use of pre-whirl, with rotation, will reduce the
inlet relative Mach number, but also reduce the work
input for a given tip speed. However, higher tip speeds
W = weight flow, lb/sec
are then permissible, and so higher pressure ratios can be
P = inlet pressure, psia
obtained in this manner. I
Ti = inlet temperature, deg R
5.3 Diffuser Design. As stated earlier, the diffuser
A plot using a similar flow parameter is shown in Fig. 15. used with a centrifugal compresmr plays an important
A commonly used
is &/ND31which is essentially part in the determination of the overall performance and
and therefore applies to all geometrically efficiencyof the compressor. However, the design of the
diffusing section of the machine is usually dictated by
One important characteristic of all C O ~ ~ ~ ~ U O U Sspace
- f l o wand configuration limitations as well as by aerocomPressors is the surge line. This is the line represent- dynamic considerations.
ing the
between Pressure rise and volume flow
Diffusers can be classified as
annular, vaned
above which
is unstable. Under these con- annular, or scroll. These fundamental types, in additions the air flow surges or pulsates, often with dition to being used separately, may be used also in
destructive effects on the unit. This limit usually must combination; that is, an annular diffuser may have a
be determined
test and is nearly always shown on the considerable vaneless section preceding or following a
plot of the unit's characteristic performance curve.
vaned section, and a scroll may be used as a secondary
the
is simple in mn- diffuser after either of the annular types, or the cornstructionl usually comprising only a single rotor in a bination.
casing, the achievement
of high Pressure ratios and good
Scroll diffusers are used, either alone or in
efficiencies is
Since the rotor Or impeller with radial diffusers, where the air leaving the
GAS TURBINES
-Ua
P,
Pa
* ROTOR TIP
SPEED, FPS
ROTOR INLET AREA,
IN.^
INLET PRESSURE. PSIA
DISCHARGE PRESSURE. P
RADIUS, IN.
fig.
IS Perfonnonce mop f a centrifugal canprerur

Fig. 16 Turbine wheel rtresaes
The oentrifugal force of the Vanes is introduced a t

Shrouded impellers a n also be oalcuhted by an exten'pecific
of the disk, which is divided into sion of the method. In this case the shroud is cctlcula&d
ringa and strips. Thermal stresses due to a radial as an unsupported ring and then influencecoefficienbare
tem~erat&e gradient are computed by assigning a calculated for the interaction between the blades and
each ring, based on tests or calculations. the shroud and disk to arrive at the final stress distribuA typiml plot of wheel stresses is shown in Fig. 16.
tion.
Section 6
GAS TUR'BINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
A-
P'
VANE
VANE
(a) Dovetail root
(b) Cylindrical raot
WHEEL
Fig. 18
F ; ~ .17
cascade performance of the individual blade rows. That

dkgramfor a specific blade row (rotor or
is, the
stator) gives the entrancecondition to the row; and the
leaving velocities and
data give the
,gles, which combined with the e& velocity diagram
give the absolute leaving conditions for the row.
An important consideation in the design of axial
blading is that of blade loading. %rly data
on low-speed caaades [291were extended by later NACA
progams, including information on blade
at higher ~~~h numbers and higher blade,tting angles [3*34.
From the early data, Lieblein
and others developed a digusion parameter that is
as a blade loading limit [331.
frequently
Compressw rotor blade attachments
performance map for axial-flow WPr-
6.3 Blading Design. The

both
and
a common
stator, are always of
C-4 Or C-7' Thu
being NACA-65 section or the
at that
length is set to give the deskn
lof3ltion. For manufacturing reasons
blades (rotor) a e often of constant tip diameter, which
permits a simple casing design and 'lso maintains a high
tip speed and minimum number of stages' The 'Oat
a minimum at
diameter comes~ondinglyvaries
with
inlet to a xim mum at the disehargel
with seveml
constant taper, as in Fig- lo,and
of the high-pressure stages having a constant rOO''
diameter, as in Fig. 9. The latter tends to reduce the
leaving velocity a t the discharge, and the accom-
panying leaving loss. Com~ressor~

are also designed
with a constant root diameter and varying tip dlmeter,
and in other cases both diameters are varied.
The thiclcness of the airfoil sections is chosen to meet
vibration criteria while maintaining good aerodynamic
performance. he blade chord must then be sufficient
to maintain the blade bending stresses at an acceptable
level to insure freedom from fatigue failures. Sample
are commonly made up and their natural frequencies checked for all the lower modes and, if necessary,
t ~ ~ n ebyd changing the thickness to avoid resonances a t
running speeds as shown by a Campbell diagram (see
Fig. 30 of Chapter 5 for a typical Campbell dimgram).
Even this cannot give positive assurance that all
resonances are avoided, particularly in variable speed
units. Even constant-speed units must pass through
resonant speeds when starting up and shutting down.
he allowable bending stress chosen depends upon the
Inaterial and the designer's experience; but a good rule
for deel is 10,000 psi in the outermost fiber based on the
root section modulus, or 25 Percent of the fatigue limit
at lo8 cycles- The first- and last-shge design stresses
are frequently reduced to a b u t one half of these values
to allow for the increased loading that occurs a t off-design
conditions. Much higher stresses are used in aircrafttype units. Titanium blades are frequently used in gas
turbines of the aircraft type.
The blade must be attached to the rotor by some
means; this is
accomplished by an enlarged
section, or root, in the form of a dovetail, as in liig. 18(a)
cylindrical roots as in Fig. 18(b)*and bolted
attachments have been used. The dovetail section must
be
made and is usually a good fit in the slot
in the rotor; axial slots are commonly broached but
circumferential grooves are machined in a lathe.
The stresses in the dovetail are shearing stresses

(across section A-A in li'ig. 18) and crushing or compressive stresses (on surf ces B and B). The total load on
the dovetail is determined by adding the centrifugal
force due to the vane and that of the dovetail itself. The
shear and crushing stresses are then calculated from this
total load and the geometrimlly determined areas.
Wheel dovetail neck shear stresses a t maximum speed
should be less than 30 percent of the minimum yield
stress and the tensile stresses less than 20 percent of the
minimum ultimate tensile strength.
In the layout of the vane sections, the sections a t each
radius are usually stacked so that the line through the
centroids of the sections is a straight line, either radial or
with a slight inclination to compensate for the aerodynamic bending moments.
6.4 Rotor Design. Most axial compressors have the
rotor made up of a series of individual disks, each usually
carrying one row of rotor blades. The individual disks
are held together by a central bolt as in Fig. 10 or a row
of bolts a t an intermediate radius as in li'ig. g. In either
case, the Golts are prestressed a t assembly so that the
total bolt load is sufficient to keep the disks from
separating under the highest bending moment that is
likely to be imposed on the rotor.
The individual disks are usually
to give an
approximately constant radial stress in the wheel.
Various methods may be used for the calculation of the
wheel stresses, including the centrifugal loading of the
blades, but the one most commonly used is the "Manson
method" [27, 281. The average tangential stress is of
particular significance, since, for the ductile materials
usually chosen, it is generally considered that the *heel
bursting speed is reached wrhen this stress exceeds a
value in the range of 85 to 100 percent of the ultimate
MARINE ENGINEERING
229
GAS TURBINES
of freedom from distortion of the casing, due to its

symmetry,'so that closer tip clearances over the blading
can be maintained in operation. I t is also somewhat
lighter.
Larger units commonly have the compressor casing
split on the horizontal centerline, each half containing
half the stator blades. The two halves are bolted
together with a horizontal flange as shown in Fig. 9.
The horizontal flanges must be designed to transmit the
circumferential hoop stress, due to the internal pressure,
across the joint without leaking. The joint itself is
always made with a metal-to-metal contact, the joint
being carefully finished to avoid leakage. The best

proportions for the flange and bolting are usually based
on experiment as well as a stress analysis [34].
6.6
Other Compressor Types and Combinations.
Other types of compressors have, from time to time,

been proposed for application to a gas turbine cycle. Of
the several possible types, only a variation of the
centrifugal type (the so-called "mixed-flow" compressor)
and a combination of one or more axial stages followed
by a single centrifugal stage (for small volume flow,
high pressure ratio machines) have had practical application.
Section 7
Turbine Design and Construction
of the msterbl. Typiml stress distribution separate blade rings by T-slot attachments, Or brazed
the rings. The rings are made in two Or more
curves for compressor wheel are given in Fig. 19. into
segments
which are then slid into paves machined
hi^ is a wheel ,with a central hole, and the tangential
the
casingsstress a t the bore is quite high, approaching twice the
The inner ends of the stator blades can be either
center stress in a solid disk.
lo, Or unc~~~~~~~~
have been built with drum rotors, similar shrouded, as in the forward stages of
into
If
shmuded,
they
are
riveted
Or
shrouded.
to some steam turbine rotors, and solid rotors have been
applications are rare. S t r e r ~ s the shroud .ring, which carries a labyrinth packing to
designed, although
in drum rotors are usually based on unsupported ring minimize
e a hfinished
3 along to
theanrotor.
If unsh*udedl
the blade the
endsL are
accurate
diameter to
theory, and are appreciably higher than for individual
at
give
the
minimum
allowable
running
disks for the same peripheral speeds. Consequently they
are used only in compressors with low blade speeds and a blade tipsSome compreaior designs U S variableangle
large number of stages for a given overall pressure ratio.
blades
in one or more rows so that the blade angles call
Such designs can be classed as very conservative.
6.5 ibtor ~
~Statori blades~ are not
~ subject
.
be adjusted to match the operating conditions, partichavn
that rotor blades experience; ularly during starting. In such eases, the blades
to the centrifu&al
thrOug"
therefore, theb mechanical design and aerodynamic cylindrical shanks that extend radially outward
to the
design are not as limited. Nevertheless, bending holes in the casing. Levers are attached
in On''
ends,
which
are
linked
together,
so
that
loadings must be calculated
stressesdue to
rows
can
be
adjusted
simultaneously
by
a"
or
more
and kept, to consenrative values to allow for unknown
stresses. Blade vibration modes and fre- external control mechanism.
tho
The compressor easing must be designed to
for a preliminary design, and
quencies must, be
stator
blades
or
stator
blade
rings
and
contain
tho
checked for sample blades, so as to avoid lower-order
various stages. Small0r
rewasnoes within the
running speed range. pressures developed in the
a
casil'g,
machines
are
frequently
made
due
to
centrifugal
~h~~~is, of course, no
the rotor and stator blade rings being assembled externs1
forces as there is for rotor blades.
~h~ method of attachment is usually similar to that to the easing and then assembled endwise into the casil*
for mbrblades, although a simple T-slot mot attach- as a unit, as in Fig. 10. The casing is then
merit is frequently used. Blades may be mounted an air inlet easing and a discharge diffuserthat locate a'"1
This has the advantag('
-hined
in the fasing, mounted in restrain the blade rings endwise.
d.,.tlY b
qs
= n -fl
H5/4
(2)
!
1
MARINE ENGINEERING
GAS TURBINES
23 1
U = WHEEL SPEED
C I = NOZZLE EXIT V E LOCITY
D l = BUCKET RELATIVE
ENTRANCE VELOCITY
D~
= BUCKET RELATIVE
Ce
= BUCKET ABSOLUTE
E X l T VELOCITY
EXlT VELOCITY
C2
I
(A) IMPULSE DIAGRAM
I
(
V E L O C I T Y RATIO. U/C,
fig. 20 Typical turbine dtldender vs. speciflc spwd
specific speed, although the exact level of efficiency for

each type is dependent upon the detail designs and
geometry as well.
7.2 Aerodynamic Design. Since radial-outflow turbines are rarely used, discussion will be limited to radialc2
inflow designs. While the radial-flow turbine is basically
similar to a centrifugal compressor operating in reverse,
there are differences, as can be seen from Fig. 14.
( B ) 'OX REACT'0N 'IAGRAM
Principally, a simple scroll inlet is usually used, and the
considerable radial depth of the diffuser is replaced by a
pig. 21 AX~~I-now
turbine velocity diagrams
series of short guide vanes or nozzles, which direct the
incoming stream into the wheel. Also, the design is
somewhat less critical from an aerodynamic point of
view since the flow through the passages is accelerating A typical diagram for the so-called impulse stage (i.e.,
i n s u d of diffusing. This results in easier control and no pressure drop or corresponding conversion to velocity
.
A
less build-up of the boundary layer, so that passage energy in the bucket passage) is shown in ~ i g21(a).
shapes are not as critical.
similar diagram for a reaction stage, in which p r t of the
The best specific speed 9 of a radial-flow turbine lies pressure drop and conversion to velocity energy does
in the range 2.5 to 4, as shown in Fig. 20. It should be occur in the bucket, is shown in Fig. 21(b). A stage will
noted that different turbines are not only affected by vary in the amount of reaction with the velocity ratio,
changes in specific speeds, but also by influences of over- U/C1, i.e., the ratio of the bucket circumferential
all she (i.e., Reynolds number, manufacturing con- velocity to the theoretical spouting velocity for the total
available energy to the stage.
Rg. 22
Axial-flw turbine stage impad dikimcy
pressure ratio as shown by the typical curves of Fig. 22.

Impact efficiency as used in Fig. 22 is defined as
the ratio of the work developed by the turbine to the
thearetical work available when expanding from the
initial impact pressure to the final impact pressure.
The impact pressure equals the static pressure plus
the impact head corresponding to the absolute gas
The following possible 'sources of loss probably cannot

be evaluated directly.
1. N o n s b d y state effects which may produce a
nozzle bucket "interferencen loss.
2. Nonuniformity of nozzle exit stream within the
noz&lepit,&.
3. &nificant flow separation from nozzle or bucket
profiles due to either a poor profile design or an exces-
1. Friction losses on all gss path surfaces. This may

be assessed by use of an "effectiven drag or surface
friction coefficient.
2- Flow mprtration and mixing losses as occasioned
by excessive edge thickness, diffusing interstage passages,
and divergence of sidemlls in nozzles and buckets.
3. Leabage losses such as nozzle seal leakages, wheelspace flows, and bucket tip clearance.
4. Shock and attendant high Mach number losses
such as may occur from the nozzle throat up to the
bucket entrance.
5.' h s a due to nonuniformity of available energy,
which is a loss more or less unique to a directly fired gas
turbine caused by the large initial temperature non-
turbines with radial entry, the nozzles must turn the

stream from the radial direction to the proper angle, and
thus look more like a conventional cascade.
Nozzles are constructed frequently of two side. plates
of appropriate inner and outer diameters with the
nozzle vanes fastened between. The vanes can be
pinned or riveted in place, or the side plates can be
punched with openings the shape of the vanes which are
then brazed or welded in place. For smaller units,
precision cast nozzles with vanes and sidewalls intern1
are used with advantage.
The material of the nozzles can be any of the commonly
used high-temperature alloys, depending upon the design
inlet temperature and, to some extent, on the fuel used.
For fabricated construction M-252, S-816, A-286, or the
232
GAS TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
Fig. 23
Crou section of large axial-flow gar turbine with drum-type rator, rotors welded up from several forgings
Fig. 24 Variable-angle load turbine nozzle arrangement, fadory assembly of

one half the nozzle showing partitions, levers, and operating linkage in
turbine shell
various Inconels such as 713 are suitable, while for cast

construction X-40 or similar alloys are commonly used.
In an axial-flow turbine, the nozzles are formed into an
annular ring and serve to turn the flow from an essentially
axial direction to that required by the bucket entrance
conditions. The actual mechanical arrangement varies.
Turbines using rotors built up from i~idividualwheels
bolted together use different nozzle arrangements
(particularly for the stages following the first) than
those units using a drum type of rotor construction.
The former arrangement is illustrated by Figs. 9 and 10
while the latter is shown in Fig. 23. The nozzle must be
centered in the turbine casing and held against the
pressure forces due to the pressure drop across the nozzle;
a t the same time it must be free to expand with temperature changes. In large units operating at high inlet
temperatures, the nozzle assembly may expand over an
inch on the diameter between cold conditions and full
load. To allow for this expansion and still keep the
carries some form of multitooth packing running against

the drums or wheel rims to restrict the leakage flow to a
controlled amount. A typical example of this type of
construction is shown in Fig. 23.
In the case of two-shaft machines, which are usually
constructed with the gas producer turbine and the power
turbine separate but with a common axis of rotation
and in the same turbine casing, the nozzle for the power
turbine can be of either fixed or variable area. The
fixed-area nozzle is constructed the same as other intermediate nozzles, except that the diaphragm portion is
usually solid as it normally does not encircle a shaft.
For greater operating flexibility, the load turbine, if
single stage, can be built with variable-angle partitions
to give a variable area; in this way the energy distribution
and hence the relative speeds between the gas producer
turbine and the power turbine can be varied by tho
control system. The advantages of this arrangement
are discussed in Section 4. A variable nozzle area
arrangement is shown in Fig. 24.
Nozzle ,haterials selected depend upon the operating
temperature, and consideration must be given to thcr
fuel used, since some elements in the fuel can cause rapid
corrosion or intergranular attack of otherwise suitablo
materials. The Nimonic materials have been frequently

used but more recently other materials such as 5816
and M-252 have been used in forged and machined
partitions. At lower temperature levels, A-286 or
Type 310 stainless steel are suitable. Suitable materials
for precision cast parts are Haynes Stellite's casting
alloys X-40 (HS-31), or X-45 and FSX-414, which were
developed from X-40 for improved characteristics.
FSX-414 material has good strength, resistance to
thermal fatigue, resistance to oxidation, and resistance
to sulfurous corrosion; it has been used for turbine
nozzles a t firing temperatures up to 1700 F.
For long-term operation a t high inlet temperatures
(i.e., 1500 to 2000 F or more) some form of nozzle cooling
is required to keep metal temperatures below the peak
gas temperatures so as to attain lives of 50,000 hr or
more. The simplest and most commonly used method is
air cooling by means of internal passages cast into the
partitions. A typical arrangement is one in which the
compressor air passes between a fabricated core and the
cast shell forming the partitions, and is bled into the gas
stream through holes near the trailing edge to keep the
thin edge cool.
7.4 Rotor Design. The design of the radial turbine
rotor is basically the same as that of a centrifugal
compressor rotor, except that to lower the hub stresses
the disk is generally walloped between vanes. Also, the
rotor is frequently made in two parts, held together by
the center bolt. The outlet portion or exducer corresponds to the inducer of a centrifugal compressor. This
is advantageous since the vanes in the larger diameter,
highly stressed portion of the rotor can be straight and
radial, while the portion curved to give the required exit
angle is in the smaller-diameter, lower-stressed exducer
mtion. This also enables a composite construction
with a forged and machined wheel and cast exducer to be
used.
Stresses in the rotor can be calculated by use of the
Manson method, or modifications of it, as described for
aompressor rotors. However, due to the high temperature levels, and the high temperature gradients from the
outer diameter to the hub, the temperature distribution
must be accurately assessed and the thermal stresses
taken into consideration. The gas loading on the blades
is negligible (although difficulty is sometimes encountered
due to blade vibrations) and stress variation in an axial
direction is neglected.
Stresses can be calculated for various operating
oonditions; but two combinations that have been used
are:
1. At a speed corresponding to the overspeed trip

setting (usually 110 percent) and temperatures correnponding to full power.
2. At temperatures corresponding to the overtemperature trip and lwpercent ~peed.
The calculated stresses for a typical radial turbine
wheel of A-286 material are shown in Fig. 16. The
mmponding values of 10,000-hr rupture stress a t the
233
estimated wheel temperature at the location are also

shown. For marine service where continuous operation
a t rated load is expected, the material stresa and corresponding factors of safety would be based on long-time
rupture, probably 100,000 hr.
It can be seen that overstressing occurs a t the bore of
the disk in both cases. This is typical of many rotors
with a central hole. Because of this, and as a test of
disk quality, rotors are usually overspeeded to a speed
that will cause plastic yielding in the bore a t room
temperature. This prestresses the bore, so that the
disk is then stable and experiences little or no further
plastic deformation a t normal running speeds.
With the profile of the rotor disk determined to give
the desired factors of safety, the major mechanical design
of the rotor is complete. It is usual to build a sample
rotpr and excite it with a vibrator to determine the
vibration modes of the vanes. The modes determined
are tuned by minor changes in thickness or profile to
avoid resonance with possible exciting forces, such as
nozzle passing frequency a t normal running speeds.
One point that must be borne in mind, is that the rotor
will expand due to centrifugal stresses. An allowance
must be made for the corresponding strains and the
thermal growth due to the operating temperature when
establish'ing the cold clearance between the rotor qnd the
nozzle and the vanes and the casing in order to provide
adequate running clearance under operating conditions.
For good efficiency, these clearances must be as small as
possible; therefore, careful assessment of the various
growths is necessary.
I n an axial-flow turbine, the buckets or blades are
usually attached to the wheel or rotor mechanically by
what is commonly known as a "fir tree" attachment (or
dovetail). But sometimes on smaller units the buckets
are attached to the rotor by welding, or even cast integrally with the wheel.
Good bucket design is a difficult and complex process.
Not only must the aerodynamic conditions be satisfied
as to entrance and exit angles and passage shapes, but
equally important the vane section must have centrifugal
and bending stresses below the allowable limits for the
material and service involved. There must also be no
vibration modes, of any significance, that are resonant to
stimuli in the operating speed range. The bucket design
is by necelqsity a process of trial and error.
The final design of the bucket and its attachment
entails plotting the calculated and/or measured vibration
frequencies on a Campbell diagram to determine possible
resonances [35]. It is generally considered advisable to
keep the three fundamental frequencies from coinciding
with passing frequencies of combustion chambers,
nozzles, struts, etc. above 50-percent speed. First- to
third-order frequencies are also to be avoided a t running
speed. Even a t best all stimuli cannot be avoided and
so some manufacturers have found it advisable to build
in dampening in the form of tie wires in long buckets or
special root dampening devices in short ones. Interlocking, integral covers, which are practical with
234
MARINE ENGINEERING
precision cast buckets, can also be used to control

vibration.
With the vane sections determined, their properties
a t various radii can be calculated (i.e., section areas,
section moduli, and centers of gravity). The areas can
then be used to calculate the centrifugal stresses along
the vahe section, and the section moduli in combination
with the gas bending forces are used to determine the
bending stresses. Usually the sections are "stacked"
with respect to their centers of gravity so that the
centrifugal forces create a moment which offsets the gas
bending moment and reduces the stresses in the leading
and trailing edges. The combined stress is then compared with the allowable stress a t that radius.
The allowable stress is determiged by the long-time
stress rupture properties of the material, since in marine
service long and continuous operation a t or near full
load is required. The criteria vary of course with the
manufacturer and the expected service requirements, and
the allowable stress criteria used range from 50 percent of
the 100,000-hr value to perhaps 75 percent of the 50,000-.
hr value. For large units intended for the main propulsion of large seagoing vessels, the minimum calculated
rupture life should be not less than 70,000 hr.
The root attachment, frequently called the dovetail,
must carry the centrifugal loading of the vane section
plus that of the platform and the dovetail itself into the
wheel. This must be accomplished without exceeding
the allowable stresses in the dovetail or the adjacent
wheel rim sections. Frequently, the bucket material
and the wheel material are not the same, so that the
allowable stresses in the two parts differ even though the
temperatures are generally assumed the same. Stresses
in both parts must therefore be checked. An extended
or "long-shank" bucket design may be used to reduce the
temperature a t the dovetail, by the temperature dmp
in the shank.
A device used to attain the required aerodynamic
shape within allowable stress limits and vibration
characteristics is the hollow bucket. The whole vane
section may be hollow, but usually just the tip section is
hollowed for pahaps ysthe length of the vane. Inforged
and machined buckets, the hollow can be formed by
spark-discharge machining, while with precision cast
buckets the avity is cast. In either w, the effective
tapar ratio of the vane is increased, which reduces the
root stresses for a given length and pitch line velocity.
There is a wide range of bucket materials available,
the choice again depending upon the temperature level
and consideration of the effect of the fuel used. Both
nickel-based and cobalt-based alloys are used for both
cast and forged buckets. Diffused aluminum coatings
are often used to increase the hot corrosion life of nickelbased alloys. At lower temperatures, as in last stages,
A-286 is suitable, while 422 material has been very
s u c ~ ~ w fwithin
ul
its temperature limitations.
It should also be pointed out that most gas turbine
buckets are unshrouded; i.e., they have no shrouds or
covers as are frequently used in steam turbine practice.
Leakage past the tip of the bucket is limited by running

closely controlled clearances between the tip of the
bucket and a stationary member in the turbine casing.
There is evidence that unshrouded buckets have tip
losses equal to, or in some cases, less than shrouded
.buckets in which only the axial clearance is controlled.
The addition of several radial seals on the cover of a
shrouded bucket will improve the efficiency.
Smaller rotors are usually held together by a single
central bolt, as in Fig.10, with the angular location of
the individual wheels maintained by dowels or "curvic"
couplings. With large rotors, a single central bolt
becomes a rather formidable proposition, and so a
multiplicity of smaller bolts a t an intermediate radius is
usually used. I n either case, the bolt or bolts are stressed
to a point where the resulting preload will positively
prevent the wheels from separating under all normal
operating conditions. Dynamically, the rotor then acts
as a solid or one-piece rotor, and calculations such as that
for critical speed can be made on the basis of the eection
inertia of the rotor a t the contacting points, or lands,
between the wheels. The tensile load in the bolts is
usually checked a t assembly by measuring the actual
stretch or elongation of the bolts as the nuts are torqued
up. For very large rotors, the bolts may be stretched
hydraulically, the nuts seated, and the elongation
checked after the hydraulic load is released.
The centrifugal load of the complete bucket (vane,
platform, ahank, and dovetail), plus the interrupted
portion of the wheel rim between the dovetail slots, is
carried by the wheel disk. This loading can be represented as a distributed load around the wheel circumference. The stresses in the wheel disk are usually
calculated by the Manson method, the same as for the
compressor disks. However, in turbine wheels the
thermal stresses are of considerably greater magnitude
and must be assessed as accurately as possible. Methods
of calculating heat transfer from a rotating disk are given
by Kreith and Taylor in reference [36] and a method for
calculating stress in disks subjected to creep is given by
Wahl in reference IJI]. It should be ~ o i n t e dout that
for turbines used in marine service, stress levels should be
based on long-time opention and creep may need to be
considered as a factor.
The large thermal ~ o w t of
h the nozzles due to their
and elaatic growth of
h k h temperature and the
the wheels make it difticult to ensure the desired overlap
of the nozzle and bucket a t the root of the gas path under
all oonditions. A uniform overlap around the circumference isparticularly ditfcult to maintain.
of the rotors must be
critical
calculated to avoid resomnce with normal rullning
speeds. ~h~~~ calculations are -lly
based on the
traditional byleigh method, taking bearing flexibilities
into account. While exact bearing flexibility is rarely
known, a range of values usually cttn be estimated from
past experience so that meaningful values of actual
running critical speeds can be determined. Critical
speeds calculated on the assumption of rigid bearings are
of little value.
GAS TURBINES
Section 8
Combustion Systems
8.1 Combustion Chamber Conlgurations. The term

A variation of the basic arrangement of individual
'gas turbine" is a contraction of the more explicit term chambers is one in which the chambers are arranged for
"combustion gas turbine," and the process of combustion "reverse flowU; that is, the air from the compressor
is an important part of the gas turbine system. The gas enters the downstream end of the casing and flows
turbine is basically an internal combustion engine as the between the casing and the liner toward the h a d end.
combustion, which releases the energy in the cycle, takes The air enters the liner alow its length and reverses
place inside the machine. In gas turbines, the com- direction to flow back to the turbine nozzle as a product
bustion is also a continuous process, as contrasted to the of combustion, i.e., hot gas.
intermittent or cyclic process that takes place in a
A modificati~n of the individosl chamber concept,
reciprocating engine, whether the Otto or diesel cycle. called the "cannular" arrangement, is one in which a
The combustion also takes place in a very confined space, multiplicity of individual liners (up to 16) is lorated in an
as contrasted to most other continuous-process com- annular space between an inner and outer combustor
bustion systems, such as the furnace of a conventional casing. Two variations of this firrangement are possible.
boiler. The resulti~g continuous high rates of heat I n one the air is introduced a t the head or dome end of
release make good combustion and cooling of the combustion chamber major problems-problems which have,
however, been successfully solved in a number of ways.
Combustion chamber design is as much an art as
science and, perhaps for this reason, a wide variety of
configurations is used for the combustion systems of gas
turbines. In some cases the design is dictated more by
the experience and practice of the manufacturer than the
inherent ad vantages of a particular design.
Combustion systems may be divided into two broad
classes :
1. Those separate from the compressor and turbine
that are mounted adjacent to, but not on, the unit.
2. Those built as an integral part of the unit and
combined structurally with the compressor and turbine.
European manufacturers more frequently use type 1,
which is illustrated by Fig. 25, while American manufacturers commonly use type 2, which is illustrated by
Figs. 9 and 10.
Combustion chambers separate from the compressor
and turbine generally take the form of a single large
chamber or pressure housing with an internal liner or
liners that contain the combustion products and protect
the vessel from the high gas temperatures. Such
systems can also be designed with separate smaller
combustion chambers grouped within the pressure vessel
and manifolded together a t the chamber exits t o provide
only one or two gas ducts to the turbine.
Some single combustion chambers are separate from,
but mounted directly on, the unit while sml1 machines
may have a single combustion chamber built into the
compressor and turbine structure as in Fig. 14.
Larger gas turbines with integral combustion systems
LEGEND
employ a variety of arrangements. A number of
individual chambers may be mounted around the axis of
A - COMBUSTION AIR NOZZLE
the machine and be fed from a common compressor
B- DISCHARGE TO TURBINE
C SIGHT PORT AND QlLUTlON HOLES
discharge; the chambers then feed into individual arcs
D- LINER SUPPORT POINTS
of the turbine first-stage nozzle. This design can also be
E-FUEL NOZZLE
adapted to a regenerative cycle by arranging the indiF COMBUSTION AIR REGISTER
G-IGNITOR
vidual chambers to be fed with air returning from the
regenerator by one or more headers as in Fig. 9.
Fig. 25 Large single canbultor f a mounting separate from gas turbk.
9
- .
236
GAS TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
237
Smokefree combustion is generally in conflict with leanlimit stability. Similarly, low pressure loss and short
flame length are difficult to attain simultaneously.
The aerodynamic processes in a combustion system
design present a most difficult set of problems. The
provisions for the interaction of fuel and air by
culation in the primary zone to provide the correct
spatial arrangement of the reactants, the necessary
flame stability, the necessary mixing and dilution
downstream to give the required temperature distribution a t the combustor exit, the maintenance of metal
parts at Proper operating temperatures, and the low
Pressure drop requirements combine to present a complex
design challenge.
8-4 Mechanical Details and Construction. Structurally, the gas turbine combustion system is rather
~imple,but the design is complicated by the varied and
rather severe conditions it must meet. The design must
1. Flame temperatures of 2900 to 3300 F or more.
2. Cyclic temperature variations.
3. Metal temperatures during operation of 900 to
1300 F with peaks to 1700 F.
4. Metal temperature gradients of 540 deg F/in.
5. Exciting frequencies, mechanical or aerodymmic,
over a wide frequency range and with varying amplitudes.

6. Collapsing pressure differentials across the liner of
on suspension pins or fittings should normally be limited

to 250-500 psi. Sometimes surface treatment of the
as atmospheres to the 1.8 power, i.e.

I = Btu/hr-cu ft-atm1.8
I' = Btu/hr-sq ft-atm1.8

Values per cubic foot per atmosphere will range from 1 to efficiency apprecisbly.
10 X 10' while, if the pressure is taken as atm1.8,
8.3 Design Objectives. The physical configuration
values will range from 0.5 or less to 5 X 108. Typical of representative combustion systems and the mo*
values per squale foot of flow area inside the liner will important parameters used in their design have been
run 4 X 106 Btu/hr per atmosphere.
described, but specific design objectives have not been
In small chambers, the radiant heat flux will be of discussed. I n addition to the obviaus primary objective
the order of 80,000 Btu/hr-sq ft, which increases with of burning the required amount of fuel, the objectives in
the size of the chamber due to the greater thickness combustion chamber design, not necessarily in order of
of the body of radiating flame. It also increases with the importance, may be liste'd as:
luminosity of the flame. Liquid fuels, in general, give a
1. Effective release of chemical energy by the cornmore luminous flame than gaseous fuels; the heavy oils1 bustion of fuel within highly confined spaces.
particularly the residuals known as Bunker C1 are very
2. Stable operation over a wide range of fuel/air
bad in this respect. The result is that large single ratios.
combustors intended to burn heavy oils are designed for
3. ~
ipressure drop
~ compatible
i
with
~ the other~
rather low rates of heat release compared to the small requirements.
individual chambers used in some designs.
4. A controlled temperature distribution a t the
Most combustion chambers are designed so that a turbine inlet.
small amount of primary air is admitted, U S U ~ ~with
~Y
5, short flame length to prevent discharging flames
some swirl velocity, a t the upstream end of the ~ b m b e r into the turbine.
in what is usually called the dome. In the dome the air
6 , clean burning, i.e., negligible smoke and no
is mixed with the fuel, which then burns nearly
carbon formation under all operating conditions.
chiometrically witl; temperatures of 3000 to 3500 F. The
b bto give
l ~reliable
,
starting.
7. ~ ~ ~ ~easy~ignition
quantity of air admitted in the primary zone may give
8. Durable components with low maintenance.
up to 20-30 percent excess air a t that point. Of the
Some of these requirements are mutually conflicting.
remaining air, part is used for cooling the liner (perhaps
Combustion system components can fail in one or

more of the following ways:
3. Structural failure due to pressure forces.
Di8tortion and
due to temperature
5. Overheating, resulting in local metal failure.
6. High-temperature corrosion.
Pressure loads, tending to collapse the liner and

axid forms due to the PrefjSure dzerence over
the dome arm1 are important, particularly in the case of
annular designs- The critical pressure difference that
the liner
depends upon the pmportions
(length/hmeter and thickness/diameter), the degree
of
and stiffening, manufacturing eccentricities,
discontinuities, and Young's modulus a t the operating
bm~eratures- Collapse is usually due to yielding a t locd
eccentricities rather than elastic instability.
In the
days of gas turbines, very thick liner
rnaterial was sometimes used in an attempt to obtain
longer life and reliability, but experience has shown that
the thinner the liner) the better, and except in large
nirigle
chambers, thicknesses of more than
0.050 in. to 0.060 in. are rarely required.
The liner must be s u ~ ~ o r in
h dthe combustor casing
being allowed to expand freely. Bearing pressures
Liner materials can be any one of a number of hightemper&ture, c~rrosion-re,gisting alloys. ~h~ ~ ~ i ~ i ~
commonly use Nimonic 75 below 1300 F and Nimonic go,
which is less ductile and more difficult to fabricate, for
higher temperatures and larger diameters. In the U.S.,
stainless steels 18-8 or 25-20 and Inconel are the usual
materials, and they give satisfactory results where cooling
is carefully controlled.
Occasionally, combustor parts are attacked by
corrosion*dueto constituents of the fuel. Attack by H*S
is particularly virulent, but is likely only in the
zone, or overrich pockets. ~t is
below
temperatures of 1100 li. ~ t t a ~ k also occur from
vanadium pentoxide, which may be formed from the
vanadium that is frequently present in residual fuels.
8.5 Fuel Nozzles. The fuel nozzles, or fuel injectors,
must introduce the fuel into the combustion chamber over
the entire range from lightoff to maximum load in a way
that is compatible with the basic objectives listed in the
foregoing. Fuel noazles can have a marked effecton the
performance of the combustion chamber, and must be
considered as a n integral part of combu&ion systems.
Gas turbines are well suited for the propu~sion of
238
GAS TURBINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
liquefied petroleum gas carriers as they can readily

burn the gas boil-off [38]; however, aside from this
application, gakous fuels are not available for most
marine applications. Liquid fuels commonly used in
marine installations are JP-4, JP-5, distillate fuels, and
residual fuels. The problems with each one vary, and
few noz~l&or fuel, systems will provide satisfactory
operation over the whole range of fuels.
The nozzle must atomize the liquid fuel into droplets
sinall enough to insure completk combustion of the fuel
ih the residence time avawble, and provide a spray
pattern that will insure intimate mixing of the fuel with
the available oxygen under the full- and part-load
aerodynamic conditions existing in the primary zone.
The spray must not strike the walls of the chamber, and
must not cause excessive temperature variations.
Five types of liquid-fuel nozzles have been applied in
gas turbine combustors. Each has advantages and
disadvantages as follows:
1. Pmaure-Atomiaing Nozzles
(a) Simplex (or single orifice) Nozzles. The
simplest type but not suitable for the wide
flow fange usually required.
(b) Duplex (or dual orifice) Noszles. With
either intern1 or external flow dividers, these
give a much wider operating range and are
usually satisfactory for the lower viscosity
fuels.
2. Ai Blast (Air Atomizing) Nozzles. These nozzles
u t h e the combustion-chamber pressure drop to create
an air s t r a m that is used to assist in ato&lng the fuel.
The air flow around the nozzle body breaks up the fuel
spray, so the fuel distribution is determined mainly by
the air flow pattern. Combustion is characterized by a

blue flame of low luminosity, cool walls, and minimum
smoke. I t has, however, poor "lean blowout" and poor
atomization at starting.
3. Air Assist (Air Atomizing) Nozzles. These are
single-orifice nozeles, with small quantities of air
introduced internally via separate passages from a
separate external compressor. At low fuel flows and
pressures, the air atomizes the fuel, while at high flows
the air can be cut off and fuel pressure relied upon for
atomization. For h a v y residual fuels, air assist
nozzles can be designed with a separate air compressor
taking air from the main compressor discharge, and providing a pressure ratio of about 2: 1 over the entire
operating range; this gives efficient atomization (a
Sauter Mean Diameter of the fuel droplets of 60-80
microns) over the whole firing range. The complication
and weight of the extra atomizing air compressor
penalize this arrangement, but it is the only one suitable
for burning Bunker C in high-intensity combustion
systems. They may also be used in distillate burning
machines to assure smokeless combustion throughout the
load range.
4. Vaporizing Fuel Nozzles. In vaporizing nozzles
the fuel is introduced in a tube or passage and vaporized
by heat from the combustion chamber. The advantages
are: (a) the vaporizing tubes contain both fuel and air
and very rich mixtures are avoided, (b) a blue flame is
produced and problems of smoke and radiation are
diminished, and (c) dispersal of the fuel is dictated by the
airflow pattern and is sensibly independent of fuel flow.
The outlet temperature traverse is, therefore, not
sensitive to fuel flow. The system has the dissdvantages
that it will not operate at weak mixture ratios and a
SPARK RATE
MONITOR OUTPUT
INPUT VOLTAGE:
110-120 VOLTS-50-60
INPUT CURRENT:
7 AMPS, MAX.
STORED ENERGY RANGE:
1-20 JOULES, lNCREMENTS OF I JOULE
SPARK RATE RAmE:
0-100 SPARKSISEC AT I JOULE

0 - 3 SPARKSISEC AT 20 JOULES
GAP VOLTAGE:
3000-3100 VOLTS
SPARK RATE MONITOR OUTPUT
30 VOLTS PEAK
Fig. 27 "Higlen&
CYCLES
ignition s y s h l circuit
given design will only operate sstisfactorily with

minimal variation in fuel properties.
5. Centrifugal Atomiaers. These employ the centrifugal force of a rotating cup to atomize the fuel. This
arrangement gives very uniform temperature distribution
(f25 deg F in a radial direction and f 7 5 deg F circumferentially). I t is adaptable to a wide range of fuels,
from liquid propane to SAE 30 oil, with no apparent
trouble from combustion chamber deposits. It is,
however, only suitable for annular combustors with a
rather restricted configuration.
All of these systemshave been used in gm turbines, and
the choice depends upon the fuel to be used, the arrangement of the combustion system chosen, the range df fuel
flows over which satisfactory operation must be obtained,
and the ambient conditions (particularly the temperature
at which reliable light-off must be obtained).
8.6 Ignition System. Normally the combustion in
the system is self-sustaining and continuous, but it must
be initiated by an external means. This is the function
performed by the ignition system.
Electric ignition is almost universally used, the
system consisting of a spark plug or plugs in the cornbustion chamber and a source of high voltage to create
the spark a t the plug electrodes. The voltage used
ranges from 3500 volts for a low-voltage system to 18,000
volts in a high-voltage system. The energy required
239
varies from 0.2 to 4.0 joules per spark and up to 12 joules

can be released in about 100 microseconds, i.e., 100 kw
at peak spark discharge in a high-energy system.
However, only about 7 percent of the total heat energy
appears at the plug face.
The energy can be furnished by a high-voltage trans
former, sdmetimes with a capacitor to store the energy, or
in some cases a magneto driven by the engine or starting
device is used. The electrical circuit for a high-energy
system is shown in Fig. 27.
The spark plug can be of several types. A plug with a
central electrode in an insulator, discharging to another
electrode on the body (similar to an automobile sparkplug), can be used. Far large chambers, where it is
difficult to insure the presence of a combustible mixture
a t the gap of a plug mounted in the combustor case, a
retractable plug is used. The plug can be spring-injected
and retracted by compressor discharge pressure acting
on the piston, or it can be pressure-injected and springreturned. In either case, the electro&s can be inserted
far enough into the chamber to insure ignition without
danger of burning them during operation.
For high-energy systems a aurface-discharge plug can
be used. This type is less susceptible to fouling or
burning. I t furnishes a high-energy murce to ignite the
fuel but can be used only with a high-energy, capacitordischarge electrical system.
Section 9
Bearings, Seals, and lubrication
9.1 Bearing Types. Gas turbine bearings fall into
two classes, (i) antifriction or rolling-contact bearings
and (ii) sleeve or journal bearings and the corresponding
oil-film thrust bearings. Gas turbines adapted from
aircraft designs generally use antifriction bearings
because of their high capacity, low space requirement,
and lighter overall engine weight, although in small
ongines this difference is negligible. Gas turbines
adapted from industrial practice or designed specifically
for marine service generally use sleeve or oil-film bearings,
particularly in the larger sizes.
9.2 Antifriction Bearings. Antifriction bearings,
whether ball or roller, can and do provide bng, reliable
~ r v i c ebut
; by their very nature they have a definitely
limited life. For a given load and speed the bearing
manufacturers specify a B-TO life, which 90 percent of
bearings operating with proper lubrication and temperatures will meet or exceed.
For antifriction baring applications, each rotor is
trupported by two or more bearings. One bearing is
frequently a cylindrical roller bearing to provide for
axial movement of the rotor, and the other bearing,
which locates the rotor and takes the axial thrust, is
nome form of ball bearing. I n the arrangement shown
by Fig. 10, the third bearing, which supports the turbine,

is also a cylindrical roller bearing that permits axial
expansion between the compressor and turbine. Roller
bearings are frequently used adjacent to the turbine
wheels, since they are usually considered better able to
withstand high operating temperatures and higher soakback temperatures after shutting down. In addition,
they have somewhat greater overload capacity, which
may prevent complete bearing failure in the event of
damage and loss of balance in the rotor.
While antifriction bearings require only small amounts
of oil for lubrication, means must be provided to keep
them cool, particularly in locations where heat from the
turbine can flow into them through the shaft or housing.
A carefully controlled amount of cooling oil is required
to maintain their internal clearances and, at the same
time, avoid an excess that can be trapped between the
rolling elements (particularly rollers) and the raceways
with resulting hydrauiic lock and noise. The oil jets
should be directed a t the shaft adjacent to the inner race
and around the housing, to keep the bearing cool without
excess oil being forced into the bearing.
9.3 Sleeve Bearings. Properly designed oil-film
bearings, appropriately applied and supplied with an
MARINE ENGINEERING
240
GAS TURBINES
*'
Fig. 28
Labyrinth bearing sealing arrangment
adequate quantity of clean oil of suitable viscosity, will

run almost forever. Gas turbine sleeve bearings usually
follow normal bearing practice. I n large machines, the
journal bearings consist of babbitted shells (frequently
with spherical, self-aligning seats) held in bearing
housings of cast or fabricated construction. Bearing
loadings are usually below 200 psi of projected bearing
area. The bearing bore is frequently elliptical, and where
very lightly loaded it may incorporate special pressure
pockets or other means to ensure stability. Since the
rotor weight goes down as the cube of the scale while
bearing area reduces only as the square, bearing loadings
are very low in small units even though L/d ratios less
than 0.4 are frequently adopted. Lightly loaded bearings are subject to oil whip and other instabilities, so
special measures must sometimes be taken to provide
stable, satisfactory operation. Three-lobed bearings,
floating bushes, and even pivoted-shoe journal bearings
have been employed in various units.
9.4 Thrust Bearings. With antifriction bearings,
one of the ball-bearing assemblies is generally arranged
to take the net thrust. The net thrust is the difference
between
the com~ressorthrust and the 'turbine thrust
--.
in the case of &s producers, or the turbine thrust
plus or minus any gear or coupling thrust in the case of
power turbines. With oil-film bearings, a separate
thrust e i n g is usually provided for each rotor.
This bearing normally comprises a thrust collar firmly
attached to the shaft with thrust washers or thrust
plates on either side. For lightly loaded thrust bearings,
these can be simple babbitted flat plates with radial
grooves for oil distribution and flow. However, it is
preferred practice to use tapered-land thrust shoes in
which each land has a slight circumferential taper.
While tapered-land thrust bearings can carry very
high loadings (above 750 psi), they are not inherently

self-aligning and require careful manufacture as the
taper required is very slight. Consequently, for highly
loaded thrust bearings, a multiple, pivoted-shoe thrust
bearing is often adopted. Since the thrust is usually
greater in one direction than the other, the more lightly
loaded side is sometimes made with fewer pads or shoes
than the loaded side.
Sleeve bearings and thrust bearings require an ample
supply of clean cool oil for both lubrication and cooling.
These bearings operate with a hydrodynamic film; and
various factors, such as an interruption in the oil supply,
high oil temperatures or low oil viscosity, can result in
bearing wear and damage or even failure (by unduly
reducing the oil film thickness).
Small gas turbines frequently run with light oils (SAE
10 or even lighter) and rather high temperatures. The
aircraftcderivative gas turbine is designed to operate
with a synthetic oil, while the heavy industrial type of
turbine is usually designed for heavier oils (at least
turbine oil, medium). The oil temperature to the
bearings of industrial-derivative turbines is about 130 F
with a 30 to 40 deg F rise through the journal and thrust
bearings.
9.5 Shaft Seals. Shaft seals serve the purpose of
preventing or controlling fluid leakage along a shaft
where it passes through a wall or diaphragm that
separates regions a t two different pressure levels or
contains two different fluids. Shaft seals are used whero
shafts enter a bearing housing, where they enter e
compressor or turbine casing, and between individual
stages of a compressor or turbine.
Shaft seals can be divided into two general classss:
contact seals and labyrinth seals. Contact seals usually
consist of a carbon or graphite ring with a flat face that L
held by a spring in contact with a face or sealing ring on

the shaft, which has been lapped almost absolutely flat.
Contact is maintained between the two faces to prevent
leakage; hence the name. The metal face is hardened,
and the carbon ring material selected to give minimum
friction and wear. These seals, which are used in a
variety of other applications besides gas turbines, will
operate with essentially no lubrication, although they are
most frequently applied where a liquid is present on a t
least one aide of the seal. They are usually proprietary
items.
A labyrinth seal works on the principle of a series of
throttlings, produced by a series of teeth on the stationary
member, the shaft, or sometimes both. The teeth break
down the total pressure difference between the fluid on
the two sides of the seal into a series of steps to control the
Bow through the clearance space between the tip of the
tooth and the mating member. The velocity created
in the clearance by the pressure drop is a t least partially
dissipated in turbulence in the volume between adjacent
teeth, thereby minimizing the flow. See Chapter 2 for a
discussion regarding labyrinth seals.
The clearance that can be maintained between the
shaft and the stationary member depends upon the apecific machine configurationused, particularly the location
of the seal with respect to the bearings and the clearance in the bearings. For small machines with small
shafts and the seals located immediately adjacent to the
bearings, a total clearance of 1.3 to 1.5 mils per inch of
shaft diameter is usually eatisfactory. For large
machines with a considerable distance between a bearing
and the seal, a radial clearance of 2 mils per foot of shaft
span may be necessary.
A variety of materials can be used for labyrinth seals.
Simple bearing housing seals, as shown in Fig. 28, that
are intended primarily to prevent leakage of oil out of
the bearing housing, can have the stationary member
solid and be made of brass or aluminum. For seals
located remote from bearings, such as in turbine diaphragms, the stationary member is frequently segmented
and spring-supported so as to limit the contact pressure
in the event of contact with the shaft. At low temperatures, these can also be made of brass, leaded bronze, or
even plastic. At high temperatures, however, ferritic or
even austenitic materials with a chrome-moly steel shaft
are used; such a seal construction is shown in Fig. 29.
It is also common practice to put the teeth on the shaft,
as shown in Fig. 30, to minimize the heating and resulting
bowing of the shaft in the event of contact.
A third type, which involves a combination of the two
principles, is the carbon ring seal. In this case a carbon
or graphite ring, which can be either solid or segmented
and held together by a garter spring, is bored to have a
close clearance to the shaft, so as to control the leakage
by laminar flow through the clearance space. The ring
h a t s on the shaft and is free to turn in a groove in the
housing, but the pressure difference holds it against one
aide of the groove and seals off leakage by that path.
This type of seal is shown in Fig. 10. It is quite a
24 1
compact seal and is sometimes used in smaller machines

where length is important. This type of seal has also
frequently been used in steam turbine practice.
9.6 Lubrication Systems. Proper lubrication is vital
to the operation of gas turbines, whether equipped with
rolling-contact or fluid-film bearings. The continuous
supply of the proper grade of lubricant a t the proper
pressure and temperature is so important that most gas
turbines are equipped with their own integral lubrication
system. Where aircraft jet engines have been adapted
to industrial or marine use, the jet engine used as a gas
generator frequently has different lubrication requirements from the power turbine and power transmission
system and, therefore, usually retains its own independent lubrication system.
Engines equipped with rolling-contact bearings require
less oil, and usually a different grade, than those with
fluid-film bearings. Many antifriction-bearing engines
are designed to operate with synthetic lubricants. It is
important that synthetic lubricants be used only in
engines equipped with suitable gaskets, O-rings, seals,
etc., as synthetic lubricants will attack and cause rapid
deterioration and failure of many common gasket and
O-ring materirtls.
Basically, the lubrication system consists of an oil
reservoir, a pump or pumps (for pumping oil from the
reservoirs to the bearings, gears, and control systems),
pressure regulators (to control the supply pressure to the
various components), an oil cooler or coolers (to control
the oil temperature), and a filter or filters (to assure clean
oil).
A typical lube oil system suitable for large units is
shown in Fig. 31. The lube oil flow is determined by the
quantity required to absorb the losses of the bearings,
plus heat pickup from the surroundings, within the
allowable temperature rises in the bearings. The oil
required by all control devices such as governors,
hydraulic actuating cylinders, etc., must also be provided.
With large units, the pump size may be determined by the
oil flow requirements of hydraulic cylinders used to
actuate variable-angle nozzles and similar devices. The
oil pump is always sized to deliver more than the calculated requirements, the excess being returned to the oil
tank (reservoir) by a pressure-regulating valve.
The main lube oil pumps are generally of the gear type
and a t lejtst one is almost always driven directly by the
main gas turbine shaft to ensure that the pump is driven
as long as the turbine shaft rotates. Shaft-driven centrifugal pumps have also been used for the main lube oil
pump, and,,centrifugal pumps, usually driven by electric
motors, are frequently used for auxiliary pumps where
the capacity required warrants it. I n the smaller sizes,
motor-driven gear or vane-type pumps are used for the
auxiliary or emergency supply.
Sleeve bearing units should always have a supply of
oil to the bearings before the unit is started, and some
designs also require control oil pressure before starting.
This is the purpose of the auxiliary pump, which is
usually under control of a pressure switch so that it runs
11
111
MARINE ENGlNEERING
242
/
TO HYDRAULIC
CONTROL
is owrated for a period of time to circulate oil to the

bearings in order 6 remove the heat that flows into them
STATOR PART
Fig. 29
GAS TURBINES
Typical high-IW labyrinlh seal with atathary to&
whenever the control system is energized and no main

pump pressure is available. The auxiliary pump will
also start on loss of oil pressure while the unit is operating
and thereby furnish lubrication until the unit can be shut
down. Large units are also usually equipped with an
additional emergency pump that is supplied from a
reliable, separate power source. This will supply
sufficientlubrication for the bearings to bring the unit to
rest in the event of failure of the main and auxiliary lube
oil supply. The unit is shut down on loss of bearing
header pressure, and the emergency pump is started to
protect the unit from damage. Sometimes the auxiliary
oil pump, or a supplementary small "cool down" pump,
from the This

hot keeps
parts, the
particularly
wheels ofbelow
the
turbine.
babbitt in the
the bearings
250 F and prevents the damage that would otherwise
result from -exposure
to higher temperatures while the
machine cools down.
Antifriction bearing machines generally .do not require
pre- or post-lubrication for the protection of the bearings,
since rolling-contact bearings adjacent to hot parts of
the machine are usually stabilized a t temperatures of
350 F to 450 F. However, lube oil deteriorates at the
temperatures which are frequently reached after shutdown. Therefore, in some cases, posblubrication after
shutdown is used to remove the heat and keep the bearing area cool to prevent varnishing and carbonizing of
the oil.
The heat generated in the bearings and gear meshes,
plus the heat flowing in from the hot parts of the machine
and absorbed by the oil, must be removed by the oil
cooler. The latter source can amount to f i of the total
heat absorption. For certain installations oil coolers are
direct oil-to-air radiators, but for marine installations
water-cooled heat exchangers are the logical choice.
The heat exchanger must be capable of rejecting all the
heat absorbed by the oil and provide a proper oil-cooler
discharge temperature (usually 130 F). These heat
exchangers are generally of the shell-and-tube type with
the tubes readily accessible for cleaning. Frequently,
the oil coolers are in duplicate, with quick change-over
valves, so that the machine can operate with either
cooler whiie the other is being cleaned.
OPTIONAL RECYCUNQ
OF LUBE OIL
r - - - - - - -)------
PC
MAIN L.O. PUMPS
TO USED
L.O. TANK
SCAYENGlNQ
PUMP
NOTES:
I. OIL FLOWS AND TANK CAPACITY TO BE SPECIFIED.
2.01L FLOW TO THRUST BEARING AND MAIN REDUCTION
GEAR SHALL BE SPECIFIED FOR EACH APPLICATION.
LEGEND
PC -PURCHASER'S CONNECTION
-SUPPLLED BT PURCHASER
-SUPPUED WITH GAS TURBINE
-MOTOR DRIVEN PUMP
---
00
@ -ACCESSORY @EAR DRIVEN PUMP

fig. 31
Typical lube-oil system for gas turbine propulsion unit
Oil filters are almost always installed, since it is

generally considered good practice to do so. The filter
must have adequate capacity for the full oil flow within
the manufacturer's pressure drop limitations. Frequently dual filters are installed with quick transfer
(four-way) valves so that one filter can be cleaned while
the other is in service. The filtration system should be
chosen with consideration for the minimum clearances
in the machine. On large machines which may not
require very fine (below 10 micron) filtration for the
bearing oil, an additional finer filter (down to 2 microns)
may be added in the circuit to the governor and other
hydraulic devices to protect their very close clearances
and fine finishes.
Filter by-passes, particularly internal by-passes, are
not recommended even on full-flow filters. When the
filter is plugged with dirt and the by-pass opens, large
quantities of contaminants may go through the by-pass
and into the bearing system. I t is preferable to monitor
the pressure drop across the filter and provide dual
filters if it is necessary to assure continuous operation
under all conditions.
Pressure regulators are usually simple spring-loaded
relief valves as close regulation of the pressure level is
not important. Some systems use two pressure levels,
one for the control functions and the other a t a lower
pressure for lubrication. The control circuit is usually

arranged to have top priority on the oil supply, since
operation of the controls is vital to the operation of the
unit, and the lubrication supply can be reduced or even
cut off for the fraction of a second it takes the controls
to operate.
The oil reservoir, or lube oil tank, is usually located
below the unit although with positively scavenged
(drained) systems it can be located anywhere. With
jet engines it is frequently fastened to the side of the
compressor casing. With gravity drain systems, it
must be located a sufficient distance below the bearings
to allow apsitive slope of a t least
in. per foot to the
drain lines under all conditions of pitch and roll. On
small, compact units this is not difficult to achieve; but
on large multishaft, multicasing units more than one tank
may be required to provide adequate drainage without
exceeding a reasonable suction lift on the shaft-driven
oil pumps, which are generally mounted on or close to the
unit.
The capacity of the tank is usually basedon the main
lube oil pump flow. Where possible, a capacity of four
times the oil pump capacity in gpm should be used. Thii
gives what is known as a four-minute supply; i.e., in the
event of failure of the drain system, the tank will
provide a four-minute supply of lubricant. Smaller
244
MARINE EN
units, particularly those mounted in a package, such as

shipboard generating sets, may have smaller tanks.
Due to space limitations, these may be as small as a
two-minute supply or less. Adequate deaeration of the
oil is diacult in tanks this small, although the carry-over
of mist out the vent can be minimized by properly locatr
ing baffling, by locating the oil drains and the tank vent
connection as far apart as possible, and by providing a
deaeration tray. Pressurized outer shaft seals, in which
compressor bleed air is introduced between two seal
sections and flows through one side into the bearing
housing (to prevent oil leakage along the shaft), introduce
extra air into the oil and make satisfactory deaeration
more difficult.
The tank should be provided with a bottom that
slopes both ways to a drain connection. The tank
should have a removable cover or access door of sufficient
size to enable every part of the tank to be reached for
cleaning. An oil level gage and/or sight glass should
also be provided aloqg with a low-level and sometimes a
high-level alarm.
Supply and drain piping is preferably made of seamless
tubing. Stainless steel tubing is frequently used in the
smaller sizes. AN-type flexible hose connections are also
suitable in the smaller sizes (below about 1.5 in.). In
large units, it is good practice to run the pressure feed
lines inside the drain lines as far as possible. The drain
line then acts as a guard line in the event of a leak or
failure of the feed line, which otherwise could spray oil
onto hot parts of the machine and cause a fire.
In order to avoid fire hazards, the number of pipe
joints should also be minimized. Where joints are
necessary, welded fianged connections are preferred,
with an SAE four-bolt split fiange connection being the
second choice. Compression-type fittings are satisfactory with the smaller stainless steel lines. Flexible
lines usually are provided with standard AN-type fittings.
Threaded pipe joints, and particularly pipe nipples,
should be used only where unavoidable; and then extraheavy or double extraheavy-schedule pipe should be
used to ensure adequate wall thickness under the threads
to avoid fatigue failures from originating in the threads.
Pipe sizes, both feed and drain, should be sized for low
velocities a t full flow. A velocity of not more than 6 fps
in feed lines and 2 fps in drain lines will keep system
pressure drops to reasonable values and provide free and
complete drainage from bearings and gear housings.
Poor drainage can give trouble with oil leakage along
shafts and extra losses and heating in gear systems.
References
1 W. A. Brockett, G. L. Graves, Jr., M. R. Hauschildt, and J. W. Sawyer, "U. S. Navy's Marine Gas
Turbines, " ASME Paper 66-GT/M-28.
2 R. C. Case, "Marine Gas Turbine Growth in the
U. S. Coast Guard, * ASME Paper 66GT/M-36.
3 E. B. Good, "Gas Turbine Installation Design for
Naval Ships," ASME Paper 66-GT/M-34.
4 G. M. Boatwright and E. P. Winert, "Combined
GAS TURBINES
Power Plants, " SNAME Philadelphia Section, March

1964.
5 R. G. Mills, "The Combined Steam Turbine-Gas
Turbine Plant for Marine Use," ASME Paper 55-A-154.
6 G. C. Swensson and E. P. Winert, "Laboratory
Test Experience with a Combined Steam Turbine and
Gas Turbine Unit," SNAME New England Section,
March 1963.
7 J. L. Mangan and R. C. Petitt, "A Highly Efficient
Steam Turbine-Gas Turbine Cycle," Presented a t the
ASME Aviation and Space, Hydraulic and Gas Turbine
Conference and Products Show, March 1963.
8 A. 0. White, "The Combined Gas Turbine-Steam
Turbine Cycle with Supercharged Boiler and Its Fuels,"
ASME Paper 57-A-264.
9 W. P. Gorzegns and R. J. Zoschak, "The Supercharged Steam Generator. Some Aspects of Design and
Pressure Level Selection,"ASME Paper 66-GT/CMC-68.
10 "Installation Design Criteria for Gas Turbine
Applications in Naval Vessels," Navships Technical
Manual 0941-038-7010.
11 D. B. Harper and W. H. Rohsenow, "Effect of
Rotary Regenerator Performance on Gas Turbine Plant
Performance," ASME Paper 62-A-149.
12 A. T. Bowden and H. Hryniszak, "The Rotary
Regenerative Air Preheater for Gas Turbines," ASME
Paper 52-A-74.
13 I. Howitt and R. P. Thurner, "Gas Turbine,
Extended Surface, Heat Exchanger; Modern Design and
Performance," ASME Paper 64-GTP-18.
14 R. F. Caughill, "Design Considerations and
Operating Experience of Regenerators for Industrial Gas
Turbines, ASME Paper 61-GTP-12.
15 R. P. Allen and E. A. Butler, "An Axial Flow
Reversing Gas Turbine for Marine Propulsion," ASME
Paper 66 GT/M-21.
16 D. L. Caldera, C. E. Hoch, and G. C. Swensson,
"Gas Turbine Propulsion Machinery for the MSTS
Roll-On/Roll-Off Ship," SNAME New York Metropolitan Section, April 1967.
17 C. Zeien, H. F. Smith, and F. W. Hirst, "The Gas
Turbine Ship Callaghan's First Two Years of Operation, "
Trans. SNAME, V O ~ .77, 1969.
18 W. S. Richardson, "The Friction Clutch ReverseReduction Gears In the GTS," ASME Paper No.
69-GT-5.
19 P. K. Wennburg, "The Design of the Main
Propulsion Machinery Plant Installed in the USCGC
Hamilton (WPG-715)," Trans. SNAME, vol. 74, 1966.
20 K. H. Kurzak and H. Reuhr, "Propulsion
Machinery of the Koeln Class Escort Frigates with
Special Consideration of Gas Turbine Propulsion,"
ASME Paper 65-GTP-11.
21 L. A. Gunsteren, "Hydrodynamics of Controllable
Pitch Propellers," SNAME New York Metropolitan
Section, March 1970.
22 M. J. T. Smith and M. E. House, "Internally
Generated Noise from Gas Turbine Engines," ASME
Paper 66 GT/N43.
23 B. Wichstrom and H. Ohauist, "Startine and

Control of a Large Gas ~urbihe,"'ASME Paper
64-GTP-7.
24 A. I?. McLean, "Control Design and Development for the Ford 704-705 Series Gas Turbine Engines,"
ASME Paper 64 WA/GTP-5.
25 D. A. O'Neil, "Governing Gas Turbine Engines
for Marine Propulsion-Power vs Speed Governing,"
ASME Paper No. 69-GT-54.
26 W. B. Brown and G. R. Bradshaw, "Design and
Performance of a Family of Diffusing Scrolls with Mixed
Flow Impeller and Vaneless Diffuser," NACA Report
Ann
.,,.I\
YJO-lY4Y.
27 S. 5. Manson, "The Determination of Elastic

Stresses in Gas Turbine Disks," NACA TN 1279, 1947.
28 M. B. Millenson and S. S. Manson, "Determination of Stresses in Gas Turbine Disks Subject to Plastic
Flow and Creep, " NACA TN 1636, 1948.
29 L. J. Herric, J. C. Emery, and J. R. Erwin,
"Systematic Two-Dimensional Cascade Test of NACA
&Series Compressor Blades a t Lol!~ Speeds," NACA
TN 3916, 1957.
30 J. C. Emery, "Low Cascade Investigation of Thin
Low Camber NACA 65-Series Blade Sections At High
Inlet Angles," NACA RM L57E03, 1957.
245
31 J. C. Dunavant, J. C. Emery, H. C. Walch,

and W. R. Westphal, "High Speed Cascade Tests of the
NACA 65-(12Alo) 10 and NACA 65-(12AsIs) 10
Compressor Blade Sections," NACA RM L55108, 1955.
32 J. C. Emery and J. C. Dunavant, "Two Dimen)
sional Cascade Tests of NACA ~ ~ : ( C I O A ~10O Blade
Sections a t Typical Compressor Hub Conditions for
Speeds up to Choking," NACA RM L57H05, 1957.
33 S. Lieblein, F. C. Schwenk, and R. L. Broderick,
"Diffusion Factor for Estimating Losses and Limiting
Blade Loadings in Axial-Flow Compressor Blade
Elements," NACA RM E53D01, June 1953.
34 P. N. Bright, "Structml Design Problems in Gas
Turbine Engines, " ASME Paper 54-A-152.
35 R. W. Nolan, 'Tibration of Marine Turbine
Blading," Trans. SNAME, vol. 57, 1949.
36 F. Kreith and J. H. Taylor, Jr., "Heat Transfer
from a Rotating Disk in Turbulent Flow," ASME Paper
65-A-146.
37 A. M. Wahl, "Stress Distributions in Rotating
Disks Subjected to Creep Including Effects of Variable
Thickness and Temperature," ASME Paper 56-A-162.
38 H. F. Smith, "Gas Turbine Propulsion of LNG
Tankers,'' ASME Paper No. 69-GT-47.
bhp = brake horsepower, hp

N = revolutions per minute, rpm
Laskar Wechsler
The '"piston speed" is the average speed of the piston

during its stroke. It is usually expressed in feet per
minute and determined from the expression: V, = ~ ~ 7
Piston speed is a useful yardstick for comparing the
inertia loading and cylinder component wear characteristics of generally similar engines,
1.3 Types of Diesel Engines. Diesel engines are
divided into various types for descriptive purposes.
These descriptions are used to specify exactly the kind
of engine wanted for a given application. The descriptive divisions include cycle (two-stroke or four-stroke),
overlap period and is usually expressed in degrees of

crankshaft rotation. The intalre strolre is followed by
the compression stroke to repeat the complete cycle.
It can be seen that four strokes of the piston were
required for the cycle. The two-stroke cycle is dominant
for large bore engines; in fact, there are no four-stroke
engines on the market with a bore exceeding 21 inches.
elo ow this bore size, each cycle has its advocates. The
two-stroke engine, by virtue of the greater number of
power strokes per revolution, can develop equal output
to a four-stroke-cycle engine a t lower mean cylinder
pressures. On the other hand, it is necessary for piston
rings to traverse ports in a two-stroke-cycle engine
cylinder, which generally requires this type of engine to
run at lower mean viston s ~ e e dthan a four-stroke6cycle
. engine. The net effect -of these factors has been
that over the years the two types of engines have been
quite competitive in weight, size and performance, with
one or the other sometimes ahead for brief periods due
to a new invention or breakthrough.
Engines are either liquid- or air-cooled. A comiderable amount of heat is generated in the cylinders and the
temperature of the cylinder boundaries must be controlled to prevent them from exceeding safe limits.
depending on the number of piston strokes to complete

one full cycle of operation, Fig. 1. In the two-stroke
cycle, air is compressed in the cylinder during the
compression stroke, fuel is injected, and burning takes
place during the power (or expansion) stroke. Before
the piston reachw its bottom dead center position, the
gases are exhausted through ports or valves. Scavenging
of the spent gases takes place during the period around
bottom dead center, and then the fresh charge is compressed to start the new cycle. It can be seen that the
entire cycle is completed in two strokes, one compression
and one expansion; hence the name two-stroke cycle.
In the four-stroke-cycle engine, the cycle also begins
with a compression stroke, followed by fuel injection
near top dead center, then by the power stroke. It is
here that the cycles differ. Just before bottom dead
center, the exhaust valves open and the gases start to
discharge from the cylinder, the exhaust process continuing during the next stroke of the piston. At top
dead center, the clearance volume between the piston
and the cylinder head would be filled with exhaust gas;
however, the intake valves open slightly before top dead
center and the remaining exhaust gases are swept out of
the cylinder by fresh air. The exhaust valves close
slightly after top dead center, and the continued outward
movement of the piston draws in a fresh charge of air.
The period at top dead center, when both the intake and
exhaust valves are open simultaneously, is known as the
atmosphere by means of a water-to-air heat exchanger

such as an automotive-type radiator. I n small sizes,
air-cooled engines may be used; in fact, they can be very
attractive in those applications where it is easy to get
air to the engine and where the operating locale is such
that sea chest clogging is a problem.
Engines may be arranged with their crankhafts
horizontal or vertical, although the greater number by
far are installed horizontally. Cylinders may be
arranged in a line or with banks of cylinders in the form
of a V, W, or X. In-line and V-type engines are the
most commonly used (see Fig. 2). W and X cylinder
arrangements permit more compact designs which take
less space than the other types; however, access is more
difficult, paintenance work is harder to accomplish, and a
casualty is more likely to result in extensive damage.
Opposed piston engines are two-stroke-cycle engines
with two pistons working in a common cylinder. Cornpression takes place between the pistons at their inner
dead center position, air intake is through ports at one
end i f the cylinder, and exhaust gases flow out through
ports at the other end. These engines are usually provided with two crankshafts, one at each end of the
cylinder, although one crankshaft is sometimes used
together with a rocker arm at one or both ends of the
cylinder. Opposed piston engines are commonly of the
in-line type; however, they may be arranged in other
forms. One of these engines is built with three crank-
The "torque" of the output shaft in units of lb-ft can

be computed from the expression
Medium and .High-Speed Diesel
Enkines
bhp
= 5252 -
marine engineer with information relative to the application of medium and high-speed diesels to ships; a similar
coverrlge of low-speed diesels is presented in Chapter
VIII. Only those design details which affect the selection, installation, operation and maintenance of a diesel
in a ship will.be discussed. Information will be preaented which will enable a ship designer to select the
to plan the installation
proper engine and its
with due consideiration for operation and maintenance,
and to prepare specifications to adequately describe the
equipment desired. The largebore slow-speed diesel
engine employed in many merchant ships is given a
comprehensivetreatment in Chapter VIII and, therefore,
is not discussed here.
1.2 Descriptioh of the Diesel Engine. The term
diesel engine is used to designate any engine in which air
is
in a cylinder sufficiently to produce
spontaneous ignition of the fuel, followed by injection
and burning of a measured amount of fuel, the fuel in
common use being oil. Although more properly d e s k
nated as comptession ignition engines, they are manufactured and sold as diesel engines.
The diesel engine is generally a reciprocating engine in
which the gas pressure in a cylinder acts on a piston to
drive a crankshaft through connecting rods. The power
is taken from the crankshaft. The pistons move in the
cylinder between the top (or inner) dead center and
bottom (or outer) dead center positions. The distance
between these dead center positions is known as the
"stroke"f
the engine, and is numerically equal to twice
the radius of the crankthrow of the crankshaft. The
diameter of the cylinder is known as the "bore." The
bore and stroke are usually expressed in inches. Air
is introduced into the engine cylinder through intake
valves or ports and then compressed, raising the pressure
and temperature of the air. . The "compression ratio"
of an engine is the ratio of the volume of the cyliader
when the piston is at bottom dead center to that when at
top dead center. The term "compression ratio" can be
misleading in that it is a volume ratio and not a pressure
ratio. The compression ratio of an engine must be
sufficiently high so that the air temperature at the end
(3)
Section 1
lntrod~~ction
Scope. This chapter is intended to provide the
N
-.
For a given engine, torque and BMEP are directly

proportional; i.e.,
T=-
1.1
247
of compression will ignite the fuel when it is sprayed into

the cylinder. Injection of fuel into the cylinder starts
somewhat before top dead center and continues for a
period of time, which varies with the engine power
output. Combustion in the cylinder lags the start of
fuel injection by a ~ e r i o dknown as the "ignition delay."
Combustion raises the temperature and pressure of the
gas in the cylinder, which then forces the ist ton to the
bottom dead center position, doing the useful work of
the cycle. The burned gases are then expelled from the
cylinder through e~haustvalves or ports aad a fresh.
y
the
charge of air is admitted to ~ 0 m ~ l e t e lscavenge
cylinder of spent gases ~ r i o to
r the start of a new cycle.
Some additional terms which are frequently used in
dexribing diesel engines are defined as follows:
The "displacement" of an engine is the swept volume
. is expressed in cubic
of all the engine ~ ~ l i n d e r sIt
inches as:
where
n = number of cylinders in engine
B = bore, in.
s = stroke, in.
The physical size of an engine is approximately proportional to its displbcement.
The "brake mean effective ~ressure" (abbreviated
BMEP) stems from the days when it was common to
take indicator cards of the presrures in an endne
cylinder, and to relate the severity of engine loading to
the average or mean pressure in the cylinder during one
cycle.
The BMEP is still used as an indicator of engine
loading and is expressed in psi as:
where
= number of strokes per cycle (two for %stroke;
four for 4-stroke)
37.7 C
BMEP
(4)
MARINE ENGINEERING
FUEL
VE
EXHAUST
VALVES
CONNECTING
START OF
COMPRESSION
STROKE
!SCAVENGING
PROCESS
POWER STROKE
COMPLETED
EXHAUST IN
PROCESS
IN-LINE
ENGINE
VEE ENGINE
Fig. 2
TWO STROKE CYCLE
Common engine cylinder arrangements
,. ::'
VALVES: INTAKE
EXHAUST\
OPPOSED-PISTON
.ENGINE-
FUEL
E l I
kNOZZLE E
I
I
INTAKE
STROKE
COMPRESSION
POWER
STROKE
(OR EXPANSION)
STROKE
EXHAUST\CRANKSHAFT
STROKE
FOUR STROKE CYCLE

Fig. 1
Two- and four-rtrdte-cycle diesels, cycle evenh
The air for combustion is supplied at the relatively low exhaust conditions is insured. Two-stroke cycle engines
pressure of from two to five psig by a scavenging blower benefit from charge air cooling in the same manner as
of the positivedisplacement or centrifugal type. The four-stroke cycle engines. A marine engine lends itself
scavenging air pressure required is a function of the particularly well to the use of air cooling becciuse of the
arrangement and size of the air and exhaust ports (or availability of an ample supply of cooling water.
valves) and passages and the speed of the engine.
Diesel engines can also be classified according to the
With supercharged engines, the combustion air is manner in which they are started. To start a diesel
supplied by a compressor of the positive-displacement or engine, it is necessary to rotate it using an external
centrifugal type driven from the crankshaft by gears or source of energy so as to bring the engine speed up to a
driven directly by an exhaust gas turbine connected to point where the compression temperature of the air in
the compressor shaft. The latter arrangement is called the cylinders is high enough to ignite the fuel when it is
a turbo-supercharger or, more commonly, a turbo- injected into the cylinder. Once the engine is started,
charger. Four-stroke-cycle engines which @re super- the external energy source can be secured and the engine
charged by a gear-driven compressor are rare; practically will continue to run. Starting systems are classified by
all supercharged four-stroke engines employ turbo- the energy source and the method of applying it.
chargers. Some engines use two-stage superchargers Energy sources are high-pressure air, high-pressure
with a charge air cooler between the two stages. T&ir
hydraulic fluids, or electric power. Methods of applic*
cooler
---.-serves
.- two functions: it- increases
the
densitxof
tion
are by starting motors or using the engine cylinders
,."-the air charge in t6e qrliyder, ,e@iG&ng- thg .engine tta themselves. Air-started engines can use either a
b u m z o r e fuel; and it lowers the temperature of the
air motor geared to the engine crankshaft
--- 3ir rotary-type
in t h e 2 n a e r at the beginning-"of< c o s m ~ r en~ ds ~ ~through
a disengaging type of drive similar to the
throuiout-%i;eerEimainder
of the gycle. It is more common automobile engine starter drive, or by admitting
-common to use a single-stage supercharger with an air the air dirytly into some or all of the engine cylinders
cooler (called an aftercooler) between the compressor through a specially provided air starting valve. These
discharge and the engine intake manifold. The two- valves are controlled by a distributing valve which times
stroke-cycle engine has a lower exhaust gas temperature their opening to occur just after top dead center on the
and less energy in the exhaust gas entering the super- power stroke, and they are designed to close automaticharger turbine. At part load, there may not be cally when the engine fires. Direct cylinder starting is
enough energy in the gases to drive the supercharger at rarely applied to engines with a bore less than six inches,
the speed required to furnish the engine with sufficient and many engines up to nine-inch bore are started by the
air for proper combustion of the fuel. In such a case, it use of starting motors. Hydraulically started engines
is necessary to either provide a first-stage blower all use starting motors. Electrically started engines use
geared to the engine [5] or to gear-drive the turbo- starting motors, although starting windings may be
charger from the engine crankshaft through an over- incorporated in the directly driven power generators
running clutch [6]. These arrangements are also for this purpose.
beneficial in that rapid acceleration under smokeless
Engines may be either unidirectional in rotation or
r
__L
vmI-
r
/
-
-*
I--I.
shafts and has cylinders arranged along the sides of an

equilateral triangle.
It should be recognized that the diesel engine need not
be of the reciprocating type. Various attempts have
been made, and are continuing, to develop a rotary type
of diesel engine; however, none have reached the stage
of commercial production. I n these machines, a rotor
is substituted for the piston, and the cylinder becomes a
chamber of other than cylindrical shape. One such
type of engine is described in reference [I.].' The description and definitions given in the foregoing must of
necessity be modified to make them applicable to engines
Numbers in brackets deaignste Referehces at end of chapter.
of the rotary type. Many examples of the various types

of engine forms may be found in the literature [2, 3, 41.
Another feature of diesel engine design which serves to
differentiate between engines is the means of supplying
combustion air to the cylinders. The alternatives are
naturally aspirated, scavenged,and supercharged engines.
With naturally aspirated engines, air is drawn into the
cylinder as the piston moves from top to bottom dead
center. The pressure in the cylinder at the start of the
compression stroke is below atmospheric, due to the
pressure drop through the intake passages and valves.
A scavenged engine is the two-stroke counterpart of
the naturally aspirated four-stroke-cycle engine although
the cylinder pressure at the start of compression may be
somewhat greater in this type of two-stroke engine.
--__I/
250
direct reversing. A unidirectional engine, as its title

implies, can turn in only one direction; and if it drives an
output shaft which must be capable of rotation in either
direction, the engine must be connected to the shaft
through a reversing device. Direct reversing engines
can rui in either direction and most of them can deliver
full power in either diction. If it is necessary that full
power be available in either direction of rotation,
pro&uement specifications must so state to insure that
the engine selected does have this capability. To change
the direction of rotation, it is necessary to bring the engine
to a complete stop and then &art it in the opposite
direction. The details of the reversing process will vary
from one engine to another; however, the process is
automatic and basically consists of cutting off the fuel to
the cylinders by moving the throttle lever to the stop
position, changing the timing of the fuel injection pumps
if necessary, changing the timing of the exhaust and
intake valves if used, repositioning the blower reversing
- valve on two-stroke-cycle engines having geared,
'
positive-displacement, rotary-type scavenging blowers,
and reversing the rotation of the starting device. When
the starter is energized, the engine should then start and
run in the opposite direction.
Engines are referred to as being high, medium, or low
apeed. There is no clear line of demarkation between
the classifications, but in general, "theycan be categorized
aa shown in Table 1. There is no unanimity among
Table 1
Low apeed.. ....... .

Medium speed. . . . .. .
High speed.. . . ..... .
Engine Speed Classifications

Piston apeed, fpm
Shaft speed, rprn
1000-1M)O
1200-1800
18003000
100414
700-1200
1800-4000
engine people as to the significance of engine speed. A

welldesigned high-speed engine which is not overloaded
can give equally good service as a slow-speed engine.
Slow-speed engines are of larger size than high-speed
engines, but wear rates are comparable; hence it takes
longer for a slow-speed engine to wear parts to the same
percentage of their original dimension. A balance must
be struck between the use of a smaller, lighter, and
generally leas expensive high-speed engine and a larger,
heavier, slow-speed engine which usually costs more
initially but has lower fuel, operating, and maintenance
costs.
1.4
MARINE EN(
Special Requirements of Marine Diesel Engines.
The number of medium and high-speed diesel engines

used in marine applications is relatively small compared
to the total number of such engines produced, and for
this reason it is economically unattractive to produce
these engines for the marine industry alone. The
medium and high-speed marine engine of today is,
therefore, almost universally an adaptation of engines
which are built in quantities for service in automotive
applications such as trucks, buses, off-highway earthmoving equipment and locomotives, and stationary
applications such as municipal power plants, mobile

emergency power sources, gas line compressor stations,
and pumping units. The truck and bus field contributes
the high-speed engines in the range of 300-400 hp. For
intermittent use, maximum speed of these engines will
approximate 3000 rpm; for continuous service, speeds of
1800' rprn are common. The off-highway equipment
engines are in the power range from 500 to upwards of
1200 hp.and speeds in the 1200-1800 rprn range. Diesel
locomotive engines are available in units from 6 to 20
cylinders and ratings up to 4000 hp at speeds from 850
to 1100 rpm. Another group of engines coming from the
stationary field includes units in the speed range from
300 to 514 rprn and powers up to 7500 hp. A comprehensive description of a 400-rpm engine rated at 1000 hp
per cylinder with a range of cylinders from 6 to 18 is
given in reference [7].
Some of the engines just mentioned were designed with
marine applications in mind, others require some degree
of modification for installation aboard ship. These
rnodications are usually in the external hardware of the
engine and do not involve changes to the internal
working parts, which have undergone extensive development. The changes, where necessary, are those needed
to suit the engine to the marine environment, meaning
salt-laden air, high humidity, use of corrosive seawater
for cooling, and operating from a nonhorizontal platform
which is in constant motion (i.e., pitching or rolling at all
times). I n many cases, it also means an installation
made in confined spaces. I n order to adapt to this
environment, the prime requisite of the marine diesel
engine is the ability to resist corrosion. Nonferrous
alloys are used in many places in a marine engine for
corrosion protection where ferrous metals are used in
nonmarine installations. To this end, aluminum parts
which are exposed to the atmosphere and are not
normally coated with lubricating oil should be given an
anodic treatment and then painted. All exposed ferrous
metal parts should be painted. Care must be taken to
insure that only compatible metals are used in the water
system. If two metals which are far apart in the
electromotive series, such as aluminum and steel, must
be used contiguously, they must be insulated from each
other. The velocity of seawater through the piping
system must be lower than that used in freshwater
systems to prevent excessive erosion.
Marine engines may be installed with their crankshafts at an angle to the horizontal. For this reason,
and because they are subjected to more motion than in
many other applications, changes are necessary in the
lubricating oil system. Where there is room under the
engine, the simplest solution is to use a deep oil pan.
This has two beneficial effects: first the oil sump capacity
can be increased, permitting longer oil change periods;
and secondly, the oil level can be maintained low enough
such that the connecting rods will not dip into the oil,
thus preventing oil from leaking past the crankshaft end
seals. Where there is insufficient space for a deep oil
pan, it is necessary to use a shallow pan and a dry sump
system. Details of lubricating oil systems are covered

in a later section.
While it might seem that the air intake to a marine
engine would be dustfree and dirtfree, this may not be
the case when operating in harbors, inland waters, or
close offshore. In these cases, it can be just as important
to provide a good air cleaner as in any automotive or
stationary installation.
25 1
The ciose confines of many marine engine rooms gake

it especially important to protect personnel from
injury due to contact with hot or moving parts. Partic.
ular attenti~nshould be paid to adequate shielding for
these hazards. It is also extremely important to prevent
fires in machinery spaces; to that end, care must be taken
to insure that fuel and lubricating oil cannot be sprayed
against hot engine surfaces.
Section 2
tharacteris?ics of Diesel ~ n ~ i n e s
2.1 Performance Characteristics. The engine performance characteristics which are of interest when selecting an engine for a particular application are torque,
horsepower, fuel consumption, and q eed. The torque
output of a particular engine is control ed by the quantity
of fuel injected into the cylinder each cycle; in fact, the
torque varies almost directly with the quantity of fuel
injected per cycle. The maximum torque that an
engine can develop at any speed is usually limited by the
exhaust smoke condition comidered acceptable, high
stress, or high temperature rather than by the engine's
ability to pull more load. The maximum power that
the engine can develop a t any speed is simply the
product of the maximum torque, the speed, and a
constant. It is important to know the engine's
characteristics and how they are related to the conditions
under which the engine is to be used in order to insure a
successful application.
The diegel is generally referred to as a constant-torque
machine, ltnd it certainly is when compared to steam
or gas turbines which have stall torque ratios in the order
of 3: 1. The stall torque ratio is the ratio of the torque
at stall speed (i.k., zero for steam turbines) to that a t
rated speed. The torque of a diesel running a t a constant throttle setting will normally rise to about 110
percent of full-load torque in the range of 55 to 70 percent
of full-speed rprn and then drop aa the speed is further
reduced, as shown by Fig. 3. If the throttle setting is
reduced such that the'quantity of fuel injected per cycle
is reduced, the engine torque is correspondingly reduced.
Typical curves illustrating this trend are also shown on
Fig. 3.
It is possible to modify the torque characteristics of a
diesel by changitlg the fuel injection versus speed
chaxactei.istics so as to increase the quantity of fuel
injected per cycle as the speed is reduced, whiie at the
same time using a turbochaxger which has been matched
to the engine for optimum efficiency at the speed for
which the high torque is desired [8,9]. I n this manner,
a peak torque as high as 140 percent of full-load torque
of the normal engine can be obtained at speeds as low as
60 percent of full speed as indicated by Fig. 3. For
normal marine drives such as propulsion, generator sets,
or centrifugaJ pumps, there is no need for an engine with
*
I
specid torque characteristics. However, when a diesel

is used to drive $winch or a positive-displacement pump,
there may be an advantage in having an engine which is
designed to develop high torques at low speeds. Such
an engine is referred to as one with "lugging capacity."
At a constant throttle (or fuel rack) setting, the
engine power is, for all practical purposes, a linear
function of engine spqed. As indicated previously, the
power at any speed is usually limited by factors other
than the amount of fuel which can be injected or burned
in the cylinder. The manner in which the engine power
is limited by the variods parameters is shown in Fig. 4.
NORMAL ENGINE 100%FULL THROTTLE

NORMAL ENGINE 80%FULL THROTTLE
HIGH TORQUE ENGINE IOOXFULL THROTTLE
20
40
60
RPM, % RATED'
Flg. 3 bigin. twque ckarackrMio
80
---- -
100
252
MEDIUM AND HIGH.-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
TURBOCHARGER I
SURGE OR SMOKE
LIMITED f Lli"ED
~
Fig. 4
0
20
II
40
60
ENGINE
80
RPM,% RATED
The curves in each case are drawn against a background

of constant torque (or BMEP) lines. Data for each
curve are developed by regulating the amount of fuel
injected per cycle to maintain the parameter constant.
Not all engines are designed to withstand the same
cylinder pressures, exhaust temperatures, or maximum
speeds, and not a11 are smokefree to the same degree.
The maximum horsepower is shown by the solid line, and
each curve segment is labelled to show the factor which
limits the power. The shape of the maximum horsepower curve is generally applicable to all engines; however, the limiting factor in each portion of the speed
range may vary from one engine to another [lo-131.
Additional factors which could limit the power output
over parts of the speed range include the temperature of
parts (i.e., pistons, cylinders, heads, or valves), bearing
loads, deterioration of lubricating oil, or turbocharger
rpm.
The fuel consumption of a diesel engine may be
illustrated in several ways; the most useful depends
upon the intended application and the preference of the
user. At a constant speed, the total fuel consumption
I
100
Engine power limitations
I
120
varies almost linearlv with e h ~ h load.

e
but this relationship becomes nonlinear a t hig%er lo&' as shown by Fig.
5. The variation of specific fuel consumption with
speed and load is more commonljr presented in the forms
of Figs. 6 cr 7. The curves shown in Fig. 6 are commonly
called fishhook curves and show the variation of specific
fuel consumption with horsepower for various constant
engine speeds. This type of ,curve is of interest for
constant-speed applications, such as driving ships
service generator sets. The presentation in Fig. 5 is
of value in estimating fuel consumption of an engine
over a range of conditions when actual data are available
for a few points. Figure 5 is also useful during trials
for estimating engine horsepower from measured values
of fuel consumption and engine rpm. The method of
presentation shown in Fig. 7 is particularly useful in the
analysis of engines for propulsioh use, as it is possible
to superimpose the required power versus speed curves
on these fuel consumption curves to determine if the
engine size and characteristics are properly matched to
the load. The curves of Fig. 7 are typical of normal
engine design; however, it is possible for the performanae
map to look as different as Fig. 8 when variable fuel

and valve timing features are incorporated in the engine
design [14]. Engine manufacturers will generally publish some of these curves in their sales literature. Specific
information must be obtained for each specific applic*
tion; however, Fig. 9 may be used for estimating the
part-load specific fuel consumption corresponding to a
propeller load curve if specific engine data are lacking.
The specific fuel consumption a t full power will vary
from 0.34 lb/hp-hr for we/l-designed medium-speed
engines to 0.42 lb/hp-hr for high-speed engines operated
near their maximum ratings. Knowing the intended
application and the type of engine to be used, an
approximate full-power fuel consumption can be selected
from this range.
A diesel engine has a definite limitation regarding the
lowest speed at which it can be operated. This limit*
tion can be influenced to some degree by an appropriate
design of the engine or its installation. In general, the
idling speed of a diesel engine is about 30 percent of rated
speed. High-speed, low-horsepower engines may idle
a t speeds up to 50 percent, while larger, heavier engines
may idle below 25 percent of rated speed. Limitations
on the idling speed are associated with the fuel injection
equipment, combustion, and the inertia characteristics
of the engine and driven machinery. Low-power, highspeed engines require small quantities of fuel to be
injected each cycle a t full load; therefore, a t part load
it becomes extremely difficult to accurately meter the
smaller quantities of fuel required. I n addition, the
temperature of the compressed air in the cylinder is less
at low speed than it is a t high speed; consequently,
combustion can become erratic. I n larger engines, the
problem of injecting small quantities of fuel is not as
severe, and it can be further reducd by the use of multiple pumps or multiple injection nozzles for each cylinder,
or fuel pumps incorporating two plungers of different
sizes. Excessively large variations in idling speed may
be eliminated by increasing the she of the flywheel.
Most medium and high-speed diesels are provided
with attached lubricating oil and cooling water pumps
driven from the engine crankshaft by gears or belts.
These pumps are normally sized to provide the quantities
and pressures of the work* fluid to meet full-speed and
load requirements as well' as those a t low speed. If
unusually low operating speeds are necessary for a given
application, the normal pumps may not provide adequate
lubrication or cooling. In these cases, the engine
manufacturer must be alerted so that either larger
pumps, special gear ratios in the pump drive, booster
pumps, or separately driven pumps can be provided.
I n addition to the problem of idling speed, some
consideration must be given to the question of prolonged
operation a t light load. As shown in Fig. 4, there is a
minimum load below which combustion becomes unsatisfactory. I n this region, unburned or partially
burned fuel will remain in the cylinder and wash lubricrating oil from the cylinder wall and find its way into the
crankcw, diluting the lubricating oil. Both of these
'"
253
BRAKE HORSEPOWER. % RATED

Fig. 5
Fuel consumption versus horsepower
BRAKE HORSEPQWER. % RATED

Fig. 6
"Fishhook" curves, specific fuel consumption versus broke horsepower
PROPELLER LOADCURVE
I
20
40
60
80
ENGINE RPM. % RATED
120
100
60.7 'Typlcol apeciflc fuel conrumption mop
"
254
MARINE ENGINEERING

0
110
2 I00
1.
MAXIMUM
Fig. 8 Spedal rpecitlc fud awaunptim map

ENGlNE RPM.X RATED
Fig. 9 Eltimafa ot part-load fuel ansumption on propeller load cune
30
40
50
60
70
80
ENGINE RPM,%RATED
actions tend to increase the wear of engine parts. The

partially burned fuel results in increased quantities of
carbon and lubricating oil in the engine exhaust passages,
particularly so in two-stroke-cycle engines. Operation
at elevated loads e l l remove the exhaust system deposits
by burning and cause visible smoke in the exhaust for a
short period of time after the load is increased. Here
again, the engine 'manufacturer is in a position to minimize the adverse effects of light-load operation if he is
forewarned that the condition may exist.
A diesel engine is normally extremely easy to start.
Engine controls are arranged to properly sequence all
operations so that starting is simple, reliable, rapid, and
automatic. Full load can be accepted immediately;
however, if there is no urgency, it is preferable to allow
the engine to reach operating temperatures before
subjecting it to full load. At ambient temperatures
normally encountered in enclosed engine rooms, engines
can usually be started without startiqg aids. However,
if it is necessary to start the engine in an unheated engine
room in the winter, provision should be made for the
installation of a starting aid such as the injection of ether
into the intake air. Small high-speed engines of the
automotive type are usually built with higher compres-
I
90
I
100
I
110
sion ratios than other engines and, in spite of the greater

loss of heat during the compression stroke, they will
start, at lower temperatures than their larger slowerspeed counterparts, without the use of starting aids.
The ability of engines to start when cold varies widely;
some are able to start a t temperatures as low as zero F,
while otbers may have difficulty at 50 P. If cold starting
may be required in service, procurement specifications
should make this fact known to the manufacturer.
The acceleration characteristics of a diesel are determined by the difference between the torque available
and the torque load on the engine at any speed. If the
engine is operating near its maximum torque at a given
speed, it will accelerate very slowly should an increase in
speed be demanded. Or, in the case of a generator set,
if the operating load is n e p the maximum, an increase
in load may cause a drop in speed and a sluggish return
to the desired speed notwithstanding attempts of the
governor to effect an early correction. Turbocharged
engines may be sluggish in response to load changes if
the turbocharger rotor inertia is excessive. If fast
acceleration is a requirement of the application, again the
engine manufacturer should be so advised. He may be
able to supply engines with multiple low-inertia-turbo-
chargers or special controls to provide the desired

characteristics.
2.2 Engine Ratings. The rated horsepower of an
engine is the power output capability of the engine a t
rated speed under specified ambient conditions, duty
cycle, and life expectancy as proven by performance,
endurance, and environmental testing. To facilitate in
the selection of the correct engine for a given application,
engine manufacturers publish rating curves for each of
their engine models. For most high-speed engines, these
curves are of the form illustrated by Fig. 10 and show the
recommended rated horsepower for three different
operating conditions; namely, maximum, intermittent,
and continuous [15]. The limiting horsepower lines
from Fig. 4 are included in Fig. 10 for comparative
purposes. The maximum horsepower is useable only
for special applications where high power is required far
short durations. This maximum horsepower serves as a
baseline for selecting a rating suitable for a particular
application and is determined by tests on a dynamometer
in the manufacturer's plant under rather ideal conditions.
I n actual service, less ideal conditions prevail; operators
may be unskilled, loads may be unexpectedly high or
suddenly applied, or extreme operating temperatures
may be encountered, any of which can shorten engine
overhaul periods, increase wear and cause unexpected
failures. To insure satisfactory service performance,
the engine is usually rated a t a performance level less than
the maximum. For intermittent duty, such as may be
expected in a pleasure boat gr for stand-by service, the
engine is usually rated at approximately 85 to 90 percent
of the maximum horsepower with the speed rated at the
maximum value. For continuous duty where the engine
will operate for long periods with little downtime or where
the load on the engine is a high percentage of the rated
load at all times (such as for ships' service generators or
workboat propulsion), more conservatism is exercised in
ENGINE RPMSX RATED

Rg. 10 Typlcal diesel mcmvfadurwk rating curves
rating the engine. The continuous-duty rating curve is

usually 70 to 75 percent of the maximum horsepower,
and the rated speed is limited to approximately 90 percent
of the maximum. The precise reduction from the maximum rating varies from one application and manufacturer to another; however, the figures stated are
representative.
The manufacturer's rating curves present the engine
performance at standard conditions of atmospheric
presaure and temperature, with a simple exhaust system,
and with a minimum of accessories. Manufacturers of
medium and slow-speed engines generally do not furnish
three curves as in Fig. 10,and it is necessary to determine
the operating conditions applicable to the quoted rating
or rating curve. I n applying these curves or ratinge in
the process of selection of an engine, it is necessary to
make corrections for atmospheric conditions if the intended installation will impose conditions on the engine
which differ from the manufacturer's standard. It is
also necessary to reduce the rating by the power required
to drive contemplated accessories which were not
included during the standard dynamometer tests. These
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 2
Standard Conditions and Correction Factors for Engine Tests

Specification
for arine Diesels
100
29.0
1.0
bhpc = C(bhp.)
Mi1it2
Ambient temperature de F
Barometric p r e s m (dvf in. Hg
Ekhaut back pressure, m. Hg
Correction formula
Correction factor, C
SAE Test
Code J816 [la]
85
29.0.
not specified
bhp, = C(bhp0 fhp)
29 To 480
Secl:ion 3
Marine Uses for Diesel Engines
- fhp
E(T)
Po
where
bhp, = corrected brake horsepower
bh = observed brake horsepower
= observed barometric pressure (dry), in. Hg
To = observed ambient temperature, deg F
fhp = friction horsepower
e
accessories may include such items aa reverse and

reduction gears, battery charging generators, air cornpressors, hydraulic system pumps, or bilge Pumps.
Performance redu~tionmust also be made if a complex
exhaust system imposes an unusually high back Pressure,
or if intake air silencers or cleaners restrict the flow of air
to the engine. This is particularly i ~ p o r t a nin
t the case
of turbocharged engines.
Expected service loads and installation conditions
must be carefully investigated and specified during the
early design stages. It is also necessary to consider the
rating and the service history of the selected engine in
other applications. A diesel engine is usually capable
of operating at a load in excess of its rating, and overloading may not be immediately apparent; however, it
eventually can become evident in the form of shorter
overhaul intervals, unexpected failures, and higher
maintenance costs.
There is no standard method of rating a diesel engine;
even the baseline conditions of atmospheric temperature
and barometric pressure are not standardized, although
there are standard conditions set by military specifications and the Power Test Codes of the engineering
societies such as the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) or the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME). When the anticipated operating environmental conditions differ from the manufacturer's test
conditiom, it is necessary to correct engine performance
from the operating conditions to standard conditions in
order to properly select an engine. If acceptance tests
are conducted with conditions other than standard, the
test results must be corrected to insure that contractual
requirements are met. Unfortunately, no generally
accepted correction factors exist. The SAE test code
has a correction factor for naturally aspirated engines,
but not for turbocharged engines. The military
specification for marine engines has a different correction
factor which is used for all diesel engines. To avoid
misunderstandings, it is necessary that ship specifications
and engine procurement documents specify both the
standard conditions under which the engine is to be
rated and the method by which test data are to be
corrected to verify performance. Two examples of

standard conditions and correction factors are shown in
Table 2.
Corrections to fuel consumption to compensate for
differing atmospheric conditions are more complex t h a ~
for horsepower and are not generally used for thm
reason. The increasing use of computers to analyze
automatically recorded test data may produce relationships which will lead to the publication of generally
accepted correction factors for the performance of all
types of engines.
2.3 Engine Physical Characteristics. For estimating
purposes, an engine weight of 4 lb per cu in. of total
displacement is a reasonable approximation. If there
are special reasons to require an engine of lighter weight,
there are engines in production weighing about 3 lb per
cu in. in most sizes; however, the number of available
suppliers would be reduced considerably. To estimate
the total engine weight of an engine of given horsepower,
calculate its approximate displacement, assuming the
type of cycle, and values of BMEP and rotative speed
appropriate to the intended service, and substitute
these in the equation (see Section 1.2 for a definition of
3.1 Types of Ships Employing Diesels. Diesel engines have been utilized in all types of ships, both in
the merchant marine and in the navies of the world. The
power range in which diesel engines have been used in
American-built ships has increased directly with the
availability of higher-power engines. The line of
demarkation in horsepower between what is normally
assigned to diesel and to steam has continually moved
upward; however, so has the power installed in ships of a
given type. For example, Navy oceangoing tugboats
of 25 years ago were powered by four diesel locomotive
type engines, each of 900 bhp, for a total of 3600 bhp.
But after 25
of improvements, four engines of the
same basic type now power a commercial tug with a total
of 9600 bhp. This same type of engine and others like
i t are available up to 4000 bhp and, no doubt, will be
used in tugs of tomorrow if 16,000 bhp can be usefully
ears
as a baseline. The lower-power engines were sized by

scaling from the 5000-bhp size, keeping the BMEP and
piston speed constant; they are hypothetical engines, but
engines are available of approximately the ratings and
sizes shown. When more than one engille is geared to
the propeller shaft, it can be seen that the gear serves as
both a speed reducer and combining gear. The same
series of engines could be used in an electric drive propulsion system, with even greater flexibility. Each engine
drives its own generator and may be located independently of other engines and the propeller shaft. The
enerators provide the power to drive a propulsion motor
or motors as the case may be. A single motor may be
used directly connected to the propeller shaft, or it may
be geared to the shaft. On the other hand, it may be
preferable for several smaller motors to be geared to a
single propeller shaft.
It was previously noted that diesel engines could be
terms>
The displacement is then multiplied by the appropriate

ratio of engine weight to displacement (generally 4) to
determine the engine weight.
The space requirements of a diesel power plant are
rather flexible in that it is possible to assemble a plant
from one or more units and to select the type of unit to
be used. If head room is a ~roblem,small high-speed
engines can be used. If width is a ~roblem,in-line
engines can be used. If it is necessary to minimize
the length, vee-type engi~lesare available. ~ n g i n e scan
be furnished completely assembled with all the necessary
accessories mounted on the engine and its subbase, or
with these accessories loose for mounting where space is
available. It is extremely important that adequate
t
space be ~rovidedaround each engine to ~ e r m i access
for maintenance. Fortunately, the space required for
maintenance usually coincides with the envelope of the
engine. Parts of high-speed engines are relatively small
and light in weight; this facilitates handling and minimizes the need for extensive rigging for art removal.
3.2 Shipboard Applications of Diesels. Diesel

engines are used either singly or in multiple to drive
propeller shafts. For all but high-speed boats, the
modern American diesel turns too fast to drive the
propeller directly with good efficiency and some means of
speed reduction, either mechanical or electrical, is
necessary. If a single engine of the power required for
a given application is available, then a decision must be
made as to whether it or several smaller engines should
be used. This decision may be dictated by the available
space. Using a mechanical transmission system as an
example, Fig. 11 illustrates the flexibility of the diesel
power plant in adapting to specific space requirements.
I n this figure, an engine with a rating of 5000 bhp irs used
In applications where it is necessary to provide rapid

maneuvering characteristics with reverse gears or direct
reversing bngines, brakes may be installed either on the
propeller shaft or on the high-speed pinion shafts of the
reduction gear to stop the propeller shaft in minimum
time. Many direct reversing engines can be specially
adapted to use starting air in the cylinders for braking
purposes, and this possibility should be weighed against
other means of shaft stopping.
Diesel engines are used to drive shipsJ
and
emergency generators. Emergency generator sets are
arranged to start automatically upon failure of the
normal power supply, and after a builtrin time delay,
assume the electrical load on the emergency bus. For
many years, Navy specifications have required that
,I
I
1
MARINE ENGINEERING
REDUCTION GEAR OUTPUT 170 RPM
I
I V-16 ENGINE
( 5 0 0 0 BHP AT 514 RPM)
HEIGHT 10'
REFERRED CURVE
2 V - 8 ENGINES
(EACH 2 5 0 0 BHP AT 514 RPM)
HEIGHT 9.5'
IT (0)
.2V-16 ENGINES
(EACH 2500,BHP
HEIGHT 7.7
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
ENGINE OR PROPELLER RPM.% RATED
90
100
110
Fig. 12 Matching engine to l i p characteristicswing power cunes
I UI
2 V-16 ENGINES
(EACH 2 5 0 0 B H P AT 7 3 0 RPM)
H E I G H T 7.7'
38.5'
m
4 V-16 ENGINES
(EACH 1250 BHPAT 1 0 3 0 RPM)
HEIGHT 5'
-1
2564
.-'
Fig. 1 1
Compar'wn of various engine arrangements for 5000-bhp plant
emergency generator sets be capable of starting and

assuming full load in no more than ten seconds, and it
has been demonstrated that this is a reasonable require
ment. It is possible to parallel a diesel generator set
electrically with generators driven by other diesels or
other prime movers such as steam or gas turbines;
however, the equipment supplier should be made aware
of this requirement if it is needed.
Diesels are used as prime movers to power many
different types of auxiliaries such as fire pumps, dewatering pumps, cargo oil pumps, compressors, and
winches. For engines installed high in the ship, conideration should be given to the use of radiator-cooled
or air-cooled engines to avoid cooling water pumps which
would be subjected to high suction l i t requirements.
3.3 Selection of Engines. The selection of engines
for shipboard use cannot be b-d
on any single factor.
There are many possible engine deaigns which are capable

of meeting most performance requirements, and numerous factors must be considered such as weight, fuel
consumption, cost, availability of competitive engines,
manning requirements in terms of skill level and number,
and maintenance considerations such as availability of
repair parts, necessity for special tools, and the number,
type, and frequency of the maintenance required.
References [17-221 discuss this subject in detail.
The first and possibly the most important consideration leading to the selection of a diesel engine is the
definition of what it must do. I n the case of a propulsion engine, this entails obtaining the speed-power
curves for d l important modes of operation such as
fully and lightly loaded, clean and fouled bottom,
towing and running free, and with and without power
takeoff loads. Additional information should be aster-
tained regarding the time duration of operations a t each

condition. An assessment should also be made of
anticipated special operating requirements. For exill it be necessary to spend long periods of time
ample: W
with engines idling? Will long periods of slow-speed
maneuvering be required? Will the operation be primarily point to point with the engines a t full load and
speed most of the time? Each of these questions and
many more can influence the design of the diesel power
plant.
When the speed-power curve has been established, an
engine can be selected which will develop the required
horsepower a t its appropriate rating. Assuming that
the ship under considerati~nis one which is expected to
operate the majority of its time a t less than full load, the
intermittent duty rating would be the appropriate one.
A particular engine, or engines, is then selected whose
intermittent rating is consistent with the full-power
requirements for the ship. The intermittent horse
power curve for the engine, similar to Fig. 10, and the
light-load lines from Fig. 4 are then superimposed on the
speed-power curve. Preferred, acceptable, and lightload operating regions are then added and the resultant
plot is illustrated by Fig. 12. Operation in the light-load
region should be avoided. The propeller load, curve A
in Fig. 12, has been drawn with the power varying as the
cube of the s p e d . It can b e seen that operation down
to about 70 percent speed is within the preferred zone,
and from 70 to 55 percent speed is in the acceptable zone.
If ap appreciable amount of time is to be spent in operation below 55 percent speed, where the engine load as
dictated by the speed-power curve faIls into the undesired
rarige, consideration should be given to the use of two or
more engines instead of one. Curve A represents the
power to drive the ship with a clean bottom whether that
power is produced by one engine or multiple engines. If
the performance of one of two installed engines operating

alone is to be evaluated, it is necessary to redraw either
the engine performance curves or the speed-power curve.
Either the engine performance curves would have to be
drawn with ordinates one half their original magnitude
or the speed-power curve would have to be drawn with
ordinates twice its original magnitude. It is simpler to
redraw the speed-power curve, and this is shown as
curve B. Now it can be seen t h ~ one
t engine can be
declutched from the propeller shaft whenever the ship
speed is reduced to 62 percent of full speed (the intersection of curve B and the continuous-duty line). Under
these conditions, the single engine would operate in the
recommended zone, whereas two-engine operation would
be in the acceptable zone. At speeds down to about
38 percent, the single engine would be acceptable,
whereas two engines would be too lightly loaded below
55Ifpercent
low-speed
speed.operation is required for substantial
periods of time, consideration should be given to a larger
number of engines. Using the same procedure as
previously, curve C has been drawn to represent the
speed-power curve when operating on one fourth of the
installed engines. I n this case, one engine could be
used for operations up to about 40 percent speed, two
engines from about 40 to 62 percent speed, three engines
from 62 to 75 percent speed and all four engines above
that. I n addition to the improved loading condition of
the engines during part-load operations, benefits are
derived from the fact that only some of the engines
accumulate operating hours, and the total fuel consump
tion is less.
I n c w s where the speed-power curve can vary with
conditions of operation (e.g., different displacements,
water depth, hu\l fouling, towing), the extremes of
loading should be considered when selecting the engine-
260
MARINE-ENGINEERING
have a power rating less than 10 percent of that of the

main engine and be disengaged when the main engine is
used. The quick starting capability of the diesel
obviates the necessity of keeping engines running at idle
just so that they will be ready when needed.
The characteristics of diesel engines and the principles
26 1
governing their proper selection and application have

deliberately been expressed in general terms. By
following the methods described, unusual applications
such as the engine requirements of planing hull boats or
hydrofoils can be handled as well as the more conventional ships and boats.
Section 4
Design Considmtions
20
40
60
80
100
ENGINE RPM.% RATED

Fig. 13 Matching engine to ship characterlrtiu uaing torque CUNW
propeller-reduction gear combination. Curves A' and

A" which represent these extremes have been added to
Fig. 12 to show the effect on performance. If the ship
were designed to absorb full power under the conditions
of curve A and then were required to tow a load such that
the total resistance corresponded to curve A', the maximum speed permissible would be 85 percent of rated (the
intersection of curve A' and the intermittent rating
curve); the limiting factor would be engine torque. If,
on the other hand, the resistance were reduced to that
shown by curve A", no speed increase would be possible
without overspeeding the engine, and full engine power
could not be utilized. Under these conditions, the
choice is dictated by the condition under which it is
most important that full power be developed. If full
power is required under both conditions, a controllablepitch propeller or a two-speed reduction gear must be
used. Figure 13 shows the same conditions plotted with
torque and rpm as coordinates to illustrate an alternative
method which could be advantageous when most data
are available in that form. The engine torque curves
shown-in Fig. 13 are not consistent with the horsepower

curves in Fig. 12, which were drawn as straight lines for
simplicity. In addition, specific fuel consumption curves
have been added. The reduction in fuel consumption at
low speeds which is obtained by operation with reduced
numbers of engines may be verified from this plot.
Figure 13 can also be used to verify that the minimum
specific fuel consumption of the selected engine occurs at
the ship speed and load most frequently expected.
It is not necessary that all engines in a multi-engine
drive be identical, although logistics problems are
simplified if they are. There are cases where a considerable amount of low-speed maneuvering is required,
and, if the required speed is below that corresponding to
engine idling speed, the low speed can be obtained by the
use of CRP propellers, two-speed transmissions, slipping
clutches, or the use of a small engine which is geared to
the propeller shaft such that it develops full power at a
ship speed slightly above that corresponding to the
idling speed of the main engine. The small engine may
4.1 Types of Fuel Used. One of the prime objectives

in the development of the diesel engine has been to
provide a prime mover which would be capable of burning a wide variety of fuels. It has, however, been necessary to compromise on this goal in order to achieve others
such as reduced weight and space, increased reliability,
lower wear of parts, good cold starting ability, and
increased safety in fuel handling and storage. Over the
years, a number of specifications for fuel oil have been
developed to insure that the customer would be able to
buy fuels meeting the requirements of various engine
designs and t o give new engine designers a range of
standard fuels from which to select. Operators who
maintain a fleet of ships are particularly desirous of
supplying one grade of fuel for all of their engines. The
most significant characteristics of diesel engine fuels are
listed in Table 3. The generally accepted uses for these
fuels are:
ASTM ID. A volatile distillate fuel oil for engines in
service requiring frequent speed and load changes. The
flash point of this fuel should be specified as a minimum
of 140 F for marine applications.
ASTM 2D. A distillate fuel oil of lower volatility for
engines in industrial and heavy mobile service. Again a
minimum flash point of 140 F is recommended for
marine service.
ASTM 4D. A fuel oil for low and medium-speed
engines; however, it should not be assumed that all low
and medium-speed engines will run successfully on this
grade of fuel. The advice of the engine manufacturer
,should be solicited before using grade ASTM 4D fuel to
insure that the particular engine model can tolerate the
wider range of fuel properties permitted by this specification.
MIL-F-16884, Marine Diesel Fuel. This Navy
specification fuel is generally similar to ASTM 2D fuel
except that a higher cetane number and flash point are
specified and particular attention is paid to insure that
fuels from different sources and lots will be miscible and
that good st0rake stability is provided.
MIL-T-5624, Turbine Fuel, Aviation Grade JP-5.
This fuel is similar to ASTM 1D fuel except for its lower
end point and high flash point. It has many require
ments which are not tabulated in Table 3 inasmuch as
they are needed primarily to meet aviation engine
reguirements, and they are not relevant for marine

ap$ications. JP-5 fuel must be provided for turbinepowered aircraft o'perated from ships at sea; therefore,
this fuel is used by the Navy in all diesels which are
refueled at sea in order to simplify logistics problems.
JP-5 can be used successfully in diesels while MIL-F16884 fuel cannot be used in turbines for aircraft use.
The increased cost of the JP-5 fuel is offset by the
advantage of having to carry only one grade of distillate
fuel in tankers.
The relationship between engine performance and some
of the fuel characteristics specified in Table 3 is as follows:
Cetane Number. Cetane number is a measure of the
ignition quality of the fuel. Engine performance factors
influenced in part by ignition quality are: (a) cold
starting, (b) warmup, (c) combustion roughness, (d)
deposits under idle and light-load operation, and (e)
exhaust smoke density. Each of these performance
factors is also affected by other fuel characteristics and
engine design parameters. The cetane number requirements of an engine depend on design, size, mechanical
condition, operating conditions, atmospheric temperature, and altitude. An increase in cetane number o?er
values actually required does not materially improve
engine performance.
Heating Value. This important property of a diesel
fuel is a measure of the energy available from it. The
heating value of fuels may be expressed in either of two
ways: high or gross heating value and low or net heating
value, the difference being the latent heat of the water in
the exhaust gas. Heating values may be expressed in
terms of Btu/lb or Btu/gal. Since diesel engine fuel
consumption is normally quoted in terms of lb/hp-hr
and fuel is purchased on the basis of cost per gallon, Btu
values on both a weight and volume basis are of interest.
It is now customary to use the lower heating value for
calculating thermal efficiency of diesels, although in the
past the higher heating value was used. In either case,
thermal efficiency is of academic interest only. For a
comparison of the performance of different engines on
different fuels, fuel consumption in terms of Btu/hp-hr
is most useful, although care must be taken to insure that
the heating values of the fuels are reported on the same
basis. The heating value is specified in only one of the
specifications listed in Table 3; this is because distillate
262
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 3
Ignition quality-*tam no.. ...............

Appearance. .............................
Diesel Fuels
ASTMD 976-64T
1D
2D
4D
-40(d
40(a)
30'"
Marine
Diesel
MIGF
16884
JP 5
MILT
56246:
45
SEPARATOR
..
1 1 1
DIESEL
OIL
SERVICE
TANK
I
$DRAIN
L. VLV.
IF VALVE IS USED
ALSO INSTALL
PRESSURE REL.VLV.
STRAINER
FILTER
Pour oint, F (mu). ...................... l (e )P..

~ i ~ ~ ~F ~ ~ i.....................
n t ,
1.4
Viecoslty @ 100 F: centistokesmin. .........
m u . ........
2.5
SSU min ...............
gax .............. 34.4
0.15
Carbon residue on 10% bctttom, % m a . . ...
0.50
Sulpbur, % ( m u by we1 ht.. .............
Corrodon (mu) )at 212 Fy .;............... No. 3
Color (ma). .............................
Ash, .% (m)by weight. ............. : ...
0.01
Gmwty, API mm/max. ...................
Acid number (max). ......................
Nel,ltrrtlity.. ..............................
M m e pomt F. ........ !.................
Accelerated stability%otal..................
insolubles, mg/100 ml (max). ............
Water and sediment b volume %. ......... TRACE
Lower h e ~ t e "sale,
g
itu/lb (min). .........
Aniliue gramty product (min) ..............
125 or
legal
2.0
6.8
32.6
45
0.35
1.0
No. 3
5.8
26.4
45
125
2.0
D.O. MANIFOLD
2.1
6.0
33
D.O. INJECTION
PUMPS
45
0.2
1.0
No. 1
0.005
Record
0.50
NEUT
Record
2.5
FINAL
k
UNIT
INJECTORS
0.4
No. 1
0.10
FUEL SUPPLY PUMP
(b)
Fig. 14 Dlagram of a typical fuel system
36/48
NOGS:
(a) Lower tem rature or high-altitude operation may require higher cetane number.
B below the minimum expected ambient.
b S ecify at
R r comparison not a apeyification d u e .
d) For test methods, see specification referenced.
Go
diesel fuel properties such as volatility, viscosity,

gravity, ignition quality, and heating value exhibit
interrelationships. It has been established that certain
characteristics of fuel can be estimated with reasonable
accuracy from two or more measured characteristics
such as volatility and API gravity. Charts ahowing
these relationships may be found in the SAE Handbook
[16] in the section on diesel fuels. For estimation
purposes in ship design, a fuel with a representative higher
heating value of 19,350 Btu/lb can be used. The
corresponding lower heating value is 18,190 Btu/lb.
Engine performance on the test stand is corrected to
reflect the diierence in the heating value of the actual
fuel and the standard value used in design.
Viscosity. For some engines, it is advantageous to
specify a minimum fuel viscosity because of the power
loss due to injection pump and injector leakage. Maximum viscosity, on the other hand, is limited by considerations involving the engine design and size and the
characteristics of the injection system.
Sulphur. The effect of sulphur content on engine
wear and deposits appears to vary considerably in
importance and depends largely on operating conditions.
It is important to maintain an engine jacket water
temperature of at least 140 F to minimize the effects of
sulphur in the fuel.
. WATER
PUMP
clear and
brinht
Diatiition, 10% point F ..................

Distillation, 90% p o w (mu). ............ 550
W i t i p n ; end point F (max) .............
Flash pomt, F (mip). ...................... 100 or
TRANSFER
Flash Point. The flash point as specified is not

directly related to engine performance. It is, however,
of importance in connection with legal requirements and
safety precautions involved in fuel handling and storage
and is normally specified to meet insurance and fire
regulations. For marine use, a minimum flash point of
140 F is recommended.
Pour Point. Pour point is important in connection
with the lowest temperature which the fuel may reach
and still be sufficiently fluid to be pumped or transferred.
The pour point is generally interrelated with cetane
number and volatility. Frequently, low pour pointa
may be obtained only at the expense of lowering the
cetane rating or increasing volatility. The pour point
should not be specifled lower than required. For a more
comprehensive dkussion of petroleum fuels, see Chapter
23.
I n the design of a new ship, the selection of the fuel ts
be used has an important bearing on the selection of
engines and the detail design of the fuel handling and
storage system. The fuel selection may be specified by
the owner or left to the ship designer to provide greater
flexibility in optimizing the total design. The selection
of fuel for a given engine requires consideration of the
following factors: (a) fuel price and availability, (b)
maintenance considerations, (c) engine sire and design,
(d) speed and load ranges, (e) frequency of speed and

load changes, and Cf) ambient conditions.
4.2 Fuel Oil System Design. The fuel injection
system of a diesel engine is, in many respects, the heart
of the engine. It must meter extremely small quantities
of fuel, deliver the metered fuel at high pressure to the
engine cylinder at exactly the correct time, in a precise
spray pattern, and a t a specified time stop delivery
abruptly and completely. The instantaneous pressure
in the fuel nozzles can be as high as 40,000 psi a t full load
in unit injectors (the fuel pump and nozzle are combined
into one unit with no lengthy fuel line between). In the
conventional system, the fuel pressure at full load may
be as high as 15,000 psi for some engines. The duration
of injection in a high-speed engine can be as short as
0.001 sec. With the high pressures involved and the
precise timing requirements, it is necessary to build the
injection equipment with close clearances and small
tolerances. Nozzle hole sises vary upward from 0.005
in. dia, while the plunger-to-barrel diametral clearances,
may be as small as 1.5 microns (0.00006 in.).
I n view of these small clearances and high pressures,
the most important consideration in the design and layout of the fuel oil handling and supply system for a diesel
engine is to insure that clean, waterfree fuel is delivered
to the engine. It is particularly important in 11mrine
installations to insure that there is no salt water in the
fuel at the time it gets to the injection pumps and
nozzles. Saltwater-contaminated fuel has been known
to erode the small holes in the fuel nozzles and cause
pintle corrosion and sticking in a relatively short time,
resulting in loss of power, burned pistons, high fuel
consumption, and a smoky exhaust.
In the typical fuel system illustrated in Fig. 14,
diesel oil is transferred to a diesel oil service tank, sometimes called a day tank, after passing it through a water
separating device which may be either a centrifugal
purifier or a coalescing-type filter. Fuel flows from the
service tank through a strainer to a fuel supply pump

which is normally attached to and driven from the
engine. The fuel is discharged from the pump and flows
through a filter and sometimes also through a final-stage
filter before going to the fuel injection pump.
It is customary for the fuel supply pump to have a
capacity from three to four times that actually required
by the engine. The excess fuel flows through the
injection pump housing, cooling the plunger and barrel
and insuring that the pump cylinder is completely filled
at each stroke. The high-pressure fuel is discharged
from the injection pump to the fuel nozzles in each
cylinder of the engine through high-pressure tubing.
Excess fuel flows through leak-off lines from the injection
pump and from each fuel nozzle. The leak-off lines are
manifolded to return excess fuel to the service tank, d i e
charging above the fuel level and preferably against a
horizontal b d e . If unit injectors are used, the pump
and nodsle are combined in one assembly and there is
only one leak-off point from each unit.
It is preferable to have a separate return line from each
engine to the service tank or tanks, with no valves in the
lines. If it is necessary to install shutoff valves in the
return line, a pressure relief valve should be installed to
by-pass the valve and discharge to one of the service
tanks in case the valve is inadvertently closed while the
engine is running. If cocks can be installed to divert
the flow to the proper tank with no chance of a line ever
being completely blocked, the relief valve can be omitted.
It is possible for the pressure to build up in a closed
return line to the point of rupturing the pipe, spraying
fuel into the engine room, and possibly starting a fire.
Care should be taken to insure that leak-off lines have a
minimum number of joints and that these joints are
located so that leakage will not contaminate the engine
lubricating oil.
The choice between a centrifugal purifier and a c o s
lescer-type water separator must be made for each
MARINE ENGINEERING
installation. The purifier can be of the self-cleaning

type where the dirt and water removed from the fuel
is discharged to a separate collecting tank, which requires
infrequent cleaning. Purifiers are available in a variety
of sizes, and one unit may be able to serve the needs of all
the installed engines. The initial cost of a purifier is
higher than that of a coalescer type; however, maintenance costs are lower and logistic problems are simplified.
Care must be taken to follow instructions carefully and
select the proper ring dams or discharge rings to suit
the specific gravity of each fuel being centrifuged. The
centrifuge can be equipped with its own heater and
transfer pump to make it capable of handling heavier
fuels.
A coalescer has the advantage of being a static device
with no moving parts to wear out, but it does have
cartridges which require replacement. It cannot be
used, however, with residual fuels or distillates contaminated with residuals. I n a coalescer, a combination
filter and water separator unit is used. The oil with
entrained water first passes through a phenol-impregnated paper filter element where solid contaminants are
rempved, and the finely dispersed water droplets are
induced to conglomerate a t an accelerated rate by intimate contact through the capillary openings in the filter
paper. Some of these larger water droplets fall by
gravity into the water collection sump along with dirt
particles. The filtered and coalesced fluid then passes
on to the separator unit. Its vertically pleated element
of controlled porosity is impregnated with a hydrophobic
material, such as molybdenum sulphide or paraffin for
preferential wetting by the oily fluid, so that the oil and
not the water globules passes through the capillaries.
Water is collected in the sump of the separator unit and
clean, waterfree fuel is taken off from a connection &,the
top of the unit. If care is not taken to change elements
when the pressure drop across them exceeds the recommended limit, there is the danger of rupturing the elements and contaminating the fuel in the service tank.
The strainer has a metallic element of woven wire,
stacked metallic disks, or sintered metal. Woven wire
elements can remove particles down to about 40 microns,
and if the joints in the wire are welded they can remove
particles 2 microns in size. Stacked disks are capable of
removing 40-micron particles and have the advantage
that they may be made self-cleaning by rotating alternate
disks. Sintered metal elements can remove particles in
the range of 3 to 25 microns, depending on their density.
Sintered metal elements &re difficult to clean and may
disintegrate if subjected to'large pressure surges.
The fuel supply pump draws fuel from the diesel oil
service tank through the filter, and for that reason it must
have the capability of operating with a suction lift of
from 4 to 6 ft. If the suction lift is too great due to the
elevation of the pump or the length of the supply line
or the pressure drop in the filter, a separate motor-driven
fuel booster pump may be required. The fuel supply
pump is of the positive displacement type with pumping
elements using either gears, vanes, plungers, or dia-
phragms. These pumps \\-ill have a discharge pressure

of 6 to 20 psi for small engines and 25 to 40 psi for large
engines. A pressure relief valve should be provided on
the discharge side of the pump, either built illto the
pump housing or installed separately in the discharge
pipe. The fuel from the relief valve should return to
the pump suction or to the service tank.
The diesel oil service tank is normally located a t a level
above that of the supply pump so that fuel can be supplied
to the pump by gravity. In some engines, the fuel
system is so designed that the fuel service tank must be
located below the supply pump to prevent the flow of
fuel by gravity into the cylinders of a shutdown engine.
Air leakage into the fuel inlet lines can be very troublesome; therefore a minimum number of fittings should be
used and all joints must be completely airtight. This is
particularly important when the fuel tank is lower than
the supply pump. Diesel oil tanks should not be made
of galvanized steel because of the danger of forming
corrosive zinc compounds in the fuel. Copper or silicon
bronze should not be used for fuel tanks either, as their
reaction with the mercaptan sulphur compounds in the
fuel can result in the formation of damaging copper
deposits in the engine combustion chambers. Aluminum
bronze and manganese bronze are satisfactory for fuel
tanks, as their use does not lead to these problems.
Filtration is accomplished upon discharge from the
supply pump in filters containing one or more elements
made of either treated paper, felt, or woven yarn. The
paper elements can be expected to filter particles in the
range of 3 to 5 microns, with an initial pressure drop of
from 0.5 to 2.0 psi and a pressure drop of between 15 and
30 psi a t the time of replacement. Woven yarn filter
elements have a greater capacity to handle dirt, higher
flow capacity, and somewhat coarser particle removal
capacity. It should be noted that the characteristics of
filter elements of any type can vary considerably depending on the filter design. Considerations with paper filters
are the porosity of the paper and the material with
which it is impregnated, and in the case of woven yarn
filters, the tightness of the weave and the depth of the
flow path. The particle removal characteristics of a
filter should be expressed in terms of particle size and the
probability that that size particle will be removed; for
example, 2 microns 92 percent, 5 microns 95 percent,
greater than 5 microns 99.5 percent.
For most diesel engines, a progressive filtering system
is used consisting of filters of increasingly fine filtering
ability. First there is a strainer to take out large
particles, then a yarn type filter to take out particles in
the 25-micron range, and lastly, a final-stage filter of the
impregnated paper type to remove the finest particles.
The yarn-type filter is sometimes eliminated where a
clean fuel supply can be assured. In engines with unit
injectors, the first-stage filters are of the paper type, and
final-stage filters of a metallic type are installed in the
body of each injector, one a t the inlet and one a t the
outlet connections. Filters may be of simplex or
duplex construction, with the latter being used when it is
not possible to shut down the engine to change filters.

Again, it must be emphasized that the major objectives
of the fuel system are to deliver clean fuel, free of air and
water, to the injection pumps. To this end, filter cases
should be installed in locations where they can be easily
serviced and the elements can be replaced without
introducing dirt and with a minimum of maintenance
effort. Jobs that are difficult to accomplish tend to
be accomplished less frequently. Steps should be taken
to ensure that there is a minimum possibility of air
entering the system through joints in the piping on the
suction side of pumps. Adequate and easily accessible
drain connections should be provided a t the lowest part
of the fuel service tanks for stripping water or foreign
matter which may accumulate.
Systems suitable for handling heavy distillate or
residual fuels are described in Chapter VIII.
4.3 Types of Lubricating Oils Used. The engine
manufacturer furnishes information regarding the design
as well as installation of the lubricating oil system. The
manufacturer will furnish all necessary accessories and
components and recommend the kind of lubricating oil
to be used. Nevertheless, marine engineers should be
knowledgeable of lubricating oil systems so that preliminary designs can be prepared prior to the selection of
a particular engine, and to alert the engine manufacturer
to unusual conditions in specific applications to insure
that optimum solutions are obtained when compromises
are necessary.
Lubricating oils are classified into two broad categories;
first by viscosity and second by the severity of the
operating conditions which they can tolerate. The most
common viscosity designation is by SAE numbers as
shown in Table 4.
Table 4
SAE
Viscosity no.
5W
1OW
20W
20
30
40
60
Viscosity Values of Crankcase Oils
Viscosity Range Saybolt Seconds Universal

at 210 F
at 0 F
min
max
min
max
6,000
6,000a
less than
12,000b
12,000
48,000
45
58
70
85
less than
58
70
85
110
a Minimum viscosity at 0 F may be waived provided the viscosity

at 210 F is not below
... 40
- - STTS.
- - -.
Minim& &scosity at 0 F may be waived provided the viscosity
at 210 F is not below 45 SUS.
Medium and high-speed diesel engines normally use

SAE 30 or 40 lubricating oils. For small boat applications where engines are stored outdoors in cold weather,
it will be necessary to use winter grades such as 5W or
10W,oils. I n addition to the viscosity, oils are classified
by'the viscosity index (VI), which is representative of the
slope of the viscosity-temperature curve for each oil. A
high VI oil is one in which its viscosity varies little with
265
the temperature, whereas in lower VI oils the viscosity

variation with temperature is greater. For engines
operating in heated engine rooms, the VI is of lesser
importance than in the case of exposed engines which
must operate in winter a t low temperatures and, in
addition, are subjected to varying loads and infrequent
starts.
The lubricant in an engine serves to cool rubbing
surfaces and provides a hydrodynamic film to prevent
metallic contacts. In addition, it carries away products
of combustion from combustion chambers and removes
metallic and abrasive products. In order to insure
satisfactory performance in a variety of engine designs
under widely diierent operating conditions, natural
petroleum products are specially compounded with
oxidation and corrosion inhibitors, antifoaming agents,
detergents, dispersants and other additives to produce
the desired lubricating oil properties.
Oils are qualified by running laboratory tests, both in
and out of operating engines. A good brief discussion of
these tests can be found in SAE Information Report
J304a [16]. Based on tests such as these, oils have been
classified by the American Petroleum Institute as to their
suitability for use in engines under operating conditions
of differing severity.
For gasoline engine use, oils are classified in order of
their ability to cope with increasingly severe operations
as ML, MM, and MS and for diesels as DG, DM, and
DS. I n addition, there are numerous military specifications and commonly used descriptors which cover the
same basic oil properties [23]. In general, the severity
of engine operating conditions and the design of the
particular engine will determine the proper lubricating
oil to be used. Sustained operation a t high load is not
the only condition which may be called "severe." In
fact, other conditions such as high sulphur or carbon
content of the fuel, widely fluctuating loads or ambient
conditions, frequent starts and stops, or atmospheric
contamination may impose more severe oil requirements
than high loads alone. Approximate military specification equivalents to commercial lubricating oils DG,
DM, and DS oils are MILL-21044, MIL-G2104B, and
MIL-L-45199 respectively. MIL-L-9000 is a Navy
specification oil with increased resistance to the deteriorating effects of water contamination. It is below
MIL-L-45199 in detergency level.
The best judge of the proper oil to be used in an engine
is the engine itself. Where past experience with a
particular engine or with special operating conditions is
unavailable, the judgment of the engine manufacturer
and oil supplier must be relied upon.
4.4 Lubricating Oil System Design. The components of the lubricating oil system are usually furnished
by the engine manufacturer and, in many cases, are
completely assembled to the engine for installation in the
ship as a unit. An oil sump is usually located under the
engine and a positive-displacement pump takes suction
from the sump and &scharges t h e oil to the engine
through a flter, cooler, and strainer, in that order. The
MARINE ENGINEERING
EXTERNPLL
RELIEF
METAL EDGE
STRAINER
Dlesel engine lubricating oil consumption will vary

depending on engine speed, size, and design details.
Typical values of oil consumption are:
DUPLEX
PRESSURE
II
COOLER BY-PASS
Medium-speed engines. . .3000-6000 bhp-hr/gal

High-speed engines. . . . . .2000-3000 bhp-hr/gal
I
- - - - - LUBE OIL
- - - - - --,COOLER
\PRESSURE
PUMP
ENGINE
JACKET
WATER
(A) LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM W I T H A FULL-FLOW F I L T E R
AND WET SUMP
SCAVENOING
PRESSURE
PUMP
TO FILTER, ETC.
( 0 ) LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM WlTH A DRY SUMP
I
------,
L---
JACKET
WATER
FINE
FULL
FLOW
STRAINER
LUBE OIL
COOLER
---J
--
(C) LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM WlTH A BY-PASS FILTER
-(D)
TO COOLER
AS IN(A) OR(C)
ALTERNATIVE SYSTEM WlTH A SHUNT FILTER

Fig. 15
Diagram of various lubricating oil systems
pump is equipped with a pressure relief, or in some

instances, a pressure regulating valve. This system is
shown diagrarnaticdly in Fig. 15(a).
The sump tank should be sdiiciently large so that the
oil does not splash up to the level of the crankshaft
seals and so that the connecting rods will not dip into the
oil under pitching an4 rolling conditions. I n addition,
the sump should contain a quantity of oil in gallons equal
to about twice the rated capacity of the presswe oil

pump in gallons per minute. If space is not available,
the sump capacity may be less but not below a one-half
minute pump supply. However, under these circumstances, oil change periods will be shortened appreciably.
A much preferred solution to the problem of lack of
space under the engine is to use a dry sump installation
as shown in Fig. 15(b).
Oil change periods will vary with the severity of engine

operation, quality of the lubricating oil, and size of the
sump tank.
With a dry sump, it is necessary to provide an additional pump to move the oil from the oil pan to the sump
tank. This scavenging pump should have a capacity a t
least 25 percent greater than the pressure pump to insure
that the dry sump will, in fact, be dry.
The oil flow requirements of engines will vary considerably, depending on such things as the use of oilcooling for pistons, whether the engine is naturally
aspirated, supercharged, or after-cooled, and whether it
is a two- or four-stroke cycle. The oil pressure pump
capacity can be estimated a t about 0.2 gpm per horsepower for preliminary sizing of the system, though it
might be half as much for some engines. Pump discharge pressures up to 100 psi can be expected in some
engines.
Since marine engines may run a t low speed for pr+
longed periods, engive-driven lubricating oil pumps
should have adequate capacity to provide pressure under
these conditions. Normal practice is to provide fullspeed pressure a t one-third speed. Many engines
designed for constant-speed generator drive are found to
be inadequate in this regard.
ABS rules [24] require that the lubricating oil piping
be entirely separate from other piping systems. For
other than automotive-type engines, it is good practice to
include a motor-driven lubricating oil pump in the system
to be used to prime the engine before starting. The
motor-driven pump is sometimes installed so that it can
circulate oil from the sump tank through a heater and
filter and then back to the sump in order to purify the oil
while the engine is not runtiing. If this is done, care
must be taken to insure that the normal oil supply to the
engine can never be blocked off by negligence in realigning the valvivg prior to an engine start. It is possible to
overprime opposed-piston engines, and the manufacturer's recommendations regarding means to prevent
damage from this cause should be followed. Normally,
the ABS rules require that an independently driven lubricating oil pump be furnished. However, for vessels in
river or harbor service or vessels below 300 tons, this requirement is waived. I n those applications where the size
and design of the engine is such that lubrication before
starting is not necessary and an attached pump is normally used, an independently driven spare pump is not
required if a complete duplicate of the attached pump is
carried as a spare.
Lubricating oil must be kept clean and free of abrasives.
The best way to control abrasives is to prevent their
entrance into the lubricating oil system. The designer
should insure that filler caps are provided and located so
267
that foreign matter cannot get into the system n-hen it is

being filled. Provision must be made to prevent dead
pockets where deposits can accumulate and subsequelltly
break loose in large quantities and cause damaging wear.
Clean-out openings must be provided a t all locations
where sludge is likely to accumulate.
The diesel engine lubricating oil must be kept free of
abrasive and corrosive q-mterials if it is to function
properly. Additives are used to control corrosion, and
filters are used to control abrasives. There are three
commonly used filtering arrangements: (a) full flow, (b)
by-pass, and (c) shunt. Full-flow filtration has become
predominant in recent years, and, as its name implies, all
of the oil supplied to the engine goes through the filter.
This arrangement is shown in Fig. 15(a). Inasmuch as
all of the oil going to the engine passes through the filter,
it is necessary to prevent oil starvation of the engine in
cases of filter plugging. An external by-pass line around
the filter, together with a pressure relief valve, provides
this protection. The duplex pressure gage shows the
inlet and outlet pressures and gives advance warning of
impending filter clogging. Normally, this takes place
slowly so as to enable filter element changes to be scheduled during nonoperating periods. With the arrangement shown, the pressure relief valve setting can also be
checked by means of the duplex gage.
The lubricating oil cooler is installed after the filter
because it is more effectiveto filter hot oil, as the pressure
drop through the filter is less and filteeng is more complete. The simplex metal edge strainer is installed as
close to the engine oil manifold inlet as possible to prevent
the entrance of foreign matter into the engine.
A by-pass filtering system is arranged as shown in Fig.
15(c). In this case, the oil discharged from the pressure
pump is divided into two streams; one goes to the oil
cooler and thence to the engine, and the other goes
through a flow controlling orifice to the filter and thence
to the sump. The quantity of oil by-passed through the
filter to the sump must be in excess of engine lubricating
requirements. The full pump discharge pressure is
available for the pressure drop across the filter and orifice.
By-pass filtration flow is approximately 5 percent of the
pump
A shunt
capacity.
filtering system is shown in Fig. 15(d). In it,
the full flow to the engine is made up of oil which flows
through the shunt filter and oil which flows in a by-pass
around the filter, the quantity of by-passed oil being
controlled by an ~rifice.
There are three types of filter elements: those made of
fine-mesh wire screen or metal edge (such as stacked
disks); absorption types which are made of wool or cotton
yarn, cellulose, or impregnated paper; and adsorbent
types which, by adhesion, hold molecular layers of the
contaminants to the filter element. The adsorbent
elements contain fullers or diatomaceous earth, chemically treated papers, charcoal, or active clay. These
filters are capable of removing additives from oil and
should not be used with detergent lubricating oils except
as part of an oil reclaiming system which is run separately
268
MARINE ENGINEERING
from the engine oil system. Additives should be restored

to the oil after reclaiming and prior to reuse.'
To provide an indication of the size of full-flow oil
filters, the dimensions and flow rates of elements covered
by specification MILF-20707 are given in Table 5.
Table 5
Class
1
Characteristicsof Full-flow Oil Filters

Max Dia
(in.)
3
Maximum
Instatled
Length (in.)
4
A prox. Flow
h t e (gpm)
2
Filter elements may be contained in individual containers, though it is more common to install several
elements in one filter case. The elements may be stacked
two or more high and arranged in any desired pattern in
order to shape the case to suit available space; however,
a cylindrical case is most common. It is essential that
relief valves not be installed at the bottom of the filter
case, where foreignmatter accumulates only to be washed
into the engine whenever the relief valve lifts.
Lubricating oil coalers are generally of the shell and
tube type. For compact units, tubes may be fabricated
in other than cylindrical form and include extended
surfaces to increase heat-transfer rates. It is recommended that the pressure drop on the oil side not exceed
10 psi a t operating temperatures and that on the waterside be limited to 5 psi. The lubricating oil should be
cooled with fresh water, even though it results in a larger
cooler. The benefits in terms of faster oil warmup,
reduced waterside fpuling, and better temperature control will more than offset this size increase.
4.5 Cooling Systems. As is true in all heat engines,
the diesel engine must reject heat to the environment.
Quantitatively, this heat is equal to the difference
between the heat released by the injected fuel and the
work output. The rejected heat is in the form of heat
in the exhaust gas, heat transferred to the cooling
system and lubricating oil, and the loss to the atmosphere
due to radiation and convection from the engine exterior
surface.
It was previously stated that diesel engine efficiency is
now being calculated and reported on the basis of the
lower heating value (LHV) of the fuel in order to be
consistent with presentations for other heat engines.
However, much of the heat balance data in the literature,
when reported on a percentage basis, will be found to be
based on the higher heating value (HHV) of the fuel.
For many years, the standard rule of thumb for estimating diesel heat losses has been, "One third of the heat in
the fuel is converted to work, one third is lost in the
exhaust gases and radiation, and one third to the cooling
system. " The modern medium and high-speed, highoutput engines are more efficient than older engines and
rather than one third of the input heat being converted
to work, it can be expected to range'between 35 and 38
percent HHV (38 to 41 percent LHV), while about 28
percent is rejected to the cooling water and lubricating

oil.
While these percentage figures are of historical and
general interest, figures in terms of Btu per horsepower
per minute gre more useful in design work for estimating
sizes of coolers, ventilation heat loads, and piping sizes.
Average values for these heat losses are:
To cylinder jackets. ....... .20-30
To oil coolers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20
To air coolers. ............. 5-10
To exhaust ................ 25-40
Btu/hp-min
Btu/hp-min
Btu/hp-min
Btu/hp-min
These values will vary with engine design, load, speed,

temperature of the coolant and oil, and degree of supercharging and aftercooling. For preliminary design
purposes, the higher values may be used and about ten
percent should be added when sizing coolers. After a
specific engine is selected, exact values will be furnished
by the engine manufacturer.
In order to properly size the cooling system for an
engine, the manufacturer must be provided with information relative t o the expected ambient conditions under
which the engine will operate. For naval ships which
must operate in widely varying locations, as an example,
it is specified that coolers should be sized on the basis of
an 85 F seawater temperatuye. If it is known that the
ship being designed will operate in colder water, the cooler
size can be reduced; or, on the other hand, if due to
peculiar conditions ambient cooling water temperatures
are exceptionally high, larger coolers will be needed.
The discharge temperature of the seawater from the
coolers should be kept well under 130 F to prevent
scaling of the surfaces. Engine manufacturers design
their equipment so that the water temperature rise of the
fresh water across the engine will be between 10 and 20
deg F. This is done to minimize thermal stress and
distortion in the engine. The capacity of freshwater
pumps is usually in the range of 0.3 to 0.5 gpm/hp. The
capacity of seawater pumps should be the same in order
to simplify manufacturing and repair parts stocking,
provide a margin to accommodate additional equipment
such as aftercoolers on turbocharged engines, and prolong seawater cooler cleaning intervals by minimizing the
seawater discharge temperature.
A typical cooling water system for a medium-speed
marine diesel is shown in Fig. 16. Automotive-type
marine diesels usually are supplied with all piping,
coolers, thermostatic valves, and expansion tanks assem-'
bled to the engine. In this case, the only water connection the shipbuilder is required to make is from the
sea to the seawater pump suction. The seawater pumps
are likely to be subjected to reduced pressure a t the
inlet, so to prevent loss of suction it is recommended that
pump seals be of a type which will prevent air leaking
into the pump under a suction head of 15 f t of water.
The expansion tank should be located a t the highest
point in the system and all pockets should be vented to
the expansion tank. Water piping should be shed to
match the pump suction and discharge flanges, or at least
TO WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEM
CI
G L t N G
THERMOSTATIC TEMPERATURE
REGULATING VALVE WlTH
BUILD-IN MANUAL CONTROL
cow.
1. D
. OF RETURN TO BE APPROX.
3 x I.D. O f VENT LINE
PILLARY TUBE
CTUATING BULB
ENT LINES CONNECTED TO
IGHEST POINTS OF ENGINE
TO OVERBOARD OR TO
WET TYPE MUFFLERS
THROTTLING VALVE
TO BE APPROX. 10
PIPE DIAMETERS
JACKET
COOLER
TO L.O.
SYSTEM
VP
NOTES
I TO BE INSTALLED ON ENGINE GAGE BOARD.

2 DRAINS TO BE INSTALLED IN LOWEST POINT IN JACKET WATER AND SEA WATER SYSTEMS.
USE GATE VALVES.
3 EXPANSION TANK SHALL BE LOCATED IN THE SAME COMPARTMENT WlTH ENGINE.
4 SEA WATER SUPPLY FOR GENERATOR AIR COOLERS WlTH THROTTLING VALVE TO BE PROVIDED
ONLY WHEN REQUIRED.
5 SEA WATER PUMP SUCTION PIPING TO BE OF SUFFICIENT SIZE, AND ARRANGED TO LIMIT
VACUUM AT PUMP SUCTION TO 6' HG AT RATED RPM.
6 JACKET WATER BY-PASS ACROSS BOTH COOLERS SHALL BE PROVIDED WHEN REQUIRED TO
OBTAIN SPECIFIED OPERATING TEMPERATURES
7 TANK FOR INITIATING AND MAINTAINING JACKET WATER TREATMENT. CAPACITY TO BE
.
-11/2OALLONS FOR EACH 100 GALLONS IN ENGINE SYSTEM. TO USE.CLOSE
V A L-V ..
E ~ ~ ~
............
TO TANK AND OPEN VALVES ' C m 8 ' D ' T 0 DRAIN TANK. CLOSEm~..FlLL TANK WlTH CORRECTAMOUNT OF SOLUTION. CLOSE -C:OPEN~A:CIRCULATION OF JACKET WATER WILL
FEED SOLUTION INTO SYSTEM. TEST SAMPLE FOR CORRECT CONCENTRATION.
~
kg.16
Diagram of typical cooling water system
to provide smooth transitions if the piping must be

smallei-.
It may be possible or desirable to replace the seawaterto-freshwater heat exchanger with a hull cooler in cases
where the seawater is contaminated or weed-infested.
The hull cooler may consist of pipes with gxtended heattransfer surfaces 'hlounted outside'the hull, or simply
tanka inside the hull wherein the heat is transferred
directly to the sea through the hull plating. Kort nozzle
shells have been used in the same manner.
Thermostatic valves should be used to automatically
regulate the outlet temperature of the jacket water. The
outlet temperature should be kept in the range of 160
to '185 F to minimize the size of coolers and to prevent
corrosive cylinder wear [25,26,27]. It is recognized that
operating personnel prefer to operate cooler engines, as
less time is required for cooling down if repairs are
necessary, surface temperatures are not uncomfortable

to the touch, and machinery spaces are cooler. It is
important, therefore, that the system be designed in such a t a y that the desired operating temperatures
cannot be altered easily by the operating crew. Thermostatic controls should be such that adjustment out bf the
proper range is impossible and orifice plates should be
installed in piping systems once the proper balance is
established.
The jacket water of diesel engines must be treated to
prevent corrosion and to minimize the effectsof cavitation
on cylinder liners and jackets. A number of cooling
water treatments, including alkaline chromates, soluble
oil, sodium boron nitrate, and sodium nitrate-nitrite, are
used. The engine manufacturer should recommend the
coolant best suited for his engine. It may be desirable,
however, for large fleet operators to standardize the
MEDIUM AND HIGH-!SPEED DIESEL ENGINES
coolant treatment used in their fleets, in which case the

engine manufacturer should be informed of the preferred
treatment. No water treatmeht will last indefinitely;
the water must be tested regularly and chemicals occasionaily added. To insure that this is done, provision
should be made for drawing of samples from convenient
locations and to provide easy access to chemical addition
points. A filling funnel located against the overhead in
a hot engine room is almost certain to result in neglect of
water treatment.
For boat engines or other engines which may be exposed
to freezingtemperatures, conventional inhibited ethylene
glycol antifreeze solutions should be used.
Where engines are installed high above the waterline,
or where a source of raw water is either not available or
unsuitable, air-cooled engines should be considered. It
is important to insure that the cooling air is a t a sufficiently low temperature and that the air supply is not
restricted by inadequate grill or duct openings to the
*weather. The wind direction and velocity should be
investigated to ensure that they will not oppose the cooling fan and impede airflow. Direct air-cooled engines
are somewhat noisier than the liquid-cooled engines
itlasmuch as they have no water jackets around the
cylinders to attenuate vibration and noise. This fact
should be considered when locating the engine in the ship.
Direct air-cooled engines are delivered complete with
cooling fan and the necessary cowling. The ship designer
must insure that the air gets to the cooling fan and that
the hot air from the engine is discharged from the
compartment and is not allowed to recirculate back to
the fan suction. About 50 cfm/hp of free air is required
for air cooling.
Air cooling can also be applied to liquid-cooled engines
by the use of radiators to transfer the heat from the
jacket water to the air. There is somewhat greater
flexibility in installing an indirectly air-cooled engine
than there is with one cooled directly with air. It is
possible to place the radiator remotely from the engine to
optimize installation arrangements. The radiators may
be installed horizontally or vertically. Care must be
taken to insurge that the engine-attached water pump
characteristics match the cooling system requirements
and provide an adequate flow of water. As with the
directly cooled engine, particular attention must be paid
to avoiding restrictions in the airflow path and to prevent
recirculation of the cooling air. Thermostatic control
can be applied either to the waterside, in which case the
thermostatic valve directs the water flow through or
around the radiator core, or to the air side, in which case
the thermostat may operate a valve to divert air around
the core, vary the speed of the fan drive, or change the
pitch of the fan blades. The last two are more efficient
as fan power is minimized at light load or when the air is
cold.
4.6 Waste-Heat Utilization System. It is possible to
utilize the waste heat from an engine by schemes which
range from the simplest of using radiated heat to keep the
engine room warm to complex schemes for generating
steam and power from the steam. The two most common uses for waste heat are: (a) heating water which can
be used to heat spaces, heat fuel, cargo, or to distill fresh
water; and (b) generating steam for use in absorption
refrigerntion plants, space heaters, distillers, heat
exchangers and low-pressure steam turbines.
Almost 100 percent of the heat rejected to the jacket
water and lubricating oil and about 60 percent of the
exhaust heat are economically recoverable 1281. The
amount of heat recoverable depends on the system used
and the extent of the recovery equipment employed.
The quantity of heat available depends on the design of
the particular engine and operating conditions. Average
values for heat losses were previously listed; these values
can vary considerably, even for the same engine design.
For example, in the case of a Fairbanks Morse 38D 8
diesel [29], the heat rejection rate to oil and water has
been found to vary:
(a) From a minimum of 35 Btu/hp-min a t 720 rpm to
41 Btu/hp-min at 900 rpm.
(b) From 36 Btu/hp-min with an oil outlet temperature
of 170
and water outlet temperature of 165
to
and
water
at
230
32 Btu/hpmin with the oil at 185
(c) From 36 Btu/hp-min a t full load to 159 Btu/hp-min
at 25 percent load.
(d) From 36 Btu/hp;min a t full load without turbocharging to 22 Btu/hp-min with turbocharging.
The question of whether to use waste heat and how
extensive a waste-heat recovery system to design is
largely one of economics. A detailed study must be
made to develop load-time cycle data so as to determine
how much heat is available. At the same time, the
demand for waste heat must be analyzed as well, to make
sure that there is sufficient heat available to meet the
demand a t the time it is needed and that the heat
generated can be used. This section briefly covers the
basic systems used to recover waste heat, giving the basic
engine input data required by the designer to size the
equipment to utilize the heat and to devise special
arrangements to suit each ship design.
The major heat recovery systems are:
(a) Engine radiator to air. The air temperature leaving the radiator is between 100 and 150 P and can be used
for preheating boiler combustion air or space heating.
(b) Normal-temperature, hot-water systems. These use
a normally closed system with a thermostat to control
the water outlet temperature and a heat exchanger to
transfer unused heat to the seawater coolant loop. Hot
water to the waste-heat utilization loads would be taken
from the system at point F in Fig. 16 and returned a t
point E. Additional heat can be added to the water by
an exhaust gas exchanger. I n this system, the maximum
jacket water temperature is that which can be obtained
without pressurizing the expansion tank and will range
from 180 to 220 F. A variation of this system is to use a
secondary circuit to transfer the waste heat to the utiliring equipment. A heat exchanger is used to transfer
the jacket water heat to the secondary circuit, and the
1
1
exhaust gaa heat recovery unit, if used, is installed in the

secondary circuit.
(c) High-temperature; hot-water systems. This system
uses jacket water engine outlet temperatures in the range
from 220 to 250 P and functions essentially the same as
the normal-temperature, hot-water system except that a
higher pressure is required in the circulating systems,
especially in the engine coolant circuit. I n this system, a
pressure control must be provided in the engine coolant
circuit which will assure a pressure a t all points in the
system sufficiently high to prevent the formation of
steam. The source of this pressure may be a static head
imposed by an elevated expansion tank or controlled air
pressure in the expansion tank. For 250 F water, a
pressure of about 20 psig is required a t the engine. In
this system, all circulating pumps must be suitable for
the higher pressures and temperatures. Engine and
piping system gaskets and seals must also be suitable
for the imposed conditions. With this high-temperature
cooling system, it will not be possible to cool the lubricating oil with jacket water. The heat from the oil
cooler must be disposed of in a separate system if it is
not possible to use it for preheat in some part of the wasteheat utilization circuit. It may mean that more heat
can be abstracted from a normal-temperature system
using the heat from the oil rather than from a hightemperature system which does not use this heat.
Thermostatic controls must be provided to prevent
exceeding the maximum permissible temperature and
pressure controls to prevent boiling. Exhaust gas heat
may- be recovered in the high-temperature system as
well as in the normal-temperature system.
(d) Hot-water and steam sgstem with a $ash boiler.
This system is quite similar to the high-temperature,
hot-water system with the expansion tank replaced by a
flash boiler. The pressure in the boiler is lower than that
in the hot-water system expansion tank so that the hot
water can flash into steam. This type of system is
usually designed to operate with a steam pressure of
from 2 to 8 psig. The operating pressure is dependent
upon the maximum design engine coolant temperature
and is set so that the total pressure a t the engine outlet
due to the steam pressure and the static head will prevent
boiling in the engine jackets. As in the high-temperature, hot-water system operating a t 250 F outlet
temperature, a pressure of 20 psig a t the engine is
required. If the jacket water leaves the engine a t 250 F
and 24 psig and the static head is reduced to 8 psig, an
equilibrium condition will be established in the flash
boiler with about 0.985 lb of water a t about 235 F being
returned.to the engine and about 0.015 lb of saturated
steam going to the waste-heat utilization system for
each pound of water entering the flash boiler. The
0.015 lb of condensate returned from the waste-heat
system is mixed with the water in the flash boiler prior
to recirculating through the engine. Using a water pump
capacity of 0.3 gpm/hp, the 0.015 lb of steam per pound
of circulating water equates to about 2.25 lb of steam
per hour per horsepower. I n this system, it is necessary
271
to provide a water level control in the flash boiler and to

supply make-up from the condensate return system.
Boiler pressure control must be provided to prevent the
pressure falling to the point where boiling will occur in
the engine jackets. All piping from the engine to the
boiler must pitch upward.
(e) Ebullient system. An ebullient system may
appear attractive where steam is required a t pressures of
12 to 15 psig for use in absorption refrigeration or airconditioning systems or other applications [30, 311. I n
the ebullient system, boiling occurs in the engine water
jackets. The engine circulating water pump is removed
and the flow is maintained due to the diqerence in density
of the steam-water mixture a t the outlet and the solid
water at the inlet to the engine. System performance is
sensitive to restrictions in the cooling water system and
to the slope of the cooling water line. Pitch and roll can
disturb the flow of cooling water t o the engine. A
temperature difference across the engine of about 2 to
3 deg F will be maintained. The steam-water mixture
from the engine flows to a steam separator above the
engines. The steam pressure must be regulated a t the
separator to insure that the pressure does not become too
low, causing excessive boiling in the engine jackets, or
too high, resulting in an excessive outlet temperature
from the engine water jackets. Exhaust gas boilers can
be provided with the ebullient system either built into
the steam separator or operating in parallel with it. With
an engine outlet temperature of 250 F, steam is generated
at the saturation pressure of about 15 psig rather than a t
8 psig as in the previous example using a flash boiler. An
estimate of the steam production capability of the
ebullient system is given in Table 6 301.
Based on the data given in reference [4], the steam
production capability of exhaust gas boilers is approximately as given in Table 7.
Table 6 Steam Production Capability of an Ebullient System
Type of
Diesel
Engine
Fuel Heat
~
~
Btu/hphr
%cycle
turbocharged
non-
8200
4gde I
naturally
aspirated
&cycle
turbocharged
Lb Steam/bhp-hr at
Water Jackets with RBted Load
~
Exhaust
~ Manifolds
t
,
~
~
Air-cooled Waterc
Recovery
cooled
Unit
1.65
1.95
1.10
8500
1.90
2.35
1.25
7300
1.10
1.35
1.20
N ~ EThe
: above data are based on 0-psig steam and 100 F
ambient.
85y0 magnesia
System
or equal.
piping is considered to be insulated with 1 in.-
Table 7 Steam Production Capability of Exhaust Gas Boilers
nT" "'
Diese Engine
%cycleengine
4cycle engine
Steam Production Caqabilities, Ib/hg-hr

5 P@
10 pslg
15 ps~g
0.75
0.78
0.70
0.75
0.68
0.74
MARINE ENGINEERING
In all waste heat utilization schemes, provisions must to duct the engine air from the outside directly to each
be made to cool the engine when the waste heat cannot be engine and provide a three-way valve to permit the
utilized. Where steam is generated, it is necessary to engine to take air from the engine room or the weather.
Each engine should be provided with its own exhaust
provide condensers and feed pumps and to insure proper
system.
If space does not permit such an arrangement
treatment of the make-up water. Fortunately, the water
treatments required for boilers and engine water jackets and it is necessary to combine the exhaust ducts from
are compatible [4]. This treatment would include a several engines, it is necessary that valves be provided
water softener to give zero hardness and a pH value in the branch from each engine to prevent backflow into
between 9 and 11. Exhaust gas boilers may be combined an idle engine.
The size of intake and exhaust ducts may be estimated
with mufaers and may also be provided with supplementary oil firing to insure a steam supply under all using a figure-d 3.5 cfm/hp for'the intake air and 8.5
engine load conditions. The engine exhaust tempera- cfrn/hp for exhaust gas. $hese values may be high for
ture conditions must be acceptable to the boiler supplier. most naturally aspirated engines and some turbocharged
4.7 Intake and Exhaust Systems. The intake and engines; however, it is desirable to provide some margin.
exhaust system consists of the piping, filters, and silencers Duct velocities of 100 fps for the inlet and 150 fps for the
necessary to conduct the outside air to the engine and to exhaust are suggested for preliminary design purposes.
lead the exhaust gas from the engine to the atmosphere. When a particular engine has been selected and its
To perform effectively, the depression in inlet air actual air and exhaust requirements are known, duct
pressure and the elevation of the pressure a t the exhaust sizes can be calculated to meet the allowable pressure
outlet must be minimized. The correction factors of drops. If it is necessary to reduce the duct sizes, higher
Table 1 indicate the effect on engine power output as the gas velocities may be used [32].
Contrary to what may be believed, a marine engine is
pressure st the engine inlet is reduced and as the temperature a t the inlet is raised. Turbocharged engines not always 'provided with clean air, particularly in river
are particularly sensitive to intake air pressure and and harbor operations and sometimes in offshore
exhaust back pressure. It is recommended that the operations in the vicinity of a desert. In these cases, it
exhaust back pressure a t the engine outlet be limited to is necessary to provide air filters or cleaners to remove
about 12 in. of water for turbocharged engines and twice abrasive or oily particles from the air. There are
that for other engines. The inlet pressure drop in the basically three types of air filters or cleaners:
ducting should not exceed 6 in. of water. Excessive
1 Dry inertial. The air direction is changed in the
pressure drops in the intake or exhaust systems or a high filter, causing the heavier foreign particles to be separated
inlet temperature can cause a loss of power, poor fuel from the air stream. These filters may be of the cyclone
economy, high temperatures of engine parts, jacket or impingement type.
water overheating, and excessive engine deposits.
2 Dry paper. The air is passed through porous
The inlet to the induction air system should be located treated paper which retains foreign matter.
so that it is not possible to draw in engine exhaust gases,
3 Oil bath. The air stream is directed a t the surface
hot air from ventilation system exhausts, spray from of lubricating oil in the sump of the cleaner. The air
seawater, or flammable vapors from tank vents or other reverses direction at the oil surface, and picks up and
sources. Flammable vapors are particularly dangerous carries "washing" oil to the filter media. Foreign matter
as they can cause an engine to overspeed, and the normal is captured at the media and washed to the oil sump
overspeed trip and fuel governor will be unable to shut where it can be drained.
it down.
Actual filters usually employ combinations of these
Piping should be properly supported and provided with
expansion joints to avoid strains on the engine manifolds three methods. I n addition, self-cleaning designs are
or turbocharger flanges. The velocity through the cor- available. It is possible to obtain filters of reasonable
rugated metallic hose type of expansion joints should be si3e with moderate pressure losses from a variety of
specified to insure that the type furnished will be suitable. -sources [2, 33, 341. The installation should provide
Condensate traps and drains a t the low points of the gages to measure the pressure drop across the filter to
engine manifolds should be provided. Provisions should give warning of impending clogging. The filter must be
be made for rain covers to prevent the entry of water into installed in a location where is can be removed easily for
cleaning. This would appear to be obvious, but for
idle engines.
Engine air may be drawn from the engine room or some reason it is frequently overlooked when the details
ducted directly from the atmosphere. It is simpler from of an installation are developed.
Air intake silencers are necessary to prevent blower
an installation standpoint to take the engine air directly
from the engine room; however, this arrangement has the noise from creating uncomfortable conditions in the
disadvantage that the space may be excessively cooled engine room or spaces adjacent to the air inlet ducts.
in winter. I n addition, in summer or in hot climates, Positive-displacement blowers generate a low-frequency
the air may be heated by other equipment in the space pulsation, whereas the noise from turboblowers is very
and reach the engine inlet a t an even more elevated high in pitch and is more likely to be objectionable.
temperature, resulting in a loss in power. It is preferable Engines are normally fu+shed complete with an air
273
$1
silencer for use when the engine draws air directly from
the machinery space. If the air is to be supplied to the
engine via a duct, this should be so specified in order to
insure that the intake silencer will be suitable.
Exhaust mufaers are provided to reduce the pulsations
in exhaust line pressure due to the cyclic release of slugs
of exhaust gas into the engine manifold as the exhaust
valves in each cylinder open in turn. The m d e r also
serves to reduce atmospheric noise a t the outlet of the
exhaust system. M d e r s may be of the wet or drv
type. wet mufflers are infrequently used except &
small boats, as they are limited to horizontal installations
where the exhaust is through the hull of the ship above
the waterline. Seawater is injected into the m d e r and
cools the exhaust gas as the water is vaporized. The
steam exhaust gas mixture is discharged overboard.
With a wet m d e r , care must be taken to insure that the
exhaust does not blow across the deck or against the side
of adjacent ships. They should be fabricated of AISI
316L stainless steel for a reasonable life expectancy.
Dry-type mufflers may be installed horizontally or
vertically in the engine room or in the exhaust stack.
These mufflers should be provided with spark-arresting
features to prevent hot carbon particles from impinging
on topside surfaces. I n general, mufflers should be
capable of reducing the overall noise of exhaust gases to a
maximum of 92 db a t a radius of 10 f t from the end and
2 ft above the muffler tailpipe with the engine operating
a t rated load and speed. The noise level permitted may
be more or less than this, depending on the particular
installation.
Figure 17, which was talcen from reference [35], gives
an indication of the weight and size of naval dry mufflers
with spark arresters. The muffler inlet flange size is the
same as the exhaust pipe size. The pressure drop
through these mufflersshould not exceed 18 in. of water
a t engine rated speed for nonturbocharged engines and
6 in. of water for turbochafked engines. The pressure
undulations in the exhaust from a turbocharged diesel
are considerably reduced in flowing through the turbine
to the extent that a much smaller muffler is generally
permitted. However, spark-arresting features are still
required. The muffler is generally installed in the exhaust pipe about one third of the distance from the
engine to the end of the pipe. This distance will vary
with the type of engine, the type of muffler, and the
piping arrangement. The precise location of the m d e r
should not be fixed until the engine selection has been
made. '
4.8 Starting Systems. To start an engine, it is
necessary to rotate it, such that its speed and, consequently, its compression temperature are sufficiently
high to insure ignition of the fuel when it is injected into
the engine cylinder. The starting system is the means
of supplying the energy for rotating the engine.
The starting system can be operated with air, electricity, or hydraulic fluid. Air can be applied directly into
the engine cylinders or used to drive an air motor geared
to the engine crankshaft through an overrunning clutch.
----
<*
T Y P E A - DRY W I T H SPARK ARRESTOR
NOTE: MUFFLERS TO COMMERCIAL DESIGN MAY BE

SOMEWHAT SMALLER AND LIGHTER
Fig. 17 Navy muffler dzer
Electric starting can be applied to a small geared motor

arranged in a similar manner to the air motor or in the
form of special windings in the driven power generator.
Hydraulic starting is by a geared motor only. Engines
and starting motors are usually designed so that the
customer is free to select the medium best suited to a
particular ship.
The first decision which must be made with reference
to the starting system is whether the engine is to be
direct-reversing or unidirectional. If a unidirectional
engine is to be used, starting can be by means of direct
cylinder injection, starting motors, or generator windings.
If a direct-reversing engine is selected, there is no problem or choice remaining, for the starting system must
be air with direct cylinder injection. Examples of other
considerations are: ( a ) a salvage ship may have requirements fgr large quantities of compressed air, which
would then be available for starting and would rule out
other means; (b) a ship may have no air requirements
and it could be more economical to start electrically; (c)
hydraulic systems have been used in Navy applications
where their nonmagnetic materials and freedom from
stray electric currents are the attractive features. A
hydraulic starting system has the capability of being
charged with a hand pump to make an initial start,
after which the hydraulic accumulator can be charged
by an engine driven pump. In some instances, it is
desirable to take advantage of this characteristic by
using a hydraulically started engine to drive a compr&sor
which then furnishes air to air starters on other engines
274
MARINE EN
in the plant. It may be seen that the selection of the

starting system is tied very closely to the type of engine
selected and the nature and duty cycle of the ship and
the owner's preference.
Some of the general characteristics and requirements of
these starting systems may also have an impact on the
type selected. The air pressure required with a direct
cylinder injection system is usually about 250 psig with
a minimum pressure of about 100 psig. The pressure
required for an air motor varies from 75 to 150 psig.
ABS requires that the starting air storage be in at least
two containers with a capacity capable of starting directreversing engines 12 times and unidirectional engines 6
times corlsecutively without recharging. The air can
be stored at pressures above that required by the engine
and pressure-reducing valves used to lower the pressure
to the proper value at the engine. I n this manner, the
size of the air storage vessel can be reduced and the air
requirements consolidated 'for the engine and other
services aboard ship.
ABS requires that the electric storage batteries
provided be capable of 6 consecutive starts without
recharging. Starting system voltage is usually 12, 24,
or 36, with cells arranged in series and parallel to obtain
the required voltage and storage capacity. Battery
charging generators are usually engine driven for automotive-si~eengines and from a separate power source
for larger engines. Battery charging requirements can
be supplied by the ships' service system with the necessary conversion equipment.
Hydraulic starting systems operate at pressures ranging from 1000 to 3000 psig, with the complete system
usually supplied by the starter manufacturer.
I n general, more than one starting motor can be installed on an engine so that it is possible to start many
medium and high-speed engines by means of motors.
There are some applications where engines are required
to start in low ambient temperatures. Electric storage
batteries lose capacity a t low temperatures and provision
should be made either to heat the battery compartment,
insure that there are sufficient cells to crank the engine
even with the reduced capacity, or to use air or hydraulic
starting systems. Water and oil heaters and ether
starting aids may also be required at temperatures below
35 F. In any case, the minimum temperature at which
engine starting is required should be made a part of the
procurement specifications.
So many options exist in the selection of starting
equipment that it is good practice to develop a list of
requirements and enlist the aid of the engine manufacturer in selecting final equipment and arrangements.
4.9 Controls. The control of a diesel engine is
effected primarily by regulating the fuel injected; this is
accomplished by means of a throttle lever which moves
the racks of the fuel injection pumps. This control can
be applied manually or through various types of governing devices sensitive to engine speed, load, discharge
pressure, or flow rate of driven equipment. Rather than
going into details of the equipment required, this section
will indicate the control functions which can be obtained

and how they can be applied.
There are a number of types of governors which may
be considered for a particular application. The major
alternatives are:
(a) Manual. The operator moves a throttle lever
which controls the engine speed remotely or directly.
This is similar to the gas pedal on an automobile.
(b) Limiting-speed governors. This type of governor
controls the engine speed at idle and at rated speed. I n
the range between idle and rated speed, control is
manual.
(c) Variable speed. The input lever acts to compress
the speeder spring on the governor flyweights and
controls the speed automatically to a fixed value for each
position of the lever.
(d) Isochronous. A governor which ,holds engine
speed constant at a set value regardless of load variation.
The desired constant speed is set by positioning an external lever or dial.
(e) Speed-droop governor. This governor controls the
speed at a given value under full-load conditions, but
allows the speed to rise as load is decreased. The
amount of droop is expressed in percent as 100 times the
difference between no-load and full-load speed divided
by full-load speed. The percent droop is adjustable in
some governors from a stated value down to zero
(isochronous); in others, it is adjustable between two
values above zero droop. Droop adjustment is internal
on some governors and external on others.
(j)Load, torque, or BMEP-limiting governors are
those with devices to limit the fuel injected as a function
of speed to permit governing the speed of the engine with
the load limit just above given values (such as a propeller
curve). A variation of this type of governor limits fuel
input as a function of engine air manifold pressure. This
device is used primarily with turbocharged engines to
prevent smoking during severe load transients.
(g) Lodspeed governing. This governor controls
the speed of the load to the desired value when the load
speed and prime mover speed are not the same as when
a torque converter or hydraulic coupling is used.
(h) Electric governors. There are two basic types of
electric governors: one which is used on generator sets
receives its power supply and speed signal from the
alternator; the other, used for propulsion, is powered by
a separate a-c line. The speed signal from the second
type comes from the electric impulses generated by a
magnetic pickup in the vicinity of a rotating gear. This
unit permits control over a speed range as wide as 20: 1.
The electric unit for generating services senses and responds to the electric load and rate of change in electric
load, as well as to frequency (speed). Significant
reductions are made in the transient off-speeds as
compared with those usually experienced with mechanical
speed-sensing governors. The electric unit also senses
and responds to the difference in load between paralleled
units and permits each engine to assume equal percentages of load under isochronous conditions.
(23
Ovei-speed governors. These are of either the selfresetting or the trip type. The ovcrspeed governor
is usually an independent governor whose sole function is
to prevent engine overspeed in case the load is lost as
when a propeller comes out of the water or a generator
is dropped off the line. The self-resetting type will shut
off fuel or sir to the engine until the engine speed drops
to a preselected value; then it will permit control in the
normal mode. Engine speed will cycle between the
lower set point and the overspeed limit until the cause
for the overspeed is removed or the engine is shut down.
The trip type will shut down the engine if overspeed
occurs ahd requires manual reset prior to restarting the
engine. The overspeed governors may be connected to
something other than the normal fuel linkage to insure
control in the event of mechanical difliculty with the fuel
system. It can actuate a valve in the fuel supply to the
engine or in the air induction system.
Governors are built which combine several of the
features described in the foregoing in one unit; i.e.,
speed droop and load control. For a more comprehensive discussion of governors and definitions of
governing terms, see references [4, 36, 371.
The control of a propulsion engine can be remote, from
the bridge or other location, or local at the engine.
Remote control can be by means of either direct mechanical linkages from the remote-control lever to the fuel
linkage on the engine or by means of hydraulic, pneumatic, or electric systems. The choice of control
system depends on the number of engines to be controlled,
the number of remote-control stations involved, the
distance between the remote station and the engine, and
the flexibility desired in the system.
Governors for variable-speed propulsion engines are
generally capable of controlling engines so that a t all
speeds and loads up to rated, the periodic or aperiodic
oscillations of speed are no more than f1.0 percent of
operating speed. The maximum deviation from normal
speed when full or partial load is removed or applied
suddenly should not exceed 10 percent of operating
speed. The speed should return to f 1percent of operating speed in 15 sec or less following the load change.
For single engines driving a fixed-pitch propeller, the
simplest and cheapest control, and a satisfactory one for
small boats, is a manual system. For higher-powered
ships, the limiting-speed or variable-speed governor
should be used, together with a resetting type of overspeed governor. I n fact, an overspeed governor should
be used with all engines except in small boat applications.
The resetting type gives the pilot continued control of the
engine even though the engine speed fluctuates, whereas
the trip type can shut the engine down at a time when
the ship's safety may be endangered.
Multiple engines geared to drive a single propeller
through solid couplings should be equipped with load
limiting and reset overspeed governors. Multiple engines driving through sliptype couplings should use
speed-droop governors with load-limiting features for
protection again& overloading when leaa than the full
275
number of installed engines are used. A single eugiiie

driving multiple loads should be protected against
overload if the sum of the loads can exceed the erigiiie
rating.
Engines driving controllable and reversible-pitch
(CRP) propellers can be controlled with a single lever to
operate at a preset speed-load relationship by integrating the action of two governors, one controlling engine
fuel and the other propeller pitch [38,39]. This type of
control can also be used when two different types of
propulsion plants are used, such as diesels and gas
turbinea [40, 411. A two-governor type of control for
CRP propellers is particularly useful when a shipoperates
under varying load conditions such as towing and free
route, or light and heavy displacement. If loadink is
constant or varies slowly with time, a simpler singlelever control may be used whereby engine throttle
position and propeller pitch are controlled together by
means of cams whose relationship to each other is
adjustable over a moderate range by a vernier.
Generator sets which will not be operated in parallel
can use isochronous governors if the frequency must be
controlled accurately. For sets which must operate in
parallel, a speed-droop governor should be used for d-c
units or for a-c units where the frequency may vary with
load. Where a constant frequency is required, isochronous governors with load-limiting features or electric
governors should be used. Hydraulic governors are
generally capable of controlling diesel generator sets so
that the steady-state speed regulation is between 0 and
1 percent, the steady-state governing speed level is
within f0.25 percent of rated speed, the momentary
underspeed is within 7.0 percent of rated speed, and the
recovery time following overspeed or underspeed is less
thaa 5.0 sec with a prescribed speed band of f0.5
perkent of rated speed. Electric governors are mandatory when close regulation of frequency is required.
All generator set engines should be equipped with an
overspeed trip as well as a regulating governor.
Governors are available which will regulate the engine
power in response to various sensors in order to control
the output of the driven equipment. As an example,
pumps may be driven to deliver a prescribed flow or
pressure or to maintain a constant level in a tank.
4.10 Instrumentation. The following instrumentation should be installed on an instrument panel attached
to the dngine, .adjacent to the engine, or located at the
engine control stand in direct view of the engine
operator (asterisks indicate the only instruments
normally furnished with automotive-type engines) :
(a) Pressure gages
1 Freshwater pump discharge
2
*3
4
5
6
Seawater pump discharge

Lubricating oil pump discharge
Lubricating oil pressure at engine inlet
Piston cooling oil pump discharge (if used)
Fuel oil pump discharge
7 Fuel oil pressure at injection pump inlet
MARINE ENGINEERING
8 Scavenging air or supercharging air pressure

9 Starting air pressure a t engine
10 Lubricating oil at turbocharger or blower
11 Crankcase pressure or vacuum
(b) The~momete~s
*1 Lubricating oil from engine
*2 Freshwater from engine
3 Fuel temperature to engine when heated heavy
fuels are used
*(c) Tachometer
(d) Ezhaust gas pi~ometerindicator
I n addition, pressure gages and thermometers should
be installed in the piping a t each heat exchanger, filter,
and strainer as required for troubleshooting purposes.
Engine manufacturers are not in agreement regarding
the value of exhaust gas thermocouples and pyrometers. The exhaust gas temperature a t each cylinder
discharge into the exhaust manifold is not the same
under normal conditions. This is due to variations and
pulsations in the airflow to each cylinder and manufacturing variations which affect factors such as the
compression ratio, combustion chamber shape, and the
fuel nozzle spray pattern.
Pyrometers should not be used to set engine fud racks
to obtain equal exhaust temperature from each cylinder
in the hope that this will equalize the load between
cylinders. The proper way to insure equal load between
cylinders is to set the fuel racks such that equal quantities of fuel are injected into each cylinder. However,
thermocouples and pyrometers are useful for detecting a
change in the exhaust temperature of any one cylinder
with time as an indication of abnormal cylinder performance.
Pyrometry equipment is available in a variety of
forms such as: ( a ) each cylinder's thermocouple connected to a pyrometer through a selector switch which is
manually operated; (b) each cylinder's thermocouple
connected to its own pyrometer; (c) thermocouples
indicating the combined exhaust from all cylinders in a
bank; (d) thermocouples a t the inlet and exit from the
turbocharger; (e) cylinder thermocouples connected t o a
pyrometer through a motorized switch together with
circuitry in the pyrometer to average the cylinder exhaust temperatures, compare each cylinder to the mean,
alarm wheri any cylinder exhaust exceeds the mean by a
set amount, and identify the offending cylinder.
Sensors are available to measure vibrations,(in terms of
amplitude, velocity, or acceleration), bearing temper*
tures, bearing weardown, hour meters, power meters,
pressures, pressure differences, rates of pressure rise, and
rates of change of pressure differences and the same for
temperatures. The extent to which this advanced
instrumentation of an engine installation is considered is
related to the degree to which the plant is automated, the
skill of the operators, and the nature of operations, as well
as the desired initial cash outlay.
4.1 1 Automalion. There are two justifiable reasons
for automating a diesel plant, and both are related t o
saving money. The first reason is to reduce manning

and save labor costs; the second is to reduce casualties by .
providing better diagnostic data and by eliminating
o*rator errors. The difficulty is deciding, for each
installation, how far to go. The diesel engine is inherently self-regulating and easy to automate. Most medium
and high-speed engines are equipped with enginedriven pumps and governors. Oil pressure regulating
valves and thermostatic control of water and oil tempers
tures have been commonplace for years. Starting is a
simple operation involving no more than several sequencing devices t o control a minimal number of switches
or-valves. Turbochargers are self-regulating. Starting
from a cold plant, for example, with all sea valves
closed involves a sequence which would open the sea
valves using remotely controlled actuators, heat jacket
water electrically to a given temperature, start an
electric motor-driven lubricating oil priming pump,
shut down the pump, and energize the starter. When
the engine reaches idling speed, the starting equipment is
secured. If i start is not achieved in a preset time, the
starter is disengaged and the cycle is repeated. This
type of operation can be done electricilly, hydraulically,
or pneumatically.
It is possible to program propulsion controls for multiple engine drives to add or remove engines a t a predetermined speed. The engines removed from the line can
be shut down inasmuch as the starting cycle for a warm
engine is extremely short and simple, taking less than
10 sec.
Electric generating plants can be completely automated to operate unattended, automatically adding and
removing engines as dictated by the load. Synchroniaing equipment is available as part of the engine governing
system to parallel alternators automatically. Sequene
ing equipment can be set up so that generators are used
in a specified order to equalize the number of hours on
each unit if desired. Automatic shutdown of an engine
due to the loss of oil pressure, high water temperature
or any other malfunction, will initiate the starting cycle
for a designated stand-by, so that operations will not be
interrupted as long as stand-by equipment is available.
Distilling plants and other engine room accessories can
be automated as well so that it is technically possible to
remove all operators from the machinery spaces and to
control the ship from the bridge or any other desired
station.
I n addition to automating the plant operation, there
are many devices for automating data logging and
analysis. Logging may be done in digital form and
recorded on typewritten sheets or in analog form as curves
of various parameters versus time. Logging may be
required for all data or only for readings which are
approaching preset limits. An alarm usually sounds
when these type of data are recorded. Graphical
presentations are very useful as scales can be compressed
to require less paper and clearly show trends. For
example, a curve of differential pressure across a filter
element versus time can be extrapolated to show when
t
I
the filter will require changing, giving the maintenance

crew advanced notice to plan the best time for the
change. A plot of crankcase pressure versus time may
show a change which would be indicative of increasing
blowby and tde necessity to renew piston rings. In this
manner, engine overhauls can be accomplished only as
needed with resultant savings in expenses as opposed to
conducting overhauls a t fixed time periods.
Another form of automation is the use of computers to
compare recorded data with standards, for the particular load and speed, which are stored in memory.
Deviations from the norm are recorded and alarmed.
The more sophisticated automated plants are controlled
by electronic equipment, much of which is in the form of
printed-circuit cards with self fault-finding features to
minimize the skill levels required to maintain the
automatic equipment. In addition to the electronic
brains, muscles are required to open and close valves and
move the throttle lever. These elements all add to the
complexity of a completely automated plant.
For a more comprehensive discussion of automation
considerations, see Chapter 21.
4.12 Installation Items. Foundations for engines
and driven equipment must be sufficiently rigid to maintain alignment when the ship's hull is working in heavy
seas. Automotive and railroad-type engines are frequently designed to be mounted on foundations with
three or four points of support. This has the advantage
of making the engine relatively insensitive to minor
working of foundations. Consideration should be given
to the use of flexible couplings in cases when alignment
cannot be assured. If the engine is mounted on rubber
or other types of flexible mounts, flexible couplings are
easenti&l.
Diesels should be bolted to their foundations with
fitted bolts at the drive end only. Clearance bolts
should be used in all other locations to permit the engine
to expand away from the driven equipment as it heats.
Diesel engines are usually provided with a thrust bearing on the crankshaft to keep the shaft in place during
shipment. Propeller thrust is taken in a separate thrust
bearing housing or in a bearing built into the reduction
gear housing. It is essential that the engine thrust
bearing clearance be greater than that in the propeller
thrust bearing or that the coupling between the engine
and the gear provide for longitudinal movement a t least
equal to the thrust bearing clearance, and that the engineto-driven-gear alignment be such that the crankshaft
is centered in its clearance to prevent the thrust bearings
from bucking each other. The same situation must be
guarded against in generator sets where the generator
and engine each has its own thrust bearing.
Medium and high-speed engines have relatively small
parts which are easily handled, provided they are accessible to the mechanic while he keeps both feet on the deck.
Ctire should be taken to insure that ducts and wireways
do not interfere with access to regular maintenance for
filters, cylinder-head covers, air cleaners and so forth.
Gages and sight glasses should be placed such that the
277
operator can see them without leaving the control

station. For medium-speed engines, chain falls and pad
eyes are required to pull cylinder heads, pistons, and
liners. High-speed engines generally do not have handhole covers in the cylinder block for access to bearings;
in these engines, it is necessary to drop the oil pan to
renew bearings. Provision should be made, at the time
the ship is designed, for bearing renewal, either by
providing space under the engine to drop the oil pan
and move it out of the way, or to lift the engine off its
foundation and roll it over.
There are many excellent texts today on the subject
of torsional vibration and balancing of engines [42-451.
The problem of balancing engines to minimize unbalanced forces and moments has been solved to a great
degree by the engine manufacturer's use of computer
programs to select optimal firing orders, crankthrow arrangements, and locations for balance weights. Should
problems arise due to resonance of engine unbalance forces
and foundations or hull structure, they are usually found
after ship trials are run and correction consists of local
stiffening of hull structure. The type of vibration
encountered depends t o a large degree upon the type of
hull; for example, the most common vibration in a
towboat is vertical [46,47]. Noonan and Zaloumis [48]
point out the importance of endeavoring to select
machinery which has vibration characteristics m i s
matched to hull natural frequencies. If possible,
engines should be located a t the nodes of hull vibrations.
Torsional vibration, a t one time, was a major problem
with diesel engines. Today it is a well-understood
phenomenon and engine manufacturers have computer
programs for their engines so that they can readily assess
the effects of torsional vibrations in various applications.
With the use of pendulum or viscous dampers on the
free end of the crankshaft and torsionally flexible couplings or fluid drives between the engine and gear, it
should be possible to avoid problems due to torsional
vibrations. In any case, the engine manufacturer
should conduct torsional vibration analyses to ascertain
freedom from dangerous critic& in the operating range
of the engine. Each new installation should be torsiographed to insure that it is safe.
4.13 Safely Features. Alarms and automatic shutdowns sbould be used to prevent catastrophic failures of
engines. On propulsion engines, it is general practice
to not shut t h e engine down but to give the captain or
pilot the option, in case of an alarm, to either shut the
engine down if in a safe situation or to risk wrecking the
engine if the ship would be endangered if left without
power. In the case of a generator set, automatic shutdown is the general practice. The items which trigger
alarms or shutdowns usually are: (a) low lubricating oil
pressure with the sensor installed a t the end of the oil
manifold remote from the oil pump; (b) high jacket
water temperature; and (c) high rpm, i.e., an rpm
exceeding 115 percent of rated rpm for ABS vessels.
Crankcase explosions are not common in diesels, but
when they occur they can be dangerous. An explosion
278
MARIhE ENGINEERING
can occur when the mixture of air and oil vapor in the
crankcase is ignited by a spark or hot spot resulting from
a part failure. The first explosion is generally weak, due
to the rich fuel-air mixture in the crankcase, and the
peak pressure does not exceed 25 psig. Should the
explosion blow off a cover or should someone open a
cover imrriediately after the first explosion, fresh air will
rush in and a second, much more violent explosion will
occur. There are two ways to pi-event explosive
d a m a-e :
1 Design the crankcase strong enough so that the
first explosion cannot lift a cover or otherwise let air in.
2 Provide spring-loaded covers to permit the first
explosion to relieve and have the cover close rapidly,
air out and preventing a
ex~losion.
Navy specifications and ABS rules require relief
valves; the Navy requires them on engines over 6-in.
bore and ABS requires them over 8-in. bore. Navy
specifications require 1.5 sq in. of relief valve area per
cubic foot of crankcase volume, the ABS requires 0.5
sq in. per cubic foot of crankcase volume. Both require
warning notices to be posted on the engine cautioning
against opening a hot crankcase after an explosion.
Engines burn fuel oil which is volatile and combustible and must be contained a t all times. Highpressure fuel lines should be shielded from hot engine
parts by the use of a flexible tube around each pipe or a
shield over the manifold or the use of water-cooled manifolds. . Fires have occurred when a high-pressure fuel
line cracked and sprayed fuel over a hot exhaust elbow.
Crankcase vents should be directed to the engine air
inlet or overboard. Fumes should not be ducted to the
ventilation system where oil will condense and present
a major hazard in case of a fire. Engines should be
equipped with an emergency shutdown device operated
by a pull cable which will trip the fuel racks or shut 08
the air and stop the engine within 60 sec. The pull cable
should be installed so as to be operable from a location
adjacent to the engine room access so that in case a fire
forces abandonment of the engine room, the engine can be
stopped.
Shields should be provided to protect personnel from
hot parts and moving parts in case they are accidently
thrown against the engine.
Direct-reversing engines should be provided with an
interlock to prevent injection of fuel during a reversal
until the engine comes to a complete stop.
References
1 C. Jones, "New Rotating Combustion Power

Plant Development," Trans. SAE, 1966.
2 B. W. Wadman, Diesel and Gas Turbine Catalog,
Diesel and Gas Turbine Progress, Milwaukee, Wisc., vol.
33, (Published annually).
3 British Diesel Engine Catalogue, issued by The
British Internal Combustion Engine Manufacturers
Assn., London.
MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES .
4 K. W. Stinson, Diesel Engineering Handbook,

Diesel Publications, Inc., Stamford, Connecticut, 1963.
5 A. K. Antonsen, "The Development of a Supercharged Medium Speed Two-Cycle Opposed Piston
Engine, " Proceedings, ASME, OGP, 1956.
6 James R. Ware, "Development of a Turbocharged
Two Stroke Twenty Cylinder Diesel Engine for Marine
Application, " SAE paper 670949, 1967.
7 J. M. .Moriarty and C. H. Schowalter, "Application of MediumS~eedDiesels to Marine Pro~ulsion."
SNAME Spring Mketing, May 1966.
8 Bob Schulz, ,,Mack,s New Maxidyne Constant
Power Vehicle Package, " Diesel and Gas Turbine Progress,
December 1966. .
Bruce W. wadman, ,,Trends in Tailored Truck,
Diesel Torque and Homepower Characteristics, Diesel
and Gas Turbine Progress, May 1967.
10 H. L. Wittek, "Development of Two New Allis
Chalmers Diesel Engines, " Trans. SAE, 1960.
11 W. J. McCulla, "How a Diesel Engine Rates
Itself," Tram. SAE, 1959.
12 P. H. Schweitzer and C. G. A. Rosen, "Whither
the European Automotive Diesel?" Trans. SAE, 1964.
13 M. V. Kienlen and G. W. Maybach, "High Speed
High Output Diesel Engines-35 Years of Development
of Railroad and Marine Applications, " Trans. SAE, 1962.
14 L. Wechsler and H. Holler, "Development of a
Lightweight High Output Diesel Engine for Naval
Service," ASME, Paper no. 58-OGP-2, May 1958.
15 "Engine Rating/Why and How," Diesel Equipment Superintendent, April 1964.
16 SAE Handbook, published by Society of Automotive Engineers, (New issue each year).
17 W. A. Kilchenmann, "Slow Speed Versus High
Speed Diesel Engines for Ship Propulsions," Naval
Engineers Journal, June 1964.
18 K. Zinner, "A Comparison of High Powered
Single Engine and Multi-Engine Plants for the Propulsion of Merchant Ships," ASME, Paper no. 67-DGP-2,
April 1967.
19 J. Neumann and J. Carr, he Use of Medium
Speed Geared Diesel Engines For Ocean-Going Merchant
Ship Propulsion, " Journal, Institub of Marine Engineers,
1966.
20 R. Fredrikson, "The Medium Speed Diesel-An
Engine of Increasing Interest to the Shipowner and Shipbuilder, " SNAME, 1968 Diamond Jubilee International
Meeting.
21 W. Hempel, "Why has the Medium Speed Diesel
Become Competitive in Marine Propulsion," SAE, Paper
no. 670950, November 1967.
22 E. A. Butler, R. Kaufman, and T. V. Pedersen,
"Advanced-Design Motor-Ship Machinery Plant-20000
SBP," Marine Technology, vol. 4, no. 4, October 1967.
23 F. A. Christiansen and P. I. Brown, "Military and
Manufacturer Specification Oils, Their Evaluation and
Significance," Trans. SAE, 1963.
24 Rules for Building and Classing Sbel Vessels,
American Bureau of Shipping, New York.
279
25 C. C. Moore and W. L. Kent, "Effect of Nitrogen Governing of Electric Generating Sets," MIL-STD-178,
and Sulphur Content of Fuels on Diesel Wear," Trans. Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government PrintSAE, 1947.
ing Office.
38 W. H. Krogstad, "Control System Programs
26 H. V. Nutt, E. W. Landen, and J. A. Edgar,
"Effect of Surface Temperature on Wear of Diesel Power for Ships with Controllable Pitch Propellers,"
Engine, Cylinder and Piston Rings," Trans. SAE, 1955. SAE Journal, December 1962.
27 B. A. Robbins, P. L. Pinotti, and D. R. Jones,
39 F. Schanz, "The Controllable Pitch Propeller as
"The Use of Radioactive Tracer Techniques to Deter- an Integral Part of the Ship's Propulsion System, " Trans.
mine Effect of Operatirig Variables on Wear," Trans. SNAME, vol. 75, 1967.
40 P. K. Wennberg, "The Design of the Main
SAE, 1960.
28 Total Energy Handbook, Caterpillar Tractor Co., Propulsion Machinery Plant in the USCGC Hamilton
(WPG-715)," Trans. SNAICIE, vol. 74, 1966.
Peoria, Ill:, Form M E 0 26690.01, 1967.
41
R- lihuschildt and C- Miller, "U- S- Navy
29 Manual of Heat Recovery, Fairbanks Morse and
PG 84 Class CODOG Propulsion Plant," SAE Paper no.
Co., Beloit, Wis., Form P 295, 1960.
196730 Vapor P b e Engineering Manual, Engineering 670952,
42 W. I<er Wilson, Practical Solution of Torsiml
Controls Inc., St. Louis, Mo.
Vibration Problems, vols. 1 and 2, John Wiley and Sons,
31 J. C. ~ ~ ~"Engine
g iwmte
~ H~~~
~ utilhation
,
in a High Speed, Geared Steam Turbine," ASME, Paper New York, 1956.
43 J. P. DenHartog, Mechanical Vibrations, McGrawno. 59-OGP-7, February 1959.
Hill
32 W' T.
W' J. Kelnhofer, and R' A' Imith, Book Company, Inc., New York, 1956.
4 E v a h of the
of Tor&onal Vibration,
"Design Considerations for Marine Gas Turbine Ducb
SAE,
1945.
ing, " ASME, Paper no. 66-GT/M-27, March 1966.
45 A Handbook on Torsional Vz%ration, British
33 Gas Twbine
Handbook,J. W.
Internal
Combustion Engine Research Assn., Cambridge
ed., Gas Turbine Publications, Inc., New York, 1966,
University Press, 1958.
chapter 13.
46 P. J. Louzecky, "Vibration in River Towboats,"
34 T. Hagar, "Selecting the Correct Air Cleaner," SAE paperno. 699 A, M~~ 1963.
Diesel Equipment Superintendent, July 1967.
47 W. W. Hamilton, Jr., "A Shipbuilder's Views on
35 Military S ~ e c z c a t i o 3" M d e r s , Exhaust, Inter- River Towboat Vibration," SAE Paper no. 699 B, May
nal Combustion Engine," MILM-15337 (SHIPS).
1962
-..--.
36 B. A. Boggs, "Choosing a Speed Governor, "
48 E. F. Noonan and A. Zaloumis, "Shipboard VibraProduct Engineering, March 18, 1963.
tion and Noise Considerations in the Design of River
37 Military Standard DefinitionsApplicable t o Speed Towboats," Trans. SAE, 1964.
JJ
8
i?
LOW-SPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DIESEL ENGINES
CHAPTER V l l l
Table 1
BORIC,
Kuri Illies
Low-Speed Direct-Coupled
Diesel Engines
in. (mm)
STROKE,
in. (mm)
Typical Engine Design Data
PISTON
SPEED, SPEED,
rpm
fpm (m/s)
BMEP,
Psi
(kp/cmS)
NO.
OF
CYL.
MAX.CONT.
OVERALL
RATING,
WEIGHT, LENQTH,
bhp
tons
ft-in. (mm)
Section 1
Survey of Principal Characteristics
1.1 Scope. The possible alternatives when selecting
the type of propulsion plant were briefly discussed in
Chapter 1. It was noted that of the more usual prime
mover selections, only low-speed diesel engines are
directly coupled to the propeller shaft. This is due to the
low rpm required for efficient propeller operation and the
high rpm inherent with other types of prime movers.
Overall technical considerations with regard to diesel
engines were covered in Chapter 7, which dealt with
medium- and high-speed diesels, and therefore will not be
repeated here. Instead, only those characteristics which
differentiate low-speed engines from medium- and highspeed engines are discussed. Medium- and high-speed
engines generally are not designed specifically for marine
applications; therefore, the design details of these
engines were not emphasized in Chapter 7. The situation is different with low-speed engines, which are designed and manufactured specifically for marine applicatione. For this reason, more emphasis is placed on the
design details of low-speed engines. Additional discussion regarding low-speed diesels may be found in works
such as references [I] through [7].'
1.2 Engine Data, The
continuous rpm
&ing of direct-coupled diesel engines is generally in
the range of 100 to 225 rpm. Lower speeds are seldom
selected due to the strong sensitivity of engine weight to
speed as indicated by Fig. 1.
The low engine q m in conjunction with piston speed
limitations (about 1300 fpm) -require long piston strokes.
This means that the engine must be high, wide, and
consequently heavy. Higherpiston speeds impose higher
inertia loads, bearing reactions, and the l i e , which can
have an overriding impact on the design of an engine.
As an indication of the effect of piston speed limitations,
for two-stroke crosshead engines the piston speed has
increased only 20 percent during the past 20 years.
Further increases in piston speeds are expected to be
minor because they must be made at the expense of
either higher engine speeds or larger engine dimensions,
both of which are undesired.
Nominal design data for an array of low-speed engines,
Numbers in brackets designate Referencesat end of chapter.
KP/PS
LB/BHP
40
EXHAUST
BEFORE TUF
110
50,
88
AFTER CYL.
66
30;
6
20
A Y .
PRESSURE
PRESS.
t 1150
44
V)
10
22
100 500
1000
ENGINE RPM
Fig. 1
Weights of low-speed engines
(a) loop ravenging
representative of those manufactured, are shown in

Table 1 ; the weights shown in Table 1 are without water
and oil. Low-speed diesel en&es are two-stroke,
single-acting, and designed with ~rossheads. Due to
weight and dimension considerations, they are used only
in merchant ships and not in naval vessels.
The ratio of stroke to bore also must be considered
it has an impact on s venging efficiency- To a great
extent, the method 0 scavenging employed determines
the stroke/bore ratio permitted. The various methods
of scavenging are illustrated by Fig. 2. With the loop
and cross-scavenging methods, the strokebore ratio
usually falls in the range of 1.8 to 2; higher values of 2
to 2.1 are used with single pistons employing the uniflow
method; and in opposed-piston engines, the combined
stroke is about 2.9 times the bore.
Large cylinder dimensions and supercharging permit
high cylinder horsepower ratings. Engines with a rating
of 3700 bhp/cylinder have been installed aboard ship,
and the tendency is for this value to increase. Outputs
of 5200 bhp/cylinder have been obtained on the teat
stand. It should be noted that under normal operating
conditions a t sea, the engine is loaded to only about 9095 percent of the maximum continuous rating.
Typical design data for cylinders of two different
ratings are shown in Table 2. Operational data for a spe-
(b)
(c)
(dl
Fig. 2
Ov3'
0
cross scavenging
uniflow ravenging with exhaust valves
uniflow ravenging opposed pistam
0.31
FUEL 3CONSUMPTION
Scavenging methods of low-sped engines
ENGINE
Fig. 3
RPM
Characteristic data for a low-speed engine
[a]
cific engine design are shown in Fig. 3. The fuel consumptions indicated in Table 2 and Fig. 3 do not include
lubrication and cooling pumps; additionally, they are
Table 2 Typical Cylinder Design Data
based on a fuel lower heating value of 18,000 Btu/lb.
CYLINDER
DESIGN
B
Disregarding electrically driven auxiliaries, a heat Output/cylinder, bhp. ............ 610 A
4000
balance for low-speed engines is approximately as follows Engine speed, rpm.. .............. 225
103
Piston diameter, in. (mm). ........ 20.5 (520) 41.7 (1060)
(based on the lower heating value of the fuel) :
Piston stroke, in. (mm). ........... 31.5 (800) 78.7 (2000)
Piston speed fpm (m/s). .......... 1024 (5)
1360 (7)
Heat to power. .................... - 3 9 4 2 %
BMEP, psi (kp/cma).............. 103 (7.3)
143 (10.1)
Heat to exhaust gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25-35%
996 (70)
Compression pressure, psi (k /cma). 498 (35)
Heat to cooling water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20-30%
Max. ~ l i n d e r ressure, psi (ep/cml) 711 (50)
1280 (90)
~ i ratio-com~ustion..
r
........... 1.6
2.2
Remainder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 %
Air ratio-total. ................. 2.5
5.0
temperature after cyl.
It is common practice to reduce the heat losses by Exhaust
Loo and cross-scavenging, deg F
employing heat recovery schemes. For example, an
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 (330) 700 (370)
Uniflow scavenging, deg F (C). . . 635 (335)
800 (425)
exhaust gas auxiliary boiler may be used to produce
temperature before turbine
steam or hot water for preheating heavy fuel, and the Exhaust
Loo and crossscavenging, deg F
engine cooling water may be used to produce fresh water
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 (350) 755 (400)
Uniflow scavenging, deg F (C). . . 665 (350)
860 (460)
in a seawater evaporator.
Mechanical efficiency, percent.. .... 85
93
1.3 Principal Structure. Sections through a typical Cylinder oil consumption, lb/bhp-hr
( /PSh). ...................... 0.0015 (0.7) 0.0007 (0.3)
cross-scavenging engine are shown in Pig. 4, and Fig. 5 is
consumption, ib/bhp-hr
rt section through a typical loop-scavenging engine.
(g/PSh)....................... 0.32 (146) 0.34 (155)
(8).
(8).
~ u 3
MARINE ENGINEERING
ENTABLATURE
BORE FOR
PISTON AND
STUFFING BOX
CROSSHEAD
GUIDE-RAILS
CROSSHEAD
BORES FOR
TELESCOPIC
PIPES
MAIN BEARING
OIL SUMP
Fig. 4
Typical uou-scavenging engine [9]
HEAD
CYLINDER HEAD
CYLINDER BLOCK
ENTABLATURE
STUFFING BOX
Fig. 5
Typical loop-scavenging engine [El
The engine frame basically consists of the bedplate,

columns, and cylinder block; but in some cases a top
deck is provided between the columns and cylinder
block.
The frame of an engine is shown more clearly by Fig. 6,
which is a detailed view of the engine shown in Fig. 5.
The bedplate consists of longitudinal'girders of high structural rigidity which provide substantial support for the
main bearings. It may be seen that the basic engine
frame is held together by prestressed tie rods which extend from the top of the cylinder block to the lower part
of the bedplate. The firing forces are taken by these
tie rods, and the other structural components are subjected to compreseive loads only. Crankcase doors fitted
with explosion plates (see Fig. 5) are arranged between
the columns.
The opposed-piston engine shown in Fig. 7 has some
interesting characteristics. The stroke of the upper piston
is shortened so as to equalize the inertia of the mass
associated with the side and center cranks. The forces
from the combustion loads on the upper and lower pistons
are carried entirely by the running gear connected to
the crankshaft; thus, there are no combustion loads on
the main bearings or the engine structure. Reference [13],
which discusses the design of low-speed diesels in
Fig. 6
Frame without cylinder block [S]
general, describes some of the characteristics of opposed- and 9 illustrate techniques which have been used with
piston engines.
engines employing the loop-scavenging method. In each
In cases where the engine is not equipped with tie case, the lower sides of the pistons as well as the turborods, the columns and cylinder blocks are welded to- charger act as scavenge air pumps.
gether and the columns are bolted to the bedplate by
With the schemes shown in Fig. 8 when operating in
means of heavy bolts. The firing forces are then trans- the higher load ranges, the lower sides of selected pistons
mitted from the oylinder head through the columns to deliver scavenge air through the cooler directly irito the
the bedplate.
charge air line in parallel with the turbocharger. DurFormerly, extensive use was made of cast iron in ing part-load operation, the air supply provided by the
engineTrames, but more recently the bedplate, columns, turbocharger operating in parallel with the lower side
and top deck have been made of welded steel fabrications of the pistons is not sufficient. In this case, an injector
as a means of reducing weight. For rigidity purposes, system [as shown by Fig. 8(a).] or a compressor-drive
however, the main bearing supports are usually heavy system [as shown by Fig. 8(b)] may be used to increase
steel castings.
the air qhantity delivered by the turbocharger a t low
Engine cylinders are always arranged in line. I n order speeds. With the injector system, in the lower load
to obtain a uniform torque output, the minimum number range the air supplied by the lower sides of the pistons
of cylinders is limited to four. Additionally, design com- flows a t a high velocity through injector nozzles, which
plications with regard to the crankshaft and engine bed- are arranged immediately following the turbocharger,
plate and engine length considerations limit the maxi- and then into the air receiver. This action induces air to
mum number of cylinders to about twelve. Within these flow through the turbocharger and stabilizes its operating
limits, there is considerable freedom in selecting the condition. With the compressor-drive system, in the
cylinder desim and number of cylinders to produce the lower load range the air supplied by the lower sides of the
desired output.
pistons is admitted to the compressor wheel of the turbo1'.4 Scavenging Systems. As discussed previously charger so as to produce additional torque to drive the
and illustrated in Fig. 2, engines may employ either the turbocharger when relatively little exhaust energy is
loop, cross, or uniflow method of scavenging. Figures8 available.
LOW1-SPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DlESEt ENGINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
(a) Infector system

cylinder
air receiver
exhaust receiver
4 exhaust turbine
5 air blower
6 silencer
7 underside pump
Fig. 8
1
2
3
(b) Compresmr drive system

8
9
oil
damper
separator
(high load)
9a damper (part load)

cooler
coder
infector pipe
compreuor drive
Loop-ravenginsI air supply system [8]
10
11
12
13
pression is accomplished by the exhaust gas turbocharger, and the second takes place in the double-acting
piston scavenge pump; both steps are aligned in a series
arrangement. Each cylinder has its own double-acting
reciprocating pump that is directly driven by the crosshead. The intake and exhaust valves of these pumps, as
well aa the scavenge air intake valves of the power
cylinder, are designed as automatic nonreturn valves.
Some engine designs include a small electrically driven
blower which is used up t o quarter load and when maneuvering. Such an engine is illustrated by Fig. ll. The
electric blower considerably improves engine acceleration
and gives a clear exhaust. The blower is switched on and
off automatically a t a certain position of the fuel lever
and requires only about 0.2 percent of the engine output.
Many of the turbocharged engines using the uniflow
Fig. 9 Sen'er-parallel air supply system [8]
method of scavenging are capable of meeting scavenge
air requirements a t all engine speeds with no assistance.
Some designs, however, include scavenging pumps, such
Another air supply method is the series-parallel sys- as shown in Fig. 10, and some designs use small electrically
tem as illustrated by Fig. 9. The lower sides of all driven blowers for assistance a t low power levels and for
pistons are designed as scavenge air pumps with this cold starting.
arrangement. Some act in parallel with the turboWith the uniflow scavenging arrangement shown by
charger; however, others may shift between series and Fig. 12, the scavenge ports around the lower part of the
parallel operation. During part-load operating condi- cylinder liner are controlled by the piston; the exhaust
tions, the piston lower sides arranged in series pump air valve in the cylinder head is actuated by means of a cam
from the turbocharger to the air receiver. At higher on the camshaft, and the movement is transmitted to
loads all piston lower sides operate in parallel with the theUniflow
valve through
scavenging
a rocker
for an
arm.opposed-piston engine is
turbocharger. An automatic valve arrangement is provided to ensure a proper alignment.
shown by Figs. 7 and 13. Figure 12 displays the uniAn air supply system which has been used with engines flow scavenging system for a single-acting engine. In
empl'oying the cross-scavenging method is shown by Fig. these designs the turbochargers are capable of supplying
10. It may be seen that the scavenge air is compressed in scavenging and combustion air under all circumstances,
two steps and cooled after each step. The first com- including starting, without a supplementary pump.
MARINE ENGINEERING
LOW-SPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DRSEL ENGINES
r?Tl
EXHAUST
TURBOCHARGER
AIR COOLER
SCAVENGE AIR
RECEIVER
COOLING OIL.
INLET
Fig.
1
2
3
air compressor
5 scavenge air receiver
air cooler
6 combustion space
ravenqe pump
7 exhaust receiver
air cooler
8 exhaust turbine
Fig. 10 Cms-scavenging air supply system [I
11
The scavenge ports a t the bottom of the cylinder are

controlled by the lower piston, and the exhaust ports a t
the top of the cylinder are controlled by the upper piston.
Both scavenge and exhaust ports extend completely
around the cylinder periphery. For additional discussion regarding the scavenging of slow-speed diesels, see
references [14-161.
1.5 Cylinder Design, The cylinder head, cylinder
liner, and piston form the combustjon chamber. These
parts are bighly stressed from both a mechanical and
thermal point of view. Higher su~erchargingand larger
cylinder dimensions incur correspondingly higher stress
levels. Simply increasing the thickness of the parts
forming the combustion chamber as a means of reducing
mechanical stresses is not a satisfactory ~olutionbecause
an increased wall thickness would cause increased
temperature gradients and higher thermal stresses. As a
result many engines employ a "backing system." That
is, the wall thickness of the components forming the
combustion chamber is minimized by supporting the back
11
Air supply system with blower assist
[9]
side of the walls with a reinforcing structure. A cooling

medium is circulated through the reinforcing structure;
therefore, satisfactory solutions are obtained to both the
mechanical and thermal stress problems.
A typical cylinder "backing system" is illustrated by
Fig. 14 for a loop-scavengingengine. The cylinder jacket
is made of cast iron, and passages for scavenging air, exhaust gases, and cooling water are cast in place. An
opening opposite the ports a t their level permits an inspection of the ports in the liner and a region of the piston
without disassembly. The cylinder liner shown consists of two parts; the upper liner, which is made of
wear-resistant cast iron, contains the scavenge and exhaust ports, which extend for a large arc of the liner
circumference. The lower liner serves the primary function of guiding the piston while in the vicinity of the
lower dead-center position. The top of the liner is supported by a steel backing ring which is part of the backing system. The liner and port lands are water cooled.
The cylinder design of various engines differs in detail,
a major distinction being the method of scavenging employed. For example, engines which operate with a
uniflow scavenging system do not require water-cooled
air ports, as cooling by air is sufficient. Figure 15 shows
the combustion chamber of a uniflow-scavenging engine
(the figure is a magnification of the combustion chamber
shown in Fig. 12). The liner flange is reinforced by a
steel band that is shrunk on; holes are drilled into the
liner to facilitate cooling with water.
Fig.
12 Uniflow-scavenging air supply system with exhaust valve [I21
1
2
lower cylinder liner

7 upper cylinder head
inspection port
8 inleetion valve
3 upper cylinder liner
9 cooling water
4 cylinder lacket
10 exhaust porn
5 steel backing ring
1 1 air inlet porn
6 lower
Fig. cylinder
14 Cylinder
head of a loop-scavenging engine [8]
r FUEL
INJECTION VALVE
CYLINDER JACKET
CYLINDER LINER
Fig.
13 Uniflow ;cavenging for an opposed-piston design [I01
Fig.
15 Combustion chamber of a uniflow-scavenging engine [12]
288
MARINE ENGINEERING
289
PISTON CROWN
CONE - COOLING WATER
GUIDE WITH BRONZE
MAIN
PISTON ROD
PIS
COOLING WATER O U T L E T
LOWER PISTON PART

SCUFFING B A N D S
G A S K E T RING
CROSSHEAD-
OIL FROM MANIFOLD

COOLING WATER INLET
COOLING WATER O U T L E T
CROSSHEAD
Fig. 17 Piston and piston md of a loop-scavenging engine
[a]
N G l N G PIPES
OIL DISCHARGE
Fig. 19 Oil-cooled piston with swinging pipes

housing
11 securing ring
12 guide rod
steel seat
13 guide bracket
valve spindle
14 guard
Aame guard
15 lower outer spring
spindle lower guide
16 lower inner spring
spindle upper guide
17 intermediate spring plate
bottom guide bushing
18 bottom spring plate
top guide bushing
19 lower guide bushing
spring keeper
20 sealing ring
split collar
Fig. 16 Exhaust valve for a uniflow-scavenging engine [I 21
Cylinder heads (or covers) are reinforced thin-walled (see Fig. 12) and are closed by two sets of concentric
castings that are water cooled. With many engine de- helical springs. .
signs, the cylinder heads are carried rather far down such
Some uniflow exhaust valve arrangements employ a
that they enclose the pistons when the pistons are in the number of exhaust valves, as opposed to the single valve
top dead-center position. This confines the region sub- shown in Fig. 16, but their principle of operation is the
jected to the very hot gases to the cylinder head and pro- same.
tects the cylinder liner. The firing pressure is t r a m
1.6 Piston and Piston Rod. The pistons of a loop- or
mitted from the cylinder head to the cylinder jacket by cross-scavenging engine must be long because the lower
the cylinder head studs.
part has to cover the scavenge ports when the piston is
The exhaust valves in uniflow-scavenging engines are in the top dead-center position. The piston is constructed
highly stressed thermally; therefore, heat-resistant steels in three parts; see Fig. 17. The top part, the crown, is
must be used in their construction. The cylinder head a steel casting in which the piston ring grooves are mashown in Fig. 15 is provided with a central large orifice chined. The casting is flame hardened in way of the
for the exhaust valve, and bores are provided at the piston ring grooves to minimize wear in service. The
sides for the fuel valves, starting valves, safety valves, lower part is a grey casting which is grooved to accomindicator cock, and the cooling water connection to the modate a scuffing band made of leaded bronze. The
exhaust valve. A detailed illustration of the exhaust center part is a cast iron guide band which also contains
valve which fits into the cylinder head in Fig. 15 is leaded bronze scuffing rings. The piston shown in Fig.
shown by Fig. 16. The lower part of the spindle guide 17 is water cooled. Cooling water admission and disis water cooled. The valves are opened by cam action charge passages are within the piston rqd, as can be seen
[I 1]
water and also guards against fouling of the cooling water

by splash oil.
Oil is used to cool the pistons of some engines. A
major distinction between the water-cooled and oilcooled pistons is that minor leakage of the cooling medium is not of consequence with the latter. This addition91 degree of freedom permits an arrangement such
as indicated by Fig. 19. As with the water-cooled piston,
the coolant is introduced at the crosshead; but in this
case a swing-pipe scheme, which is characterized by minor
leakage at the connecting joints, can be used since
absolute containment of the coolant is not essential.
For additional discussion regarding piston cooling and
lubrication se3 Sections 2.2 and 2.3.
The pistons in engines with a uniflow-scavenging
system ar? short. Figure 20 (see also Fig. 12) is a section through an oil-cooled piston for a uniflow-scavenging
engine. The molybdenum steel piston head is clamped
to the piston rod by a cast iron guide skirt and an annular
spring of the Belleville type. Piston cooling oil enters
the outer annular cooling space with a high tangential I
velocity and from there enters the central cooling space
Fig. 18 Teleuopic pipes for piston cooling [8]
with a high swirling velocity.
1.7 Diaphragm and Stuffing Box. The diaphragm
from Fig. 17. The means provided to deliver the cooling and stuffing box for the piston rod form a barrier between
water to and from the piston rod are illustrated by Fig. the combustion chamber and the crankcase. The pur18. Telescopic pipes, with their stuffing boxes, are pose of the barrier is to prevent harmful combustion
located outside the crankcase; this arrangement ensures residues from entering the running gear and thus conthat there will be no contamination of the lube oil by taminating the lube oil and creating a corrosion hazard.
MARINE ENGINEERING
290
PISTON ROD
CYLINDER LINER
1I
THE ENGINE ROOM

!
Fig. 21
( A ) CROSSHEAD
Diaphragm with stuffing box [I 11
*
Fig. 2 0
Oidwoled pisbn for a unitlow-rcovenging engine
(A) CONCENTRATED
PRESSURE
Fig. 2 2
(9) UNIFORM
PRESSURE
D e A d o n of crossheods under load [9]
( 0 ) CONNECTING
Fig. 2 4
ROD AT C R A N K P I N
1 bracket for telescopic pipes

2 lubrication oil pump
Crorrhead and connecting md with guides on only one side
cn.i
cn. n
cn.r
[a]
29 1
Additionally, the stuffing box w i ~ e soff oil that adheres

to the
rod and thereby controls the leakage of oil
from the crankcase.
A stuffing box that has been designed for an engine
with the space beneath the piston open to the engine
room is shown in Fig. 21. There is one upper sealing
ring and two lower rings. Each ring is in three pieces
held together by garter springs.
For designs in which the lower sides of the pistons are
used to pump scavenging air, the sealing arrangement
shown by Fig. 21 is not suitable as an additional sealed
barrier is required. In this case, a design similar to that
in Fig. 11 may be used. Two sealed barriers are provided. One is a seal between the scavenge air and the
ambient engine room air, and the other is a seal between the crankcase and the ambient air (similar to that
in Fig. 21). This arrangement precludes the leakage of
scavenging air into the crankcase.
1.8 Crosshead and Connecting Rod. To minimize
the forces imposed upon the cylinder liner by the piston
rod, low-speed diesel engines are designed with crossheads. The crosshead pin bearing is a particularly
highly stressed element. The reasons for this are that
the motion i s oscillatory and not continuous and that the
pressure on the crosshead pin is always in the same direction during both the expansion and compression strokes.
Under such adverse conditions, a load-carrying hydrodynamic oil film is hardly able to form. An additional
complicating factor is that the crosshead pin is of relatively small diameter and deflects under the load such
that there tends to be a concentration of pressure at the
inner edge of the bearing near the piston rod, as illustrated
by Fig. 22(a). With proper attention to design details,
however, the pressure on the cro~sheadpin can be made
cn.b
CVL. I
SKllON A-A
cn. 7
LOOKING AFT
CYL.1
T
Fig. 23
Crouhead and connecting rod with guider on two sides [9]
Fig. 25
Built-up cranluhoft [I 21
MARINE ENGINEERING
293
LUBRICATING OIL PIPE

MAIN BEARING
UPPER SHELL
MAIN BEARING
LOWER S H E L L
OIL SUMP
Fig. 26
Crankshaft bearing [8]
nearly uniform. This can be accomplished, as shown in

Fig. 22(b), by supporting the crosshead pin with a
flanged element which is flexible near the piston rod,
which would otherwise be the region of hardest contact.
The crosshead in Fig. 23 is symrnetrical with four
guides. The four crosshead guides are anchored to the
columns on opposite sides. The lower end of the piston
rod penetrates and is secured to the cylindrical crosshead
pin. Each end of the crosshead pin has a babbitt-lined
slipper in way of the bearing area. Because of the danger
of a crankcase explosion, sparks in the crankcase must
be avoided. For this reason, all crosshead bearings,
crosshead slides, crankpin bearings, and crankshaft bearings are always of the babbitt-lined type. An oil passage
is drilled into the connecting rod to lubricate the crankpin bearing (see Fig. 23).
Provisions are made for inserting shims between the
connecting rod and the bottom-end bearing attachment.
This permits adjustments to be made to the compression
ratio.
An alternative crosshead design, in which crosshead guides are on only one side of the crosshead, is
shown in Fig. 24. 'A bracket carrying the telescopic tubes
of the piston cooling system is attached to the crosshead
(see also Fig. 18).
1.9 Crankshaft and Crankshaft Bearings. Crankshafts are usually of the built-up type, with the cranks
made of steel castings and the shaft elements made of
forged steel. The cranks are shrunk onto the shaft elements as illustrated by Fig. 25. Engines which have a
high number of cylinders frequently have their crankshafts made in two sections, as shown in Fig. 25. To
reduce the unbalanced centrifugal forces, metal is removed from the crank webs where possible and added
to the opposite side so as to produce a counterweight
effect.
The crankshaft bearings are cast steel shells lined with
babbitt. Oil is admitted at the top of the bearing and
runs through oil grooves in the top half of the bearing
shell to the horizontal split. Figure 26 shows the oil
supply passage to the crankshaft bearings. The manner
in which the bearing ~ h e l hare secured to the bedplate is
also clearly shown in the figure, as are the tie bolts which
hold the engine together and resist the firing forces. In
some engine designs lubricating oil is supplied through
the crankshaft; however, the bearing lubrication arrangement in Fig. 26 is the one employed with most engines
because it does not require oil passages to be bored in the
crankshaft.
1 air silencer
4 bearing
7 guide blade
2 blower casing
5 shaft
8 turbine wheel
3 blower wheel
6 turbine casing
9 insulation
'
Fig. 27 Turbocharger assembly [8]
CONSTANT PRESSURE TURBINE
BLOWER
EXHAUS
CRANK A N G L E -
( A ) CONSTANT PRESSURE TURBOCHARGING

W
PULSE TURBINE
BL,OWER
zm
(6) PULSE TURBOCHARGING
Section 2
Engine Subsystems
2.1 Supercharging. Until about 1940 high cylinder
outputs were obtained with double-acting engine designs. This type of cycle permitted short engine lengths
and low weights. However, the double-acting engines
were too complicated and were not suitable for operation with heavy fuels.
The cylinder output of a diesel engine can be increased
effectively by supercharging. The cylinder mean effec-
Fig. 28
Constant-prarsure and puke turbodarging [9]
tive pressure is directly related to the quantity of fuel

bulped which, in turn, is related to the quantity of combustion air (oxygen) in the combustion chamber. With
the development of gas-turbine-driven air compressors
(turbochargers) which operate with the diesel engine
exhaust gases, in conjunction with large cylinder dimen-
sions, high cylinder outputs were obtained also with

single-acting engines. Compared with two-stroke diesel
engines equipped with scavenging pumps, supercharging
has permitted the mean effective pressure of low-speed
diesels to be almost doubled. Supercharging also enables the specific fuel consumption and specific weight
to be reduced. A single-acting design means a simple
engine, good reliability, a long service life, minimum
supervision and maintenance, and simplified operation.
Besides this, a single-acting engine is capable of burning
heavy fuel oils. All of these points contribute to economy; therefore, low-speed diesel engines are usually twostroke, single-acting, and supercharged. Figure 27 is a
turbocharger assembly that is typical of those employed
with low-speed diesels.
In addition to the scavenging air which is compressed
in the turbocharger, other sources of scavenging air are
often provided. Examples are piston scavenging pumps
which are mechanically driven by the engine itself, the
lower sides of the main pistons (which may be designed
as scavenging pumps), and small electric blowers (see
Section 1.3). These additional sources of scavenging
air ensure that the engine will be operable even in the
event of a turbocharger casualty, and during starting,
maneuvering, and low outputs.
The exhaust gas turbine can be applied to operate on
either the constant-pressure principle or the pulse principle. As can be seen from Fig. 28, in a constant-pressure
arrangement the exhaust gases from all cylinders are conducted to a receiver and from there to the gas turbine.
Since the pressure in the receiver tends to be the average
of the cylinder outputs, the gas turbine is provided with a
gas supply of nearly constant pressure. With this ar-
MARINE ENGINEERING
PACKING
NON-RETURN
SCAVENGE VALVE
that it lies in the general vicinity of 100 percent. This

corresponds to a mep. of about 150 psi and a mep, of
about 75 psi.
The pressure of the scavenging air itself is approximately 15 psig. With air pressures this low, it is essential that resistailces to flow in the air passages be minimized in order to charge the cylinder with the largest
possible quantity of air. The air pressure drop going
into the cylinders is minimized & malung the ports as
large as practicable and by extending them around a
large arc of the liner circumference as illustrated by Fig.
14. In the case of uniflow-scavenging engines, the largest practicable exhaust valve area (see Fig. 16) is provided m a means of improving scavenging
and supercharging efficiency.
Turbochargers, mechanically driven air pumps, piston
lower sides, and electric fans are used in various combinations and arrangements to provide the air required at full
load and a t
load. As discussed in Section 1.3 they
may be aligned in series or in parallel and their alignment may shift depending upon engine load.
The supercharging air is always cooled, with an air
temperature leaving the cooler of 100 F being common.
As shown by Fig. 10, air is often cooled in two stages
to attain high scavenging efficiencies; additionally,
thermal stresses in the combustion chamber are reduced
bv cooling the superchawing air.
"In some loop and croG-scavenging engines the exhaust
ports, which are opened by the piston as it goes down during the power stroke, are opened before the scavenging
ports (see Fig. 2); therefore, there is no problem with
combustion gases tending to enter the scavenging air
system. With supercharging, however, it is advantageous for the exhaust ports to be closed somewhat prior
to the scavenging ports. For this purpose some engine
designs are provided with a special exhaust valve of
either the rotating or reciprocating type. This permits
the pressure in the cylinder to reach approximately the
stagnation pressure before the scavenge ports close. A
disadvantage of this arrangement is that during the
power stroke the scavenging ports can open before the
exhaust ports and the combustion gases tend to backup
into the scavenging air supply. However, this disadvantage can be resolved satisfactorily with nonreturn
valves in the air supply, as shown in Fig. 29 (a detailed
view of Fig. 10).
2.2 Cooling. The cooling of low-speed highly supercharged engines is a consideration of overriding importance. The cooling system must remove 20-30 percent of the fuel heat of combustion, which is a large
quantity of heat with a large diesel engine.
Engine cooling is important for several reasons. The
strength of engine materials decreases with higher temperatures; therefore, cooling is necessary to regulate the
material temperatures to a level that will ensure the
material strength required. Additionally, the viscosity
of lubricating oils is sensitive to temperature, and a t
elevated temperatures the lubrication oil will break down
with a resulting loss of lubricating properties; this re-
CYLINDER
LINER
Fig. 29
Cylinder lacket and liner of a cross-scavenging engine
[I 1 1
rangement a supplementary source of scavenging air is

required for starting and part loads; such an arrangement is illustrated by Fig. 9.
With a pulse arrangement, the exhaust gases from each
cylinder or group of cylinders are admitted directly to
the gas turbine through a short exhaust pipe. As a result,
the flow of exhaust gases to the turbine pulsates; the
turbjne is designed such that it utilizes both the velocity
and pressure energy in the exhaust gases. Additional
sources of scavenging air are sometimes not required
with a pulse design, but it is not unusual for mechanically
driven air pumps to be installed as a precautionary measure recognizing the possibility of a blower casualty and,
on occasions, to meet part-load air requirements.
The degree of supercharging, in percent, can be assessed
by the expression
(FEE
mep.
where
mep. = mean effective pressure of the engine when
supercharged
mep. = mean effective pressure of the engine with
normal scavenging
With the original supercharged engines, the degree of
supercharging, A, was appro~irnately25 percent. But
the degree of supercharging has subsequently risen such
I
I
i
i
Fig. 30 Temperature distributions in a cylinder liner and a water-cooled piaton [9]
quires that the lubricating oil temperature be carefully

controlled. Not only temperatures but also their
gradients are important, as nonuniform temperatures
cause thermal distortion and stresses. As discussed in
Section 3.1, efficient engine cooling is also important in
inhibiting high-temperature corrosion and slagging which
can occur during the combustion of heavy fuels.
At the other end of the scale, excessively low temperatures can cause the formation of sulfuric acid. When the
combustion gases are reduced below their dew point, the
oxidized sulfur in the combustion gases can be hydrolyzed
t o form sulfuric acid, which can be extremely corrosive
P71.
As noted in Section 2.1, cooling of the scavenging air

is necessary for several reasons. One is that air of a tigh
density is required for higher degrees of superchargng,
. Fig. 31 Thermal expansion of water-cooled piaton rings [a]
and another is that relatively cool scavenging air reduces
the thermal stresses in the combustion chamber.
The cooling medium used to control the temperatures flow, a higher coolant velocity, more heat transfer area,
of the mechanical elements of low-speed diesel engines or a combination thereof. An additional factor in favor
may be either water or lubricating oil, and arguments of water is that oil can carbonize a t high temperatures.
can be made in favor of each in the regions of high temThe cooling of pistons is particularly critical. Due to
perature. From a heabtransfer point of view, water is the elevated temperatures at which they operate, there is
preferred. At the conditions which exist within diesel a hazard of high-temperature corrosion. The temperaengines, the maximum heabtransfer coefficient with ture distributions in a typical water-cooled cylinder liner
water is approximately 500 Btu/hr-ftz-deg F, whereas and piston are shown in Fig. 30. (Due to the inherent
that with oil is in the range of 300-370 Btu/hr-ftbdeg F ; heat-transfer advantages of water, water cooling can
and'the specific heat of water is about 1.0 Btu/lb-deg F as provide piston crown temperatures that are 200 to 300
compared with oil of 0.45 Btu/lb-deg F. Therefore, to deg F lower than oil-cooled pistons.) High-temperature
transfer the same quantity of heat a t the same tempera- catalytic oxidation, primarily caused by vanadium
ture differences, an oil system must have more coolant pentoxide and sodium pyrosulfate in the fuel ashes, has
296
i t
11
1
I
2
3
4
5
MARINE ENGINEERING
air cooler
turbocharger
vent
expansion tank
freshwater pump
Fig. 3 2
seawater-freshwater heat exchanger
7 seawater inlet (sea chest)

8 lubrication oil cooler
9 seawater fllter
10 seawater pump
Engine cooling diagram
I lube oil valve

5
6
2 electrically driven pump
3 lube oil fllter
7
4 heat exchanger (see Fig. 32)
Fig. 33 Lubricating oil
running gear lube oil tank

cylinder lube oil distributor
cylinder lube oil tank
diagram
formation of sulfuric acid. The engine cooling water

outlet is maintained at 140-160 F; higher temperatures
burned as nluch as a half-inch of metal from piston crowns are unsuitable because of excessive combustion chamber
[5]. The high operating temperature of the piston re- (and combustion gas) temperatures and because of the
sults in considerable thermal expansion, as may be see11 reduction in lubricating oil viscosity at high temperafrom Fig. 31; this can create adverse conditions for the tures.
piston rings.
It is necessary that the difference between the cooling
Tending to offset the inherently poorer heat-transfer water inlet and outlet temperatures be small and that the
properties of oil is the advantage that absolute contain- temperatures be uniform so as to minimize thermal
ment of the cooling medium is not essential with oil. stresses. Before starting large engines, they are usually
Minor coolant leakage within the engine is not of conse- preheated with the warm cooling water from auxiliary
quence with oil, whereas leakage of water within the diesels. Automatic control and monitoring of the coolingengine, or oil into the water system, must be avoided. medium temperature is desirable; see Section 3.3 for
Therefore, with oil as the cooling medium, there is con- additional discussion on this subject.
siderably more freedom in designing the piston coolant
When a heavy fuel is used, the injection valve is
circuit; see Section 1.5 for additional discussion along cooled with fresh water or diesel oil and the cooling
system is maintained in a separate circuit. A separate
these lines.
The various engine bearings and the crosshead guides circuit is essential with a freshwater coolant to avoid
are cooled by the lubricating oil.
contaminating the entire engine freshwater circuit in the
At the higher temperature levels, seawater has un- event of a leaking injection valve.
2.3 Lubrication. Different oils are used for lubricating
satisfactory corrosive and hardness properties; consequently, it is only usable at the lower temperature levels the crankcase mechanisms than are used for lubricating
(e.g., lube oil coolers, air coolers). Fresh water, with a the cylinder linen. Since a barrier is provided which
low hardness and with a corrosion-preventive additive, isolates the cylinder from the crankcase (see Section 1.7)
is used at the higher temperature levels. Cylinder liners, the use of two different lubricating oils is feasible.
cylinder heads, and exhaust valves are always cooled with
Lubrication of the crankcase mechanisms is relatively
fresh water. The fresh-water coolant is cooled by means simple. Conventional lubricating oils of SAE-30 visof a seawater-freshwater heat exchanger as illustrated by cosity are normally employed.
Fig. 32. The figure shows that the scavenging air and
An engine lubricating oil diagram is shown in Fig. 33.
lubrication oil are cooled directly by seawater (as a re- Electrically driven pumps circulate the oil from the
sult of their low temperature levels).
crankcase oil sump (Fig. 26) to the separator, where
Typically, fresh water enters the engine at 120-130 F; foreign particles, water, and water-soluble acids are
lower temperatures are not used due to the increased oil removed. It is then filtered and cooled, as indicated
viscosity at lower temperatures and the hazard of reach- in Fig. 32, and from there goes to the bearings. Ading the combustion gas dew point with a consequent mission to the bearings is through the bearing shell (Fig.
26) or through holes in the crankshaft, connecting rods

(Fig. 23), and similar elements.
The lubricating oil pressure at the engine inlet is about
25 psi.
The conditions under which the crosshead bearings
operate are particularly adverse from a lubrication standpoint. The motion at crosshead bearings is oscillatory
instead of continuous and, unless special provisions are
made, crosshead bearings tend to operate without an oil
film. In order to operate satisfactorily, some engine designs require a very high oil pressure at the crosshead
bearing. To supply the required pressure, these engines
employ special high-pressure lubricating pumps attached
to the crosshead, such as illustrated in Fig. 24. The arrangement shown in Fig. 24 is designed such that the
pdmp forces oil into the grooved contact area of the
crosshead bearing at the instant the load is a minimum
(at bottom dead center). When the load increases, the
bearing is supported hydrostatically, and an oil film is
maintained during the remainder of the cycle.
The consumption of bearing lubricating oil is usually
small, resulting from leakage losses and pumping through
stuffing boxes. The quantity of oil circulated lies in the
range of 2 4 lb/bhp and is circulated 7-14 times per
hour.
The lubrication of engine liners is a special problem
due to the combustion residues and the deleterious components in heavy fuels. Special lubricating oils are required for this purpose [18]. The oils used generally are
of SAE-50 viscosity.
Cylinder lubrication oil is usually injected into the
liner by special pumps driven by the engine itself; however, the pumps can be separately driven. Figure 34
illustrates an oil distribution scheme for cylinder liners.
Good oil distribution is especially important in the upper
part of the liner to avoid abrasion of the liner and piston
rings. The oil delivered by the pump must be injected
PISTON
VELOCITY.
Lubrication of a cylinder liner
when the piston is going up so that the piston rings will

sweep the oil up into the highly stressed region of the
liner. To prevent the cylinder pressure from forcing the
lubricating oil back through the pump, small nonreturn
valves, often simple ball check valves, are provided.
Consumption of the liner lubricating oil is in the range
of 0.0005-0.0017 lb/bhp-hr; therefore, the cost of liner
lubricating oil is a significant operating expense. Combustion residues (see Section 3.1), together with the
lubricating oil residues, collect on the diaphragm and
are piped from there to the mud oil tank.
2.4 Fuel Injection. The fuel is injected directly into
y VELOCITY OF FUEL PUMP PISTON
FPy80
Fig. 3 4
PRESS..
PSI STROKE.
lNcHES
10000~
8000
VALVE OPEN
-10.
TDC
io
20
CRANK A N G L E . DEGREES
Fig. 3 5
Fuel inlection diagram
30
MARINE ENGINEERING
CONTROL RACK
Fig. 37
I
Fig. 36
Fuel iniection valve
the combustion chambers of low-speed diesel engines.

Precombustion or turbulence chambers are not used;
therefore, the fuel must be finely atomized. For the fuel
to mix properly with the combustion air, there must also
be a turbulent flow of air in the combustion chamber.
The fuel injection pressure depends upon the viscosity
of the fuel but lies in the range of 5,000-10,000 psi. The
velocity of the fuel leaving the injection nozzle may reach
1100 fps. The viscosity of the fuel when injected is
approximately 35-125 Redw. sec; fuels with higher viscosities must be preheated, as discussed in Section 3.1.
The injection period depends upon the combustion
qualities of the fuel and the speed of the engine. With
low-speed engines, the injection period extends over 1530 dee of crank ande. The injection process begins
aboutlo. deg before tip dead center; the iijection is 8;ch
that combustion begins 5-0 deg of crank angle before
top dead center. A typical fuel injection pressure d i e
gram is shown in Fig. 35.
The fuel valves are usually spring-loaded, as in Kg.
36; the needle opens when the fuel pressure is about one
third of its maximum value, as indicated by Fig. 35. The
nozzle generally has several holes of 0.01-0.04 in. diameter.
I fuel pump cam

5 fuel pump casing
2 cam follower
6 wction pipe
3 fuel leakage
7 pmsure pipe
4 spting
8 plunger
Fig. 38 Cam-operated fuel pump [a]
Combustion chamber 191
The configuration of the combustion chamber and

the arrangement of the injection valves, as regards the
position of the nozzles in the cylinder, must allow the
longest possible distance for the injected fuel droplets
to travel and also ensure sdIieient air turbulence to obtain a homogeneous fuel-air mixture. Figure 37 shows a
fuel nozzle arrangement.
The fuel pumps have spring-loaded plungers that are
usuallv driven by the camshaft; Fig. 38 illustrates a
typical arrangement. In exceptional cases one fuel pump
may serve several cylinders by using a receiver, but more
often each cylinder has its own fuel pump. Exact metering of the fuel and an equal distribution to all cylinders
throughout the operating range is a complex problem.
This problem is further aggravated by the use of higher
mean effective pressures because the difference between
the fuel flows at idle and full load becomes larger. One
solution to this problem has been the use of doubleplunger fuel pumps; only one plunger operates at low
powers and both operate at higher powers, so that fine
regulation is obtained throughout the operating range.
The plunger stroke of the fuel pumps generally is
maintained constant, and the quantity of fuel injected
into the combustion chamber is regulated in either of
three ways:
(1) By opening the inlet valve, thus changing the beginning of injection.
(2) By providing a bypass valve between the outlet
and inlet of the fuel pump, thus changing the end
of injection.
(3) By a helical land on the fuel pump plunger which
can be rotated in the barrel, thereby changing the
length of the injection period.
I
I
I
1
Fig. 39
Since marine diesel engines operate over a wide range

of speeds, the time available for fuel combustion is variable; it is desirable to be able to change the time at
which injection begins and/or ends. The plunger of a
fuel injection pump often has a spiral control groove (or
helix) and a control sleeve, as shown by Fig. 39 (a detailed
view of the plunger in Fig. 38). By rotating the coxltrol
sleeve in Fig. 39, the position of the control groove rel*
tive to the fuel inlet port is changed thus altering the
time at which the injection process ends, and therefore
the quantity of fuel injected. For the type of pump
shown, the beginning of the injection process can be
altered by rotating the cam on the camshaft.
The very high fuel injection pressures unavoidably
result in some expansion of the pressurized fuel piping
and compression of the fuel oil. This can cause a time
delay in the pressure rise at the injection nozzle. To
regulate the fuel flow satisfactorily and equalize the flow
and timing between cylinders, it is desirable that all highpressure fuel pipe lengths be equal, as short as possible,
and of heavy-wall construction.
Regardless of the type of fuel used, the injection valve
must be cooled. When only diesel fuel is used, the cooling medium is the fuel itself, but for heavy-fuel operation, a separate freshwater or diesel-oil cooling circuit is
used. Further discussion along these lines is contained
in Sections 2.2 and 3.1.
2.5
Starting, Reversing, and Control Arrangement.
Low-speed engines are started by means of compressed

air which flows through the starting air valve to the engine cylinders. The starting speed must be high enough
Fuel iniection regulating mechanism
[a]
to produce a temperature at the end of the compression

stroke sufficientlyhigh to ensure ignition of the injected
fuel. The starting speed is 30 percent or more of the
rated speed.
The starting torque must be high enough to overcome
the frictional losses in the engine and propeller shafting.
Frictional losses are high when the engine is cold due to
the increased viscosity of the lubricating oil, but the
engine frictional losses can be reduced by preheating the
main engine and its lubricating oil with warm water from
an external source.
Reversing the engine when the ship is ip motion is a
particularly stringent design criterion in that sufficient
starting power must be provided to overcome the hydrodynamic torque produced by the propeller.
The st'arting air is compressed and stored in air bottles
at a pressure of 400-600 psi. The starting air pressure
delivered to the starting valve is at a pressure of about
400 psi. The air bank capacity is specified by the classification societies in the form of a requirement that a
reversible engine be capable of at least twelve consecutive
starts without recharging the air bank. The required
air capacity consequently is dependent upon the number
of cylinders, cylinder diameter, ' piston stroke, mep,
service air pressure, and the like.
If a hot engine is reversed or started after a brief
shutdown, the cold starting air can subject the engine
to considerable thermal stresses.
A starting mechanism for a low-speed diesel is illus-
Il:i111
MARINE ENGINEERING
300
STARTI.NG AIR
DISTRIBUTING VALVES
-k
- TDC
TDC
CRANK ANGLE
SHIFT FOR
REVERSING
ASTERN
1 cam
2 reno pbton
3 starting air valve
Fig. 4 0
4
5
vent
starting air
Fig. 43
Fig. 41
Stating air mechanism
TDC
TDC
TDC
Admission of starting air
Several distributing valves actuated by one cam
TDC
TDC
8 sllding blbck
9 fuel regulating wheel
3 starting slide valve
10 slotted plate
4 fuel pump cam follower (ahd. & ast.) 11 stating air valve
5 stating lever
12 cylinder
6 slotted plate
13 air bottle
7 sen0 piston
14 air compressor
Fig. 45 Starting and revening mechanbm scheme
1
reversing lever
2 camshaft
! fuel valve open

2 fuel valve shut
3
hg. 4 4
PISTON
POSITION^
1 starting air only, first revolution

starting air only, s m d revolution
ignition of fuel and starting air
normal wmbulon without stating air
5 opening of the start1n.g air valve
Fig. 42 Cylinder pressure when starting
2
3
4
trated in Fig. 40. When the engine piston is just beyond

the top dead-center position, the distributor valve cam,
driven by the engine itself, opens the distributing valve,
thus opening the starting air valve pneumatically by
means of a servo piston. The starting air valve can be
opened only when the starting air pressure is higher than
the pressure in the combustion chamber, otherwise there
would be a backflow from the combustion chamber into
the starting air pipe. In such an event fuel or lubricating
oil residues could result in an explosion.
It is not necessary that each cylinder have a starting
air valve, but it is necessary that the engine be able to
start from any crank angle. In the case of two-stroke
engines, this means that at least three cylinders must be
equipped with starting air valves. The distributing valves
of the various cylinders are actuated by means of a common cam as shown in Fig. 41.
The pressure in the cylinder when starting the engine
is shown in Fig. 42. During the first two revolutions
shown, the engine rotates by means of compressed air
only to the required starting speed. During the third
revolution a limited quantity of fuel is injected into the
combustion chamber and burned; the fuel quantity
limitation is necessary to avoid excessively high pressures in the combustion chamber. During the fourth
cycle shown, the starting air is switched off and the
quantity of fuel injected is aa required for the running
condition desired, and the starting process is completed.
To reverse an engine, the distributor cam is turned
through such an angle that starting air is admitted when
crank angle shift for reversing

Fuel Inleetion cam shift for revening
the piston is on the proper side of the top dead-center

(2) The starting air system must be interlocked to
position to give the desired direction of shaft rotation.
preclude manipulation of the starting mechanism
Figure 43 illustrates the air adplission position for ahead
when the engine is in the normal operating mode.
and astern operation. Likewise, all cams which control
(3) The quantity of fuel injected into the combusprocesses in the cylinder that have unsymmetrical angles
tion chamber during the starting period must be
of opening and closing with respect to the dead-center
limited to prevent excessively high combustion
positions are turned throukh a aimilar angle. The shift
pressures (see Fig. 42); the fuel-regulating mecharequired of the fuel injection valve cam is illustrated by
nism should have an override which permits the
Fig. 44.
quantity of injected fuel to be increased to faciliFor two-stroke engines in which the pistons control the
tate starting under unfavorable conditions.
scavenging and exhaust air ports (loop and cross Faveng(4) The starting mechanism and turning gear must
ing) only the cams of the starting air and fuel pumps
be interlocked to preclude starting the engine
must be turned. In the case of uniflow two-stroke
when the turning gear is engaged.
engines, the cams actuating the exhaust valves must
There are several practical manners in which the cams
also be turned.
can
be shifted from the ahead to the astern positions.
To avoid errors during starting and reversing that
One
possibility is an arrangement with a two-position
m y result in engine damage, the following requirements
are imposed upon the starting and reversing mechanism: coupling between the driving gear of the engine and the
camshaft; the coupling would have end positions in the
(1) The starting air system must be interlocked such ahead and astern directions. Another possibility is to prothat starting air can be admitted only when all vide two cams on the camshaft, one for ahead operation
cams are in their end positions for ahead or astern and the other for astern operation; by moving the camoperation; admission of starting air must be pre- shaft axially, either the ahead or astern cams can be
cluded when cams are in intermediate positions.
placed in contact with the cam followers.
111
302
Fig. 4 6
MARINE ENGINEERING
Axid-movement camshaft with cams for ahead and astern

operation [8J
A simple starting and reversing mechanism is shown in

Fig. 45. For starting, the reversing lever 1 is placed in
either the ahead or astern position, thus moving the camshaft in the axial direction. This places the rollers of the
starting slide valves 3 and of the fuel pumps 4 in contact
with the proper cams. The starting lever 6, which was

previously blocked in the stop position by the plate 6 ,
now can be moved through the slots in the plate to the
starting position; this opens the starting air servo piston
7 by means of rods 8. The engine rotates, and upon
reaching the starting speed a limited quantity of fuel is
injected by turning the fuel regulating wheel 9; the
quantity of fuel injected is limited by the plate 10 in contact with the rods 8. After completing the starting
procedure, the starting lever 5 is moved to the operating
position, thus blocking the reversing lever 1 and a t the
same time freeing the fuel regulating wheel 9. Fuel now
can be injected as required to attain the desired engine
output.
Both hydraulic and pneumatic servomotors have been
used for moving the camshaft axially. A mechanism
for shifting the camshaft is illustrated by Fig. 46; the
camshaft is gear driven from the crankshaft as shown in
Fig. 47.
Another possibility for reversing the fuel injection
process is shown by Fig. 48. The camshaft has different cams for ahead and astern operation. The fuel
injection pump has a roller for each cam, and by turning
the reversing shaft the desired roller is placed in contact
with its corresponding cam. I t is also possible to change
the distance between the roller and cam by turning the
VERSING
AH~AD
CAM FOLLOWER
Fig.
48 Fixed-position camahaft with cams for ahead and astern operation
shaft; this means that the piston stroke of the fuel

injection pumps and consequently the quantity of injected fuel can be adjusted.
A mechanism in which the same cam is used for both
ahead and astern operation is shown in Fig. 49. The camshaft is directly driven by the crankshaft through a
two-position hydraulic coupling. The coupling permits
an angle of displacement asrequired for ahead and astern
operation. The cam shown in Fig. 49 serves two fuel injection pumps.
The reversing performance of a 65,000-dwt tanker is
shown by Fig. 50. The first step when reversing is to
internipt the flow of fuel to the engine. The ship begins
a gradual decrease in speed, but the engine rpm abruptly
drops until the propeller takes charge of the engine and
causes it to continue rotating in the ahead direction at
about 10-15 percent of the initial rpm. As the ship
speed decreases, the hydrodynamic torque developed by
r o ~ e l ldecreases
er
until the reversing speed
the ~
- is reached.
r
The reversing speed is the speed a t which the torque that
can be developed by admitting starting air to the engine
in the reverse direction is sufficient to stop the engine
(and propeller) and reverse it. Once initiated, the actual
reversing process is accomplished rapidly, as can be seen
from Fig. 50. When accomplished as illustrated by Fig.
50, the reversing maneuver is conservative. In the event
of an emergency, starting air can be admitted to the
r
AHEAD -ROLLER
Fig. 49
One cam for ahead and ostem operation 1 1 1 ]
Fig. 5 0
65,000-dwt tanker engine reversing and ship stopping performance
engine in the reverse direction sooner, before the engine

can actually take charge of the propeller, as a meam of
braking %he ship and decreasing the time required to
reach the reversing speed.
Section 3
Overall Considerations
Fig. 47
Camshaft drive gear
[8]
3.1 Heavy Fuel Operation. Low-speed marine diesel

engines, in general, burn heavy petroleum fuels that are
not only extremely viscous but also contain large quantities of impurities. The constituents, properties at injection, combustion, and combustion residues formed are
considerably different with heavy fuels as compared with

standard diesel fuels. As a result, when heavy fuel is
used, special arrangements for re paring the fuel before
injection as well as special design features of the engine
itself are required. In addition, special lubricating oils
304
MARINE ENGINEERING
are required for the combustion chamber when heavy

fuels are used.
Major differences between heavy fuels and diesel fuels
are as follows:
(1) The specsc gravity of heavy fuels is higher, in
the range of 0.9404.995 as compared with diesel fuels
at 0.824.86. Due to the higher specific gravity, the
separation of water from heavy fuels is considerably more
difficult. For this reason the filling of fuel tanks with
ballast water is often discouraged because upon refilling
with fuel, the residual water mixes with the fuel.
(2) Due to their higher viscosity (200-4000 Redw.
sec at 100 F), heavy fuels must be heated to 210-250 F to
reach the low viscosity (35-125. Redw. sec) required at
the injection valve.
(3) Heating of heavy fuels is also necessary to maintain the fuel at the proper viscosity at the injector.
Heavy fuels can be used when maneuvering, but the fuel
lines to the injection valve also must be heated. For this
reason, and also in recognition of the desirability of baving diesel fuel in the lines upon shutdown, sometimes
diesel fuels are used when maneuvering and the use of
heavy fuels is confined to continuous operation at sea.
(4) Due to the longer time required for the combustion of heavy fuels, the injection times for heavy fuel and
diesel fuel are different. Heavy fuels must be injected
earlier than diesel fuels.
(5) Heavy fuels contain large quantities of tarry substances which must be separated and removed from the
fuel because the tarry substances together with the
lubricating oil residues form gummy deposits which have
a deleterious effect on piston rings, inlet and exhaust
ports, and other parts. These materials can be separated
from the fuel by centrifuging, but it must be done when
the fuel is at a moderate temperature. When the fuel is
heated above approximately~210F, the tarry materials
dissolve and cannot be separated. Therefore, the heavy
fuel is heated to a maximum of 185-210 F before centrifuging. As an example, during a 24-hr period up to 880
lb of tarry materials and matter insoluble in normal
pentane, 615 lb of sulfur, and 13 lb of incombustible
matter may be removed from the fuel to a cylinder developing 2100 hp [19].
(6) Heavy fuels have an ash content (0.03-0.5 percent mineral ashes) which must be removed insofar as
practicable due to its erosive effect in the cylinder. The
fuel ash content is removed during the centrifuging
process.
(7) Heavy fuels may contain up to 5 percent sulfur.
Due to the high sulfur content, a significant quantity of
acid combustion residues passes down between the piston
and liner. These acid residues must be prevented from
entering the crankcase, otherwise the lubricating oil
would be contaminated and consequently there would
be a corrosion hazard. Therefore a diaphragm, with a
stuffingbox for the piston rod (see Section 1.6), is required
between the combustion chamber and crankcase.
(8) Due to the higher sulfur content in the fuel, there
is an increased hazard of corrosion by sulfuric acid in the

low-gas-temperature regions. The engine cooling s y 5
tem must be designed such that the temperatures of
materials which are contiguous with the combustion gases
are maintained above the dewpoint of the combustion
gases so that sulfuric acid will not form.
(9) Heavy fuels contain a number of impurities
which can have a vitiating effect on the life of operating
parts. Oxides and sulfates of vanadium, sodium,
potassium, and zinc are among the most harmful in this
respect, and all have melting points (slagging temperatures) in the range of 1100 F to 1600 F. Unfortunately,
several of these combine with each other and with the
ingredients of the structural metals to form eutectic mixtures with lower melting points, generally in the range
of 1050 F, but in several cases, as low as 930 F. The latter
temperature is associated with eutectic mixtures of
sodium sulfate and vanadium pentoxide which are particularly to be avoided.
Contamination (slagging) and corrosion often accompany each other but are not necessarily present at the
same time. Generally, the two mechanisms are interrelated in that accelerated corrosion results from the
contaminant combining with and removing the film of
oxidation which normally protects the metal. Therefore, in the high-temperature region (piston crown,
upper part of the liner, and cylinder head) an effective
cooling system is especially important with heavy fuels.
(10) Due to the combustion residues formed when
using a heavy fuel, special abrasion-resistant materials
must be selected for the cylinder liner, piston rings, and
other moving parts.
(11) The specific fuel consumption when burning a
heavy fuel is somewhat greater than when a diesel fuel
is used for the following reasons:
(a), The lower heating value of heavy fuels is in the
range of 17,100-17,500 Btu/lb, while that for

diesel fuel is 18,100-18,400 Btu/lb. For this
reason, the specific fuel consumption with heavy
fuels is increased 2-5 percent.
(b) The weight of fuel lost during the separation process depends, of course, on the quality of the fuel.
In the extreme case cited previously, by weight
about 7 percent of the fuel would be lost during
separation. However, a nominal value of 1 percent is considered more representative of the
heavy fuels normally burned in slow-speed diesels.
(12) Most heavy fuels contain highly volatile components and tend to form gases when heated; therefore,
heaters must be placed on the upstream pressure side of
the fuel line to prevent the formation of gas in the fuel
pump suction and heaters. Additionally, electric heaters
should not be used since cracking invariably takes place
due to the high localized temperatures which form gas
and coke in the heaters.
A process for heavy-fuel preparation is shown in Fig.
51. After the heavy fuel is heated in the main fuel tank
FUEL TANK
GAS
FILTER
FEED PUMP
PREHEATER
SEPARATORS
HEAVY FUEL TANK

DIESEL FUEL TANK (FOR MANEUVERING)
FEED PUMP
PREHEATER'
0
@=
Fig. 52
Gas Inleetion for a dual-fuel engine 191
FUEL DOUBLE- FILTER

VlSCOSlMETER
3.2 Gaseous Fuel Operation. In the case of liquefied

petroleum gas tankers that are driven by diesels, the
cargo boil-off can be burned in the diesel engines in concert with fuel oil. Since the gaseous boil-off would be
lost to the atmosphere if not reliquefied or burned, the
gaseous fuel burned represents a direct savings. ThereFig. 51 Heavy fuel oil treatment schematic
fore, low-speed diesel engines in liquefied petroleum gas
tankers are sometimes adapted for "dual-fuel" operation,
that is, the combustion of both liquid and gaseous fuels.
sufficiently to enable it to be pumped, it is pumped
Slow-speed diesels can be adapted to burn gaseous
through filters to two settling tanks, connected in fuels by mounting a gas injection valve in the cylinder
parallel, each having a capacity for 24-hr operation. In head as illustrated by Fig. 52. The gaseous fuel is under
these tanks the fuel is heated again to precipitate some a pressure of approximately 55 psi and is admitted by a
residues. After being allowed to settle, the fuel is re- hydraulically actuated gas valve during the later phase
heated and pumped to the separators. The reheat tem- of the scavenging process. The gas is directed towards
perature must be maintained sufficiently low so that the the rising flow of scavenging air, thus ensbring a good
tarry constituents will remain in solid form and be re- mixture between the gas and air.
moved from the fuel by the separator. In the first
The major difficulty involved in the combustion of
separator stage (purifier) a small quantity of fresh water gaseous fuels is the problem of knocking. A mean effecis added to remove the ash content and water-soluble tive pressure of about 115 psi can be developed with a
acids. No water is introduced in the second stage gaseous fuel containing not more than 10 percent methane
(clarifier). The fuel is often reheated between the two or 5 pwcent propane. A higher concentration of
separator stages.
methane or propane requires a derating of the engine.
Two separators are sometimes installed; this provides If, however, more than 10-percent carbon dioxide or
for continuous availability of a clean separator, as one nitrogen is mixed with the fuel, uprating is possible.
can be operated while the other is cleaned. Additionally, Cooling of the gaseous fuel charge also can be accomtwo separators are advantageous in that both may be plished to advantage.
used simultaneously when one is heavily loaded and not
Ignition of the gaseous fuel is accomplished by a spray
performing to the desired standard.
of pilot fuel which accounts for about 5 percent of the
After leaving the separator, the fuel is put in either of total heat input. If larger quantities of pilot fuel are
two day tanks that are connected in parallel. The fuel used, higher mean effective pressures are attainable.
oil ,service pump delivers the oil from the day tanks
An automatic switch-over gear is usually provided
through a preheater, filter, and viscosimeter to the fuel which enables the engine to be changed from a gaseous
injection pump. The line from the last heater to the to a liquid fuel without interrupting the operation of the
injection valve is heated by steam.
engine. Any proportion of gaseous to liquid fuels can
FUEL INJECTION PUMP
306
LOW-SPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DlFSEL ENGINES
MARINE ENGINEERING
. total fuel consumr>be used. At .the full-load ~ o i n tthe

tion is approximately the same with either gaseous or
diesel fuels.
3.3 Accessories. A great deal of pressure, temperature, and speed data must be talcell in order to ascertain
that the various processes within an engine are being performed properly. Audible and visual warning devices
also are used to identify measured data that are not within prescribed acceptable limits. Depending upon the
number of cylinders, between 60 and 100 bits of data aM
recorded. Data which are typically monitored at the
control station are as follows:
Direction of engine rotation (ahead or astern)
Engine rpm.(ahead or astern)
Turbocharger rpm
Pressures:
Starting air
Scavenging pressure to cylinder
Lubricating oil to and from cooler
Fresh water to and from cooler
Fresh water for piston cooling
Fresh water for cylinder cooling
Fresh water for injection valve cooling
Temperatures :
~ x h a u s gases
t
from each cylinder
Exhaust gases to and from turbocharger
Exhaust gas from exhaust gas boiler
Lubrication oil t o and from cooler
Fresh water to and from cooler
Seawater
Heavy fuel (also the viscosity)
ACCELERATION
TIMING
OIL
ASTERN
6
PROGRAM
VALVES
Fig. 54
Fig. 53
[a]
preloaders which permit studs to be tightened accurately

without imposing torsional loads on the studs; this is a
desirable capability in connection with cylinder head
studs, frame tie rods, and studs in crossheads, main bearings, and the like. The principle upon which the hydraulic wrench for tightening nuts operates is illustrated
in Fig. 53. Oil pressure is applied simultaneously to
several of the devices that are fitted over permanent nuts
to preload the studs; the permanent nuts then can be
tightened by hand by inserting a rod into the holes
bored in the bases of the nuts.
~
~application
~
oft a special
h tool ~is shown
~ in ~ i
54. Removal of the lower half of a main bearing shell is
facilitated by creating a hydrostatic oil film between the
bearing shell and the supporting structure. Upon turning the crankshaft, the higher frictional force between
the shell and the crankshaft causes the shell to turn with
the shaft to the point that it can be easily removed.
Special tools are also advantageous in the removal of
cylinder liners and in a number of other applications.
3.4 Remote Control and Automation. Remote contrO1 of a
propulsion plant
either the bridge Or
from a special control room and the automation of propubion plant
were first
in
Hydraulic tool for prelooding a stud '[a]
tion of fuel if the lubrication oil or cooling water pressures

should fall below acceptable limits.
Occasionally dampers are provided to minimize the
torsional vibration in the shafting system; torsional
vibration dampers are often mounted a t the forward end
These same parameters and others also can be monitored of the crankshaft.
Engines are equipped with a turning gear which endirectly at the engine. Mercury thermometers and
ables
the crankshaft to be rotated slowly. The turning
thermocouples are provided for taking temperature me*
part
operates
through the flywheel.
surements, and a recording tachometer is provided which
A
large
complement
of onboard repair parts are repermits an exact measurement of the engine revolutions.
The fuel consumption is measured by means of a fuel-oil quired for diesel engines. Some of the large repair
meter and can be checked by gage glasses on the day parts required are as follows :
tanks. Each cylinder is equipped with an indicating inpistons and piston rings
strument to determine the indicated p-u diagram for the
cylinder liners
cylinder.
cylinder heads
Speed regulation of the more recently built slow-speed
stuffing boxes for piston rods
diesels is accomplished by a hydraulic governor. Regfuel injection valves
ulation of the engine speed is accomplished by altering
starting valves
the output of the fuel injection pumps. The accuracy
safety valves
of regulation is within limits of about a 1 percent of the
exhaust
valves for uniflow engines
ordered speed. In addition to a speed regulator, an
overspeed trip is provided which interrupts the fuel injection process in the event that the normal speed This list 'of large and heavy parts is only representative;
regulator is not capable of maintaining the engine rpm furthermore, there are numerous smaller items.
The large dimensions and heavy weights of many of
within tlie prescribed limits. Circumstances which
the
low-speed engine parts require special tools. These
could cause the overspeed trip to actuate would be
very bad weather during which the engine rpm would tools make it possible for the small number of people
surge periodically due to the propeIIer partially coming aboard ship to properly execute with ease many mainteout of the water, the loas of a propeller which would nance tasks that otherwise would be onerous. Special
cause the engine to suddenly race, and analogous situ* tools effectively increase the availability of the engine.
Special tools typically provided include hydraulic stud
tions. Provisions are also made to interrupt the injec-
Hydraulic removal of main bearing lower shell
mation of engine operations are advantageous from

several points of view. First, but not necessarily the
most important, a reduction in routine supervisory labor
is permittted; particularly the
night-service
labor. Engine operation is supervised at the
bridge
in a
convenient manner
the monitoring
The
engine
need be manned a t night
in bad
weather or close waters for safety reasons only
(so that
the
engine can be switched to manual operation if need be)
and when maneuvering (this includes preparing the engine
for operation and shutting the engine down).
An additional advantage is that engine maloperation
is automatically sensed and alarmed. Furthermore, in
some cases remedial measures are taken automatically;
r - - - -,-,----
DIESEL
~ Fig..
55
ENGINE
Cantrol system rchqmatic diagrom for a direct-revehing

d l h l engine
as an example, in the event of failure of an auxiliary

such as a lubricating
pump, the
pump is started
and put on the
automatically. Thus, automatic
provides an additional degree of engine
safety in that prolonged engine msloperation is avoided,
The remote control and automation principles in the
case of low-speed engines are generally the same as
those
with other typesof propulsion plants.
But the automation of low-speed engines *
important as these engines are of larger power with corremeans tha% the engine's temperatures and temperature
gradients are high. with thermal stressw being a
matter of grave concern, it is advantageous to be able to
automatically monitor the temperatures
throughout the
engine.
A schemstic diagram of a
systemfor a directreversing
diesel
engine
is
shown
by
~ following
i 55.
~ When
. seoperating an engine automstically, the
quence is followed:
Starting the engine "ahead" or " a s h "
(1) Check that the fuel admission is set to zero.
(2) Move the starting air lever to "ahead" or
"astern"; this positions the camshaft so that
MARINE ENGINEERING
Fig. 56
Low-speed dieael installation
The following alarms are usually provided

starting air is admitted to the "ahead" or
mated control system:
"astern" ~ o r t of
s the distributor.
(3) Check that ingine rotation is"aheadJ' or "astern."
Main engine cooling 8 8tC.m
(4) Wait for the engine to reach the adjustable firing
, Pump suction and dehery pressures
speed.
Cooler inlet and outlet temperatures
Cooling water tank level gage
Raise
the
fuel
admission
linkage
to
the
starting
(5)
Reserve cooling water tank level gage
position.
Outlet temperature of each component cooled
(6) After a time delay, cut off the starting air.
Main engine h W i n g oil
Pump suction and delivery pressures
(7) Check to determine that the engine speed is above
Cooler inlet and outlet temperatures
or below the firing speed.
Sump tank level gauge
Pressures to and from filters
(8) If the rpm is above the firing speed, raise the fuel
Pressure at turbochargers
admission linkage to correspond with the conTemperature at each main bearing
troller setting.
Pressure at main bearing inlet mainfold
Cylinder lubricating oil pressure
(9) If the engine rpm is below the firing speed, repeat
Temperature of propeller shaft bearings
actions (1)-(7). When the engine has failed to
Pressure of oil to reduction g e m
fire three times, the starting sequence is disTemperature of reduction gear bearings
Temperature of thrust bearing
continued and the control system gives an
alarm.
Main engine exhauat goe
Temperature of gas leaving cylinder
Changing engine revolutions
Temperature of ges to and from blowers
(10) Move the fuel admission linkage to correspond
Main engine pre8eure charging 8y8tem
with the new telegraph setting.
Temperature of air at inlet
Air pressure leaving filters
Reversing the engine
Temperature of air leaving blowers
(11) Move the fuel admission lever to zero.
Temperature of air leaving coolers
(12) Wait until the revolutions have fallen to the
Turbocharger speed
Temperature inside scavenge belt
firing speed.
Main engine fuel oil
Perform
normal
starting
actions
(1)-(9).
(13)
Oil pressure to and from high-pressure fuel
If the engine has a barred speed range (i.e., a vibratory
0ii;:f::ure
to and from heaters
resonant frequency within the operating range), the fuel
Main engine starti9 air
lever setting is slowly increased until the engine speed is
Pressure in each an bottle
Pressure in starting manifold on engine
above the ba&?l _speedrange.
- ,
in an autoAhwn
Low
High
Low
Low
High
Low High
LO^
High
Low
Low
High
Low
High
High
High
High
High
Low
High
High
Low
High
High, Low
High, Low
Low
Low
For additional discussion regarding the automation of

diesel propulsion plants, see Section 2.4 of Chapter 21.
3.5 Installation Aboard Ship. Low-speed diesel engines are not rigid either in bending or in torsion; for this
reason, it is not possible to place vibration isolation
material between the engine and the hull foundation. A
rigid hull foundation, with a high resistance to vertical,
athwartship, and fore-and-aft deflections, is required.
The engine is bolted to the hull foundation with fitted
bolts used a t one end of the engine (near the thrust bearing) and clearance-fit bolts towards the other end.
Chocks are accurately machined and fitted between the
engine base and the hull foundation so as to uniformly
support the engine and avoid imposing stresses on the
.engine frame. The design of hull foundations does not
lend itself to an exact analysis; instead, it is influenced '
greatly by previous successful experience.
The engine room must be designed such that there is
sufficient overhaul space above the engine for the removal
of cylinder heads, pistons with piston rods, and cylinder
liners. Furthermore, these and other replacement parts
which are both large and heavy must be lifted by cranes.
Consequently, the engine room must be designed to permit the replacement parts to be lifted from their storage
area, transported, and lowered to the engine by crane.
An engine room skylight, or similar opening, also should
be provided to transport replacement parts to and from
the ship.
Due to the low-frequency noise generated by lowspeed engines, the operating platform can be located a t
the engine itself. But special control rooms are often
preferred as the noise level in the control room can be
made to be approximately 30 db less than the 100 db in
the engine room.
The auxiliary equipment is arranged in groups to
facilitate their control and surveillance. For example,
the lubricating oil equipment, including pumps, filters,
coolers, separators, and their fittings, are grouped together. Similarly the cooling water, heavy fuel preparation, and electric plant equipment are arranged in groups.
A low-speed diesel engine with a rating of 18,000 shp a t
118 rpm as installed in a container ship is shown in Fig.
56. Electric power is produced by the generator mounted
directly on the line shafting. Operation of the entire
plant is automatic, and it is remotely controlled from the
bridge. The engine room is completely unattended for 16
hours of the day.
309
References
1 K. Illies, Schiffsbetriebstechnik, yieweg-Verlag

Braunschweig, 1969.
2 K. Illies, "Neueste Entwicldungen im Schiffsmaschinenbau," Jahrbuch des Schflahrtswesens, 1968.
3 S. Bock and G. Mau, Die Dieselmaschine im Landund Schiffsbetrieb, Friedrich Vieweg u. Sohn, Braunschweig, 1968.
4 W. Henschke; Schijj'bautechnisches Handbuch,
VEB Verlag Technik, Berlin, 1958.
5 F. Mayr, Ortsfeste und Schiffsdieselmotoren,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1948.
6 F. Sass, Bau und Betrieb von Dieselmaschinen,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1948.
7 F. A. F. Schmidt, Verbrennungskraftmaschinen,
Verlag R: Oldenbourg, Munchen, 1951.
8 Illustrations through the courtesy of MAN.
9 Illustrations through the courtesy of Sulzer. 10 ~llustrationsthrough the courtesy of Doxford.
11 Illustrations through the courtesy of Fiat.
12 Illustrations through the courtesy of Burmeister
and Wain.
13 T. W. D. Abell and J. F. Butler, "The Future of
the Large Direct-Coupled Diesel Engine," SNAME
Spring Meeting, 1966.
14 J. A. Smit, "The Future of Diesel Propulsion,"
SNAME Spring Meeting, 1966.
15 H. Andresen, "Slow-Running Marine Diesel
Plants," SNAME Spring Meeting, 1966.
16 E. A. van der Molen and Ir. H. van der Wal, "Air
Consumption Data and Practical Performance Data of
the Stork Uniflow-Scavenged Two-Stroke Marine Engine," Trans. IME, 1966.
17 K. Knaack, "Taupunktverhalten von Verbrennungsgasen mit hoheren Luftuberschusszahlen," Schiff
und Hafen, 1968.
18 M. J. van der Zijden and A. A. Kelly, "Combating
Cylinder Wear and Fouling in Large Low-Speed Engines," Trans. IME, 1956.
19 Hugo H. Scobel and Jochen Richter, "A New A p
proach to Maintenance and Operation of Large-Bore,
Two-Stroke Diesel Engines, and Experience in Operation
of Periodically Unattended Engine Rooms," SNAME
Diamond Jubilee (Spring) Meeting, 1968.
20 D. Gray, Centralized and Automatic Controls in
Ships, Pergamon Press, 1966.
r(
CHAPTER I X
semar
I Reduction Gears
Section 1
Introduction
1.1 Early History. It is generally acknowledged
that Dr. DeLaval was the first to apply a reduction gear
for ship propulsion with a 15-hp experimental unit in
1892. This was followed by Sir Charles Parsons with
.his 10-hp experimental geared-turbine unit in 1897.
However, these were experimental units and functional
marine reduction gears did not make their debut until
some years later.
Just after the turn of the century, the steam turbine
was being championed for ship propulsion by Sir Charles
Parsons and others. I n a study in 1904 of the prob*
bility of the steam turbine becoming a successor to the
reciprocating engine, Admiral George W. Melville and
Mr. John H. MacAlpine, consulting engineers, reported:
"If one could devise a means of reconciling, in a practical
manner, the necessary high speed of revolution of the
turbine with the comparatively low rate of revolution
required by an efficient propeller, the problem would be
solved, and the turbine would practically wipe out the
reciprocating engine for the propulsion of ships. The
solution of this problem would be a stroke of great
genius." Parsons in 1909 said, "The solution may be
found in reverting to some description of gearing. . . and
if a satisfactory solution can be found, then the field of
the turbine at sea will be further extended."
Parsons carried on further research and experimental
work in applying the helical gear to large-scale marine
installations, and in 190!9-1910 he equipped the Vespaaian
with a geared-turbine plant. The gear was rated a t
1095 hp and reduced the turbine speed of 1450 rpm to a
propeller speed of 73 rpm.
George Westinghouse, in 1909, demonstrated in a shop
test a 6000-hp gear which reduced the speed from a
1500-rpm turbine to a 300-rpm hydraulic dynamometer.
This gear was the forerunner of the 6500-hp gears
installed in the collier Neptune a short time later.
The adoption of high-speed helical reduction gears in
connection with marine propulsion was rapidly accepted
by engineers all over the world, and this type of equipment had a very rapid development. At the end of 1910
the total power of geared marine turbines was about
15,000 shp, whereas 30 years later marine propulsion of
this type in service totaled over 100,000,000 shp. It is
interesting to note that the last large ship built with
direct-connected turbines was the passenger liner
Ile-&-France, which went into service in 1927. The
IZede-France had a propulsion plant of 52,000 shp

divided arriong four screws. The turbines were designed
by Parsons and were of the reaction type. The main
turbines contained a total of more than 800,000 blades
and weighed 1065 tons.
With the further development of the steam turbine,
still higher turbine speeds could be used to advantage
and the single-reduction gear no longer met the need.
Engineers began development of the double-reduction
gear, where practically no limits were imposed on the
speed ratio that could be obtained. This permitted both
the turbines and propellers to be operated a t speeds
suitable for their individual maximum efficiencies.
Double-reduction gearing was first used about 1917.
For a few years during and after the first world war,
many ships were equipped with this type of gearing.
Due to many unknown factors entering into the design
and use of this new type of reduction gear and also due
to the unusual operating conditions during the first years
of use, considerable difficulties were experienced and
many casualties of reduction gears occurred, which
more or less slowed the general adoption of doublereduction gearing. However, by adhering to sound
design principles, it was possible to eliminate early
mistakes and develop satisfactory double-reduction
gears and to greatly increase the application of this type
of power transmission. This is not to suggest that the
development of double-reduction gears immediately
made single-reduction gears obsolete. For higherpowered naval ships with propeller speeds above about
200 rpm, single-reduction gears remained in general use
until the early 1930's. Then, the higher rotational
speeds of the more modern steam turbines brought about
the demise of single-reduction gearing for turbine drives
in all categories. Single-reduction drives still remain the
standard, however, , for high- and intermediate-speed
diesel engine service.
The development of propulsion gearing has been one of
a continuous improvement and refinement in materials
and in manufacturing techniques and equipment to
provide greater reliability and longer life. The horsepower ratings of gears have increased to keep pace with
the requirements for larger and faster ships. There are
only a few step-advances that can be identified, the step
from single to double reduction, the introduction of
welding to the construction of gear wheels and casings,
and the introduction of higher hardness pinion and gear

materials with the attendant higher gear *toothloadings.
The reliability, high efficiency, and long life of the modern
reduction gear is well known and its low noise level makes
it completely acceptable in the engine room. These
factors have been in large part responsible for the
continuing popularity of the geared-turbine drive for
ships.
1.2 Articulation and Gear Arrangement. The early
reduction gear designs incorporated many devices to
minimize the effects of bending and torsion of the pinion
and of inaccuracies in machining and alignment. However, experience has demonstrated that such devices are
unnecessary, and gear elements are so proportioned and
machined that uniform tooth pressures are obtained
without the use of mechanical devices to compensate for
pinion deflections.
Figure l(a) represents the simplest arrangement of a
marine reduction gear, i.e., one pinion meshing with a
gear as used, for instance, for connecting a propeller to a
diesel engine or to an electric motor. It is not used for
propelling equipment with a turbine drive but, on the
other hand, it has found a wide application for turbine
driven auxiliary equipment on board ship such as
generators
and circulating pumps.
Figure l(b) is a drive with two pinions as used frequently with diesel engines of comparatively large power.
It is not used for direct connection to high-speed turbines,
but is often used in the second reduction gear unit of a
turbine drive using doublereduction gears.
Figure l(c) represents the early type of single-reduction gear for a turbine drive, the principal difference
between this reduction gear and the one shown in Fig.
l(b) being in the number of pinion bearings. The third
bearing located between the two helices is necessary
because of the wide tooth face in relation to the diameter
of the pinion. While many ships with reduction gears
built according to Fig. l(c) are still in successful oper*
tion, this design must a t the present time be considered
obsolete. It was used for speed ratios up to or slightly
above 20 to 1.
Figure l(d) is the usual arrangement of a double
reduction gear for turbinedriven ships. The two input
pinions are driven by the two elements (high-pressure
and low-pressure turbines) of a cross-compound turbine.
Power is divided between the two input pinions by the
turbine characteristics and is normally split approximately equally between the two turbines. Note that
the second reduction gear is common to both highpressure! and low-pressure trains but that, although it
transmits the power from both turbines to the gear shaft,
the tooth portion is designed to transmit the power from
one turbine. The terms "tandem" and "articulated" are
also applied to this arrangement; tandem because of the
disposition of the first and second reductions, and
articulated because a flexible coupling is generally
provided between the first reduction or primary gear
wheel and the second reduction or secondary pinion.
31 1
GEARS
Figure l(e) represents the "nested type" doublereduction gear, which has also been used with crosscompound turbines. The configuration shown has the
second reduction helices divided to provide space for the
first reduction and is additionally referred to as a "split
secondary." The nested type may also be arranged as a
"split primary. "
Figure 10 illustrates the type of gear referred to as a
locked-train double-reduction gear. In it the power
of the single input pinion is equally divided between the
two intermediate-speed elements. Its advantage is that
the gear elements are proportioned for one half of the
input horsepower and are therefore smaller than would
be the case with a single intermediate element. The
overall size and weight are reduced, but offsetting this
advantage is the added number of parts, the need to
provide torsionally flexible shafts between the first and
second reductions, and the need to "time" the assembly
to equaliie the power split between the two trains. The
term "dual tandem" is also applied to this type of gear.
Figure l(g) is a locked-train type of double-reduction
gear for a cross-compound turbine. This arrangement
has become standard for high-powered naval ships and is
coming into use for higher-powered merchant ships
because it minimiaes the total weight and the size of the
assembly.
Figure l(h) is a planetary gear. It has a single input
"sun pinion" which drives three or more "planet gears."
These planet gears are mounted on a planet carrier
which is solidly connected to the output coupling. The
outer "ring gear" is held stationary in the gear housing.
This type of gear has been applied to turbine-generator
drive gears and to main turbine drive first reductions.
It has also been considered for the second reduction of
main reduction gears.
Many other reduction gear arrangements are possible
and have been used. These can be very special as in
cases where more than one type
prime mover is
coupled to the propeller.
1.3 Methods of Manufacture. Nearly all gears
produced in the U. S. have their teeth cut by the hobbing
process. In this process the cutting tool is a hob, a
rotary cutter having one or more leads, whose teeth are
accurately formed to the "basic rack" tooth form selected.
I n the hobbing process the teeth are cut and the true
involute form of the tooth flanh is generated by the
continuous rotation of the hob and the gear blank.
The hob determines the dimensions of the teeth in the
plane normal to the teeth. The other factors determining the tooth geometry, number of teeth, and helix angle
are obtained by selecting change gear ratios for the
hobbing machine; the selection of the change gear
ratio provides a choice of these variables without a
change of tooling. By adjusting the helix angle (which
affects the tooth profile in the plane of rotation), it is
possible to use a given hob (which dictates the tooth
profile in the plane normal to the teeth) and produce a
favorable number of teeth within rather broad limits.
ef
KEDUCTION GEARS
MARINE ENGINEERING
(a) Single reduction, single input
(f) Double reduction, single input, locked train
For this reason, manufacturers standardize with a small

number of hobs.
The other cutting process which has been used in the
U. 5.. and is still used abroad for large gears is shaping.
I n this process the shaping cutter is either in the form of
a basic rack section or a small gear, stroking in timed
relation to the rotation of the blank to generate the tooth
form.
Post-cutting processes are generally applied to further
refine the accuracy and surface finish of the gear teeth.
I n the shaving process, which is the most popular in the
U. S., a multitooth cutter in the form of a small gear is
pressed tight in mesh with the gear being shaved. As
the gear is rotated rapidly and the shaving cutter fed
slowly across the gear face, a very light cut is taken from
the tooth flanks. This results in a finer tooth surface
and a more precise involute form than can be produced
by hobbing. The shaving process also makes possible
the correction of slight mismatch in the helix angle of
the gear and pinion by selectively shaving that portion
of the face width which indicates the heaviest tooth

contact.
In the lapping process, the gear is rotated in mesh with
its own pinion or pinions, or with a cast iron lap having
the same face width. An abrasive is placed between the
mating teeth and lapping is continued until proper
surface h i s h , involute, and face contact are obtained.
In the grinding process, as applied to gears of large
diameter, the flanks of the gear teeth are formed by the
tip of a grinding wheel (which passes over the flanks to
generate an involute form) and by the action of the
@;rindkgmachine to generate the correct tooth form and
helix angle.
Although not within the scope of this chapter, the
inspection, installation, and alignment procedures used
in connection with reduction gears can have a major
impact on their successful operation. These subjects
are comprehensively covered by reference [I],' which was
prepared by the Society's Panel M-12, and reference 121,
which describes methods used with naval ships.
(dl Double reduction, double input, articulated
Section 2
Tooth Design hctors
2.1 Tooth Contact Pressure. The most important
factor in the design of a reduction gear is the tooth
contact pressure; that is, the pressure which exists
between the mating tooth surfaces when force is transmitted from one to the other. This factor determines
the durability of the working surfaces of the teeth.
The tangential force transmitted per unit of gear face
width is determined from the expression:
(b) Single reduction, double input
(9) Double reduction, double input, locked train
where
W t = total tangential tooth load, lb

F , = effective face width (at pitch diameter), in.
R P M , = pinion revolutions per minute
H P = horsepower transmitted (per mesh)
d = pitch diameter of pinion, in.
(el
Dwble reduction, double input, nested
neither of these expressions was an accurate measure

of the actual load-carrying capacity of a reduction gear
because they did not take into account the contact
pressure between mating teeth. The contact pressure
is the proper design criterion because it is the factor that
determines the satisfactory operation and durability of
gears.
For many years, in the U. S., the allowable gear tooth
pressure for turbine drives was related directly to the
pinion diameter so that the loading was specified as
"pounds per inch of face per inch of pitch diameter."
This was logical since the curvature of the pinion tooth
as it affects contact pressure, or more precisely the
compressive stress a t the contact surface, is directly
proportional to the pinion diameter. Then,
Fe
(allowable) = J . d
The allowable tooth load per unit of face width where J is an experimentally determined constant,
increases with the diameter of the pinion because of the pounds per inch of face per inch of diameter.
When gear dimensions are known, the J factor can be
decreasing curvature of the contacting surfaces. I n
early gear designs, particularly in Britain, the allowable calculated as follows:
tooth pressure per unit of face width was taken as proporJ='- W
126,050 HP
tional to the square root of the pinion diameter; that is
F. d - R P M , . dz . Fa
W 6 (allowable) = C&
Fe
(2)
The foregoing relationship, although an improvement,
is not precise because it ignores the effect of the curvature
where
of the mating tooth. A further refinement which takes
C = experimentally determined,constant
this into account is
Yet another expression related the allowable pressure to
the two-thirds power of the pinion diameter. However,
1 Numbers in brackets designate References at end of chapter.
(c)
Single reduction, double Input, three-bearing

pinions
(h) Single reduction, planetary
Rg. 1
Gear arrangements
W, =
Wt
COB 4,
126,050 H P
.cos # = cos 4, . cos # . RPM,
(6)
where
W, = total load normal to contact lines, lb
4. = pressure angle (plane normal to teeth)
# = helix angle
The average total length of all the lines of contact is
n
Lam
average
length of
contact
lines^
Z = length of line of action, in.
P, = normal base pitch, in.

Dividing equation (6) by equation (7) the loading per
unit of contact line length is equal to
where
Wnl = tooth load per inch of contact line, lb/in.
The radius of curvature bf the pinion tooth at the pitch
diameter is
d sin 4
PP =
5-&G&
where
p,
4
=
=
#*
radius of curvature, in.

pressure angle in plane of rotation =
tan 4,
tan-' cos #
base helix angle (helix angle at base circle
diameter) = sin-' sin # cos 4,
and of the gear tooth is
D sin 4
Fig. 2 Imoluh geometry
F.
(4)
K---= Wt R + l
F..d R
JR+l
R
126,050-HP ( R + l )
RPM, .dp.F.
R
where
R = gear ratio
K = experimentally determined constant
This factor K representing the allowable tooth surface
stress is the familiar "K-factor" by which gear loadings
are now generally specified. Note that the K-factor is
simply the loading per inch face per inch diameter, J in
l)/R. Where gear
equation (3), multiplied by (R
design detsils are known the K-factor oan be determined
by the failowing relationahips:
It can be shown that the K-factor is a good measure of

tooth surface stress, i.e., the maximum compressive
stress to which the tooth materials in contact are
subjected.
Referring to Fig. 2 it can be seen that the total tooth
loading in a helical involute gear is carried by a series of
straight contact lines extending diagonally from the tip
to the root of each meshing pair of teeth. The total
force normal to the surfaces in contact is
GG&
RP,
where
D = pitch diameter of gear, in.
R = gear ratio
The relationships of helical involute geometry involving pressure angles, lineg of contact, lines of action, etc.
are described in numerous places in the gear literature,
e.g., reference [3].
The tooth elements in contact may be considered to be
elements of two tangent cylinders in contact under an
applied force. The compressive stress between two
cylinders is given by the Hertz equation:
where
8 = maximum compressivestress between surfaces,

n
r
psi
- = loading per inch of length, Ib/in.

L
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
rl, rs = radii of cylinders, in.
substituting equations (5) to (10) in this Hertz
equation, the compressive stress between the pinion and
gear teeth becomes :
dx)
where
(allowable) = K
315
REDUCI'ION GEARS
MARINE ENGINEERING
(11)
& = (4580 Z sin 2$ d~
The first term includes the modulus of elmticiti and
geometric factors which are chosen by the gear designer.
However, within practical limits, for steel gears with wellproportioned tooth geometry, this term cannot be varied
significantly.
The second term is the square root of the K-factor and
shows that gears of equal K-factor will have nearly equd
compressive stress. With the compressive stresspropor
tional to the square root of the K-factor, it would follow
that if the allowable stress is considered to be directly
proportional to the material hardness, then the allowable
K-factor should be proportional to the square of the
material hardness.
Despite the apparent mathematical exactness of these
formulas, many effects on tooth durability are not
evaluated by them. Some of these effects, such aa the
bending and torsion of the pinion, can be analyzed; but
others can be evaluated only by service experience.
Among the, latter are the prec&ion-with which the tooth
surfaces are formed and the tolerance to small misalignments, vibratory forces, and the inevitable foreign
particles which find their way into the teeth mesh.
Satisfactory values for the K-factor have been established by experience for the materials in common use,
and the commonly specified values are discussed in
Section 3.8. I t may be noted that the K-factor controls
the size of the reduction gear unit. For a given set of
horsepower and rpm conditions, the volume and weight
of the gear will vary in nearly inverse proportion to the
K-factor. I t is alm significant that the K-factor and
the pitch, or coarseness, of the teeth are independent.
Under the as~umptionthat the tooth pressure is uniformly
distributed over the contact lines, that is, uniformly
distributed from the tip to the root of each contacting
tooth, the contact compressive stress is affected to only a
slight degree by a change in pitch. However, the
practical requirements for greater tip relief with coaxser
teeth make the tooth extremities of coarser teeth less
effective in carrying their share of the load. In other
words, the assumption of uniformity of tooth pressure
from tip to root, which leads to a minimal calculated
value of surface stress, is less valid for coarser teeth.
Unfortunately, there is no precise procedure for evaluating this effect.
2.2 Tooth Bending Strength. I n addition to providing the surface necessary to sustain the contact loading
31 6
MARINE ENGINEERING
imposed upon gear teeth, the teeth must also withstand

the bending moments tending to bend or break the teeth
at their roots. Since the teeth are cyclicly loaded at a
high rate, the bending stresses in the root portion of the
tooth must be kept well within the fatigue or endurance
limit of the material.
To arrive at a formula for bending stress, it is necessary
to make the same assumptions of uniform disthbution of
tooth pressure over all limes of contact. The loading per
inch of contact line developed earlier is
By substituting equations (6), (7), and (8) into

equation (14), the bending stress in the root of the helical
gear teeth becomes
Equation (15) contains the important variables

affecting bending stress. Further refinement, or a more
precise assessment of the stress as it determines the
bending fatigue strength of the teeth, can be made by
including two additional factors. One is the compressive
stress across the tooth root cross section due to the rfdial
component of the tooth load which acts to reduce the
For a spur gear tooth the highest bending stress occurs bending stress on the tension side; the other is the stress
when the load is acting a t the extreme tip of the tooth. concentration created by the root radius adjacent to the
The tooth form factor Y which relates the tooth loading critical bending cross section. Both of these additional
factors are included in the bending strength derivation
to bending stress a t the root is
in
the military specification for reduction gears [4].
.e
Referring to equation (15) it can be seen that the bending stress Sa is directly proportional to the tangential
tooth load per inch of face and inversely proportional to
where
the first power of the tooth dimensions. Other variables
t = tooth thickness at root, in.
are of secondary importance and change very little with
h = tooth height dimension, in.
well-proportioned teeth in the usual range of helm angle
These tooth dimensions are shown in Fig. 2. For a spur and pressure angle. As a good approximation, the
bending stress formula can thus be simplified to
gear, the bending stress at the root is computed as
(I3)
where
This s8me relationship also holds for helical gears but,

C = a constant depending on the tooth proporalthough the assumption that the loading is tip-applied
tions, helix angle, pressure angle, etc.
is good for spur or low helix angle gears, it is invalid for
Wt
U = unit loading = NDP
steeper helii angles where the loading extends diagonally
Fa
over a portion of the tooth. Therefore, a diagonal
NDP = normal diametral pitch of teeth
loading factor should be applied. This is particularly
The normal diametral pitch is in inverse proportion to
true when comparing designs with different helix angles.
The stress, as given in the foregoing, should be reduced the linear dimensions of the tooth cross sections and is
by a factor, k, which is a function of the helix angle. therefore an accurate reference for tooth size. As a
result, the unit loading, which is simply the tooth loading
Equation (13) then becomes
per inch of face multiplied by the normal diametral
pitch, is a convenient measure of bending stress, just as
the K-factor is a measure of surface stress. The allowable unit loadings are generally in the range of 6000 to
where
8000. However, this range may be safely exceeded with
k = diagonal loading factbr
DroDer standards of alignment accuracy, metallurgy, etc.
High-powered naval vessels employ unit loads well
Values for the diagonal loading factor are given in Table above 10,000.
1. Factors for interinediate values of the helix angle
From the considerations of bending stress alone, it
may be determined by interpolation.
would appear quite easy to lower the bending stress
simply by increasing the size of the teeth. However,
this entails compromises with surface stress, scoring, and
noise considerations; consequently the tooth pitch must
Table 1 Diagonal Loading Factors
be selected to provide the best balance of all factors.
HXLIXANGLE
k
2.3 Tooth Scoring Factor. The action of two involute
tooth surfaces when rotating in unison is such that the
contacting surfaces both roll and slide over each other.
At the pitch line point of contact, the sliding component
is zero and the contacting surfaces are in pure rolling
REDUCTION GEARS
contact. But the sliding component increases with the

distance from the pitch line and is a maximum at the
tooth extremities, tip and root. This sliding action, if
sufFiciently severe, can cause scoring of the tooth
surfaces. This scoring or galling is an actual fusing or
welding together of particles of the contacting surfaces.
Under the continued motion, particles are torn from one
surface and either deposited on the other surface or
released.
Scoring results from tooth pressure in conjunction
with a sliding velocity. The tendency to score is usually
assessed by means of a scoring or PVT factor which
places a numerical value on a combination of the contact
pressure and sliding velocity. A definition of the terms
and formulas for calculating P,VT can be found in [6].
A number of additional factors. such as lubricant and
tip relief, influence the tendency of gears to score such
that considerable expertise and practical experience are
3 17
required to seleat the tooth form, niaterials, surface

finish, and lubricant to avoid scoring difficulties.
Coarser teeth are more prone to score than finer teeth
so that with coarser teeth it may be necessary to modify
the involute form to relieve the contact pressure at the
tooth tips to avoid scoring. Lubricating oils vary in
their ability to prevent scoring, and it may be necessary
in some gear designs to use oil having a higher E P or
"extreme pressure" quality.
Scoring, which results in a serious deterioration of the
tooth surfaces, is not to be confused with the minor
scratching of the tooth surfaces that results from the
passage of minute particles between the teeth. Scratching under certain light reflection can appear to be scoring.
Scoring, however, will be rough to the touch. For a
comprehensive discussion of the various modes of gear
tooth failure and some practical experiences in thi$ regard,
see reference 151.
tear Design
3.1
Determination of Approximate Size of Gears.
While the detail design of a reduction gear requires a

high degree of skill, it is fairly easy to establish approximate dimensions of a reduction gear. As an example,
consider a doublereduction gear which is to be designed
to meet the following requirements :
Shaft horsepower. . . . . . . . . . .25,000 hp at 108rpm
H P turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12,500 hp at 6100 rpm
LP turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12,500 hp at 4100 rpm
First reduction K-factor . . . . .K1 = 140
Second reduction K-factor. . . .Ke = 110
A conventional arrangement, as illustrated by Fig. l(d),
haa been selected and suitable dimensions for the pitch
diameters and face widths are to be computed.
The H P and LP turbines develop equal horsepower;
however, the H P turbine turns faster than the LP
turbine. As a result, the H P side will require a larger
gear reduction and will control the size of the second
reduction elements; therefore, it will be computed first.
The overall reduction ratio of the H P side is 6100 to 108.
As a first approximation, the ratio of the second reduction
can be taken as the square root of the overall ratio
minus 1.0. (For a locked-train gear, 3.0 would be added
to the square root of the overall ratio.) The second
reduction ratio then becomes
The loading per inch of face per inch of pitch diameter

for the first reduction can now be computed.
125.5 lb/in-in.
The next step is to equate two expressions for the
tangential tooth load as follows,
. HP = Jl . Fa.d
wt = 126,050
d . RPM
solving for dsF,
126,050 HP - (126,050)(12,500) = 2058
d ' ~ ,=
J . RPM
(125.5) (6100)
Generally, the most economical reduction gear is one
where the pinion diameter is as small as possible with
relation to its working face. However as will be seen
later, the face width-to-diameter ratio cannot be too high
if excessive deflections are to be avoided. Ratios of 2.0
to 2.25 represent good practice and 2.25 is selected. With
this stipulatipn, the computations may proceed:
F, = 2.25 d
and the first reduction pinion diameter is

dl = @E= 9.71 in.
afid the first reduction ratio is
with an effective face width of
Fe1= (2.25)(9.71)
= 21.8 in.
The first reduction gear is next computed aa
MARINE ENGINEERING
D l = Rid1
(8.66)(9.71) = 84.1 in.
Similar cdculations can now be made for the second

reduction :
J z = Kz- Rz = 'lo 6'52 = 95.4 lb/in-in.
6.52
1
Rz 1
This LP first reduction is larger than it would be if it

were designed to the maximum permissible K-factor, but
this may be offset by the economy of using the same part
for both first reduction gears.
The pitch diameters as determined in the foregoing
must now be laid out to determine if centerline positions
23,460 in. and other arrangement considerations are acceptable.
The optimum gear arrangement may require adjusting
Again selecting F , = 2.25 d, the second reduction pinion the choice of ratios between first and second reduction0
diameter becomes
and the choice of face width-to-diameter ratim.
With the approximate diimeters and face widths as
d za = A
23 460 = 10,430 in.'
determined in the foregoing, the designer will next check
2.25
to determine that bending and torsional deflections are
acceptable. Formulas for these deflectionsare developed
in the following section. He may select a lower L I D
with an effective face width of
ratio if these deflections are too high and then adjust
diameters and face widths accordingly.
Fez = (2.25)(21.8) = 49.0 in.
Tooth pitch is then selected to provide the best
and a second reduction gear diameter of
balance between bending stress, scoring factor, and noise.
The best compromise in this regard is generally the finest
Dz = (21.8)(6.53) = 142.1 in.
pitch permitted by the bending stress or unit loading
limits.
This will result in an acceptable bending stress,
The LP first reduction can be proportioned in the
same manner, but it is desirable to design the arrange minimum scoring factor, and minimum noise level.
Tooth pitch, addendum, dedendum, pressure angle,
ment such that the second reduction pinions on both the
HP and LP sides are identical. Since the first reduction etc., and tooth proportions, are made to suit the stangear speed on the LP side must be the same as that on dards for which the manufacturer has tooling. These
the HP side (704 rpm), the first LP reduction ratio will be: standards are in small enough increments that no
significant compromise is involved. Numbers of teeth
are chosen to provide "hunting tooth" combinations
between mating pinions and gears, and diameters or
helix
angles are adjusted to the precise values determined
Proceeding as before
by the numbers of teeth. A hunting tooth combination
is one in which the numbers of pinion and gear teeth have
no common prime factor. This means that each tooth
will
with every tooth of the mating element and
126,050 - H P (126,050)
(12,500)
- (119.5)(4100) = 3216 in. 8 thus mesh
d l Z ~=,
avoid any wear or tooth spacing pattern that can
J1 . R P M
give rise to asub-harmonicof the tooth meshing frequency.
Selecting F , = 2.25 d
As noted previously, the design of gears is based on the
tooth pressure being uniformly distributed across the
dl a = - - - 1429 in.'
entire face width. Many factors adversely aiTect this
tqoth pressure distribution and must be taken into
dl =9= 11.26in.
account. Among these factors are torsional and bending
Fd = (2.25)(11.26) = 25.3 in.
deflections of the pinion, accuracy of manufacture,
deflections due to centrifugal force, strains due to
Dl = (11.26)(5.82) = 65.5 in.
temperature variations, and casing distortions due to
It may be desirable to use the same first reduction temperature differences and hull deflections. Two of
gear on the LP side asused on the HP side. In this case, these factors, torsional and bending deflections of the
pinion, are important in proportioning gear elements and,
D
dl='-"- 14.45 in.
fortunately,
are readily evaluated.
Ri 5.82
3.2 Torsional Pinion Deflection. When' subjected
Fel = 21.8 in.
to a uniform tooth pressure, a pinion will deflect torsionD l = 84.1 in.
ally as shown in Fig. 3. The teeth will separate from the
mating
gear teeth by the distance y. However, since the
126,050 H P (126,0a)(12,500)
W t= d l . R P M - (14.45) (4100) = 26,600 lb pinion is always free to shift endwise to balance the load
Fi:.
REDUCTION GEARS
between the two helices, the separation after this axial

shift will be yl on the helix ne& to the coupling m d yz
on the helix away from the coupling. The torsional
deflection in the space between the helices has no effect
on the separation. The separations will then be
F
1
where
yl = tooth separation at driving end, in.

y~ = tooth separation opposite from drioing end, in.
c = -where 4 = diameter of pinion bore;
d4-d,d
c = 1.0 for a solid pinion
J = tooth loading, lb/in-in.
F , = effective face Foidth of pinion, in.
d = pitch diameter of pinion, in.
These equations are based on a uniform distribution

of tooth pressure, endwise freedom to equalize load
between both helices, an effective diameter for torsion
equal to the pitch diameter, and a s h a modulus for
steel equal to 12.0 X lo6psi.
3.3 Bending Pinion Deflection. In addition to torsional pinion deflections, the tooth loading will cause the
pinion to deflect due to bending stress as shown in rig. 3.
Fi. 3 PMonddecHon
The pinion can be assumed to be uniformly loaded, m d
by using the deflection equation for a simply suppotbed,
uniformly loaded beam, the tooth mparation due to
d i i t i o n and amount of the helix angle corrections are
bending is found to be
known, the light-torque contact pattern will be a good
indication of the eontact pattern under operating
conditions.
where
Such a light-torque contact check will be made a t the
factory
to confirm the correct machining and assembly
f = tooth separation due to deflection, in.
of
the
unit,
and the check will be repeated in the ship
F = distance between ends of bertrings, in.
installation to confirm that the factory alignment has
The remaining terms are as defined previously.
been duplicated. These contact chmks can be made by
This expression is based on a uniform distribution of observing the transfer of a marking compound such as
tooth pressure, the tooth pressure acting over the red lead, Prussim Blue, or light layout lacquer, from one
distance between the ends of the bearings, the effective dement to the other. Uniform transfer of compound
diameter for bending equal to the pinion pitch diameter over the fuli face width will indicate uniform face contact
including the space between helices, the pinion simply under light loads. While satisfactory contact checks
supported at the inner ends of the besrings, and the c m be made with v q light torques, they can be made
modulus of elasticity for steel equal to 30.0 X lo6psi.
with greater reliability with higher torquea. When
A generally accepted value for the allowable deflection light-loads are not sufficient to bring about uniform
due to torsion and bending is 0.001 in. However, other contact, a quantitative measure of face contact can be
d e d s can add to these calculated values. The totd made by gaging the opening between meshing teeth with
d e c t can be observed by tooth contact patterns under feeler gages graduated in 0.0001-in. steps.
full-load operation,or by estimating from experience on
Despite the care which m y be taken in factory and
similar gears, or by analysis. This sum may exceed installation tests, the find quality of tooth contact must
0.001, but the gearing can be made perfectly satisfactory be judged after full-power operation in the ship. For
by machining corrections into the h d i angles so that this observation, the teeth of each pinion or gear may be
the tooth contact will be uniform under f d - l d operat- coated in a band extending across each face with copper
ing conditions. When this is done, the cold light-torque by the application of a weak acid copper d p h a t e
contact pattern will not be uniform. But since the solution, or with a thin mat of layout lacquer.
3N GEARS
MARINE ENGINEERING
ck
'
w = WEIGHT
GEAR PER
OFWINO
PINION OR
R
TOTAL REACTION PER BEIRlNO
m
b
D REMION
---ASTERN
REACTION
Fig. 4 Typical reduction gear bearing reaction diagram
3.4 Slow-Speed Gear Misalignment. An important

source of misalignment in the second reduction mesh can
be due to the differencein the magnitude of the forward
and after slow-speed gear bearing reactions [7]. Figure
4 is a typical bearing reaction diagram for a doublereduction gear. It may be seen that the gear bearing
reactions consist of one or more components due to the
torque loadings and a component due to the static
weight of the pinion or gear supported. With the exception of the slow-speed gear bearing reactions, none are
affected by external influences. However, such is far
from the case with the slow-speed gear bearings. When
the static loads imposed on the forward and after slowspeed gear bearings are different in magnitude, as
opposed to being equal as shown in Fig. 4, the resultant
reactions will not be in the same direction. This will
cause the forward and after gear bearing journals to
ride in different positions within their bearing clearances.
The slow-speed pinions are not subjected to a similar
influence; therefore, there results a crossed-axis condition
between the slow-speed pinions and gear.
The foundations of slow-speed gear bearings and line
shaft bearings are completely dissimilar. Slow-speed
gear bearings are located very close to the lube oil sump
tank provided beneath the slow-speed gear (see Fig. 6 of

Chapter 1) and, therefore, their foundations become very
warm when at operating temperature, causing an attendant thermal rise in the position of the slow-speed
bearings. On the other hand, little heat is generated in
line shaft bearings, and they operate at a temperature
little above the ambient. This being the case, it is
unavoidable that the l i e shafting have an influence on
the slow-speed gear bearing reactions when the plant
goes from a cold to the operating condition. When
going from a cold to the operating condition, the slowspeed gear bearings will rise about 15 to 30 mils higher
than the line shaft bearings.
Prior to the late 1950Js, misalignments due to this
source were generally disregarded and the slow-speed
gear shaft was aligned concentric to the line shafting.
It is easily shown that*the forward slow-speed gear
bearing on many of the older ships carried no static load
when in the operating condition. It is speculated that
the disregard of this factor led to a number of their
problems.
Although many obstacles are often encountered, if
pursued sufficiently early in the design stage it is usually
possible to design a system that will not experience
difFiculties of this type. When investigating potential

problems of this type, the first step is for the gear
manufacturer to state the allowable difference between
the static reactions of the forward and after slow-speed
gear bearings. The allowable differences usually fall
in the range of 20 to 30 percent of the static reactions,
and must often be assumed for preliminary studies.
Beyond this point a technique, similar to that described
in Chapter 11, is employed to ensure that there is
adequate flexibility in the shafting system to avoid an
excessive variation in the slow-speed gear bearing
reactions and to allow reasonable alignment tolerances
to be specified.
3.5 Other Deflections. There are other deflections
that can act to affect the uniformity of tooth contact
acrbss the tooth faces. The gear housing structure will
deflect under the forces applied to the bearings and may
deflect to misalign the teeth; an example would be the
case in which the support of one pinion bearing is more
flexible than the support of the bearing at the opposite
end of the pinion.
Gear casings are also subject to thermal strains and
these can affect tooth alignment. For instance, the
casing support structure for the bearings in the middle
of a double-reduction gear housing may be at a higher
temperature than structure which supports the end
bearings.
The rotating elements are also subject to elastic and
thermal strains. Gear rims that are attached to their
hubs by a series of thin plates or cone members are
deformed by the action of centrifugal forces. The design
must be such that these deflections do not have a significant effect on the tooth portion.
Thermal strains can also be important, particularly
with wide face widths. If the pinion whose teeth mesh
a t a higher rate is allowed to reach a temperature
higher than its mating gear wheel, the uniformity
of tooth contact across the faces of both helices will
be affected.
3.6 Critical Speeds. Pinion and gears, designed as
they are for stiffness to resist tooth forces, have lateral
critical speeds that are well above any operating speed.
They will run free of vibration with normal procedures
for balancing. Balance is a particularly important
consideration with the first reduction pinion since it
rotates at turbine speed, and it must be given the same
high degree of dynamic balance as the turbine.
Coupling shafts connecting the turbine to the pinion
are an important element in determining the lateral
critical speeds of the turbine rotor-coupling-pinion
assembly and must be considered in evaluating turbine
'
critical speeds.
The combination of the propeller, shafting, gears, and
turbines forms a system which can vibrate torsionally in
response to the impulses from the propeller blades. With
the very early gear designs, manufacturing irregularities
in the gear teeth occasionally were a source of serious
torsional vibration; however, the precision with which
modern gears are manufactured has eliminated this as a
32 1
source of torsional vibration. As discussed in Chapter

11, the first three modes of torsional vibration warrant
careful analysis. I n the first mode of torsional vibration
with a geared-turbine drive, the angular vibratory
motion is greatest a t the propeller, but the vibratory
torque is a maximum at the reduction gear. This mode
generally occurs within the operating range, being well
down in the operating range with arrangements having
long shafts but relatively high in the operating range
and potentially dangerous with very short shafting
arrangements.
The first mode of torsional vibration must be evaluated
to ensure that the vibratory torque in the gear train,
when added to the torque transmitted under steady
power conditions, will not be deleterious to the reduction
gearing.
The inertia and elastic factors of the turbines and gears
have no significant effect on the first critical speed; it is
controlled by the inertia of the propeller and entrained
water, the stiffness of the shafting, and the number of
propeller blades.
The second mode of torsional vibration is one in which
the two turbine branches vibrate in opposition and it
may occur in the operating range. When this is the
case, vibratory torques must be evaluated as for the first
critical. However, by employing a so-called "nodal
driveJJarrangement, it is possible to render the second
mode incapable of excitation. In a nodal drive arrangement, the two turbine branches are tuned by adjusting
the dimensions of the quill shafts, such that they have
identical frequencies with the slow-speed gear, shafting,
and propeller considered nodal points. As a result, all
motion in the second mode is in the turbine branches and
propeller excitation cannot excite this mode since the
propeller is on a node.
The third mode of torsional vibration, in which the
slow-speed gear is an antinode, may be of concern. It is
usually well above the operating range, but the trend
toward larger numbers of propeller blades may cause it
to be of importance in the future.
It is not possible to avoid tooth separation and the
attendant banging sound from the gearing during
deceleration through a critical speed with little or no
power being transmitted by the gearing, or when a critical
occurs at very low power. However, this is a transient
condition at low torque levels and is not damaging to
the gears.'
3.7 Gear Case. The function of the gear case is to
furnish adequate support for the bearings as well as to
provide an oil-tight enclosure for the reduction gear.
Typical gear cases may be seen in Figs. 5 and 6. All
journal bearing load reactions are in planes perpendicular
to the axis of the revolving shafts. In many instances,
and particularly in connection with double-reduction
gears, the bearing supports will have to support bearings
at different elevations. It is of the utmost importance
that these bearing supports including the cap have
sufficient structural stiffness to prevent any measurable
deflection under varying load conditions. Due to the
MARINE ENGINEERING
REDUCtiON GEARS
AFT
-
AFT END F L E W T l q
Fig. 5(a] Miculaied doublarsduction pear
direction of rotation of the different shafts and the location of pinions in reference to gear bearing loadings, Fig.
4, reactions may occur a t any angle to the axis and it is
important that the bearing cap construction takes this
into account. It must be borne in mind that for satisfactory operatian of the gears and to minimiae wear the
revolving shafts must operate continuously parallel to
each other. The gear c w construction is the only means
provided to maintain the diierent shafts in their correct
relation to each other.
The construction and stBneaa of the gear case must be
studied and compared with the structure and rigidity of

the foundation below the gear case whereby the gear cape
is secured by bolting to the ship structure. The gear
casing generally is rigidly bolted to the foundation to
form ti combined structure to prevent deflections between
the gear and pinion axes which may be caused by deflection in the ship structure when operating in a heavy sea.
Since the strains in the hull due to the loading of the
ship and to the forces imposed by the seaway are
imposed on the gear casing, designers are attracted to
means for isolating strains in the ship's hull from the
Fig. 5(b) Miculatsd dwbb-reduclion gear
main gear casing. Two, three, or four points of support

between the gear case and its foundation can effectively
accomplish this isolation.
Except for small auxiliary gears, the casing has separate
inspection covers for convenience in inspecting the condition of the gear teeth, and is arranged so that bearings,
flexible coupliiga, and oil sprays may be inspected and
replaced without having to dismantle large sections of the
casing.
The casing enclosure acts to attenuate the noise that is
generated by the meshing teeth. Even thaugh the most
effective means of reducing gear noise is the precision
with which the teeth are machined, the gear case offers
a means of further quieting by designing t o minimine the
transmission of sound.
Some of the smaller gear cases are made of steel castings. However, in-the propulsion gear siaes, the casings
are of fabricated steel construction. Some castings may
be employed in the fabrication for the heavier sections,
but the trend is sway from castings in favor of sections
burned out of heavy plate or formed from plate material.
3.8 Pinions and Gear Wheels. Pinions am made of
a one-piece forging and may be hollow-bored to accommodate a quill shaft. The requirement for strength and
MARINE ENGINEERING
Fig. 6(a)
REDUCTION GEARS
Locked-train reduction gear
rigidity generally precludes making the tooth and journal

portion of the pinion in more than one piece. The
material is usually a nickel-steel, through hardened to the
desired hardness.
The tooth portion of the gear wheel is usually a carbon
steel forging that is either welded to a center portion
made up of steel plate in the larger diameters, or integral
with the center portion in the smaller diameters.
For many of the older turbine drive gears now in
service in the U. S., the most common materials are
pinions in the 200-240 Brine11 hardness number range
running with gears in the 160-190 Bhn range. With
these hardnesses, K-factors of about 90 for the k t reduction and 75 for the second reduction were generally
applied. Higher hardness materials with. higher Kfactors have wide application in naval combatant ships
and are tending to be accepted for commercial service.
In the more recent designs, K-factors of 140/110 (for the
first and second reductions respectively) have been
applied using through-hardened pinions with a Bhn above
300 and through-hardened gear rims with a Bhn above
220. The higher K-factor gearing has the advantage of
increasing the power capability of a given size of gear
unit approximately in direct proportion to K-factor.
The higher K-factor gear is therefore more compact,
lighter in weight, and lower in cost.
As an interesting side note, the Vespasian had a Kfactor of 78, and the Neptune 125, attesting to the genius
of the early inventors.
The upper limit for the K-factor loading is presently
uncertain and cannot be firmly established by analysis,
or even by laboratory testing. The service experience
of the considerable number of gears in merchant service
with higher K-factors and harder materials will have to
determine if still higher loadings can be applied with
confidence.
Pinion and gear materials must be of high quality, and
heat-treating must be carefully controlled so that the
tooth portions can safely accept the high stresses
imposed on them.
Case-hardened or through-hardened and ground
materials and nitrided materials offer the use of considerably higher K-factors, and more compact and lighter
weight gearing. They have been used in many diesel
engine and turbine applications, mostly outside of the
U. S. Ground gears are particularly suited for planetary
gearing.
Heat-treating and grinding requirements
impose conditions upon the design of ground gearing
that do not apply to through-hardened gears of hardnesses that can be machined without grinding. Where
ground elements are applied to conventional gearing,
they are generally made single rather than double helical.
Fig. 6(b)
Locked-train reduction gear
This is done mainly because of the clearance required at

each end,of the tooth face for the grinding wheel.
3l9 Journal and Thrust Bearings. Journal bearings
must carry the weight of the gear elements and also
transmit the large tooth meshing forces to the casing
structure. Hydrodynamic bearings have been used
almost exclusively in this application, the conventional
babbitt-lined, steel-shell sleeve bearing being extremely
long-lived, with a high tolerance for abnormalities, such
as dirt and rust, in the operating environment.
325
As may be noted from Fig. 4, the tooth meshing forces

for ahead and astern rotation are in nearly opposite
directions and generally in different directions than the
weight reaction. It is necessary, therefore, to select an
angular position for mounting the bearing in the housing
so that the bearing areas are in the best possible relationship to the applied bearing forces.
First reduction pinion bearings operate at high speeds.
When starting and at low speeds, the bearing forces are
low, consisting almost entirely of the weight components.
At higher speeds, however, the bearing reactions continuously increase. These conditions are favorable for
hydrodynamic bearings and permit the safe use of high
unit loadings in these bearings. Unit pressures of 225250 psi of projected area are generally acceptable for
high-speed journal bearings in commercial service, and
considerably higher pressures are used successfully in
naval service.
The clearance ratio for these high-speed bearings
should be 0.002 to 0.003 in. per inch of journal diameter.
This clearance ratio is important in defining the difference
in radii of curvature of the journal and bearing surfaces,
and thus the degree of convergence and divergence of
the load-carrying oil a m . The clearance opening, as
such, in the unloaded half of the bearing affects only the
quantity of oil passing through the bearing.
Second reduction gear bearings operate at lower speeds
and have relatively high static loadings due to the weight
of the bull gear. These conditions are less favorable
and require lower unit pressures of 150-175 psi. The
clearance ratio should be about 0.001 in. per inch of
journal diameter.
Intermediate-speed bearings fall between the high and
low-speed bearings, with loadings of 175-200 psi and
clearances of 0.001 to 0.0015 in. per inch of journal
diameter.
In addition to carrying a load, the journal bearings
must accurately position the gear and pinion journals to
keep their axes precisely parallel. Replacement of
bearings, therefore, must be made so as not to alter the
journal position. To facilitate bearing replacement, a
common practice is to stencil on the bearing shell its
shell thickness at several points. Then, a replacement
bearing with the same shell tbckness will maintain the
original jqurnal position.
The main propeller 'thrust bearing is generally either
integral with the gear unit or immediately adjacent to it.
Its main purpose, of course, is to transmit the propeller
thrust to the hull, but a secondary purpose is to hold the
second reduction gear wheel in its proper axial position.
With double-helical gearing the main thrust bearing
also holds the second reduction pinions in their axial
position, and further, by an axially restricted coupling
the first reduction gears can also be positioned. It is also
common to couple the first reduction gear to its second
reduction pinion with a coupling which permits endwise
motion. Then, positioning thrust bearings must be
provided for the first reduction elements. This can be
326
MARINE WGNEERING
TURBINE ROTOR
either a pivoted shoe or plain collar thrust bearing

applied to either the first reduction pinion or its gear
wheel. This bearing must have sufficient capacity to
overcome the frictional forces in the couplings which act
on the first reduction elements.
Where adequate foundation structure can be provided,
it is convenient to locate the main thrust bearing forward
of the second reduction gear, with the thrust housing an
integral part'of the gear casing. This location has two
advantages; (a) the diameter of the thrust bearing can be
smaller because the shaft portion does not have to
transmit torque, and (b) the thrust collar can be a
separate piece that can be readily removed over the end
of the gear shaft in the event that it ' is necessary to
replace or refinish the collar surface.
For higher powers, and where greater stiffness is
required for the thrust bearing foundation, the thrust
bearing is located aft of the second reduction gear. An
installation in which the main thrust bearing is located
immediately aft of the slow-speed gear is shown in Fig. 5.
The thrust housing structure is independent of the gear
case and joins it by a flexible oil-tight connection. The
bolted attachment to the foundation which transmits the
propeller thrust to the hull is independent of the bolting
attachment of the gear base to its foundation, so that
the thrust bearihg and its foundation can deflect as a
result of the propeller thrust with no distorting effect on
the gear casing.
In either location; the thrust bearing shares the lubricating system with the gear, and its oil drain discharges
into the gear base. Only a single shaft oil seal is required
on the output shaft.
The thrust bearing is of the pivoted-shoe type, with
two sets of shoes acting on opposite sides of a thrust
collar to accept thrust in either direction with pressures
of about 375 psi.
All journal and thrust bearings are force-fed from a
central lubricating oi1 system. Each journal and thrust
bearing is generally provided with a sight-flow and thermometer fitting in a visible location so as to provide an
indication of performance. As a sample of oil leaving
the bearing passes through the sight flow (or bubbler) it
provides a visible jet of oil that can be seen at some
distance, giving assurance that the bearing is being
properly lubricated. This oil also passes over a thermometer well installed integral with the sight-flow fitting
for sensing and indicating either locally or remotely the
temperature of the oil leaving the bearing.
3.10 Couplings. The coupling of each gear and
pinion to its connecting shaft can be of a number of types
depending upon the degrees of freedom of movement
that the service requires. The second reduction gear to
line shaft coupling is usually a "soli&couplingnwith the
flanges integral with the shaft sections. This coupling
provides no freedom of movement within itself either
axially, angularly, or torsionany. As discussed previously, the line shaft bearings and the second reduction
gear bearings cannot be held in absolute alignment due
to thermal and other distortions in the hull and foundations; however these movements are predictable and the
bearing arrangement can be designed such that, when
properly aligned, the shafting can bend elastically without imposing objectionable stresses in the shaft or altering the bearing reactions in an unacceptable manner.
Thermal distortions in the gear and turbine casings
and their supporting structure create a relative movement of the turbine rotor and high-speed pinion axes that
introduces an angular offset at one or both coupling elements. In addition, the turbine rotor is positioned
axially by its thrust bearing; consequently, the thermal
growth of the turbine rotor due to the high-temperature
steam creates a considerable end motion which must be
accommodated by endwise sliding and clearances in
the coupling.
For steam turbine-driven gears the coupling to the
first reduction pinion is usually a gear tooth (dental)
type flexible coupling, with two gear tooth elements
separated by a length of shafting or a sleeve. Figure 7
is a typical coupling of this type. The engaging tooth
elements at each end use internal and external spur gears
of involute form, for convenience of manufacture, which
mesh with backlash in the circumferential direction, but
with closely controlled radial clearance between the tips
of the external teeth and the roots of the internal teeth.
Under torque the axes of the two elements are held in
line by the contact on the involute tooth faces. With
no torque transmitted, the axes are held in line within
the limit of the radial clearance.
When running under angular misalignment, each meshing pair of teeth will slide back and forth a small amount.
The angular misalignment which this type of coupling
can accept without significant wear is limited and is dependent upon the coupling size, speed of rotation, torque,
and hardness and finish of the tooth surfaces. It is
obviously desirable to avoid excessively short coupling
lengths which impose high angular movements on the
tooth elements. For longer coupfing lengths it may be
)N GEARS
I
1
preferable to use a "single-ended" flexible coupling with

a tooth-element coupling at one end and a solid coupling
at the other end. In t h i case the long shaft can deflect
elastically as a cantilever beam to accommodate the
lateral offset.
Couplings between the h t reduction gears and second
reduction pinions have smaller misalignments to accommodate, but otherwise resemble the turbine-to-pinion
ooupling. In the single-case gears, Figs. 5 and 6, the
misalignment is limited to the clearance in the journal
bearings since the bearings themselves are held rigidly
in line. Like the turbine to pinion coupling, they can
be "single-endedn [as shown in Fig. 6(b)] or doubleended [as shown in Fig. 5(b)]. When the first redudion
elements have their own thrust bearing, at least one
flexible element is needed for endwise freedom. When
the first reduction elements are positioned by the second
reduction and the main propeller thrust bewing, the
flexible coupling elements are made with a olose end
alearance.
Lubrication of the coupling teeth is important even
though the reciprocating sliding velocity is entirely too
low to support an oil fdm between the surface in contact.
Oil is held in the tooth portion by centrifugal force and
an oil retaining ring keeps the sliding surfaces submerged
in oil. Oil is fed to the annulus at one end of the teeth
and leaves from the other end, forcing a flow endwise
through the teeth for lubrication, cooling, and purging
of the sludge which tends to centrifuge and collect.
For diesel engine drives it is usually necessary to have
a coupling with torsional flexibility to minimize the transmission of torque variations to the gearing. Several
types of these, using rubber or other elastometem in
compression or shear, are effective in adding both torsional resilience and damping to attenuate the torsional
oscillations which are inherent in the reciprocating
engine.
Hydraulic couplings, now familiarin automotive transmissions, had one of their earliest applications in marine
drives. They are effectivein smoothing the torque input
to the gear. However, their slip repreaents a direct
power loss. Electric couplings have characteristics similar to the hydraulic coupling but are dependent on a
source of electric power for their operation. Both hydraulic and electric couplings have the capability of
providing a convenient means of disconnecting, synchronizing, and reconnecting engines in a multi-engine
arrangement.
9.1 1 Clutches. Propeller drives that use either
prime movers in combination or a prime mover which
is uni.iotational may require a clutch to disconnect and
reconnect or synchronize and reconnect the main
engines from the propeller. An assortment of devices
using mechanical, frictional, bydraulic, or electrical
schemes is available for these purposes. Each device
has,its peculiar characteristics, so that the selection of
the best coupling arrangement depends on the requirements in a specific case.
The hydraulic coupling transfem torque by the passage
327
of oil between two halves of a torus. -The torque trammitted can be controlled, therefore, by controlling the
volume of oil in the coupling. It can be arranged to
quickly diseharge the oil in the coupling to disconnect
the load, and to reconnect the load by readmitting oil.
A hydraulic coupling will absorb energy to bring the
shafts into near synchronization; however, there are
h i t s to the hydraulic torque available for synchronization, and limits on the amount of energy that can be
absorbed during the period of high slip.
An electric coupling has characteristics very similar
to a hydraulic coupling. It too can act as a disconnect
and as a synchronizing clutch, by controlling the current
to the rotating field. Like the hydraulic coupling, there
are limitations on the synchronizing torque, and the
energy absorption during synchronizing. Chapter 10
contains a description of electric couplings.
Friction clutches use friction elements which slide
under eontrolled pressure to bring the shafts into synchronization and then, once synchronized, transmit
torque without slip by the same friction surfaces. Figure 8 shows the application of clutches of this type in a
reversing gear train. In this case the friction material
is attached to the inside of an inflatable tube and is made
to bear on the cylindrical drum which it surrounds by
admitting fluid, usually air, under p m u r e to the tube.
The inflatable tube, called the clutch gland, is made of
fabric and rubber similar to an automobile tire and is
bonded to a steel outer ring. Both ahead and astern
clutch glands are driven by the engine. One engages
with the drum driving the ahead gear train or the other
engages with the drum driving the astern gear train.
Reversing j~ accomplished by alternately admitting fluid
and inflating the a h a d and astern clutches. When the
idle clutch is deflated, the friction surfaces are removed
from contact. The operating air is admitted to the
rotating shaft through a shaft seal. This is conveniently
done at a shaft end as illustrated but can also be done on
any available shaft portion.
With synchromesh couplings the normal torque transmission is through sets of engaging internal and external
tooth elements similar to those of a "dental" flexible
coupling. In addition, the coupling includes a mechanism for shifting the tooth elements d
y to engage
and disengage the teeth, a friction element to brieg the
shafts intQ synchronism prior to engagement,. a balking
mechanism to prevent tooth contact while a Merentid
speed exists and, in the case of high-speed applications, a
"transition torque control" to maintain shaft synchronism during the shift from friction t o gear tooth drive.
Referring to Fig. 9, the clutch is engaged by admitting
air or oil to the operating cylinder. This applies pressure
to the friction disks, and the torque so developed acts to
synchronize shaft speeds. When synchronism is reached
the accelerating torque is reduced to zero. The balking
mechaniwn then automatically releases the coupling
sleeve, and as it approaches engagement with its mating
hub the spring-loaded pins act as lowe keys to maintain
synchronous speed and align the hub and sleeve teeth
MARINE ENGINEERING
r(
Fig. 8
Reverse gear with friction

clutchw
DISENGAGED POSITION
Fig. 9
EN-GAGED POSITION
Synchromesh. coupling
for final engagement. After engagement the torque is

transmitted through the dental coupling elements; the
friction disks and balking mechanism perform no further
function. The clutch is disengaged by simply shifting
the sleeve endwise so that the hub and sleeve teeth at one
end move out of mesh. Once engaged or disengaged,
the clutch is maintained in the desired position by mechanical means and hydraulic pressure is no longer
reauired.
?he torque-transmitting capability of the synchromesh clutch is determined by the tooth elements. The
torque capacity of the friction disks need only be sufficient to bring the shafts into synchronization.
A synchro-self-shifting clutch, like the synchromesh
coupling, is a positive coupling in the engaged position.
It is self-engaging when passing through synchronism;
that is, immediately upon synchronizing the speeds of
the inputand output shafts, the input shaft engages the
output. The clutch disengages automatically as soon
as the torque reverses, that is, when the output shaft
tends to drive the input shaft. In this coupling, engagement and disengagement are brought about by the relative rotation of the driving and driven ends. The primary action of the clutch, in fact, resembles that of a
ratchet which will lock up to transmit torque in one direction, but will turn freely under a torque in the other
direction.
The basic clutch, Fig. 10, has a torque-transmitting
sleeve which can shift axially. One end of this sleeve is
in constant engagement with the output shaft through a
helical spline. The other end of the sleeve has dental
coupling type teeth which engage and disengage with
mating teeth in the clutch ring which is secured to the
input shaft. The position of the sleeve is controlled by
a ratchet-and-pawl arrangement which senses the relative speeds of the input and output shafts. When the
speed of the driving half overtakes the speed of the output
half, the pawls engage so that further rotation of the
driving half forces the sleeve to move axially on the helical spline to bring the coupling teeth into engagement.
The coupling can also be made with two sets of spur
dental type coupling teeth so that in the engaged position
it also acts as a flexible coupling.
It can be arranged with a manual shift that will prevent engagement of the pawls and allow its driving engine to be tested without driving the propeller.
3.12 Lubrication. The main reduction gears are
normally provided with a source of lubricating oil by a
system which is separate from the gear itself. In the
case of steam turbine drives, the same source of oil also
serves the turbine requirements. The distribution system for leading oil under pressure to each bearing hnd to
the tooth sprays, and for containing and leading the
drains to the oil sump, is contained within the gear.
All the gear requires is a continuous supply of clean oil
at a pressure of about 10-15 psi and a temperature of
about 120 F. The oil distribution system integral with
the gear is designed to provide each bearing and tooth
spray with the proper quantity of oil.
329
GEARS
CLUTCH RING
HELICALLY SPLINED OUTPUT SHAFT
Fig. 10 Synchro-self-shifting dutch
The oil supply to the gear can range from 110 to 130 F
in temperature. The discharge from the high-speed
journal bearings may be as high as 180 F but the average
temperature rise in the total flow through the gear unit
is of the order of 20-30 deg F.
Oil in the viscosity range of 380-510 SSU at 100 F is
generally suitable. It represents a slight compromise
between the lighter viscosity oil which would be optimum
for high-speed journal bearings and the somewhat heavier
viscosity which would be more favorable for the tooth
meshes. Moderately loaded gear units with relatively
fine pitch teeth will operaie satisfactorily with a good
grade of straight mineral oil; however, more heavily
loaded gears, and particularly gears with teeth of coarser
pitch, require an oil having good "extreme pressure" or
antiscuffing qualities to prevent scuffing or galling. The
"EP" quality of the oil is evaluated by tests such as the
"Ryder" or "Three-ball" test in which the ability to
resist scuffing between two sliding steel surfaces is measured. Generally, the "EP" quality is given to the oil
by the addition of chemical agents.
A secondary function of the circulating lubricant is to
carry away the heat losses of the gearing and its bearings.
As indicated by Fig. 11, the efficiency of reduction gears
varies with the horsepower rating. In addition, the
efficiency of a gear depends on the type of gear and the
particular bearing and tooth pressures; that is, a conservatively designed gear with low bearing pressures and
K-factors will have a lower efficiency than its more
heavily loaded counterpart.
Another secondary function of the lubricating oil is
the prevention of rusting of the interior surfaces of the
gear. Iaodern oils have good antirust qualities even in
the presence of the small amounts of moisture which
cannot be avoided. They are completely effective during operation when all inside surfaces are thoroughly
washed with oil. For prolonged shutdowns, however,
the normal lubricating oil will drain from the steel parts
and become ineffective. As a result, special precautions
330
MARINE ENGINEERING
must be taken to prevent rust damage to the gear during

prolonged shutdowns.
The lubrication system is the only service that is essential to the performance of the reduction gear; therefore,
for remote control, it is necessary to monitor only the
pressure and temperature of the lubricating oil supplied
to the reduction gear. Most remote-control systems,
however, will monitor the temperature of the oil leaving
each bearing to give an indication of the performance of
each of the reduction gear bearings and the main thrust
bearing.
It is general practice to provide a vent to avoid a
build-up of pressure within the gear. A single vent
PERCENT HORSEPOWER
Fig. 11
Efficiency of double reduction geon
opening from the entire gear oase and sump space is

sufficient. When more than one vent connection is
made, all vents must be interconnected to avoid a circulation of outside air through the gear interior.
3.1 3 Accessories. In addition to performing its primary function of transmitting power, a number of accessory features axe often provided as a part of the gear
unit. For turbine applications, a motor-driven turning
gear is provided with the main reduction gear. Its
primary purpose is to rotate the turbine rotors slowly
during warm-up and cool-down operations. It is essential that the turbine rotor be rotated when heating or
cooling as the rotor will otherwise not be of a uniform
temperature and will bow. The turning gear also serves
the useful purpose of providing a means of turning the
shaft for other purposes such as inspection of the gear
teeth.
While the turning gear is a low-powered device (2.5
to 10 hp), it is mecha'nically capable of developing large
torques in the propeller shaft by virtue of its high gear
ratio. On occasions therefore, the turning gear serves
the additional purpose of being a locking device that
prevents rotation of the turbine and gears. This is a
desirable feature under casualty conditions when the
ship is being towed or, in the case of a multiple-screw
ship, when driving with other shafts.
The turning gear is generally a double-reduction gear
with two worm and wheel reductions to connect the
driving motor to the after end of one of the first reduction pinions. The ratio of the turning gear is selected so
that the propeller shaft turns at a rate of about one
revolution in ten minutes. Figure 5 shows a turning
gear which drives the aft end of the first reduction pinion
on the low-pmure side. A disconnect clutch, usually
lever operated, uncouples the turning gear for normal
operation.
The turning gear requires lubrication and this is pro-
..
(4)
(5)
5000
10000
TURBINES
K-FACTORS OF 125 FOR FIRST
REDUCTION, 100 FOR SECOND
REOUCTION
WEIGHT OF MAIN THRUST
BEARING NOT INCLUDED
15000
20000 25000
HORSEPOWER
30000
Rg. 12 Approximob weight of reductkn geon
35000
40000
vided by the main lubricating system since the main the loss of oil supply due to an interruption of electric
system must be in operation even for the low turning power or the inadvertent securing of a motor-driven
speed.
pump. This feature, however, is seldom applied in
Interlocks with the turbine throttles or warning plates merchant service.
are necessary to prevent the inadvertent starting of the
3.14 Weight Estimates. An approximate weight of
propulsion turbine with the turning gear engaged; other- the reduction gear unit for conventional articulated and
wise, extreme damage may be done to the turning gear locked-train gears for steam turbine-driven merchant
and motor.
ships can be obtained from the curves in Fig. 12. These
The main gear also may serve as a convenient mount- curves show that the gear weight varies in nearly direct
ing for the shaft revolution counter and tachometer. It proportion to the horsepower and inverse proportion to
is usually mounted just forward of the slow-speed gear the propeller speed. Within reasonable limits, the weight
shaft and is driven directly or through gearing from the of the gear will also vary inversely with the K-factor.
main shaft.
For more complex gear arrangements, there is no simFor naval applications, it is standard practice to drive ple procedure f o i determining weights and dimensions.
the main lubricating oil pump by a train of gearing taking These must be determined by first establishing the prinits power from one of the intermediate shafts. This cipal dimensions of the rotating parts, and roughly
so-called "attached pump" furnishes oil for all purposes detailing their weights. A good approximation of the
during normal operations; however, separately driven total weight can then be made by doubling the weight
pumps axe required for low-speed, stand-by, and astern of the rotating parts.
operation because the attached pump cannot supply an
A procedure which is useful in establishing an approxiadequate oil supply under these conditions. An at- mate weight, as well as dimensions, of a reduction gear
tached pump has the advantage of protecting against is outlined in reference [ti].
Section 4
Applications
4.1 Articulated DoubleReduction Gears. Most of
the gear arrangements that have been used for ship propulsion are described in Section 1. The vast majority of
turbine-driven merchant ships built in the U. S. in the
past several decades are double-reduction with the rotating elements arranged as in Fig. l(d). In most of these
the arrangement of the rotating parts can be further
categorized as "three-plane. " The number of planes
refers to the number of horizontal planes which contain
the pinion and gear axes (with small differences in elevs
tions ignored), and to the number of horizontal joints
in the gear housing to provide for assembly.
The section drawing shown in Fig. 5 is representative
of a typical double-reduction, articulated, three-plane
reduction gear in a single housing structure. It is widely
used with cross-compound steam turbines up to horsepowers of about 30,000 with the propeller speeds that
are conventional for merchant ships (i.e., 105 to 120 rpm
for single-screw ships). Variants of this arrangement
are the single-plane and two-plane gear casing constructions which use similar rotating parts, but with modified
dispositions of the turbine and propeller shaft axes.
Figure 13 compares these categories.
Whereas the three-plane gear is generally a single
structure supported by the ship's foundation, the single
and two-plane gears are more conveniently built as
separate first and second-reduction units, each independently mounted on the ship's structure.
The three-plane gear requires maximum headroom
but, in return, provides good spacing between the turbines and ample space beneath the low-pressure turbine
to install the condenser. At the other extreme, the
singleplane gear requires a minimum of headroom and
foundation structure underneath the turbines. On the
other hand, additional overall length of the propulsion
machinery is necessary because the condenser must be
located forward of the low-pressure turbine. The twoplane gear is intermediate in its space requirements as
regards headroom, length, and width. The space available for the condenser under the LP turbine usually is
less than convenient. The choice of one, two, or three
planes is, therefore, largely one of arrangement.
4.2 Locked-Train Gears. For higher powers, the
diameters, face widths, and tooth bending stresses of the
gears in a conventional double-reduction arrangement
increase to the point where a locked-train arrangement
becomes the most practical. By dividing the power
paths from each input pinion as illustrated by Fig. l(g),
the diameters, face widths, and tooth loading factors
become more favorable, but at the price of a greater
number of parts and a more complex casing structure.
The division of power between the two intermediate
shafts driven by a common high-speed pinion must be
nearly equal, and to accomplish this they must be
"timed. " That is, the driving pinion must contact both
driven gears when all backlashes are taken up. There
are a number of ways in which this may be conveniently
done. Once done the meshing gear and coupling teeth
332
MARINE ENGINEERING
fig. 13
Double-reduction gear arrangements
Figure 6 is a section drawing of a typical locked~train

gear for merchant marine service. It follows the construction that has been almost standard for naval combatant ships from destroyer escorts to aircraft carriers
since the mid 1930's. It differs slightly in proportions
since the gear ratio is higher for merchant ships than for
the faster-turning propellers of naval ships.
Note from Figs. 6 and 13 that the locked-train gear is
more restrictive in pinion locations (and gear arrangement) than the conventional double-reduction gear.
4.3 Reversing Gears. There are many applications
of single-reduction gears for diesel engines in the moderate-power range. The single-reduction reversing gear,
Fig. 8, is a typical arrangement using friction couplings
for alternately driving the ahead and astern gear trains.
Double-reduction reversing gears employing similar principles have also been used with a gas turbine as the
prime mover.
4.4 Gears for Contrarofating Propellers. Contrarotating, coaxial propellers are often given consideration
because of their improvement in propulsive efficiency.
They require special gear arrangements, and many variations are possible [9].
Contrarotating gear arrangements fall into two distinct
categories; one drives the two propellers a t equal or other
predetermined ratio of revolutions, and the other drives
the two propellers with equal or other predetermined
ratio of torque.
An example of the first category is shown in Fig. 14.
Here a cross-compound steam turbine arrangement, with
oppositely rotatkg turbines, drives the oppositely rotating propeller shafts through double-reduction gears.
Note that the two first reduction gears are in mesh to
assure that the two propeller shafts will make the same
number of revolutions even though the power inputs of
ithe two turbines may not be equal.
As an illustration of the second category, also for a
cross-compound steam turbine, each turbine drives the
sun gear of a planetary first-reduction gear. Referring
to Fig. 15, the planet carriers rotate in the direction of
the turbines to drive one second-reduction gear. The
ring gear rotates in the opposite direction to drive the
other second-reduction gear. The ratios of the two
second-reductions can be made to differ by the amount
of the torque difference in the output shafts of each
planetary gear so that equal torques are applied to each
propeller shaft.
References
are match-marked so that the timed assembly can be

repeated. However, if a pinion, gear, or coupling is
replaced, it 'is necessary to retime.
The quill shafts connecting the first reduction gears
to the second reduction pinions have considerable torsional flexibility and thus act to divide the torques
equally despite slight inaccuracy in timing. Without
this flexibility, timing and machining would have to be
perfect to obtain equal power division.
1 "Guide to Propulsion Reduction Gear Alignment

and Installation," T & R Bullet+ 3-10, SNAME
Panel M-12.
2 "Reduction Gears, " Naval Ships Technical Manual, chapter 42, Department of the Navy.
3 "Reference Information-B~ic Gear Geometry,"
American Gear Manufacturers Associa;tion, Standard
115.01.
4 "Gear Assembly, Propulsion (Naval Shipboard
REDUCTION GEARS
Fig. 14
Fixed-axis gean for contrarotation, equal rotation
Fig.
IS
Planetary reduction gear for contrarotation, equal torque
Use), " Military Specification MIL-G-17859, Department

of the Navy.
5 "Nomenclature of Gear-Tooth Wear and Failure, "
American Gear Manufacturers Association, Standard
110.03.
6 D. W. Dudley, Practical Gear Design, McGrawHill, New York, 1954.
7 H. C. Andersen and J. J. Zrodowski, "Co-Ordi-
nated Alignment of Line Shaft, Propulsion Gear, and

Turbine"slJ'Trans. SNAME, vol. 67, 1959.
8 "Ship Design Computer Program-Locked-Train
Double-Reduction Gear Design, " NAVSHIPS 0900-00&
5070, Naval Ship Engineering Center, July 1966.
9 W. I. H. Budd, "Main Reduction Gears for
Contrarotation," Marine Technology, vol. 6, no. 4,
October 1969, pp. 440448.
CHAPTER X
I Electric Propulsion Drives
w* E*
Section 1
lntrbduction
1.1 Signiflcant Features. Electric propulsion drives

offer a number of important advantages which, in certain
applications, more than overcome the inherently higher
first cost, increased weight and space, and the higher
transmission losses of such systems. The ease and
convenience by which propeller speed and direction are
controllable in an electric drive are among its foremost
features. This control can be effected from a number of
remote locations, and thus put directly in the hands of
the vessel navigator or operator. The electric control
system lends itself to any desired speed of response and
to the incorporation of time constants or limits, so that
the machinery is not subjected to abusive or dangerous
operation.
The electrical connection between the generator and
the propulsion motor provides a freedom of installation
arrangement not offered in a mechanical drive system.
The prime mover and its generator can be located
wherever desired and constitute a mechanically independent enginbgenerator set.
The propulsion generator sets are usable as a source of
power for other functions when not being used for
propulsion. Cargo pumping, fire-fighting, cargo-refrigerating, and dredge-pump driving are illustrative of such
supplemental service.
In cases where the development of the desired propeller power requires the use of multiple prime movers (a
typical situation in high-speed diesel drives), the electric
drive provides a convenient means of coupling the several
units to the propeller without the use of mechanical
clutches or couplings. An electric drive system will
normallv be arranged so that vessel operation at less than
full p w e r will be &complished with minimum number
of prime movers in service. This contributes to more
efficient operation and affords downtime for routine
maintenance on units not then required for propulsion.
Some prime movers, gas turbines, and high-speed
diesels, for instance, are unidirectional machines. An
electric drive can provide the required reverse rotation
of the propeller by relatively simple control means.
It is possible and oftentimes convenient to select a
low-speed motor that matches the desired propeller
speed directly without the use of reduction gearing. This
motor can be supplied with power from high-speed
generators, thus providing the necessary speed reduction
between the prime mover and the propeller without the

use of mechanical speed-reducing means.
Electric drives have been built in a wide range of
sizes (up to 45,000 shp pet shaft). However, such
high power applications are exceptional, and most
electric drives are of more modest ratings.
1.2 UtilizatKon. Electric drive propulsion systems
are applied when their ease of control, flexibility of
arrangement, and adaptability to multiple use of the
prime mover generator sets can be utilized to advantage.
In general, propulsion electric drives are employed on
vessels falling in the following broad categories:
(a) Vessels requiring a high degree of maneuverability.
Vessels such as ferries, icebreakers, tugs, oceanographic
vessels and cable-layers are typical of this group. Here
changes in speed and in direction of propeller rotation
are frequent and of vital importance to the successful
operation of the vessel. Often these electric drives will
utilize d-c machinery because of the superior speed
control inherent with such machines.
(b) Vessels requiring large amounls of speciaLpurpose
power. Vessels such as self-unloaders, fireboats, selfpropelled dredges, large tankers, and tenders represent
applications where effective use can be made of the
propulsion generating sets for other special purposes.
The nnturc of the service encountered by such vessels
permits the generating sets to be applied to supply large
amounts of power for pumping or cargo handling when
propulsioll power demands are low or nonexistent. Thus
a saving is made in the amount of power-producing
equipment that must otherwise be installed for these
purposes.
(c) Vessels utilizing nonreversing, high-speed, and
multiple prime movers. High-speed diesel engines and
gas turbines are generally of the unidirectional type
and frequently are employed in multiple to produce
the required prime mover power. Here electric drive
provides the means for reversing the propeller, converting the high speed of the prime movers to suitable
propeller speeds, and electrically coupling the multiple
units to a single drive.
(d) Deep submergence vehicles. Such vehicles usually
employ relatively small amounts of propulsion power and
move at low speeds. The energy is obtained from
batteries and is applied directly to multiple motors or
converted by static means to variable-frequency a-c

power and applied to a-c motors.
1.3 Types of Electric Drive Systems. From an
electrical point of view, electric propulsion systems may
be classified aa direct-current or alternating-current
systems. A further significant aapect is the type of
prime movers used, with the major alternatives being
diesel engines, gas turbines, or steam turbines.
In addition to the foregoing, it should be noted that
the rapid progress made in the field of high-capacity
silicon rectifiers has permitted the development of a
hybrid system in which the generators are of the a-c type
and the drive motors are of the d-c type. Bridging the
gap between these two types of machines are banks of
silicon rectifiers which convert the a-c power to d-c.
This is a highly significant, development because it
permits the use of a-c generators which are compatible
in size and speed with high-speed prime movers, and
retains the favorable speed control characteristics of the
d-c drive system. The steadily increasing speeds and
powers of diesel engines have outstripped the corresponding capacity of conventional d-c generators, but
the availability of practical rectification devices now
permits the generation of src power in machines capable
of matching any foreseeable engine speed and power
rating.
Turbines, either steam or gas, are incompatible with
conventional d-c generators as to speed and powers.
Invariably, reduction gears must be employed to adapt
turbine speeds to d-c generator speeds, and such systems
are rarely employed. Hybrid systems are expected to
find increasing use where turbineelectric drive systems
are advantageous.
1.4 Description of Direct-Current Drives. Directcurrent systems have been used on by far the greatest
number and variety of installations. The most common
d-c system consists of a multiple number of high-speed
diesels driving direct-coupled generators, which in turn
feed power to one or more motors connected directly to
the propeller shaft or through a speed-reducing gear.
The usual system involves one, two, or four enginegenerator sets arranged to drive one propeller. Twinscrew vessels usually consist of duplicate systems with
various degrees of ability to transfer power from one
side to the other, or to drive both screws at reduced
power from the diesel-generator sets of one side. Directcurrent propulsion systems find application primarily in
the-low and moderate power ranges, and where flexibility
of setup and ease of control are of high value.
The usual power size of a d-c drive system is from 1000
to 6000 hp per shaft. Exceptions can be cited on both
sides of this range down to about 400 hp and up to the
10,500 hp per shaft of the icebreaker Glacier and the
19,600 hp of the center shaft of the nuclear-powered
icebreaker Lenin. It should be noted that this latter
power is developed by a double-armature motor, and
thus each unit develops 9800 hp.
The voltage selected for d-c systems is mainly a motor
snd generator design consideration with a somewhat
Fig. 1
TWO-enginebasic aptem
arbitrary upper limit of 1000 volts. This limit is

considered prudent for d-c machines that are to operate
under shipboard conditions of vibration, high humidity,
and frequent maneuvering, and has been established by
the IEEE Committee on Marine Transportation [I].'
Higher-powered systems benefit from the use of higher
voltages and in the case of the very high-powered icebreaker Lettin, 1200volts was selected. More commonly,
however, medium voltages in the range of 500 to 800 are
appropriate. For any given power, a lowering of the
voltage level requires a proportionate increase of the
current, and higher currents require larger commutators,
more brushes, larger cables, and higher-capacity contactors or swikhes. Where possible, therefore, voltages
are selected so that required currents do not exoeed
available handling devices, and 3000 amperes is a
commonly observed maximum on all but very large
systems.
It is common practice in multiple-engine, d-c propulsion systems to employ a series loop system and to
intersperse the motor armatures between the generator
armatures so as to reduce the maximum voltage existing
between parts of the system and to ground in the event
that some point is a t ground potential. A two-engine
system of this type is illustrated in Fig. 1. The important features of this electrical arrangement are: one, it
utilizes full engine torque and power capability without
subjecting the machines to overloads of any type, even
when only one engine is in service; and two, it avoids
problems as to governing, load divi$on, and shortcircuit protection which are inherent in systems that
require parallel operation of independently driven d-c
generators.
If the generators were operated in parallel, the utilization of one engine a t full power would require overcapacity in the generator or the motor. This is because
the power of a fixed-pitch propeller varies approximately
as the cube of the rpm. Thus, a t 50-percent power, the
rpm will be 79 percent, and at that rpm the motor will
be able to absorb 79-percent volts. If the generator is
to develop full power a t this lower voltage, overcurrent
must be drawn so that the product of volta and current
Numbem in brackets -te
References at end of chapter.
336
MARINE ENGINEERING
PROPELLER RPM, % RATED

Fig. 2
Propeller torque-rpm characteristics
is 100 percent. Alternatively, the motor could be

provided with extra flux capacity so that it could accept
the full voltage at the lower speed. In either case,
overcapacity must be provided in order to permit full
utilization of the one engine mode.
It is not always possible or desirable to employ an
equal number of generator and motor armatures. This
brings with it some further complications which, in the
extreme cases encountered on some high-powered
systems, forces the use of parallel operating generators.
If in the case just considered there were only one motor
armature in the propulsion motor, the voltage of each
generator could be only half that of the motor. This is
not objectionable if the motor is not over about 4000 hp
and of the direct-drive type, because 1000 volts could
be used on the motor and each generator then rated at
500 volts. If, however, the ratio of generators to motors
exceeds 2: 1 and becomes 3: 1 or 4: 1, a parallel system
may become the better choice when consideration is
given to the high ratio of voltage between the motor and
its supplying generators [2].
The d-c electric drive system, in addition to providing
the usual electric drive features, offers several important
additional control and operating advantages which make
it the preferred system for many applications. These
advantages are as follows:
(a) Erne of control. Basic control of a d-c propulsion
drive is accomplished by varying the generator voltage
through field control. This process is smooth, simple,
efficient, and lends itself readily to remote control.
(b) Multiple control stations. The simplicity of the
process by which propeller speed and direction of rotation
are controlled facilitates the use of multiple control
stations when these are desirable from a ship-operating
standpoint. Control can be delegated to any desired
remote location by selector switches located at the
engine room control station. The engine room station
can retain or regain control at any time.
(c) Adaptability to varying propeller-hull charaeter-
istics. A unique feature of the d-c electric drive is its

ability to adapt to a range of propeller power-versus-rpm
characteristics. The propeller power-rpm characteristic changes somewhat with hull condition and vessel
loading, but these changes are not very large and can be
accepted without major effects on the propelling machinery. However, vessels subject to the restraining
effects of heavy tows or passage through ice cause their
propellers to exhibit wide variations in power-rpm
characteristics. A propeller on a stalled vessel (bollard
condition) will develop full-power torque at approximately 70 percent of the free-route propeller rpm.
Diesel engines, which are basically constant-torque
machines, must run a t full speed to develop full power,
and thus cannot by themselves be fully utilized over a
variety of propeller power-speed characteristics.
By proper selection of the d-c propelling motor and
by utilizing field control, the constant-torque characteristic of a diesel engine can be adapted to a range of
propeller characteristics. This is illustrated in Fig. 2'
based on a two-engine installation as in Fig. 1. The
adaptability here illustrated is obtained by selecting
the propelling motor so that it can develop full power in
the bollard condition and then weakening its field strength
to match any other full-power propeller. speed up to that
of the free-route condition. This permits the utilization
of full rated engine capacity through a varying propeller
characteristic speed range without installing excess
engine or electrical capacity. In effect, the system
provides a variable speed ratio between the prime movers
and the propeller to suit a variety of operating conditions.
1.S Description of Alternating-Current Drives. The
use of a-c electric drives is generally associated with the
use of turbine prime movers. The usual system consists
of a single turbine driving a direct-connected, high-speed
generator which furnishes power to a single, low-speed,
direct-drive motor of the synchronous type. A multiple
number of turbine-generator sets can be used in this
type of system if required by the power requirements
and available turbine ratings. When high-speed diesels
are used as prime movers in an a-c electric drive, multiple
units will normally be required to develop the desired
propulsion power.
With the use of synchronous machines, there is a fixed
ratio of speed between the turbine-generator and the
propeller motor. This ratio is governed by the ratio of
the number of poles on the motor to the number of poles
on the generator. Thus a two-pole generator operating
at 3600 rpm supplying power to a 60-pole synchronous
motor would cause the motor to operate at SOof its
own speed or 120 rpm. In effect, the a-c drive accomplishes the same result as the use of reduction gears, and
it is useful to think of such generators and motors as
being electrically "geared" together. I n addition, the
electric drive provides the ability to reverse the propeller
by electrical means rather than mechanical.
Alternating-current drives are advantageous relative
to direct-current drives from the standpoint of size,
weight, cost, maintenance, and simplicity. However,
ELECTRIC PROPIULSlON DRIVES
these advantages are often outweighed by the control

flexibility and superior torque performance of direct
current for vessels of moderate power and special
service. Alternating-current propulsion is particularly
adaptable to ships requiring high power since both a-c
generators and a-c motors can be readily built for powers
of 50,000 hp or more if required. Alternating-current
drive systems are most suitable for ships that spend a
high proportion of their operating time a t or near full
power rather than at severely reduced power or in
service requiring frequent maneuvers.
Electric drives of the a-c type tend to fall into the
moderate and high-powered range. Thus, 10,000 hp
per shaft might be considered as a reasonable lower limit
and 60,000 hp per shaft as a likely upper range value. A
notable exception is the very popular T2-SE-A1 tankers
of World War 11, which were 6000 hp; it is doubtful,
however, that such a low rating would again be applied
in this form to oceangoing ships. At the high end of the
scale, there is no practical limitation on rating for a-c
propulsion.
The voltage levels used on a-c propulsion systems
range from about 2300 to 7500 volts, with the larger
power units being associated with th'e higher voltages.
The voltage is selected on the basis of motor and
generator design considerations and on the basis of
available switching devices.
It was natural that the induction motor should be used
on early installations because its torque performance
afforded the censer-vatism necessary on an application
where little was known about the actual torque requirements of a propeller under maneuvering conditions.
Furthermore, the induction motor made practical the
arrangement of pole-changing windings to obtain two
different speed ratios between the prime mover and the
propeller. This was important on warships where the
cruising power requirements were low and where an
alternate speed ratio contributed to better economy of
prime mover operation. After experience was gained
with the induction motor drives, the more desirable
synchronous motor was applied with complete success.
By providing the synchronous motor field with a pole
face winding, so that it may be operated as a squirrelcage induction motor during maneuvering, it has been
possible to provide characteristics which enable it to
satisfactorily handle the maneuvering requirements of
the propeller.' Therefore this type of motor is applied
on practically all a-c propulsion systems. The advantages which make the use of the synchronous motor
desirable as compared with the induction motor are:
(1) better efficiency-a typical slow-speed synchronous
propulsion motor has a full-load efficiency of 98 percent
as compared to the 94 percent of a correspondinginduction
motor; (2) higher power factor-the synchronous motor
can be operated at 100 percent power factor as compared
with the 70-75 percent of the slow-speed induction
motor, resulting in a lower weight and cost of the
generator; (3) lower weight and cost of the motor;
337
(4) larger air gap-this is conducive to more satisfactory

installation and maintenance.
The following features are associated with the alternating-current form of electric drive:
(a) High eficiency. A reasonable average figure for
the loss in the synchronous a-c electrical transmission
between the prime mover and the propeller shaft is 6
percent. The overall transmission system efficiency
must also reflect the excitation losses.
(b) Flexibility of installation. The direct-drive motor
can be located aft in the vessel to reduce t4e shaft length,
and the generator sets can be installed at any location
desired.
(c) Use of unidirectional prime movers. Since revereing of the propeller is accomplished by electrical means,
the prime movers can be unidirectional units. Thus if
steam turbines are applied, no reversing stages are
required and the valving is simplified. Gas turbines are
inherently unidirectional machines, and some externd
means must be provided for obtaining reversed propeller
thrust.
(d) Multiple prime movers. Any number of prime
movers can be combined (paralleled) electkally to
provide power to the propulsion motor.
(e) Dual use of propulsion power. The propulsion
generator set(s) is available for other functions when not
being used for propulion.
(f) Speed reduction--prime mover to propeller shaft.
By choosing a motor with a large number of poles as
compared to the generator, a speed reduction is effected
electrically without the use of mechanical meaiw.
Almost all turbine a-c electric drives use generators
directly coupled to the prime mover and motors driving
directly to the propeller. The ratio of poles on the motor
to poles on the generator will usually be in the range of
30 or 35 to 1, producing a speed ratio that is the inverse
ratio of the number of poles.
(g) Available in large power ratings. Alternatingcurrent machines can be built in very large ratings.
From a practical standpoint, they can be built with any
rating required for ship propulsion applications.
1.6 The Alternating-Current Direct-Current System.
An a-c rectified d-c drive, by utilizing a high-capacity
silicon rectifier, makes possible the use of high-speed a-c
generator sets to provide power to d-c propulsion motors.
The power size of this hybrid system is now limited by
the magimum d-c motor size or to about 15,000 hp per
motor armature, although a higher propulsion shaft
horsepower can be obtained by the use of multiplearmature d-c motors as illustrated in Fig. 3. This
system retains the favorable speed-torque and control
characteristics of the variable voltage or conventional
d-c system and permits the use of large high-speed
prime movers with direct-connected generators.
This system has been applied to many industrial
applications with good success and it is considered a
suitable and reliable transmission system for marine
propulsion. High-speed locomotive-type diesel engines
in the 4000-hp range commonly employ direct-connected
338
MARINE EN
the kva taken from the generator, and the actual kva
rating of the a-c propulsion generator should be somewhat higher to compensate for a-c voltage distortion
(harmonics). For a 6-phase rectifier, the displacement
power factor should be multiplied by approximately 0.96
to obtain the required generator volt ampere rating.
For a 12-phase rectifier, the displacement power factor
should be multiplied by approximately 0.99 to obtain
the generator volt-ampere rating.
The switching action of the'rectifiers in commutating
the d-c load causes some distortion in the a-c wave shape,
and the d-c voltage wave contains a ripple component
superimposed on the average d-c voltage. Excessive
ripple voltage can result in significant extra motor
heating and to deterioration of commutation performance. However, the total rms d-c voltage ripple
produced in a 6-phase rectifier is about 8 percent, and
in a 12-phase unit about 5 percent. The extra hating
produced by such ripple voltages is negligible and no
Fig. 3 Two-generator, single-shaft, a-c reZtiRd d-c system
special motor design is necessary from this standpoint.
For good d-c motor commutation, the current ripple
should be limited to a maximum of 2 percent and, in
most cases, normal d-c motor inductance is sufficient to
give satisfactory commutation with 6-phase and 12a-c generators and rectify this power to d-c for use in the phase rectifiers. In special cases, or when less than
driving motors. Much larger units are employed as 6-phase units are used, some de-rating, atering, or other
sources of excitation for very large electric utility compensations may be necessary.
The speed of the d-c propulsion motor is controlled
generators.
The system voltage is selected with the same criteria in the same manner as the variable-voltage d-c system;
as the conventional d-c system. Some additional that is, by varying the magnitude of the voltage supplied
flexibility is possible in the selection of the a-c generator to the propulsion motor armature. This is accomplished
voltage by using a transformer between the a-c generator by varying the a-c generator excitation or by a combinaand rectifier. This arrangement may be necessary in tion of a-c generator excitation and generator set speed
very large ratings where a single turbine-generator control. The direction of motor-propeller rotation is
supplies power to a double or triple-armature d-c motor; changed by reversing the polarity of the propulsion
however, for most applications the a-c generator voltage motor field.
Unlike the conventional d-c system, the rectifier blocks
can be selected so that power can be supplied directly
from the a-c generator to the rectifier to the d-c motor. the transfer of power from the propulsion motor to the
The rated voltages of the a-c and d-c units, when using a-c generator set. Each drive system must, therefore,
6-phase and 12-phase systems, will be in the ratio of 1.0 be checked to assure that the pump-back energy during
to 1.3, and if the d-c motor is limited to 1000 volts, the a propeller reversal can be absorbed in the motor
maximum a-c voltage is approximately 775 volts, armature-rectifier circuit. If necessary, a resistor can
be switched into the motor armature circuit to absorb
line-to-line.
The power factor of the rectifier will be less than unity this pump-back energy and limit excessive d-c armature
because of the harmonic components (distortion factor) current.
The losses in the a-c rectified d-c electric transmission
and because of the generator reactance, transformer
between
the prime mover and the propeller are less than
reactance, if used, and the d-c circuit inductance (displacement power factor). The displacement power in the d-c system because of the higher efficiency of the
factor for 6 or 12-phase rectifiers connected directly to high-speed a-c generator. A reasonable figure for the
the a-c generator will be between 0.91 and 0.96, depend- loss in transmission systems where transformers are not
ing upon the generator reactance. The displacement required is 12 percent, and with systems requiring
power factor gives only the fundamental component of rectifier transformers a reasonable figure is 14 percent.
339
Section 2
The Diesel Direct-Current Drive System
2.1 System Composition. A diesel d-c type of
electric drive permits the use of several small, high-speed;
lightweight, nonreversible engines to drive a single
propeller. The system frequently consists of a pair of
engine-driven generators and a single propulsion motor
but in some cases, double-armature motors, or two
motors driving through reduction gears, are used.
The use of high-speed engines results in a considerable
reduction in size and weight of machinery, and it is
desirable in every case to use engines with rotative speeds
as high as is consistent with reasonable maintenance and
life. To reduce wear on the engines, it is usual practice
to operate at reduced engine speeds when less than full
power is required. Thus an engine having a full speed
of 900 rpm will commonly have a babe speed of about
450 rpm and be operated at that speed until torque and
power demands require raising its speed. Naturally
aspirated diesel engines are basically constant-torque
machines and are therefore capable of developing power
proportional to speed over their operating range.
However, prudent operation dictates some reduction in
torque at reduced speeds and, therefore, system operation
is arranged for reductions in both torque and speed
whenever less than full power is required. Supercharged
engines are more restricted at reduced speed, but this
characteristic is in no practical way detrimental to their
marine application in a d-c system where the engine speed
is independent of the propeller speed.
Generators are normally of the shunt-wound type,
separately excited and arranged for direct connection to
the engine. In small plants the generators are usually
arranged for self-ventilation with a fan attached to the
armature, the ventilating air being taken from the
engine room and exhausted back to the engine room or
through a duct to the outside. In large installations,
where the heat loss is considerable, generators are usually
fitted with a closed ventilating system, with the shaftmounted fan forcing the air through a water-cooled air
cooler. In this case the machine is totally enclosed and
is independent of the environmental conditions of the
engine room.
Propulsion motors are usually of the same type and
general construction as the main generatora. For some
installations, where the diameter of the motor is restricted, double-armature motors may be used. Such a
motor consists of two duplicate units usually mounted
on a common shaft with two supporting bearings and
two separate field frames. Single-armature motors are
lower in volume, weight, and cost than double-armature
units and should be used whenever conditions permit.
For applications involving very low propeller speeds and
rather small plants, it is sometimes desirable to use one
or two high-speed motors connected to the propeller
shaft through a reduction gear.
The excitation subsystem must be capable of providing
controllable amounts of excitation power for the separately excited main motors and generators so that changes
in propeller speed and direction of rotation can be
accomplished through variable voltage and polarity
control of the generators. The amount of excitation
power is small, being of the order of 1.5 to 2 percent of
the machine rating, but its continuity and ease of control
are vital to the system.
In many installations, particularly those of small and
moderate-size plants, the power for excitation is supplied
by exciters driven by the main engines so that the
propulsion plant is self-contained and independent of
any auxiliary engines. A further extension of this
concept of self-sufficiency that has been used in many
small installations involves the use of main engine-driven
generator exciters and a small auxiliary generator that
operates at constant potential and is capable of supplying
underway auxiliary power as well as motor excitation.
The full range of main generator voltage and polarity
control is achieved by varying the very low power of
the field of the generator exciter. This use of double
amplification permits the use of small rheostats and
switches in the control stations and small control cables.
Main engine-driven exciters or auxiliary generators must
be capable of developing the required power over the
semice speed range,of the main engines.. If an auxiliary
generator is so driven, it must be controlled by a voltage
regulator to hold constant voltage.
With larger plants, excitation power is derived from
the vital bus of the ship's semice power system. The
dependence placed upon the ship's service power system
for a variety of vital services has brought about the
'inclusion of features and redundancies which assure
continuity of auxiliary power under virtually all circumstances. Its use, therefore, as the basic source of
excitation power is not inconsistent with the importance
of maintaining propulsion power control [3].
Since most vessels, except the very smallest, use a-c
ship's service systems, conversion to d-c and preferably
controllable-voltage d-c is necessary. This is often
done with motor-generator sets but, in recent years,
increasinp; use is being made of static conversion devices.
The development of silicon-controlled rectifiers in larger
sizes permits the supply of easily controlled excitation
power to generator and motor fields. These excitation
systems lend themselves readily to the addition of current regulating, limiting, and other protective features.
A spare excitation conversion unit is normally installed
to safeguard this vital service. On twin-screw vessels,
a single spare is considered adequate for the two propulsion systems.
The control of a diesel d-c electric system is accomplished basically by varying the voltage and polarity of
the main generators. This voltage variation is effected
by a combination of generator speed and excitation
MARINE ENGINEERING

SPWJAL
"i
i
SERVICES
DC BUS
MTR FLD
CENTRAL
OPERATINO qATION
Fig. 4
Schemalc diagram, two-engine d-c electric ryrtem
changes so as to produce a full range of motor speed

control in either direction of rotation. Motor excitation
is normally held at a constant value for each operating
mode, and changes are necessary only when the number
of generators in service is changed or when the propeller
speed-rpm characteristics are changed (e.g., when
towing).
A basic schematic diagram for a two-engine generator,
two-motor system is shown in Fig. 4. This schematic
shows the d-c loop with power switches 1s and 2s in the
normal operating position. These "setup" switches can
be either manually or electrically operated, and no
"load-break" capability is required since protective
devices operate to cause the loop current to go to zero, or
very nearly zero, before the main contacts of the setup
switch can be opened. On switches 1s and 2S, all three
sets of contacts are mechanicallv interlocked. If it is
necessary for maintenance or operating economy to
remove generator GI, for example,
switch
18 is operated so that contacts 3-4 close when 1-2 and
STOP, one of the generator field contactors, AH (ahead)

or AS (astern), will close to supply d-c power through
the silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR's) to the generator
fields and full field current would be provided to the
motor field by the closing of contactor FW. Generator
field voltage is increased with throttle movement off
STOP by gradually gating the SCR's fully on to provide
full field at about half throttle while the engine speed
remains near idle. During the remainder of throttle
travel, engine speed is increased by controlling the fuel
rack through a current&-air-pressure transducer located
on the engine. Thus, over the latter part of throttle
movement, armature voltage varies directly with engine
speed. Tracking of the generator excitation and engine
speed control is assured by having the controlling
rheostats for both engine-generator sets on the same
o
h.-.$+
0ua1U.
~h~ loop ammeters on the pilothouse (PH) console

and on the C0S control panel provide a continuoue
display of the operating condition of the propuls~on
~ ~ n ~ ~ e ~ r o $ ~ ~ ~ e ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ system
~ ~ for
~ ~both
c the
~ ~helmsman
a l & and
. ~the~COS
e fpersonnel.
, " c ' ~ ~ ~
Loop
current
and
propeller
speed
are
indicators
of
loadarrangement whenever switch 1s is positioned to bypass
ing
of
the
electrical
system
and
of
the
power
being
this generator.
-. .
.
to the propeller. The loop
protected from
D h n g a s t a h u p of the system, the throttle would be
excessive
current
by
two
devices.
The
first
of these is the
in the STOP position and the switches
Control would be in the central operating station (COS), thermal overload alarm, set at 110-115 percent of normal
the diesels would run at idle meed. and the
field current as a warning to the operator of an abnormal
-.motor
.
weakening contactor FW wo;ld be open to prevent operating condition requiring his corrective action. The
overheating of the motor field. After starting the diesels, second is the magnetic overload trip, which is set for
control could be transferred by the selector switch in the 200-300 percent of rated loop current and removes
COS to the pilothouse, if desired, and the system brought motor and generator excitation. This trip is fund*
up to a higher speed. As soon as the throttle is moved off mentally a short-circuit and back-up protective device
-
and is purposely set above any normal operating peak

condition.
When operating with. one generator and two motor
armatures in the system, the motor field must be
reduced to 63 percent of normal in order for the propeller
to absorb all the available power. Field current is
reduced by manual operation of the motor field rheostats.
The special services bus shown in Fig. 4 can be a load
bus, such as is often found on drilling rigs or dredges, or
it can be a separate source for d-c propulsion power.
When propulsion power is not required, switch 1T or 2T
is closed and the generators are then used to supply d-c
power to other equipment. Additional circuitry and
instrumentation will be required for such service, and it
is possible to operate in this mode a t voltage lower than
in the propulsion mode if desired.
Cables for inteiconnection of the main generators,
motors and setup switches are usually varnished cloth or
asbestos-varnished-cloth insulated, and of the leaded
and armored type or the impervious sheathed and
armored type. Because of limited space usually available for making bends, the individual single-conductor
cables should not be larger than 1,000,000 circular mils,
and a suflicient number of such cables or smaller cables
should be connected in parallel for each lead. It is
desirable to run cables as directly as possible between
units and in well-ventilated and accessible locations.
Cables should be continuous betweeh terminations with
no splices, and be well supported in metal racks.
Where propulsion motors or generators require forced
ventilation by separate blowers, these are generally
supplied and mounted on the main units. When such
blowers are separately mounted, they are connected to
the machines by ducts supplied by the shipbuilder.
Circulating water for machines fitted with air coolers is
normally supplied by motor-driven pumps.
Propulsion motor bearings on small, low-speed units
may be the self-contained disk lubricated type and require
no external cooling. Larger motors, however, will use
force-lubricated bearings supplied by a lubricating oil
system consisting of a sump tank, motor-driven oil
pumps, and oil cooler. The propeller thrust bearing is
usually supplied from the same system.
Propulsion generator bearings are normally forcelubricated from the diesel engine system, the bearings
being provided with necessary inlet orifices to limit the
flow of oil to proper values.
2.2 System Design Features. I n laying out a
suitable diesel-electric d-c propulsion system, careful
consideration must be given to a number of items. The
first step is to select a suitable type and size of engine.
This will, of course, depend on the type and service of
the vessel involved and the power requirement. I n
estimating the total engine brake horsepower required,
it is satisfactory to use a value of 85 percent for the
transmission efficiency. This allows for the losses of
the generators, motors, and cabling. Thus for a system
requiring 4000 propeller shaft horsepower, the engine
brake horsepower should total 4700. This could be
34 1
supplied by four 1175-hp engines, but a more likely

choice would be two 2350-hp units. If the engines are
to drive exciters or auxiliary generators, the engine brake
horsepower should be increased accordingly.
I n order to minimize the size and cost of the currentcarrying elements of the main system, it is desirable to
use moderately high voltages on the generators and
motors. The desirable voltage will be influenced by the
ratings of the machines and the ratio of the number of
generators to the number of motors when the usual
series loop connection is used. IEEE marine rules
establish 1000 volts as a maximum for a single armature,
and if this voltage is used on a single-armature motor,
the permissible generator voltage will be 500 if two
generators are employed and 250 if four units are used.
I n systems that employ an equal number of motor and
'generator armatures, there is considerable freedom of
choice since, by electrically interspersing generators and
motors, the maximum system voltage is no higher than
the voltage of a single unit. Although from a system
standpoint 1000 volts per unit could be used, practical
machine design and operating conditions will tend to
reduce this voltage to the 500-750 volt range on all but
the very largest installations. If the installation is such
that the main generator sets are to be used in port to
supply power for special auxiliaries, their voltage
demands may influence the system voltage choice. This
influence would be toward a lower voltage but the
separately excited main generators can be operated a t
reduced voltage, rkduced speed, or both, and still supply
special auxiliary power, provided its current rating is not
exceeded and provided the engine is not overloaded a t
the chosen operating speed.
Generators and motors of the shunt-wound type
arranged for separate excitation are the general standard.
A series loop system of such machines is inherently stable,
even under the weak-field motor conditions encountered
when the number of in-service engine-generator sets is
reduced to a minimum.
Good load-sharing between paralleled d-c generators
requires that their terminal voltage decrease with
increasing load. A drooping voltage regulation characteristic of at least 5 percent (and preferably more) should
be provided to insure good parallel operation.
Two or more motors operating in mechanical parallel
and supplied in parallel from a common power bus must
have drodping speed versus load characteristics to share
load without depending on an excitation-regulating
control system. Inherent load division between motors
is entirely dependent on their load-speed characteristics;
these must droop for stable operation and they must be
identical throughout the range of operating conditions
for equal load sharing.
The availabilitv of materials such as silicones and
epoxy resins has resulted in the appearance of classes of
insulation that permit high safe temperature rises.
Class A insulation is seldom used on propulsion machines
and virtually all units use Class B or Class F insulation
systems. Class H insulation is occasionally employed,
but care must be taken to avoid adverse brush-wear

problems if silicones are used. With a 50 C ambient
temperature, the allowable temperature rises for Class B,
F, and H insulation are 60, 80, and 100 deg C, respectively. More complete tabulations will be found in
reference [I]. The use of the higher temperature
insulations results in smaller and lighter weight machines
for a given power. They are also better &ted to the
marine environment since they utilize practically no
cellulose materials.
Totally enclosed machines equipped with surface air
coolers create their own ambient conditions and are
affected only to a very minor degree by the ambient air
temperature of the room in which they are located. I n
some cases it may be desirable to provide coolers that
will deliver air to the machines a t 40 C rather than 50 C
and allow a corkesponding increase in the allowable
temperature rise. The maximum seawater temperature
is considered to be 85 F.
Propulsion generators and motors are normally rated
for the full-power continuous shaft horsepower requirement of the vessel, and no overload ratings are provided.
This practice is consistent with the fact that the diesel
engine usually has a maximum rating with no overload
capacity. However, in designing the electrical equipment, it is necessary to take into account the fact that
current ' peaks are encountered during maneuvering.
These peaks are of short duration and their magnitudes,
with well-designed excitation and control systems, can
be kept to values within the inherent commutating
ability of the main units. Their effect on heating is not
appreciable.
For small and medium-sized propulsion plants, it is
generally satisfactory to use motors and generators of the
protected, self-ventilated type and provide adequate
room ventilation. For large installations, where heat
loss from the electrical machines is considerable, or
where engine room or motor room space is limited, the
units should be ~rovided with a forced-ventilation
system or with air coolers and closed systems. While the
totally enclosed machines with individual coolers are
somewhat less accessible and somewhat more costly, they
lend themselves to a simpler ship installation layout and
eliminate the need for large ducts, outside ventilators,
and motor-driven blowers, at least for the high-speed
generators. Low-speed, direct-connected motors will
still require motor-driven blowers, but no ducts to the
outside are necessary.
Ventilating systems should be laid out on the basis of
circulating 70 to 100 cfm of air per kw of loss in the
machine. Pressure drops in machines of this type
are of the order of 1.5 in. of water.
Main propulsion motors and generators should be
fitted with 0; arranged for connection to fire extinguishing systems of t h e COz type. On other than closed
recirculating air systems, means should be provided to
shut off the-circulation of air when the fire extinguishing
system is used.
From the standpoint of minimum cost and weight, a

single-armature motor should be used where space
permits. A double-armature motor can be built in a
smaller diameter and may be used where the diameter is
limiting or where the added reliability of two separate
electrical units is considered desirable. Another arrangement, which may be used where space and weight
limitations are severe, consists of one or more high-speed
motors connected to the propeller shaft through reduction gears. While this system saves weight and space
for propeller speeds below approximately 150 rpm, it
increases the complications of the installation and
involves additional high-speed, precision equipment.
When direct-connected propulsion motors are used, it
is common practice to include the main thrust bearing
as a part of one of the motor's main bearings. This can
be done a t either end of the motor, but the use of a thrust
bearing at the forward or free end of the motor contributes to a smaller size thrust collar and one which can be
removed readily from the end of the motor shaft. When
geared motors are used, the thrust bearing will ordinarily
be located in the reduction gear.
The propulsion control normally should be mounted
on a platform in the upper part of the engine room,
preferably so that the operator has a view of the engine
room space. This arrangement makes a simple cable
layout with the cables coming out of the top of the
various machines and into the bottom of the control
board. It also avoids dangers associated with cables
entering the machines from below in close proximity to
the bilges. For pilothouse control, a simple desk
incorporating the necessary master controller instruments
and indicators is sufficient for propulsion purposes.
On every installation, it is necessary to check the
engine-generator combination to make certain that there
will be no serious torsional vibration within the operating
speed range of the unit. This is a responsibility of the
engine builder and requires a careful calculation of the
mass-elastic system and its response to engine excitation
frequencies.
I t is also desirable to make a careful calculation of the
mass-elastic system comprising the propulsion motor,
the lime shaft, and the propeller to make certain that there
will be no critical speeds induced by the propeller in the
operating range. This is normally a responsibility of
the shipbuilder. The d-c electric system does not
contribute to any vibratory excitation since the d-c
power flow is smooth and continuous, and the torque
produced is virtually without variation.
2.3 Physical Characteristics. With the high-speed
diesel engine, the generating set can be fitted readily into
any reasonable engine room layout. Parts are relatively
small and easy to handle, and spaces necessary for
disassembly and maintenance are considerably less than
for large, direct-connected engines. Foundations are
small and simple. As examples of the size of sets,
typical engine-generator units would have approximate
overall dimensions as follows :
343
MARINE ENGINEERING
140
0
cn
2120
40
',
BASED ON 900 RPM DIESEL ENGINES.700

VOLT GENERATORS SINGLE-.ARMATURE MOTOR
FOR DIRECT DRI& AND TWO MOTORS FOR
GEARED DRIVE
SHAFT HORSEPWER-THOUSANDS
Fig. 6
~~ do0
A00 .dm sd00

SHAFT HORSEPOWER
Weight of diesel d-c electric drive equipment at various power ratings
dm dm
The curves in Fig. 6 show, for several propeller speeds,

the approximate weight in pounds per shp of a singlescrew propulsion plant for ratings up to 10,000 shp.
Flg. 5 Diameter of d-c propulsion koton for varlous ratingr and speeds
These weights include engines, generators, motor, and
control. They do not include cable or auxiliaries.
These latter items vary considerably with different
layouts but represent a very small percentage of the
weight of the main machinery, and therefore are of minor
Width
Rating
Length
Height
(generator) importance. For a propeller speed of 100 rpm, curves
are given for both direct-connected and geared motors.
12 f t
2000 kw, 900 rpm
29 f t
7.5 ft
A
comparison of these curves shows the saving in weight
1000 kw, 900 rpm
20 ft
12 ft
6 ft
with the geared drive for low propeller speeds.
O
:
lob0
2.4
Applications
These dimensions will, of course, vary somewhat with

(a) Oceanographic Survey Ships. The oceanographic
different makes of engines.
survey ship Wilkes (AGS-33) is one of a group of specialEither single-armature or double-armature propulsion service vessels using diesel d-c electric propulsion. This
motors can be used as dictated by the machinery rating ship has been designed to be highly maneuverable in
and space. The motor diameter is usually the limiting order to fulfill the wide variety of oceanographic,
dimension; Fig. 5 shows, for several propeller speeds, the hydrographic, and other research tasks for which it is
approximate diameters of single-armature motors of intended. The ship has a single screw rated a t 3000 shp
various powers. Multiple armatures can be used to and 200 rpm. The propulsion plant consists of the folobtain higher power. These curves are for Class F lowing major components:
insulated machines.
Main Propulsion Engines:
Propulsion control cubicles require relatively little
space and usually can be easily located on a flat above the
Tu$o, 1800-bhp, 1000-rpm units
main generators or at one end of the engine room. On
Main Propulsion Generators:
single generator plants, a desk-type control station can
Two 1260-kw, 1000-rpm, 700-V units.
be used since power leads are not brought to the control
Variable
voltage field excitation (7.2 kw, 0 to
cubicle. As examples of the size of control boards, the
180 V) from silicon-controlled rectifier
following approximate dimensions are given for single(SCR) in main propulsion control cubicles.
screw drives:
Main Propulsion Motor:
-No. of
One double-armature, 3000-hp (1500 hp per
Sbp
Engines
Width
Depth
Height
armature). 200-r~m.700-V unit. Constant5000
2
8ft
5 ft
8ft
voltage fihd kxLit*tioi (2.5 kw, 250 V)
1000
1
5 ft
3 ft
3 'ft (desk)
from SCR in propulsion control cubicles.
MARINE i ENGINEERING
GI = G2 = 1 2 6 0 KW
IM)OAMPS. 7OOVOLTS
,$,.
;rl PHASE
A.
4 6 0 V. I PH. 6OCPS
ROOM THROTTLE
DRIVEN
300 K W
DC GEN
FIELD
1 0-60CPS
TRANSF
I'
460
VOLTS
I PH
6OCPS
(PERMISSIVE)
Jig. 8
Cl
C2
- LOOP CONTACT0
MANUAL SETUP SWITCHES

- - - - - INDICATES
MECHANICAL CONNECTION
SI 8 S 2
Fig. 7
4 6 0 V 3PH 6OCPS
C
Elechical schematic for d-c propulsion loop and bow thruster
The auxiliary propulsion and navigation equipment

consists of a bow thruster driven by a 350-hp d-c motor
and a propulsive rudder driven by a 250-hp a-c motor.
Either of two 300-kw d-c generators, one diesel-driven
and one gas-turbine-driven, can supply power to the bow
thruster. Figure 7 is the basic schematic arrangement
of the electrical circuits.
As will be noted from a study of Fig. 7, considerable
redundancy is built into the d-c loop circuit. With two
generators and two motors operating, full power at 200
rprn will be realized. Switching to operate with only
one generator and the two motor armatures is easily done
by operation of the contactor-type setup switches. If
it is desired to remove either of the main propulsion
motor armatures from service, it is necessary to transfer
the links to the bypass position. This is intended only
as an emergency measure in case of damage to a unit,
and all normal operations are performed with both
motor units in service. Also the gas-turbine-driven,
d-c generator can be switched into the loop in the event
that it is desirable to have the diesels shut down.
The primary propulsion control equipment is located
in the central operating station (COS) and it can override
either of the two above-deck stations; i.e., the pilothouse
or the aft control station. This vessel includes a machinery control console which performs display, alarm,
and data logging functions for most of the machinery on
the ship. Starting and stopping of the main propulsion
diesels are the only actual propulsion control functions
on this console.
A common throttle handle is used for engine speed and

generator field excitation. Duplicate rheostats are
located at the pilothouse and at the engine room consoles.
Engine speed is kept at approximately 400 rpm through
one quarter of the throttle travel while generator
excitation is gradually increased to 100 percent. Beyond
one-quarter throttle, the engine speed is increased linearly
to full throttle. The generator fields are controlled by
varying the firing time of the silicon-controlled rectifiers,
and the engine speed is controlled by varying the current
into an electric-pneumatic transducer which controls the
fuel rack position.
The throttle control includes a one-way tracking d-c
servo system whereby the engine room throttle follows
the pilothouse (PH) throttle. The one-way tracking
feature permits central operating station (COS) takeover without consultation with the PH. Transfer from
the COS, however, can be accomplished only upon
operation of a permissive circuit and matching of the two
controllers. Voice communication and observation of
the COS throttle remote position indicator on the PH
console are necessary to effect transfer to the PH.
Local control of engine speed is also available, with two
air pressure gages on the engine panel to allow "bumpfree" transfer from the COS control panel.
In the operation of a d-c loop with two independent
prime movers, loss of power from one prime mover,
when both are in service, can result in reversing the prime
mover which has lost power and may cause severe
engine damage. To avoid this, a system of speed-
Generator ekcitation circuitry
activated interlocks is utilized.' The field circuit of each

generator can be energized only when two sets of speedsensing contacts are closed. One set operates off a
voltage-sensitive relay operated by a tachometer
generator, and the other operates from a mechanical
input. Two separate takeoff points on each engine
assure independent operation. Both sets of contacts are
in series, and close at about 300 rpm on increasing speed
and open at about 200 rpm on decreasing speed. If
both sets do not close on the way up, no field excitation
can be applied. Upon loss of power, as long as either set
of contacts opens, the field circuit will be opened, thus
preventing the generator from motoring and driving the
engine backwards. The probability of loss of the prime
mover and failure of both sets of contacts to open is
extremely remote. Should one set fail, the second will
protect the unit and still not interfere with normal
operation. If one engine loses power, the second unit
will be able to carry the load since the motor voltage
will be reduced by 50 percent and the speed will drop
proportionally. Thus the operator will be able to
continue operation at half-speed until convenient to
change the setup contactors.
I n addition to the normal indicators on the PH
console, a loop ammeter is included. This is a direct
indication of power into the propeller, and enables the
helmsman to operate at full load on the propulsion plant
without constant PH-to-COS communication. The
system is protected from overspeed trip-out and from
excessive loop current during a quick reversal operation
(defined as immediate FULL AHEAD to FULL
ASTERN or conversely, although the latter tends to be
less severe due to the relatively low astern ship speeds)
by a time-delay relay activated as the throttle goes
through the STOP position. This reduces engine speed
for a few seconds, removes the generator field excitation,
and inserts a field-weakening resistor into the motor field.
This time delay, plus the inherent machine time constants, allows the ship to slow down to approximately 70
percent speed before applying full generator field in the
reverse direction, neutralizes the effect of the acceleration
torque transmitted to the diesels due to the waterwheel

action of the propeller, and serves to limit the loop
current to less than the instantaneous magnetic trip
setting of 200 percent of normal. This magnetic
protective device, which performs strictly a backup
function, has an automatic reset feature to permit
resumption of normal operation as soon as the throttle is
returned to the STOP position.
Silicon-controlled rectifiers are used for the variable
voltage power supplies to the generator fields. The
reference signal to the rectifiers is varied from 0 to 15
volts DC by the throttle movement over the first quarter
of travel. Reversing is accomplished by contactors
which change the polarity applied to the field connectors.
Fixed output-voltage silicon rectifiers are supplied for
the main motor field excitation, and automatic field
weakening of the main motor is provided in the STOP
position of the throttle. Each solid-state rectifier is
fed from the 440-V a-c ship's service system by circuits
as shown in Figs. 7 and 8. Duplicate breakers, transformers, and silicon rectifiers are supplied for the main
propulsion circuits.
The field circuits of the generators are arranged for
suiciding (residual armature voltage applied in reverse
across the field in the STOP position). Once again care
has been taken to avoid feedback between the armature
and field excitation circuits by using NO and NC
contacts on the same contactor for the two functions, as
shown ifi Fig. 8.
The 350-hp d-c bow thruster operates over a wide
speed range by varying the excitation to the SCR from 0
to 15 volts from the pilothouse throttle rheostat, thus
varying the generator field voltage from 0 to 180 volts.
The bow thruster motor field is supplied with 250 V d-c
from a silicon rectifier. The reversal of thrust from port
to starboard is accomplished by reversing the voltage
applied to the generator field, after a short time delay
to avoid excessive plugging.
The a-c propulsive rudder circuit is designed to start
the motor at % voltage and % frequency. The unit
system approach-one 300-kw generator and one 250-hp
346
MARINE ENGINEERING
4-hour maximum power a t 810 rpm. The main motor is

capable of developing its power over a speed range, and
a t its maximum 4hour rating this range is from 120 to
175 rpm. These propeller speeds correspond to the
bollard and free-route conditions of the vessel.
The main propulsion control station for each of the
two propulsion system is located in the corresponding
motor room. This station is designed to
(1) Select any combination of one to five dieselgenerator sets with which to supply power to. the
associated main motor.
(2) Supply excitation power to the motor and the
generators from the assigned motor-generator set or from
the standby unit, if necessary.
(3) Start, stop, and regulate the speed of the propulsion motor from zero speed to maximum speed in
either direction of rotation.
(4) Provide means for dividing the load equally
between generators.
(5) Provide visual indications of machinery performance and alarms for dangerous operating conditions.
(6) Provide for transfer of main motor speed and
direction control to the pilothouse.
The pilothouse control station is designed to provide

for
remote operation of the speed controls for both
Fig. 9 Simpllfled schematic d i a g r a d l a c i e r
motors. This station also is mechanically connected
to two bridge-wing control pedestals so that propeller
control can be accomplished from these outside positions
when in closely confined conditions. The pilothouse
motor-allows this reduction in voltage and frequency control function can also be transferred to the aloft
without a reduced voltage starter, since the voltage sags conning station when it is desired to handle the propellers
as soon as applied. The special constant volts-per-cycle from that higher vantage point. A basic schematic
regulator helps this operation, and also permits easy diagram of this system is shown in Fig. 9.
operation from % to full speed by varying the prime
The electric-drive propulsion system of an icebreaker
mover speed by means of a throttle control lever operat- is designed so that full use can be made of its power
ing a rheostat from either the PH or aft control throughout the range of propeller speeds encountered
stations.
between free-route and bollard conditions of the vessel.
(b) USCG Icebreaker Glacier.The high-powered The propeller power-speed characteristics for this vessel,
USCG icebreaker USS Glacier is an interesting example together with key power plant data, are shown in Fig. 10.
of a very large diesel d-c electric system capable of
Fundamentally, control of propeller speed is obtained
developing a total of 21,000 hp on its twin screws over a by just one variable, generator voltage. Of course,
speed range of 120 to 175 rpm. This is by no means a adjustment of the motor shunt field will also affect the
typical diesel d-c electric drive system but, because of propeller speed but adjustment of the motor field is to be
its size and special features, it merits consideration as an made only for the purpose of compensating for a new
illustration of the application of this type of system to propeller power-speed characteristic. For any one
the demanding duty and rugged conditions of polar condition of operation, the motor field should be held
icebreaking service.
constant and the motor speed changed by varying the
The ship is twin, screw with each system consisting of bus voltage. Even the direction of rotation of the
the following principal elements:
propeller is controlled by generator voltage, since the
motors are reversed by reversing the generator polarity.
5 diesel engines-1920 hp cont.; 2400 hp for 4 hr
The generator voltage on the Glacier is controlled by
5 d-c generato-1340
kw cont. ; 1700 kw for 4 hr
changing the engine speed and changing the generator
1d-c prop. motor-8450 hp cont. ; 10,500 hp for 4 hr field strength. Both of these functions are controlled
1 excitation and control subsystem
from a master speed controller handwheel on the motor
room control board. All of the generators driving one
It should be noted that the diesel-generator sets propulsion motor are connected in parallel through
develop their rated continuous power a t 720 rpm and the electrically operated circuit breakers. These breakers
K
W
B
W
ln
K
I
C
a
I
ln
0
1
0
I
0
64
80
100
I20
PROPELLER RPM
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
MOTOR VOLTS (FULL FIELD )
I
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
100
200
300
400
500
600
MOTOR VOLTS (WEAK FIELD)
40
140
160
1
1
700
1
1
800
180
1
900
Fig. 10 Propeller power requirem>nh-+lacier
will trip on overcurrent, short circuit, or engine overspeed,

and they can also be tripped manually by either the
engine room or motor room operator. The overcurrent
trip is set for currents higher than any peaks encountered
in normal service, and protection against moderate
current overload is not necessary since the engines cannot
exceed their maximum rating long enough to seriously
overload a generator.
At low propeller speeds the engines are run a t their
idling speed of 300 rpm and the generator voltage is
controlled by varying the generator excitation. This is
accomplished by means of a potentiometer rheostat
connected in the field of the generator exciter which
provides excitation for all generators on the same bus.
This rheostat is connected mechanically to the governor
control cam and both are driven by the speed control
handwheel. A pilot motor driving the handwheel makes
it possible to operate the speed control from any desired

remote location. Remote control of the propulsion
motor speed consists basically of a system for remotely
operating the master speed controller on the motor room
control board. The master speed controller in the motor
room is the device that actually controls propulsion
speed a t all times. Regardless of where the remote
control may be originating, the motor room operator can
take over control a t any time merely by disconnecting
the remote control signal.
Rather comprehensive tests were made during the
trials of the Glacierto show the performance of the
propulsion system. Oscillographic records were made
during a series of maneuvering operations, and the data
are summarized and reviewed in reference [4]. This interesting art5cle reveals a great deal about the operation of
this well-engineered, -high-powered electric-drive system.
Section 3
The Turbine Direct-Curre~~tDrive System
3.1 System Composition.
A turbine d-c drive
system usually comprises a single, high-speed, nonreversing steam turbine driving a propulsion generator
through a reduction gear, a propulsion motor, a control
system, connecting cable, and various auxiliaries. The

turbine-generator set may be operated a t constant speed,
and it may be convenient in such a case to add a ship's
service generator to the same set.
MARINE ENGINEERING
11 0 0
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
W
2
5 0 0 TO 1 0 0 0 VOLTS
1000
Fig. 11
2000
3000 4000
6000
GENERATOR RATING. KILOWATTS
10,000
Maximum d-c generator speed venur rating
The turbine-generator set requires the use of a

reduction gear to reduce the inherently high speed of the
turbine to a speed that is acceptable to the d-c generator.
I n some cases it is considered advantageous t o utilize
twin- or double-armature generators so as to take
advantage of the higher speed a t which the smaller
double unit can be run. Figure 11 shows the relationship between kw rating and maximum speed a t which
normal d-c generators can be operated with reasonable
design, performance, and maintenance.
3.2 Differences from Diesel Electric System. From
an electrical standpoint, the operation of a turbine d-c
electric drive is basically the same as that of the diesel
system. Speed and direction of rotation of the propeller
motor are controlled by varying the magnitude and
polarity of the propulsion generator voltage through
The system differs in that it is usual to employ only

one turbine per screw since it is'more economical to build
a single turbine of full rating than a number of smaller
ones. It is also possible and often desirable to operate
the turbine-generator set a t constant speed and use the
same turbine to drive a ship's service generator as
previously noted. On high-speed diesel-electric systems,
it is highly desirable from an engine-operation standpoint to reduce the engine speed whenever less than
maximum power is required.
3.3 Applications. The turbine d-c drive is limited to
cases where the extreme flexibility of the variable voltage
control system is desirable, and where conditions are
such that a turbine power plant is more desirable than a
diesel plant as a prime mover.
Applications of this form of drive are very limited.
The U. S. Corps of Engineers has a number of turbine d-c
electric dredges in operation but no new ones have been
constructed in recent years.
A noteworthy example of the application of,turbine
d-c electric drive to a special service vessel is the cable
ship Long Lines [5]. This large oceangoing vessel is a
twin-screw ship with a total shaft horsepower of 8500.
Each of its twin systems consists of a constant-speed
steam turbine and reduction gear driving a doublearmature propulsion generator, an a-c ship's service
generator, and an auxiliary generator which supplies
power to the bow cable drive. The propulsion generator
is of the double-armature type so that it can be operated
a t the desired speed of 900 rpm. Each double-unit
generator supplies the power required by its associated
single-armature, direct-drive propulsion motor which is
capable of developing a maximum power of 4250 hp a t
135 rpm. The a-c auxiliary generator and the bow
cable drive generator are each rated at about 500 kw.
The twin-screw turboelectric propulsion system provides excellent maneu~erabilit~y,speed control, and
remote operation desirable during cable laying and
recovery. The propulsion motors can be operated from
the main motor room, three locations on the bridge, a
location near the bow sheaves, and from the aft steering
station.
Section 4
The Turbine Alternating-Current Drive System
4.1 System Composition-Synchronous.
All of the
discussion in this section on a-c electric drives will be
based on the use of synchronous machines. These
systems will invariably be of the three-phase type and
operate a t unity power factor. They will not, however,
always be 60-cycle systems since prime mover considerations may influence the use of a higher frequency
and the propulsion system is normally independent of
other power systems. Frequently, however, 60 cycles
per second is a good selection, and this facilitates the

use of industrially equivalent designs [6].
I n the case of steam turbines, this form of propulsion
makes possible the use of a single nonreversing highspeed turbine operating at or near its most efficient speed.
The system normally comprises, in addition to the steam
plant, a single, variable-speed, nonreversible steam
turbine driving a direct-connected generator, a propulsion motor, a source of excitation power, control
'
ELECTRIC PROP'ULSION DRIVES
equipment, interconnecting cable, and certain auxiliaries.

If the prime mover is a gas turbine, it will normally be
of the two-shaft type so that wide speed range operation,
essential for ship propulsion, will be possible. The
power turbine output speed on large-size gas turbines that
might be fitted to moderate and large-size vessels is in
the 3600 to 5400-rpm range, and is thus similar to the
normal speeds encountered on steam turbines of similar
rating. The output torque-speed characteristics are
also similar, and thus the a-c electric drive that would be
employed is basically similar for either steam or gas
turbine prime mover systems.
In either steam turbine or gas turbine applications, the
generator is normally of the direct-connected, high-speed
turbo-type. The generator is similar to the ususl
central station unit and uses a distributed field winding
placed in slots in a cylindrical steel rotor. It will
normally have two poles although four-pole units are
also feasible.
The rotor carries ventilating fans at each end which
circulate air in a closed system through the machine
and water-cooled surface air coolers. This type of
totally enclosed machine is now universally employed
and has the advantages of keeping the windings clean,
simplifying the installation, and making a quieteroperating machine.
The generator is provided with temperature-detecting
coils inserted in several locations of the stator winding so
that observations can be made of running temperatures.
Arrangements are also made, usually by electric space
heaters, for heating the machine when idle to prevent
condensation of moisture. Figure 12 illustrates typical
physical characteristics of a-c propulsion generators.
The directdrive synchronous motor is of the salient
pole type and is characterized by its large number of
poles (60 to 72 being common) in order to operate a t the
low speed required by the propeller. The motor is
therefore large in diameter and short in stacked length.
It must be provided with a heavier than normal pole face
winding, so that it can operate successfully as an induction motor under heavy torque loadings produced by the
propeller under reversing conditions with headway on the
ship. Typical physical characteristics of a-c synchronous propulsion motors are shown in Fig. 13.
Motors usually have forced-air circulation in a selfcontained system with surface air coolers. Because the
rotative speeds are so low, motor-driven blowers are
used to provide the necessary air circulation. These
blower units are mounted on or adjacent to the main
motor.
The motor is normally provided with pedestal-type
bearings bolted directly to the ship's.foundation, and one
of these units can be combined with the propeller thrust
bearing if desired. To facilitate major maintenance or
repair, the span between motor bearings is increased
sufficiently so that the motor stator can be shifted
axially to expose the stator windings and the rotor pbles
without necessitating bearing movement or shaft disassembly. This is an important feature that contributes
349
significantly to the ease with which inspections can be

made and maintenance work accomplished with the
motor in place.
As in the case with generators, stator temperature
detectors, fire-extinguishing connections, and space
heaters are provided.
The pxcitation requirements for the a-c system are
considerably more severe and difficult to meet than for
the d-c system. When starting or reversing the motor,
it must operate as a squirrel-cage induction motor until
its speed is electrically close enough to that of the
generator so that it may be synchronized. During this
out-of-synchronism mode of operation, the motor power
factor is very low and its current demands high. To
maintain generator voltage and provide the current
needed to develop proper motor torque, the generator
must be over-excited on a short-time basis. These
conditions are particularly severe when the motor is
reversed from a full-speed ahead operating condition
because the ship continues to move through the water a t
considerable speed and the water flow to the propeller
causes it to resist motor efforts to stop and reverse it.
Typical propeller torque-rpm characteristics are shown
for various ship speeds in Fig. 14.
With the a-c drive, it is necessary to have a separate
source of excitation power. It is not practical to use
generator-driven exciters because of the wide speed
range of the turbine-generator set (100 percent to 20
percent speed) and the fact that the exciter must provide
approximately 2.5 times normal voltage during maneuvering, which is done a t the minimum generator speed.
Excitation is commonly supplied from separate motorgenerator sets operating from the ship's service system.
A pilot exciter of the rapid response or of the static
regulator type is also used so that regulating and limiting
control functions may be provided conveniently. A
standby excitation set should be provided to safeguard
the availability of this vital auxiliary. I n the case of
twin-screw ships, a total of three excitation sets would be
supplied, the third unit being arranged as the spare for
either of the two propeller systems.
Under steady running conditions, sufficient excitation
must be maintained on the main generator so that the
main units do not pull out of step because of torque
variations of the propeller caused by ,turning or sea
conditions. , This can be done by maintaining a degree
of overexcitation, or regulators may be employed which
act automatically to provide increased excitation when
torque variations require it.
I n the turbine-electric a-c system, speed control of the
propulsion motor is obtained by frequency control, or, in
other words, by varying the speed of the prime movergenerator set. The turbine is under the control of . a
governing system which permits its speed to be varied
over the range of from about 20 percent to 100 percent
speed. All steady-state running is performed with the
main motor in synchronism with the generator and the
speeds of the motor and generator proportional to each
other.
350
MARINE ENGINEERING

C
REMOVE COOLERS
+ =PLAN
A
VIEW
R O ~ RR&OVAL
Fig. 12
A-c proplion generatorsdimemions and weights
- -
HP
WEIGHT IPOUNDSI DIMENSIONS (INCHES I

ISQRPM
I A I B I C I D I E I F I G I H I I I J I
WEIGHT
3 5 0 0 0 ~ 2 4 8 ~ 2 8 4 ~ 2 8 5 ~ 1 2 5 ( 1 3 5 ~ 1 2 5 ~ 1 7 2 ~ 1 31620)080 2
0~74~
14511351195 115) 701 821
450000
I 0 3 RPM
WOO0 )31b(3281338 ~ l 5 8 ~ 1 6 7 ~ 1 5 6 ~ 2 0 06) 0
1 21 8
7 4~1
525000
r
weigh
Fig. 13 A-c propulsion m o t a r 4 i m ~ s i o n and
Figure 15 shows a schematic wiring diagram for a

typical single-screw turbine-electric a-c propulsion
system. The direction of rotation of the propulsion
motor is controlled by reversing contactors (S1 to 85).
This reversing switch group can be remotely controlled
switches, contactors, or breakers, depending upon the
control arrangement and system size. Excitation power
is supplied by a main or standby excitation motorgenerator set driven from the auxiliary (ship's service)
power system. Other excitation systems can be used,
such as auxiliary turbine or diesel-driven exciter or
static exciters supplied from the ship's service power
system. The propulsion motor field is controlled by an
excitation contactor with contacts E l , E2, and E3. The
field of the propulsion exciter is automatically controlled
by a propulsion regulator. This regulator automatically
adjusts the excitation power level in response to the
direction control lever and throttle control lever movement. The control station, depending upon the control
arrangement, will have either one or two control levers.
With a two-lever station, one lever controls the direction
switch (S1 to 85) and supplies the logic signals for
automatic starting and synchronizing of the propulsion
motor. The other lever provides speed control logic to
the prime mover governor. Interlocking between the
two levers is provided to (1) allow moving the reverser
lever only when the throttle lever is in the maneuvering
speed position, and (2) to allow movement of the throttle
levers from the maneuvering position only when the
reverser is in the run position and propulsion motor has
started and is synchronized with the generator.
With a two-lever control station, the following sequence
would be automatic in response to the lever movements:
A. REVERSER lever is in STOP
THROTTLE lever is in MANEUVERING
1. The turbine-generator is running a t minimum
speed (15 to 25 percent rated).
2. Excitation bus is a t zero volts with the M-G
set running.
3. Motor field is shorted through its discharge
resistor ( E l and E2 open, E3 closed).
B. REVERSER lever is moved to AHEAD
1. Direction contacts S1, 52, and 53 close.
2. The propulsion regulator increases generator
excitation to maintain rated volts per cycle or maximum
level required by system design, usually between 6 and 7
times rated generator field power.
3. Propulsion motor starts and accelerates as an
induction motor.
4. The field of the propulsion motor is automatically excited by the closing of the motor field
contactor. ( E l and E2 close and E3 opens). The
automatic synchronizing system should be designed to
apply motor field at the proper slip and a t a phase angle
to obtain a high pull-in torque.
C. THROTTLE lever is moved to the desired
'
propeller speed
1. The turbine speed governor resets to call for
the speed indicated by the throttle lever position signal.
35 1
Fig. 14 Typical propeller rpm-torque curves for various h i p speeds
2. Fuel-power increases until the system speed.

reaches the turbine governor set point.
The following sequence would be followed in reversing
from full AHEAD to full ASTERN:
A. THROTTLE lever is moved to the minimum
speed position
1. The turbine governor is reset to call for
minimum speed.
B. REVERSER lever is moved from AHEAD to
ASTERN
1. Excitation voltage goes to zero.
2. Motor field contactor shorts motor field ( E l
and E2 open, and E3 closes).
3. Reversing switch contacts S1, 52, and 53
open and+contacts52, 54, and S5 close.
4. The propulsion regulator increases excitation
to the generator to maintain rated volts per cycle or to
the maximum excitation power limit.
5. The propulsion motor is now operating as an
induction motor. It will reverse and accelerate to a
speed close to the synchronous speed of the turbinegenerator.
6. The field of the propulsion motor is automatically excited and it pulls into step as a synchronous
motor.
C. THROTTLE lever is moved to the desired
propeller speed
MARINE ENGINEERING
EXCITATION BUS
SHIP SERVICE POWER
Fig.
IS
Typical schematic circuit diagram-turbine electric a-c drive
1. The turbine speed governor resets to call for

the speed indicated by the throttle lever position signal.
2. Fuel-power increases until the system speed
reaches the turbine governor set point.
Control systems with higher degrees of automation,
programmed sequencing, and remote actuation can be
employed, and the trend is to move in this direction.
Protection against faults or short circuits in the main
circuit is provided by phase balance relays or a differential relay, or both. The functioning of these relays
causes excitation to be removed from the propulsion
motor and generator. Ground protection is provided
by a ground current relay circuit in the propulsion motor
neutral. Functioning of this relay also removes excitation from the propulsion motor and generator.
Systems which utilize multiple prime movers must
incorporate means to obtain proper kw load-sharing
between prime movers, kvar sharing between generators,
and provisions for adding or removing a generator set
from propulsion duty. Real load-sharing between propulsion engines is usually accomplished by speed droop.
Since good speed regulation (low droop with load) is not
required or even desirable, this droop can be set much
higher than normally considered for ship's service
generator sets. A speed droop setting of 10 percent
should provide good load-sharing and stable operation.
Reactive load-sharing between generators can be accomplished by connecting the generator fields in parallel
from a single exciter, or by reactive droop if individual
exciters are used. Various methods can be used for
adding or removing generator sets, depending upon the
type of prime mover and generator. The most straightforward method is to provide adequate switchgear and
automatic paralleling between propulsion generator
sets.
Where multiple prime movers are used, it is desirable
to provide for operation on less than the full number of

propulsion sets. For instance, if three turbine-generators
are used to provide power to one propulsion motor, it is
desirable to incorporate coritrol features that enable
operation on 1, 2, or 3 generator sets. Operation on a
reduced number of generators (reduced power capability) increases the propeller reversal time and electrical
machine load because the propeller torque during a
reversal from high ahead ship speeds exceeds the plugging
motor torque available with reduced power input. The
maneuvering (reversal time) performance is improved
and overloading required of the generators and motor is
reduced by the addition of a dynamic braking resistor.
This resistor is connected to absorb the propulsion p u m p
back power due to the forward motion of the ship and
the resultant water action on the propeller. When the
ship has lost sufficient headway, the dynamic brake is
disconnected and the propulsion generators in use are
connected in reverse phase rotation to the propulsion
motor. The power from the reduced number of propulsion generators should now be sufficient to accelerate
the propulsion motor to near synchronous speed in the
astern direction.
The general requirements for connecting cables as
given in Section 2 for d-c propulsion apply. Cables
should preferably be of the single-conductor type and
should have nonmagnetic armor. The armor should be
grounded at approximately the mid-point of the cable
run. Single-conductor, a-c cables should not be located
closer than 3 in. from parallel magnetic material and,
where cables pierce a bulkhead, all conductors of the
same set should pass through a common nonferrous
plate to prevent heating of the magnetic bulkhead.
Single conductor cables should be supported on insulators,
and where cables are arranged in groups they should be
transposed when lengths exceed about 100 ft.
ELECTRIC PROPIJLSlON DRIVES
Air coolers are supplied with the propulsion motors and

generators and are normally built in as a part of the
enclosed ventilating air system. The necessary motordriven vent fans for the main motor are also considered a
part of the motor and are normally mounted as a part of
the main motor.
Lubrication of the generator bearings is provided from
the turbine system. Propulsion motor ,bearings are
normally force-lubricated from a separate system consisting of a motor-driven pump, oil coolers and strainers,
and a sump tank.
4.2 System Design Features. For electrical losses
in the transmission between the turbine and the propeller, an average figure of 6 percent can be taken.
This figure does not include the excitation power of the
generator and motor fields. This loss will amount to
about 1 percent of the kilowatt rating of the generator and
about 1.5 percent of the kilowatt rating of the motor.
This loss is included separately since it is supplied from
a source separate from the main turbine.
The propulsion system, being an independent system,
enjoys considerable freedom of choice as to voltage and
frequency. As noted previously, the choice of voltage
level is based on motor and generator machine design
considerations, and on the availability of needed switchgear or control apparatus. As a guide, a 10,000-hp
.system might well use about 2400 volts and a 50,000-hp
system would find 6600 to 7500 volts advantageous.
The minimum frequency of a turbine-electric, a-c
system is largely determined by the speed of the turbinegenerator unit and the use of a two-pole generator design.
Since the turbine will invariably have a rotation speed of
3000 rpm or more, this results in a minimum frequency
of 50 cps. The corresponding motor, if its desired
operating speed is 100 rpm, would have 60 poles.
Higher frequencies would require more poles on the
motor and tend toward a less satisfactory and less
economical design. Frequencies, then, tend to be in the
50-90 cps range, with the lower frequencies favoring the
slow-speed motor and the higher frequencies being
accepted only as necessary from the turbine standpoint.
The inherent torque characteristics of an a-c ship
propulsion motor require coordination of the system
design. The a-c motor and generator combination will
not carry overload torques under steady running conditions a t full power unless the machines are designed
with considerable torque margin or unless provision is
made in the control and excitation system to automatically increase the excitation of the machines when the
overload torque is imposed. Unless these provisions are
made, the machines will pull out of step and require
resynchronizing.
The torque requirements on the motor during a fullpower, full-speed reversal are the most exacting and
usually largely fix the design of both the motor and
generator. Since synchronous motors are almost universally used in a-c propulsion plants, only this type of
motor will be considered in the discussion of this
problem. The rotor is provided with a substantial
353
induction winding which must be carefully designed so

that it will not detract appreciably from the purely
synchronous motor characteristics for steady running,
and so that it will be able to develo~sufficient induction
motor torque for stopping the propeller and bringing it
up to speed in theastern direction while the motion of
the ship through the water is still attempting to drive the
~ r o ~ e l l eand
r the motor in the ahead direction. The
ind;ction winding must be carefully proportioned so as
to have sufficient thermal capacity to handle the heavy
currents induced during the maneuvering cycle.
In order to studv further the characteristics necessarv
to accomplish a Ifull-power, full-speed reversal, it is
desirable to review briefly the sequence of operations
during the maneuver. On signal for full-speed astern,
the operator first moves the turbine speed control lever
to the IDLING position, which sets the governor for
about 20 percent speed. He then moves the field lever
to the OFF position, removing excitation from both the
generator and motor. He next moves the direction lever
from the FULL AHEAD position to the START
position astern. While these operations have been
going on, the ship has been slowing down because power
was removed from the propeller. However, it is still
moving ahead through the water at a considerable speed
and thus driving the propeller and motor in the ahead
direction. In the last o~erationjust mentioned. two of
the three-phase connections between the generator and
the motor are reversed; and approximately double
excitation is applied to the generator field. Power
therefore is applied immediately to the stator of the
motor in the reverse direction, causing large currents to
circulate in the damper winding of the motor and therefore developing a heavy torque which acts to stop the
propeller and then to reverse it and bring it up astern,
close to synchronism with the main generator. The
operator then moves the control lever to the RUN
position, which applies field to the motor, pulling it into
synchronism with the generator as a synchronous motor
and a t the same time reducing the generator excitation to
normal. While the motor is operating as an induction
machine, it has a rather low power factor and places a
current demand on the generator of from three to five
times normal. If no provision were made for overexciting the generator field, its terminal voltage would
collapse, and the motor would fail to deliver the necessary
torque. This is the reason that the excitation system
must be closely coordinated with the machine design.
The motor design must be carefully proportioned so that
it will develop sufficient synchronizing torque to pull
into step with the generator although the ship still is
going ahead and causing ahead torque to be developed
by the propeller.
As each type of ship and propeller will have different
maneuvering characteristics, the first step in determining
the proper design of the propulsion motor and generator
is to calculate the expected maneuvering chmacteristics.
Figure 16 shows the full-power reversal speed-torque
curves for a typical single-screw, turbine-electric-pro-
354
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 1
virtually all cases the main motor will be located as far

aft as possible. This results in important reductions in
length of line shaft, shaft alley, and number of bearings.
Motor foundations should provide for axial space in which
to shift the motor stator to uncover the windings of
stator and rotor without disturbing the motor rotor and
its bearings.
As in the case of any propulsion plant, a careful
analysis of the complete plant must be made to ensure
that there will be no dangerous critical speeds within the
operating range. Although the electrical machines
provide damping action, it is possible to obtain vibration
frequencies due to a combination of the propeller and the
synchronous motor which will resonate with the natural
frequency of the system. It is also possible to reflect
such pulsations back into the turbine-generator set. It
is therefore necessary that a careful analysis of the entire
system be made.
4.3 Physical Characteristics. Because of the great
variation in requirements and arrangements, precise data
on equipment weight and size cannot be presented;
however, general outline dimensions are given in Fig. 12
for a-c propulsion generators of the turbine type, and
Fig. 13 gives similar data for a-c propulsion motors of the
direct-drive type. These figures also give overall weights
for these machines. The speed chosen for these machines
is arbitrary but nevertheless typical and illustrative of
units that would be used.
Control or excitation equipments are small and light
in weight when compared to the main motor and
generators and lend themselves to mechanical packaging
that facilitates convenient installation.
Allowable Temperature Rises for A-C Machines,

Deg C
INSULATION
Ambient ....................
Armature windings by
imbedded detectors.. . . . . . . .
Salient pole fields b resistance.
~urbine-typefieldsty resistance
PROPELLER SPEED, O/o RATED
Fig. 16 Typical propeller and motor torque characbrirtiu
pelled oceangoing vessel. Curve A shows the calculated

maneuvering torque capacity of the propulsion plant.
Curve B shows the propeller torque requirements during
maneuvering, starting with the ship going ahead at full
speed. As the ship slows down, the propeller torque is
reduced so that there is a family of curves similar to
curve B to cover various ship speeds (see Fig. 14).
Curve C is a portion of one of these curves and represents
the propeller torque-speed conditions existing when the
motor speed has come within the range from which, at
point Dl it can be synchronized with the generator.
The motor can be synchronized with its generator when
the slip has been reduced to about 2 percent or less, and
this ability is enhanced by timing the application of
motor field so that the phase of its angular slip position
is most favorable for synchronization.
During induction motor operation, the motor field will
.be short-circuited on itself or through a resistor chosen
to aid the synchronizing process and to keep induced
voltages.within acceptable values.
The size, weight, and cost of a-c electric propulsion
equipment are increased if inherent torque margins are
increased. The torque margin of a propulsion system is
defined as the increase in torque, above rated torque, to
which the system may be subjected without having the
motor pull out-of-step with the generator. A torque
margin of 10 percent is sufficient when combined with an
automatic control means for raising excitation momentarily whenever torque increases occur, such ss can be
Class B
50
Class F
50
70
70
80
90
90
100
Class H
50
110
110
120
produced when maneuvering. I n the case of twin-screw

vessels, a sudden hard-over rudder movement can
appreciably increase the loading of the inboard propeller
and, in such in~tallations,load limit as well as excitation
increase may be desirable.
The comments made in Section 2.2 regarding the
availability of improved insulations and the demise of
Class A insulation apply to a-c machines as well. Class
B insulation systems are the usual standard but the use
of Class F is increasing.
Allowable temperature rises are given in Table 1 and
more complete details will be found in reference [I].
Again it should be noted that the ambient of totally
enclosed machines fitted with air coolers is that of the air
delivered by the coolers and, if designed for less than
50 C air delivery, corresponding extra temperature-rise
allowances can be made.
Propulsion motors and generators are rated for the
maximum full-power, continuous shaft horsepower
requirements of the vessel. Electrical equipment so
designed, with temperature ratings as indicated in the
preceding paragraph, obviously can carry some overload
without distress. Such overload will result in higher
operating temperatures and some reduction in overall
insulation life of the machine. The amount of such
life reduction depends on the severity and frequency of
the overloads and on the length of time of such service.
Experience indicates that it is advisable to provide
both the generator and motor with closed ventilating
systems and water-cooled air coolers. The preserving of
clean windings in such systems, and the elimination of
extensive air duct systems, makes the overall cost of the
closed system favorable. I n cases where added safeguards against air-cooler water leakage seem prudent,
double-tube type air coolers are used.
For installations where the propulsion motor is located
in a room by itself, it is not necessary to provide a
completely closed ventilating system on the motor itself.
In this case it may be advantageous to provide for the
ventilating fans to exhaust the warm air from the motor
through the air coolers into the motor room. The cool
air is then drawn back into the motor through openings at
both ends of the motor.
The machinery layout selected will give consideration
to many factors and these will vary for different types of
ships. The mechanical independence of the main motor
and the turbine-generator set, however, is useful and in
'
355
TZSE-A1 Tankers
Turbine Generator. . . . . . . . . . . .5400 kw, 3715 rpm
2370 volts, 3 phase
62 cycles, 1.0 pf
Main M
~. . . . ~
. . . . .~. . . . ~. . .6600
. hp, 93 rpm
2370 volts. 3 ~ h a s e
62 cycles, l.oSpf
T2-SE-A2 Tankers
Turbine Generator. . . . . . . . . . . ,7650 kw, 3715 rpm
3610 volts, 3 phase
62 cycles, 1.0 pf
Main Motor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10,000 hp, 106 rpm
3610 volts, 3 phase
62 cycles,. 1.0 pf
,
This type of drive is discussed further in [8].

b. Passenger Vessel :Canberra
The Canberra is a large passenger vessel built for
service between England, Australia, and the West Coast
of North America [9]. The choice of steam-turbine,
a-c electric drive was based on a number of factors, and
was no doubt influenced by very favorable operating
passenger
experiencevessels.
of its owners with three other turboelectric
The Canberra has a twin-screw propulsion plant with a

combined rated shaft horsepower of 85,000. Each screw
is driven by a 42,500-hp double-unit motor at 147 rpm
full speed. The motors are of the synchronous type and
operate at unity power factor and a maximum voltage of
6000 volts. Each of the double-unit motors is supplied
with power by a single generator directly coupled to a
high-performance steam turbine. The generators are
somewhat oversized in order to permit a single unit to
4.4 Applications
supply the desired amount of power to both propulsion
a. T2 Tankers. Over 500 turbine a-c electric drive motors for certain legs of the vessel's itinerary. It is
tankers were built during the 19401s,mainly in response interesting to note that the tested efficiency of the main
to World War I1 needs. Many were converted to other motors is over 98 percent throughout the power range
service such as ore-carriers and self-unloading colliers [7]. of 50 to 100 percent and is 98.4 percent at full power.
An unusual aspect of this application is the emphasis
Many of these vessels were "jumboized" by adding
placed
upon quietness of operation. The Canberra is
longer midbodies and in some cases only the stern
sections were retained. Invariably the propulsion plant probably the quietest and smoothest-running ship of its
was retained and, in many cases, overhauled and type in service and her electric drive, while contributing
uprated. There were numerous instances' when the to her quietness directly, also enables the two propellers
propulsion turbine-generator sets were used to feed to be run in synchronism and in the phase position that
power ashore in times of disaster or other critical need. produces the greatest neutralization of vibratory forces;
Popularity and longevity are not the main reasons for the 42-pole motors permit 21 different synchronized
citing this application but rather the fact that the basic operation relationships shaft-to-shaft. I n addition to
plant is typical of a steam-turbine, a-c electric drive for a the actual vibration reduction, the elimination of the
single-screw ship. The plant consists of two boilers usual "twin-screw beat" is a particularly important
which supply steam to a single propulsion steam turbine psychological improvement on a passenger vessel. The
direct-connected to a two-pole generator, one 80-pole twin screws of the Canberra are normally run in synchrosynchronous motor direct-connected to the propeller nism with each other except when in confined waters
shaft, and an excitation and control subsystem. The where maneuvering is expected and independent propeller control is important to the handling of the vessel.
rating of the main units is as follows:
120
Section 5
The Diesel Alternating-C~rrrentDrive System
5.1
Differences from Turbine a-c Electric Drive.
Few diesel a-c electric drives have been built but

they are of particular interest from an electric-drive
.
standpoint.
The diesel a-c electric-drive system consists of a
multiple number of diesel engines, each driving a directconnected, salient pole, a-c generator, a single slowspeed, direct-drive propulsion motor, an excitation subsystem, and a control system. The main motor will
most likely be of the synchronous type, and subsequent
portions of this section will be based on that type of
motor.
The fundamental principles of speed control and
reversal of the propulsion motor are the same as for a
turbine-electric drive. However, the torque characteristics of the diesel engine a t reduced speed are less
favorable than those of a turbine ank there is risk of
stalling the engines during critical maneuvering if proper
control safeguards are not provided. I n addition, a
number of generating units must be operated in parallel
over a range of from 30 to 100-percent speed. These
factors combine to require a carefully designed control
system to ensure that the operating conditions can be
met within the capabilities of the equipment.
5.2 Description of a Typical System. As a means of
illustrating a diesel a-c electric drive, consider the Navy
Submarine Tender Hunley. The Hunley is a diesel a-c
electric drive of 15,000 shp [lo, 111. This application is
typical of those special-service vessels in which use can be
made of the prime mover generating sets for auxiliary
service when they are not required for primary propulsion. The propulsion plant consists of six 850-rpm
diesel-generator sets rated a t 2655 bhp each with a
2000-kw generator output a t 3300 volts and 70.8 cycles.
These six generators operate in parallel to supply power
to the 15,000-hp direct-drive propulsion motor. The
ship may be propelled by any combination of 3, 4, 5, or 6
generators, and up to 3 generator sets can be used to
augment the ship's service power supply when tending
power demands are heavy.
The basic propulsion system is shown in Fig. 17. A
single exciter is arranged to supply field power to all of
the propulsion generators and the propulsion motor.
The main exciter is under the control of a pilot exciter of
the amplidyne type, and it in turn is controlled by the
propulsion regulator. This regulator automatically
maintains proper excitation for all operating modes.
Any of the generators can be connected to augment
the ship's service system for special duty such as cargo
handling, pumping, or overside power supply. As shown,
excitation for this mode of operation is from static
exciters.
Typically, each of the gix diesel-generator sets consists
of a high-speed engine direcbconnected to a salient pole
generator. The diesel-generator sets must be varied in
speed in order to obtain propeller speed control. This
can be done from 100-percent speed down to about 30percent speed under steady-state operating conditions.
At this low speed, load transients must be avoided to
prevent danger of engine stalling, and as a result maneu-
PROPULSION. GENERATOR EXCITATION BUS
Fig. 17 Schematic diagrum-dienl a-c electric drive

0
357
MARINE ENGINEERING
I/
440 VA? POWER
I 1
AHEAD
ASTERN
PROPELLER RPM,XRATED
Fig. 18
Propulsion motor torque characteristics with power supply set for

40-percent astern rpm
0
0
vering operations are carried out a t higher engine speeds,

i.e., 4 0 4 5 percent, so as to have increased torque
capability and assurance of nonstalling performance.
The propulsion motor is directly connected to the
propeller shaft and is rated a t 15,000shp and unitypower
factor. A voltage of from 3000 to 4000 volts is indicated
for this machine. The motor is equipped with as heavy
an amortisseur winding as is practical for a machine of
this type without requiring an unbalanced design or
reflecting adversely on normal synchronous motor
operation. The motor is totally enclosed with surface
air coolers and motor-driven blowers. A motor of this
type is shown in Fig. 13.
The motor torque characteristics under maneuvering
conditions are of paramount importance. Figure 18
shows typical motor speed-torque characteristics at 40percent rated frequency (the assumed maneuvering
speed selected for the diesel-generator sets). Curve A is
the motor performance under full rated volts-per-cycle
supply conditions, as would be expected on most industrial applications operating from an unwavering power
supply. On a ship application, the motor must be
started from a generator of equal capacity and the motor
torque must be determined on this basis. The generator
characteristics, motor characteristics, and excitation
system must be selected so that optimum system
performance is obtained. Curve B is the system motor
torque exclusive of any prime mover limitation. This
curve is based on the volt-ampere output from the
generators with their field forced to about 2.5 times
normal excitation. Producing this motor torque, however, requires the generator to demand more torque from
the engine than is available over a part of the speed
range. Curve C, a modification of curve B, shows the
motor torque available within the limits of engine
capacity. The torque demand of the engine has been
reduced so as to just equal, but not exceed, the available
torque. This is done by regulating the excitation on the
20
Fig. 19
40
60
80
SHIP SPEED, % RATED
100
Maximum operating speeds
generators in response to a speed signal from the enginegenerator set. Curves D and E are similar motor
torque curves but with only half of the six dieselgenerator sets supplying power to the motor.
The free-route propeller power-speed curves are shown
in Fig. 19 as the usual cubic curve. To this has been
added the power capabilities represented by 3, 4, 5, and
6 diesel-generator sets. The intersections of these
curves represent maximum operating speeds for the
various combinations.
The propeller characteristics of importance during
maneuvering operations are the dynamic relationships of
propeller torque and speed for a series of vessel speeds.
Such characteristics are shown in Fig. 14. The power
requirements shown by Fig. 19 represent the steadystate duty as seen by the motor, and the curves of Fig.
14, when augmented by an appropriate acceleration component, represent the transient duty as seen by the motor.
These then are the output requirements of the system,
and all control and system designs are directed to meet
these needs while staying within the basic capabilities of
the primemovers, thegenerators, and the propulsion motor.
The propulsion control is divided into three sections.
One controls the two excitation motor-generator sets and
provides for selection of the in-service set. Another
section provides for generator control and connection to
either the propulsion bus or to the special ship's service
duty bus; and a third section provides for control of
motor speed and direction of rotation.
The propulsion motor speed and direction of rotation
are controlled by three levers: REVERSING, FIELD,
and SPEED. These, together with the major interlocking, are shown in the functional diagram of Fig. 20.
The arrangement of mechanical interlocks will prevent
damaging operation. I n general, the REVERSING
358
MARINE ENGINEERING
ENGINE SPEED
TRANSMIlTER
MECHANICAL
INTERLOCKING
AHEAD
OFF
DYNAMIC
BRAKE
ASTERN
It
I
R VERSING
'LEVER
FULL
RUN
NO. 2
FIELD
LEVER
Fig. 20
CEE~
(
Motor control leven
% OF RATED TORQUE
Fig. 21
Propulsion system characbristict-rtarting and mnning
lever cannot be moved unless the FIELD lever is in the

OFF position and the SPEED lever is in the MANEUVERING position. The FIELD lever cannot be moved
unless the REVERSING lever is in the AHEAD or
ASTERN and the SPEED lever is in the MANEUVERING position. The SPEED lever cannot be moved
unless the FIELD lever is in the RUN position.
Each generator is controlled by a POWER SELECTOR lever having four positions: SPECIAL SERVICE,
OFF, PROP 1, and PROP 2. This lever permits any
generator to be added or removed from propulsion duty
a t any time, and to be used for special service power
supply when not used for propulsion.
In order to start the plant, the generators which are to
be used for propulsion (at least 50 percent of full capacity)
are first switched from local control in the engine room
to remote control a t the main propulsion control board.
This connects the engine governors to a master trans-
mitter, and all engines being readied for propulsion service

will run a t approximately the same speed.
The generators are connected to the propulsion bus by
moving their individual POWER SELECTOR levers to
the PROP 1position. When the first POWER SELECTOR lever is moved to the PROP 2 position, sufficient
excitation is applied to energize the bus and synchronize
all of the connected generators. Each will in turn then
be moved to the PROP 2 ~ositionand excited a like
amount. The propulsion b;s is now energized by all of
the in-service generators but at a reduced frequency
and very low voltage.
Moving the motor REVERSER lever to the AHEAD
position connects the motor to the propulsion bus in the
ahead phase rotation ready for induction motor operation
with its field shorted through a discharge resistor. The
motor may not start in this position because of the low
generator excitation but when the FIELD lever is moved
to position No. 1, approximately 250-percent generator
excitation is applied and the motor starts. The heavy
overexcitationof the generators, subject to relief by any
necessary engine torque-limiting action, assures the
production of maximum system torque and the motor
accelerates to near-synchronous speed as an induction
motor.
The FIELD lever is now moved to position No. 2 and
the motor synchronizes with the generators when its
field is energized. This motor synchronization can
readily be made automatic under the action of a slip
sensing relay, which not only makes certain that the
motor speed is sufficiently close to assure successful
synchronization, but signals the application of its field
a t the most favorable instant of its slip cycle. The
final movement of the FIELD lever to the RUN position
latches the motor field contactor in the closed position.
The propulsion regulator now will maintain the bus
voltage a t a constant volts-per-cycle and the machines
will operate close to unity power factor. The SPEED
lever can now be moved to any speed in the SLOW to
FULL range with the entire system (engine generators
and main motor) moving together in synchronism. The
starting and running characteristics of the system are
shown in Fig. 21 for six engine-generator sets in service
and for three sets in service.
Since typical diesels cannot be depended upon for
reliable operation a t less than about 30-percent speed,
the minimum propeller speed is also 30 percent under
normal synchronous generator-motor operations. From
a practical standpoint this is a satisfactory condition in
almost every application, but if some lower speed must
be provided, a subsynchronous mode can be utilized.
The main motor, operating as an induction motor, is run
a t high percentage slip by controlling the generator
excitation to permit such action. Operation in this
mode is within the capabilities of the electrical equipment because the propeller power demands below 30percent speed are very low.
Once the ship is moving at relatively high speed
(above 60-percent speed or so) considerably higher
torques are encountered in reversing the propeller and

stopping the ship. A reversal from high ahead speeds
requires that special steps be taken to slow the vessel
down part way before the engines can assume the
burden within their capabilities. The situation can be
seen from an examination of Fig. 22. The motor torque
developed under the system constraints is unable to
reverse the propeller until the ship headway has been
reduced to about 65 percent. If the motor were
unwisely put into such a process, it would be subjected
to a long period of heavy plugging action and excessive
heating of its amortisseur winding would result. A
much more satisfactory situation results from the use of
a dynamic braking process during the necessary ship
deceleration period and the subsequent use of the motor
in its induction motor mode.
A dynamic brake is a resistor which can be connected
to the motor terminals to absorb power generated in the
motor by the action of the water passing through the
propeller due to the ship's headway. This action does
not produce heat in the amortisseur winding, and it is a
highly effective method for developing astern thrust,
particularly in the upper and more critical high-speed
range.
When the ship's velocity has been reduced to the
necessary 65 percent, the dynamic brake can be disconnected and the propulsion motor connected to the
propulsion bus in the reverse phase rotation. The
motor can now be plugged and accelerated in the reverse
rotation within the capabilities of the engines and
synchronized when it gets close to the 40-percent speed
of the generator sets. After synchronization, the motor
speed can be increased quite rapidly and the vessel
stopping procedure completed. This process is illustrated by Fig. 23.
From a control sequence standpoint, the foregoing
reversing actions are carried out from a full AHEAD
condition in the following manner:
(1) Return the SPEED lever to the MANEUVERING position. This positions the engine governors
at 45-percent no-load speed. However, the complete
system continues to run at 65-percent speed, due to the
forward movement of the ship and resulting water action
on the propeller.
(2) Return the FIELD lever to the OFF position.
This disconnects the propulsion motor field and reduces
the field supplied to the generators.
(3) Move the REVERSING lever to the DYNAMIC
BRAKE position. This connects the propulsion motor
to the brake and applies the correct motor field. The
control lever is left in this position until the ship's
headway has decreased sufficiently to permit the motor
to be pulled into synchronism astern.
(4) After the REVERSING lever is moved to the
ASTERN position, the FIELD lever and SPEED lever
are moved in the same fashion as described for starting.
The generator field is forced to the maximum permitted
by the propulsion regulator, the motor is automatically
synchronized as it accelerates to near-synchronous speed
Fig. 22
Revenal characbristics
70RPM
OR
% SPEED
MOTDR-PROPELLER AND
GENERATOR RPM
fig. 23
High-speed rwcmal performance
astern, and the SPEED lever is moved to the desired

astern propeller speed. The propeller is accelerated to
the desired astern speed at a rate determined by the
number of engines in service. The automatic load
limit feature of the engine governors limits the fuel, and
consequently the torque, to the maximum capacity of
the system.
360
MARINE ENGINEERING
Section 6
Electric Couplings
6.1 -General Description. The electric coupling is a
device for transmitting torque by means of electromagnetic forces without having any mechanical contact
between the driving and driven members [12, 131. The
electric coupling consists of two steel spiders with rims
and flanges. The inside of the outer rim carries a number
of poles which can be excited from an outside source
through collector rings. The inner element, a laminated
core, surrounds the rim and carries a squirrel-cage
winding similar to that of the usual squirrel-cage
induction motor. Both the inner and the outer elements
are supported for rotation and separated radially by an
air gap of about % in. One element, usually the inner
one, will be connected to the prime mover, and the other
to the driven device. Coupling ratings are usually in
the 1000 to 4000-hp range. A typical coupling is
illustrated in Fig. 24.
The fundamental principle of the electric coupling is
that of developing torque by inducing current in a
squirrel-cage induction-motor-type winding by rotating a
magnetic field around the squirrel-cage winding. The
coupling-driven element rotates in the same direction as
a
!I
Rg. 24
the driving element but a t a slightly slower speed, and

the amount of this "slip" is just that required for the
development of the necessary driving torque.
I n order for electric couplings to be suitable for
maneuvering a ship, they must be capable of producing
large amounts of torque a t high slip. Thus they are
normally equipped with double-layer, bar-type, squirrelcage windings and are designed to produce 150-percent
pull-out torque, as well as a minimum of 75-percent
normal torque up to 140-percent slip. Such high values
of slip will be encountered during reversal duty when the
prime mover is operating in the reverse rotation and the
propeller is yet operating in the ahead rotation.
The double-layer, squirrel-cage winding enables the
coupling to produce high torque a t high slip conditions
such as occur during maneuvering operations. When
the slip is high, the induced voltage is of high frequency,
causing the higher reactance deep bars to force the
current into the outer high-resistance bars. This
results in maximum torque. When operating at normal
slip the frequency is low, and a major portion of the
current flows in the .deeper, low-resistance winding,
Electric coupling
resulting in high efficiency. Efficiency is usually above on Shipboard," IEEE Publication No. 45, February
97 percent, including excitation loss of about 1 percent, 1967.
slip of 1% percent, and some windage loss.
2 J. A. Wasmund, "Series- Versus Parallel-Con6.2 Applications. A number of installations of nected Generators for Multiple-Engine D-C Dieselelectric couplings have been made on cargo vessels and Electric Ship-Propulsion Systems," Trans. AIEE, 1954.
on large tugboats. The typical arrangement utilizes
3 W. E. Jacobsen, "Marine Power Applications,"
a pair of moderate-speed reversible engines to drive a Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, 10th edition,
single propeller via electric couplings and a combining McGraw-Hill, New York.
reduction gear. Here the couplings provide for the
4 J. A. Wasmund, "How Trials Prove Design
engagement or disengagement of the engines simply by Theories," Marine Engineering/Log, August 1956.
energizing or deenergizing the field winding.
5 "CS Long Lines," Marine EngineeTinglLog, July
I n the case of a twin-engined ship, the usual procedure 1IYVV.
OR9
when maneuvering in very close quarters is to run one
6 D. W. Drews, "Turbine-Electric Propulsion for
engine ahead and the other engine astern. The ship may
Ships," ASNE Journal, August 1963.
then be maneuvered readily in either direction by
7 M. Mack Earle, "The Conversion of T2 Tankers
operating a lever which applies field to the proper
coupling, and thus connects the propeller to either the for Great Lakes and Seaway Service," Trans. SNAME,
ahead-running or astern-running engine. All ahead and vol. 68, 1960.
8 "Sun-Built T2-SE-A1 Tankers, " Marine Engineerastern thrusts, within the capability of one engine, are
ing
and Shipping Review, July 1947.
then attainable without further reversing of the engines.
9 T. W.Bunyan,P.D.Morris,andD.D.Stephen,
Electric couplings act as torsionally flexible members
and torsional dampers. The pulsations in torque from "Canberra," Trans. IME, October 1962.
10 W. E. Jacobsen and R. L. Koch, "Diesel-Electric
the engines are smoothed out, reducing gear wear and
Propulsion for Polaris Submarine Tender," ASNE
noise and minimizing
v torsional vibrations in the drive
~ou~rnal,
August 1962.
system.
11 H. M. Burford, R. L. Koch, and J. D. Westbrook,
The propulsion control system, in addition to the usual
engine starting, stopping, and reversing features, requires "Performance of a Diesel Electric A.C. Propulsion Plant
only the integrated arrangement of engine-speed govern- (Based on the Design and Sea Trials of USS Hunley
ing and coupling excitation control. It can be arranged (AS-31))," SNAME Hampton Roads Section, October
to suit virtually any particular requirements and is well 1962.
suited to remote or pilothouse control.
12 M. R. Lory, L. A. Kilgore, and R. A. Baudry,
"Electric Couplings," Trans. AIEE, August 1940.
References
13 M. R. Lory, "Electric Couplings for Great Lakes
1 "Recommended Practice for Electric Installations Ships," SNAME Great Lakes Section, September 1950.
1
I
PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS
CHAPTER XI
I*
C. L. Long
-
II System
Propellers, Shafting, and Shafting
Vibration Analysis
Section 1
Introduction
1.1 General. A main propulsion shafting system transom sterns. The distinguishing characteristic of
(including the propeller) consists of the equipment neces- this arrangement is that the shafting must be extended
sary to convert the rotative power output of the main outboard for a considerable distance in order to provide
propulsion engines into thrust horsepower, suitable for adequate clearance between the propeller and the hull.
propelling the ship, and the means to impart this thrust One or more strut bearings are required to support the
to the ship's hull. In the following pages, the design of outboard shafting.
a main propulsion shafting system will be discussed from
A shafting arrangement typical of single-screw merthe viewpoint of a shipbuilder undertaking the task of chant ships is shown in Fig. 2. The arrangement illuspreparing a detailed design. I t will, however, be as- trated corresponds to the so-called Mariner or clear-water
sumed that the propeller hydrodynamic design has been stern design (there being no lower rudder support);
developed; the hydrodynamic design of propellers and Powever, the shafting arrangements of most merchant
other propulsion devices is thoroughly covered in Prin- ships are very similar. The major difference between the
ciples of Naval Architecture [I]' and therefore will not be shafting arrangements of various merchant ships is the
pursued here. Although the fundamentals outlined in location of the main engines. When the main engines
the following sections apply to all types of propulsors are located well aft, such as on tankers, there may be as
andc prime movers,. the discussion has been primarily few as one or even no inboard bearings at all. When the
directed towards a conventional arrangement with a main engines are located approximately amidships, as
fixedLpitch propeller and a geared steam turbine main on dry cargo ships, a considerable length of inboard
engine. This was necessaw in order to reduce the range shafting is required.
of variations which had to be considered.
The shafting located inside the ship is termed line
Due to the nonuniform wake field in which a ship's shafting. The outboard sections of shafting (wet shaftpropeller operates, the propeller is a source of potentially ing) are designated differently depending upon their
dangerous vibratory excitations. The shafting system location. The section to which the propeller is secured
itself, which is inherently flexible, is extremely vulnerable is the"propel1er shaft or tail shaft. The section passing
to these vibratory excitations; consequently, an analysis through the stern tube is the stern tube shaft unless the
of the dynamic characteristics of a shafting system is an propeller is supported by it (as is the case with most
integral aspect of the design process and is discussed in merchant ships) in which case it is designated as the
this chapter.
propeller shaft or tail shaft. If there is a section of
1.2 Description of Shaftfng System. The main pro- shafting between the propeller and stern tube shafts, it
wpulsion shafting system must accomplidh' a number would be referred to as an intermediate shaft.
of objectives which are vital to the ship's operation.
Shafting sections are connected by means of bolted
These objectives are: (a) transmit the power output from flange couplings. The coupling flanges are normally
the main engines to the propulsor; (b) support the pro- forged integrally with the shafting section; however,
pulsor; (c) transmit the thrust developed by the propulsor when required by the arrangement (e.g., stern tube
to the ship's hull; (d) safely withstand transient operating shafts which require flanges on both ends and also require
loads (e.g., high-speed maneuvers, quick reversals); (e) corrosion-resistant sleeves to be fitted to the shaft in way
be free of deleterious modes of vibration; and df) provide of bearings), a removable coupling, sometimes referred to
reliable operation throughout the operating range.
as a muff coupling, is used.
Figure 1 is a shafting arrangement typical of those
Bearings are used to support the shafting in essentially
found on multishaft ships and single-shaft ships having a straight line between the main propulsion engine and
the desired location of the propeller. Bearings inside the
ship are known by several names with line shaft bearings,
steady bearings, and spring bearings being the most
Numbers in brackets designate Reference8 at end of chapter.
iI
t
MARINE ENGINEERING
STATE
PERFORMANCE
REQUIREMENTS
ESTABLISH
DESIGN
CRITERIA
DEVELOP
SHAFTING
ARRANGEMENT
ESTABLISH
SIZES
DETERMINE
DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS
DEVELOP
DESIGN
DETAILS
DESIGN
COMPLETE
Fig. 3
Shafting system design sequence
popular in that order. Bearings which support outboard sections of shafting are called stern tube bearings
if they are located in the stern tube and strut bearings
when located in struts. Outboard bearings may be
lubricated by either seawater or oil; high-quality seals
are required in the event the latter is used.
I n order to control flooding, in the event of a casualty,
bulkhead stuffing boxes are installed where the shafting
passes through bulkheads. A more substantial seal is
installed a t the forward end of the stern tube where the
shafting penetrates the watertight boundary of the hull.
The propeller thrust is transmitted to the hull by
means of a main thrust bearing. The main thrust bearing may be located either forward or aft of the slow-speed
gear. If located forward, the thrust collar is detachable
so as to permit the ii~tallationof the gear on the shaft
and, secondarily, to permit replacement of the thrust
collar if ever required. If located aft, the collar may be
forged integrally with either the slow-speed gear shaft
or a subsequent section of shafting. Since one purpose
of the main thrust bearing is to limit movement of the
slow-speed gear, the main thrust bearing is usually
installed close to the gear. Installation of the thrust
bearing close to the gear also facilitates lubrication of
the thrust bearing.
1.8 Design Sequence. The design of a shafting
system is, by necessity, an iterative process because the
various system design parameters are, to some extent,
mutually dependent. The iterativedesign process usually
followed is illustrated in Fig. 3.
As indicated by Fig. 3, the first step in the design of a
shafting system is to state the performance requirements;
that is, the type of propul$ve system, number of shafts,

type of service, and the like. Next, the design criteria
to be employed must be fixed; i.e., one of the various
classification society rules could be followed, oil-lubricated stem tube bearings may be selected, hollow shafting may be ruled out, etc. I n establishing the design
criteria, it must be recognized that the shafting interfaces
with thepropulsor, the main engines, and the ship system
as a whole.
After the design criteria are established and the general
ship arrangement is available, an approximate shafting
arrangement can be developed. This entails a t least
tentatively locating the main engine, propeller, and shaft
bearings with due regard given to arrangement restrictions, clearances required, shaft rake, construction
restraints, and overhaul and maintenance requirements.
Before the design can progress further, the shafting
diameters, corresponding to the preliminary arrangement, must be computed along with the length of shafting
sections, flange dimensions, and preliminary propeller
data. With this data the bearing reactions can be
approximated and the bearing dimensions and loadings
can be checked. At this point, it will generally be desirable to adjust the bearing arrangement tentatively
selected so as to obtain more equal bearing reactions or
to alter the number of bearings. Variations in bearing
loads due to thermal expansion of the shafting bearings,
particularly those in the way of the main engines, are
investigated to ensure satisfactory bearing performance
under all operating conditions.
There are three basic types of vibration which can
occur in a main propulsioq shafting system; these are
torsional, longitudinal, and whirling vibration. It is
essential that a preliminary vibration analysis of the
shafting system be made in the early design stages because the shafting vibration characteristics are largely
established by the ship parameters that are fixed a t that
time. Specifically, the shape of the hull afterbody, type
of propeller, propeller aperture clearance^, number of
propeller blades, length of shafting, shaft material, position of the m+in thrust bearing, type and configuration
of prime mover, spacing of the aftermost bearings, and
type of aftermost bearings largely establish the dynamic
characteristics of a shafting system. The subsdquent
development of design details has a relatively secondary
effect as compared with these major parameters. In
addition, an analysis of the system's response to shock
loadings is required for naval combatant ships. An
analysis of the dynamic characteristics of a shafting
system can be one of the more complex aspects of the
design process.
Once the arrangement, component sizes, and dynamic
characteristics have been shown to comply with the d e
sign criteria, design details are developed. This entails
designing flange fillets, flange bolts, keys, keyways,
sleeves, and the like.
PROPELLERS,SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS
Section 2
2.1 Location of Main Engines. The engine flange
location and the propeller location are essential information in establishing the shafting arrangement. The foreand-aft position of \he main engines is generally established during the preliminary design stages after studying
the ship cargo stowage, ship trim, and shafting system.
The cost and n~eightof shafting are significant; for
these reasons, and also to minimize the use of prime
cargo space for the main machinery and shafting, the
main machinery is located as far aft as practicable.
With vessels such as oil tankers, the main machinery is
confined to the stern end of the s h i ~such that a short
run of shafting is required and the ;umber of line shaft
bearings is minimal. On the other hand, dry cargo
vessels do not have the ability to adjust their operating
draft by taking on ballast; therefore, in order to provide
satisfactory light load draft conditions, it is necessary to
locate the main engines (and associated weight) well
forward of the stern.
Normally the main engine should be set as close to the
inner bottom as the configuration of the main machinery
will permit. It is possible, and it is the usual case, to
have limited projections of the main machinery (e.g.,
the slow-speed gear lube oil suqp) below the inner
bottom when such projections do not excessively weaken
the inner bottom (see Figs. 6, 8, and 9 of Chapter I).
The main engine location in the athwartship direction
is on the ship centerline of single-screw ships. On multiscrew ships the engines are set off the ship centerline
approximately the same distance as the propellers, but
the shaft centerlines usually do not parallel the centerline of the ship. The location of the engine in the
athwartship direction is controlled by the propeller
location, main engine details, and the machinery room
arrangement requirements.
2.2 Location of Propeller. The location of the propeller is determined by the propeller diameter, the
acceptable clearance between the propeller and the
baseline of the ship, and the acceptable clearances b e
tween the propeller and the hull in the plane of the
propeller. Although the propeller diameter selected
should theoretically be the one corresponding to optimum efficiency for the propeller-ship system, in practice
the optimum propeller diameter is usually larger than
can be accommodated. As a result, the propeller diameter selected is a compromise.
In locating the propeller in the aperture of a singlescrew ship, a clearance of 6 to 12 in. is normally provided
between the propeller tip and the baseline with clearwater sterns-or to the rudder shoe with a closed stern
(Fig. 4). With high-speed ships, which are generally
characterized by shallow draft and multiple screws,
propellers are often permitted to project below the base
line in order to provide adequate clearance between the
propeller and the hull. This is satisfactory provided
maxiinum draft limitations for service routes or drvdocking are not exceeded.
One of the most effective means of ensuring a satisfactory level of vibration aboard ship is by providing
adequitte clearance between the propeller and the hull .
surface. For this reason, the subject of providing clearances is one of overriding importance. Generally
speaking, the greater the clearances, the better the performance from a vibration standpoint.
There are three types of vibratory forces generated by
the propeller: (a) alternating pressure forces on the hull
due to the alternating hydrodynamic pressure fields
caused by the propeller blades; (b) alternating propeller
shaft bearing forces which are primarily caused by wake
irregularities; and (c) alternating forces transmitted
throughout the shafting system which are primarily
caused by wake irregularities. If the frequency of the
exciting force should coincide with one of the hull or
shafting system natural frequencies, very objectionable
vibration can occur. A further breakdown of the forces
generated by the propeller is given in reference [2].
When selecting propeller clearances, the perfprmance
of similar ships should be an influencing factor. Of
course, differences between the important parameters of
the ships under comparison must be assessed. Important parameters to consider are the unit thrust loading on the propeller blades, number of propeller blades,
amount of propeller skew, length of the ship, and t&
ending angle of the water-plane forward of the propellet.
References [3,4] discuss the influence of the more important of the foregoing parameters and summarize test
and analytical data on this subject.
Figure 4 may be used as guidance in assessing the aperture clearances of single-screw ships. Figure 4 shows the
Fig. 4
Propeller aperture clearances
. MARINE ENGINEERING
athwai-tship rake angle, both ~f which are measured
relative to the ship centerline, It is rare for 19 to exceed
3.75 deg or 4 to exceed 2.5 deg. From rake alone the
reduction in propulsion efficiency will normally not exceed0.3pei-cent. Aside from the efficiency penalty, there
is no objection to moderate amounts of rake.
2.4 Shaft Withdrawal. Occasionally shafting sections, particularly those outboard, must be withdrawn
to be inspected or repaired. Consequently, provisions
for removing shaft sections from the ship must be considered when developing a shafting brrangement. .
On singlescrew ships with shafting arrangements similar to Fig. 2, the propeller shaft is almost without exception withdrawn inboard for inspection. If repairs are
necessary, the shaft is removed from the ship by cutting
a hole in the side of the ship and passing the shaft through
it. This technique u.ould be used for removing line
shaft
sections as i-ell.
Ftfi. 5 Ueamnm of a propelk supported by strut bearing
With shafts having struts as shown in Fig. 1, a check
ahaft can be
must be'made to ensure that the
withdrawn from the strut after the propeller is removed.
range of eexperience wIdah hw been obtained in cannec- Withdrawal can be accomplished by removing the beartion dth I a q p single-screw &ips. When the propeller ing bushings so that the shaft can be inclined sufficiently
is supported by a strut bearing, i.e., multiscrew and to aiIIow the forward end of the shaft to clear the ship's
bmam-&ern vesseh, two clearance dimensions 11-amnt structure, mating shaft flange; etc. This consideration
careful skudy. These dimensions rand the range of ex- can govern the length of the propeller shaft and the size
of the stmt barrel. Figure 1 shotvs the removal position
perience with them are shown in 1%. 5.
2.3 Shaft Rake. In order to provide ~atiiudein of the prcrpeller shaft.,
Removal of the stern tube shaft, which must hhve
locating the position of the pmpeller and the main engines, it is usually necessary to wke the shaft cehterline. flanges on both ends, requires a decision regarding the
The &aft is generally raked downward going aft as this type of flanges to be provided on the shaft. If the shaft
permits the main engines to be located higher in the is manufactured with integral flanges on both ends, the
ship. In mdtiscren- ships the shaft is generally raked in stern tdbe barrel and bearing bushings inust be sized to
both the ve$ical and hori~onG1planes, usually donm- pass the flange diameter. Since i t is desirable to pass
the shaft outboard, sufficient clearance should be proward and autbalbrd going aft.
Large rakes s h a W be a~oidedsince a reduction in the vided to incline the shaft such that it will clear outboard
propulsive efficiency is associated with rake. The intm- struts, etc. I n order to use smaller stern tubes and
duction of rake incurs a reduction in the propulsion M a g bushings, the stern tube shaft can be manufactured with a removable Aange mupling on the forward
efficiency equal t o
erid. Prior to unshipping the shaft, the removable
coupling is removed so that it is not neeesary t o disturb
where B k. the shaft vertical rake angh and is the the stern tube bearings.
(I
PROPELLRZS, SHAFTiNG, AND SHAFTiNG SYSTW VlSRAMON ANALYSIS
dimtly obtained from the min engine t o q u e and the

p r o p e k thrust. On the other hand, vibrabry loads
emanating from the propeller do not lend t h m m i ' ~ to
s
a precise evalwtion and are diieuit tn tseat in an
absolute sense.
3.2 P r o p e l l d n d u d Loads. Aside from the alternating bending s h due to Ithe weight of the propeller,
the ckumferentially n o n d o r m velocity of the water
inflow to the propeller (wake) is the most important
qouni.e of the alternating i d s in the shafting system.
If is, howeverS important to $i&hguiish between the
importance of the chumfereniaa nonuniforrnity of
water i d o w a t a particular propeller radius and the
nonunifomity of the average flow at, one radius as
compared with mother. W e the former 1eads to
vibratory propeller fothe latter does @.
A propeller blade section w o r e in a constant d o c i t y
field & a particular radius has a steady flow and force
p-hkrni. The average axial velocity at each radius can
be dierent without @awingalternating loads. I n such
a ease the pmpeHq design can be adjusted for radial
variations in the inflow vdocity to aehieve optimum
efficiency. However, a propeller can only be designed
t o satisfy average eond%ions a t each radius.
Variation in the axial component of the inflow velocity
a t each radius gives rise to the p e r i d c fluctuating forces
genembd by the propeller. The variation in the inflow
water =loci@ at a particular radius results in a change
in the angle d attaek of the psopeI.3~blade sections as
the propeller makes one ~vo1ution,thereby creating
a1krnati.g propeller forces. Figure 6 b an example of
the axial, VA,and tangentid, VT,i d o w velocities in the
plane of the propeller for a single-screw ship. The tan- .
gential velocity component is symmetric on both sides
of the vertical mnterhe and is g&erally upward. The
symmetry of the tangenttd ve1ociQ component would
rw
VA
V,
tend to suggest that its effect is uniform, but such is not

the case. For a propeller bhde rotating clockwise looking forward, the tangedtiaJ veJoci*y component, eRwtively reduces the angle of attack on the bhde sections as
they pass up the port side (reducing thrust) and increases
the angle of attack of the blade sections as they pass
down the starboard side ( i n c b n g thrust). Figure 7
iliustmtes how the variable axial and tangential velocities
give rise t o variable loads. Also, another very important
fact is t h t the tangential velocity components shift the
center of propeller thrust to the shrboard side of the
speed of advance
= resultant of V, and V,
= minimum advance angle
,P = maximum advance angle
E . = variation in blade advance
Ya
Section 3
f ftafting Leads
3.1 Dwkn Coaaidemt?ons. In general, the dimensions ~f s h d t b g are predic@ed on the basis of
strength requirements; however, it is ocxasionally nebee+
eary to modify an otherwise sstipfactory shafting system
design due to vibration considerations. Shafting &rametemurnally have only a minor impact on the longitudind
vibration chmcteri~tim~
but the wh&:ling and torsional
modes rtre sensitive t o &a& diameters. Shafting vibration, m mch, is d k u d in Sections 7-9.
Propulsion shafting is subjected to a variety of steady

and alternating Ioads which induce torsional shear, axial
thrust, and bending stressesin the shafting. In addition,
there are radial compressive stressesbetween the shafting
and mating elements (such as the propeller and sleeves)
which, when coupled with axid strains from bending
stress, tape v q important from a fatigue standpoint.
The steady loads represent average conditions ~nnd
ean be &mated w i a~degree of certainty as they are
P,,
Fig. 7 Typical warMan in udvdvence onale

of a Made sedan &kg one revdution
Fspd ~ l o w o f w u t c r i n p ~ a n c o f p r o ~
blade tangential veloci'ty

= axial speed of advance
= tangential
367
angle during one revolution
Locus of the resultant of

tspeeds
h e axirri
tangential
of and
odvonce
I(
368
PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRA'I'ION ANALYSIS
MARINE ENGINEERING
much greater for the five-bladed propeller than for the Table 1 Ratio of Shaft Torque Measured During High-Speed
four or six-bladed propeller. For a single-screw s h i ~
Maneuvers to Normal Torque
having a propeller with an even number i f blades, thk
No.
Torque Ratio
fluctuating forces of two opposite blades give rise to a hi^^^^^
Shaft
Inboard
Outboard
larger total t h r u ~ tand torque amplitude because op- ~~~~l
4
1.2-1.4
1.2-1.3
posite blades simultaneously pass through the slow water Naval
1
1.1-1.2
velocities at the top and bottom of the propeller disk.
2
1.2-1.3
1
1.1-1.3
The transverse force and bending moment,developed by
one blade tend to be compensated by similar loads on
the opposite blade.
For propellers having an odd number of blades, the
Table 2 Propeller Variable Torque Excitation Factors
blades pass the upper and lower high-wake regions
alternately. The total thrust and torque variations are
No. of
Torque Excitation Factor, r
Propeller Blades
3
4
5
therefore smaller as compared with a propeller having an
0.07-0.12 0.10-0.15 0.06-0.10
even number of blades. However, due to the alternate Single-screw vessels
Twin-screw vessels
0.02-0.05 0.02-0.05 0.02-0.04
loading of the propeller blades, the transverse forces and
with struts
bending moment do not cancel. Therefore, larger bend- Twin-screw vessels
0.04-0.08 0.04-0.06 0.04-0.05
with bossings
ing moments occur with a propeller having an odd
Note: Excitation torque = 4,
where Q = mean torque.
number of blades.
The nonuniform character of the water inflow to the
propeller can be resolved into Fourier components with
the propeller rotational frequency (shaft frequency) as
the fundamental [10]. Since it may be assumed that in power; this results in a higher shaft torque. As the
linearity exists between inflow velocity variations and hull becomes foul, the ship speed reduces and full power
propeller blade force variations, the Fourier components is developed a t a lower rpm; consequently, the torque
of the inflow velocity are also the Fourier components loading on the shafting correspondingly increases. Such
of force of a single blade making one revolution. Only torque increases are normally not considered in merchant
those harmonics of loading which are integral multiples practice because merchant ships do not engage in extenof blade frequency ( M )contribute to the unsteady thrust sive high-speed maneuvers. The torque increase (which
and torque, and only those harmonics of loading adjacent is relatively small) due to hull fouling is accepted as a
to multiples of blade frequency (kZ f 1) contribute to reduction in the factor of safety.
the unsteady transverse forces and bending moments [5].
The torque increases measured during trials of singleAll other harmonics of shaft frequency cancel when screw and multiscrew ships in high-speed turns are given
summed over the blades. The selection of the number in Table 1. The torque ratio shown is the peak torque
of blades can be based on the relative strengths of the value observed during steering maneuvers divided by
harmonics in the inflow water velocity to the propeller the torque a t the start of the tests.
to minimize the alternating thrust and torque and bendAlternating torsional loads on the shafting are gening moments.
erated by the propeller and occur at predominantly blade
Variable propeller forces, in addition to those resulting frequency as a result of the wake as discussed in Secfrom a nonuniform water inflow, are generated as a result tion 3.2. Although alternating loads can be generated
of the proximity of the hull to the propeller. Hull by other sources, the propeller is the only one of practical
surface forces generated by the propeller are of the ut- importance, except in diesel propulsion plants, where the
most importance when evaluating hull vibrations.
cyclic engine torque is significant. Shafting systems are
3.3 Torsional Loads. The torsional load. on the carefully designed to avoid torsional resonant frequencies
shafting, which results in the steady torsional stress, is a t full power; therefore, alternating torsional loads are
calculated from the output of the main engine. If the not congidered to be amplified by resonance. The range
full-power shaft horsepower output, shp, of the main of magnitude of the forced torsional alternating loads is
engine is developed a t N rpm, then the steady torsional given in Table 2. I t will be noted that the variable
load, Q, on the shafting is:
torque can be of a significant magnitude even without
magnification.
3.4 Thrust Loads. The magnitude of the steady
thrust load on the shafting system is equal to the towed
I n the design of naval shafting systems, it is common resistance of the ship a t the speed corresponding to maxipractice to increase the torque calcu!ated with equation mum design power, corrected by the interacting effect
(2) by 20 percent. The increase in design torque is an of the propeller and hull as the propeller pushes the ship.
allowance in recognition of the additional torque de- This interaction effect is known as the thrust deducveloped during high-speed maneuvers, rough-water option [I.]. The value of the design thrust can be obtained
erations, foul-hull conditions, etc. During turns, the from the powering calculations or from model basin tests
propeller rpm reduces without a corresponding reduction of the ship. For preliminary design purposes
.&
I 0'1
90.
(a1
180.
PROPELLER POSITION
270.
360.
h
w
( c ] VERTICAL BENDING MOMENT IN PROPELLER SHAFT

(PROPELLER WEIGHT INCLUDED)
a
w
PROPELLER TORQUE VARIATION
E~:EE
PROPELLER POSITION
!j I5
J
3+10
4
K
w
p+
0.
90.
180'
270.
PROPELLER POSITION
360'
( d l HORIZONTAL BENDING MOMENT IN PROPELLER SHAFT
0
I'.
0.
a- 5
i*'
'b'
L"
0.
'v'
I
90'
180'
270'
PROPELLER POSITION
360.
(b) PROPELLER THRUST VARIATION
Fig. 8
I
I
i/
Typical single-screw propeller alternating thrust, torque, and bending moments from nonuniform water inflow velocities
propeller centerline of a clockwise-turning propeller on a of the propeller, the thrust and torque can be determined
single-screw, ship. This off-center thrust gives rise to a and plotted as shown in Fig. 8. If the K r K e - J diagram
bending moment which is imposed upon the propeller is not available for the propeller, the step-by-step calculation in reference [7] can be used. This method is
shaft.
Analyses can be made to predict the magnitude of the based on that given by Burrill in [8].
Since the slowest axial inflow velocity (highest wake)
alternating components of torque and thrust including
the eccentricity of the resultant thrust relative to the of single-screw ships is generally in the region above the
shaft centerline [5]. Four basic methods are available to propeller centerline, the greatest thrust tends to be
calculate the unsteady forces and moments on marine developed when the propeller blade is in the upper part
propellers aaused by circumferential nonuniform inflow. of its orbit. The effect of the tangential inflow velocity
These are quasi-steady, two-dimensional unsteady along is to shift the resultant thrust to the starboard side bea strip, combination quasi-steady two-dimensional un- cause the propeller blades develop greater thrust moving
steady along a strip, and three-dimensional unsteady. against the tangential velocity, as discussed in the foreEither the quasi-steady or the two-dimensional unsteady going. This subject is given a detailed discussion in
technique may be used to obtain approximate estimates reference [9], and it is noted that as the shape of the stern
of the fluctuating thrust and torque; but if close predic- sections change from a V to a U shape, the resultant
tions are required the three-dimensional unsteady tech- thrust center tends to move down because the inflow
nique should be used. Application of the quasi-steady velocities over the bottom region of the propeller disk
method is much simpler than the three-dimensional un- become more nearly equal to those in the upper region.
steady approach. Due to its simplicity and the fact that The position of the resultant thrust is also sensitive to
it produces results which are generally accurate enough the ship's draft. For instance, when a cargo ship operin a relative sense for most practical applications, the ates lightly loaded with the propeller blades breaking
the water surface, the center of thrust obviously shifts
quasi-steady approach is a very useful method.
A quasi-steady analysis is conducted by making an lower in the propeller disk.
Figure 8 shows that a single-screw ship with a four or
instantaneous examination of the flow velocities relative
to the propeller blades a t discrete angular positions of a six-bladed propeller (that is, an even number of blades)
propeller blade [6]. The inflow velocities are regarded has larger torque and axial thrust variations than one
as constant (quasi-steady) at each blade position. By with a five-bladed propeller. However, the thrust eccenusing the open-water characteristics (KT&-J diagram) tricity (propeller shaft bending moment) is shown to be
1
t
,'
369
PROPELLERS, SHAFI'ING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS
Table S
Propdler Variable Ruwst Exc8atiorr F a c m

That
EHcitation
No: Bk&s
~EEEW~-&~W
k B h
Frotar, J
Behind struta
O.W.85
%%or&
Behind ekege
0 . ~ 4I%
.
3
4ar5
w i d akee
0.05-0.W
R
Behind hossinea
O.WU.12
Behind b & i
Behind bmaing~t
0.w.10
Q.W.08
Q.OEHl.12
a U-seotine tend to emphsiae the e v e m d e r compomntg and
B-wotiona the & d e r eamponents.
Nate: M a t i o n thrask = p,where T = m e n thru&.
s
sional
the imps-ce
of the k t stis
reduced even furthepep
3.5 B e d L d s . Lmds which cause bending
&mes
to omur in the shaP%iqm e the d t of gravity,
shmk, off-center t M loarfsBand whirling shaft vibmtion. With the exceptionof once-per-revolution whirling
vibration. d are &ernratinn hack relative to a point on
t i e shaft'a~~cl
occur at e&h& shaft rotative fre&eney or
Qnce or twim propeller blade frequency.
The weight of the shafting iW (a gravity l o d ) * k
are
shaftini unless there

=US&
w*ht ~ ~ ~ l ~ e f t t m t i ~ ~ ,
such as a S h d t locking device or brake d r m , or an
exceptionably long span between bearings. When the
shaft mans beheen bearilarrs are essentially equal, the
maximbrn static bending moment a e c t m b ~ aihe
t shaft
bearings as a result of shaft weight cae be d e f e r m i d
Table 4
Ship
Name
OWsp
Chrysai
Robimon
Jamestwn
Observaiion
zslund
II
heh hue
of f mnges from about 0.16 to 0.23 for singIescrew &hipsv e n g frarn fine to full lines, respectively.
Twin-screw ships have t values ran& from about 0.1 t o
0.2,2,& larger value applying t o &ips with bossings and
tihe sm&w value mmspon&ng to &ips with struts.
PC values of 0.73 for Singlewrew ships and 0.68 for
mdtiscrew ships sre average v a b and normally found
to be suitable for preliminary estimates. Reference tII
contains methods of estimating t and PC and should be
consulted 0 obtain a more a m r a t e &mate of the
thrust I d if m d d test results a~ ship's performance
etiYenleiti0~~
are n ~ avaihble.
t
Alternating thrust h a & ltre generated by the propeller. The p d o m i n m t dtemating t h r a 1-d o m m
at pmpdler bMe frequency abi a consequence of the
nonunifwm inflow water velacity 1;6 the propeller as
discussed in Election 3.2, The magnitude af the variable
thrusC M a is dependent an the ntmbes of prnpeller
blade& For single-mrew ships, an even number d bJr8des
will m l t in greater d t e m t i q thrust lmds than am
odd n u m k as dimussed in 3.2. For preEminmy e&imates, fhe magnitude of the alternating thrust as a percentage of steady thrust can be taken from Table 3.
Insofar tm the strength of the shafting is concernedr
neither the steady nor J k m a t i n g thrust lmds are major
design consi~ations. With merchant ships, the steady
camp&ve stress is 1008 to I500 @; even In highly
stressed shafts in navd skips the steady e o m p d v e
stress d d o m reshes 2500 psi, Torsional shear stresses
me of predominant importance; and since the s t m s
due to thrust EEO nut combine additively with the tar-
Tanker
Mariner
20,300
38,100
15,200
50,200
16,400
M,
Ib/h.
@ are mt approxirnateIy
If the spans bekeen
equal, such a simple appmmh cannot be used; instead,
continuously supported beam analytieal techniques, such
a5 the three-moment equation or Hardy C m methad,
must be used. During recent y e w , the practice has
been to use the digital mmput;er to mIculate the bending
moments a t all efiticaI &a& sections, utilizing mntinuous
b a r n forrnuIa%ians.
Weight 1 4 s on the outboard shafting tend to be of
more imporbnee due to the large mncentraW weight
of the propeller. Standard eonfirnous beam equations
ean be used ha determine the magdude of the bending
moments. Howeuw, because of the long bearings used
o u t b d , the lacakians of fhe bearing peaetions we not
cleady defined. The pactice is ta assume the reaetion
a t the e n t e r of d1 bearings except the bearing just
fopward of the propder. Because af the ham weight of
the propelIer, the pmpeller shaft has a s i ~ i 6 c a n slope
t
a t this bearing; therefore, the rwltanh W i n g reaction
tends to be in the after region af the Wing. WaterIubricated bearings of Emurn vitae, micarby or rubber
have L / D ratios of about 4 f o r this bearing and the
resultant reaction is usually assumed to be one shdk
diameter forward of the aft bearing face. Od-Eubrieated
bearings h&veLID ratios of about I to 2, and a review of
the shaft contact in these bearings indicates that hard
contact is confined to the after region of the bearing for
a length appmximateIy eq;uaI to the diameter of the shaft.
Current practice is t o assume that the resultant bearing
reaction in oil-lubricated b e d g a Is one-half shaft diameter from the after bearing face.
Generafly the most signifimnt weight moment ia due
to the overhtmg moment of the propeller. The maxi-
Thrust,
Thrust
Eccent.
C, it
Thrust
Eccent.
Factor
C / D Reference
0.047
[11]
shp
rpm
503 68
615 84
436.5 62
0.74
0.77
0.69
10,000
15,000
8,500
95
112
184,000
246,000
156,000
19.5
0.91
22
20.5
1.31
1.67
0.060
0.082
B2]
[13]
93
76
0.75
0.60
26,500
22,000
108.5
385,000
271,000
23
22
1.26
0.055
0.076
1141
685
528
WpLp
85
110
Table 5
(5)
where
=
Equation (5) is the moment at the bearing reaction

point assuming that the reaction is a point support
rather than a distributed reaction over a region of the
shaft. The point support assumption is justified in that
the exact load distribution on the bearing is unknown
and the moment calculated in this manner is somewhat
in excess of the actual value when the position of the
resultant reaction is estimated reasonably well.
There are a number of influences in addition to the
gravity moment of the propeller which can have a significant impact on the propeller shaft bending stress.
These are the eccentricity of thrust, water depth, sea
conditions, and ship maneuvers. Under the general
guidance of SNAME Panel M-8, the propeller shafts of a
total of five ships have been instrumented to measure the
bending stresses under actual operating conditions.
Data obtained from these tests are reported in references
[ll-151. Table 4 summarizes the characteristics of the
ships tested. The tests were conducted to show the significance of the ship loading, sea conditions, ship maneuvers, and thrust eccentricity.
Eccentricity of the propeller thrust produces a significant propeller shaft bending moment. The propeller
resultant thrust is eccentric from the propeller shaft
centerline under almost all operating conditions and is
usually in the upper starboard quadrant when looking
forward. Therefore, it does not combine directly with
the propeller gravity moment. Light draft operating
conditions and "U" shaped stern sections tend to bring
the thrust and gravity moments closer together and
make them more additive. Table 4 shows the thrust
eccentricity factor, C / D , determined from full-scale test
data for heavy-displacement, calm-sea conditions. The
thrust eccentricity, C, shown in Table 4 is the resultant
of the eccentric thrust and the gravity components.
ib
Prop.
Dia.
D, ft
cn
propeller overhung moment in propeller shaft,

in.-lb
W , = weight of propeller assembly including shafting
aft of reaction point, Ib
L, = distance from CG of propeller assembly to
aftermost bearing reaction, in.
M
L
= bending moment at bearing*in.-lb

= span between
in.
w = weight per unit length ef shaft&
Rhin
."---=
Lyl
Design
mum static propeller shaft bending stress is computed as
M,
V = ship s p d at maximurn power, knots

W = ship's resistance at Tr, Ib
ehp = ship's bull &wGm horsepowe~a t TP, hp
s h=
~ maximum &aft horsemwer, h~
*t =. thnrst cE&uction fraction
PC = propulsive coefficient
Type Ship
TZSE-A2
Tanker
- -.
.
--.
Tanker
Victory
Ships Instrumented to Determine Tailshaft Bending Stresses
Load
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Light
Light
Light
Heavy
Light
Heavy
Light
1.M
[16]
Increase in Propeller Shaft Bending Stresses Due to

Various EfFects
Sea Condition
Calm
Calm
Calm
Calm
Calm
Calm
Stormy
Stormy
Calm
Calm
Operation
Ahead
Ahead
Maneuvering
Crash Back
Ahead
Ahead
Ahead
Ahead
Water
D e ~ t h Factor
Deep
Deep
Deep
Deep
Shoal
Shoal
3%
9%
2%
1%
1%
lhll-scale tests on the Esso Jarnestown I141 permit an

evaluation of the influence of ship loading, sea conditions,
and maneuvers. These factors are summarized in
Table 5. The factors presented in Table 5 are the ratios
of the bending stresses for the various conditions described to the bending stresses under full-load, deepwater, calm-seas, and straight-ahead operations. The
extrapolated results from the Observation I s l a d tests [15]
generally support the factors in Table 5. It should be
noted that maneuvers such as era&-backs rarely occur,
and that the shaft need not be designed to withstand
stresses three times the normal value on a continuing
basis.
Shock loadings, considered in designing naval shafting
for combatant ships, are akin to the gravity loading and
are frequently determined by multiplying the gravity
force loads by a "shock" factor; however, more sophisticated methods are available for determining the shock
loads through the application of dynamic analysis techniques. References [16,17] treat the procedure for conducting dynamic shock analyses of shafting systems.
Misalignment in shafting systems can produce very
significant bending loads and this factor is probably
responsible for the majority of inboard shafting failures.
The sensitivity of the shafting to misalignment should be
reviewed particularly as regards water-lubricated stern
tube and strut bearings which are subject to wear in
service.
The sensitivity of the shafting to misalignment can be
assessed by calculating the shafting bearing reactions and
moments with the shafting in various misaligned condi-
372
MARINE ENGINEERING
'
tions. Digital computer programs have been developed

for making this analysis; one such pmgram is described
in Section 5.
Lateral or whirling vibration of the shafting can result
in inqreased bending loads in the shafting. However,
since the shafting system is designed to avoid whirling
criticals in the upper operating range, bending loads
from shaft whirling vibration are not considered when
designing the shafting.
3.6 Radial Loads. Radial loads in shafting are
caused by driving the propeller onto the shaft taper,
shrink-fitting sleeves on the shafting, and shrink-fitting
removable flange couplings. The radial compressive
stresses resulting from these loads are normally of in-
significant magnitude and are not considered in determining the shaft factor of safety. However, these radial
loads can be of importance in that they give rise to
fretting corrosion when coupled with bending loads and
alternating torsional loads that cause minute relative
movement of the mating surfaces. Fretting corrosion
can be controlled by limiting the relative motion and by
cold-rolling the mating shafting surface. Cold-rolling
of shafting surfaces is discussed in Section 4.3.
Another consideration is that if the radial load is
applied abruptly, a stress concentration can occur.
Therefore, design details should be developed so as to
minimize sudden changes in radial loads caused by
shrink or press fits.
Section 4
Shafting Design
4.1 Shaft Materials. With the exception of naval
vessels and merchant vessels of very high power, mild
steel is used for both inboard and outboard shafting. In
the case of high-powered ships, the inboard shafting may
be made of high-strength steel; however, high-strength
steel is not recommended for outboard applications.
Because of the seawater environment and fretting corrosion conditions that exist at shaft sleeves and the propeller interface, the fatigue limit of high-strength steel
is not reliably greater than that of mild steel, nor is the
endurance limit in a fretting corrosion condition better
than that of mild steel.
Considerations in the selection of shafting materials
are: fatigue characteristics, weldability, the nilductility
temperature, and the energy absorption capability. An
array of chemistry and physical property standards has
been established for marine shafting materials that provides a range from which shafting materials can be selected. Chapter 22 contains more specific information
regarding shafting materials.
4.2 Computation of Shaft Diameters. Shafting for
merchant vessels is required to meet the minimum
standards set by the classification society which classes
the vessel. Classification societies use rather simple
formulas to compute the minimum shaft diameters.
These formulas normally contain coefficients which are
changed from time to time in recognition of experience
or advancements in technology. The American Bureau
of Shipping (ABS) line shaft diameter formula is of the
following form [IS]:
d = C(K?)
where
minimum line shaft diameter, in.
c = constant for type of shaft

= constant relating to operating environment
It may be noted that equation (6) neglects bcnding

loads, alternating loads, and stress risers. Furthermore,
it presupposes that the shift will be a solid forging of
mild steel and that no unusual circumstances exist.
However, despite the factors not explicitly considered,
equation (6) does provide,a sound basis for designing line
shafts. This is because the predominant torsional shear
stress is properly considered. The level of torsional
shear stress corresponding to equation (6) can be determined by observing that
By substituting equation (6) into equation (7) and

setting K = 64, which is the case for oceangoing vessels
If c were specified as 0.95 (as was the case for a period

before 1965), the corresponding allowable steady torsional shear stress would be 5849 psi; with a c value of
0.875 (which was adopted in 1965), the corresponding
torsional stress becomes 7486 psi. When the allowable
torsional shear stress of 7486 psi is compared with the
material minimum tensile yield stress of 30,000 psi, it is
seen that adequate margin is allowed for the secmdary
duences which appear to be neglected. Only vessels
to be navigated in ice require special consideration.
(6)
The stern tube shaft diameter required by ABS for
merchant ships is directly proportional to the line shaft
diameter. The propeller shaft diameter is related to the
line shaft diameter and the diameter of the propeller.
The ABS propeller shaft diameter formula is of the
following form :
kld
+ -PC
where
T = minimum propeller shaft diameter

kl = constant
d = required line shaft diameter
P = propeller diameter
C = constant relating to propeller shaft environment
Although the formula for the tailshaft diameter is

simple, it does recognize that bending stresses from
propeller weight and off-center thrust exist and relates
these important factors directly to the propeller diameter.
It has been expressed by some designers that classification rule$ for tailshafts are not adequate because ,the
level of bending stress is not controlled [19, 201. A
designer should review his own design against the important parameters and against his experience. Classification rules should not be accepted without question,
particularly for unusual designs since the formulas are
set primarily by past experience.
In any case, the propeller shaft is customarily manufactured with a diameter approximately 3 percent larger
(10 percent stmnger) than the minimum classification
requirements in order to provide an additional margin
of safety as well as to make provisions for removing a
small amount of surface metal in the event the shafts
become superficially damaged.
Reference [21] reports on a service life comparison of
15 oversized shafts (74 percent greater section modulus
than required by ABS) with 15 shafts of normal size
(11.5 percent greater section modulus). The comparison
showed that the mean expected service life of the oversized shafts was less than the shafts of normal size. Although the statistical sample was small, the study
clearly showed that propeller shaft problems are not
necessarily solved by simply making the shaft larger.
The approach used to establish the size of naval shafting is considerably different from that used with merchant shafting. The procedure used to determine the
size of naval shafting is delineated in reference [22]. As
may be noted from the reference, an effort is made to
assess all significant shafting loads in each particular
case, although some loads are by necessity handled in an
approximate manner. For example, in order to allow
for the effects of off-center thrust and abnormal loadings
due to rough weather and the like, the propeller shaft
bending stress due to the static weight of the propeller is
multiplied by a factor of 3 for single-screw ships and
2 for multiple-screw ships.
An additional difference between merchant and naval
procedure is the criteria of acceptance. In naval practice, dual criteria are used. Factors of safety are specified
for.al1 shafting and, in addition, a specific bending stress
limit is specified for the propeller shaft. The reason for
the latter requirement is that fatigue tests run on models
of propeller shaft assemblies and crank pins [13] showed
that bending stress levels in surface rolled (cold-rolled)
373
shafts in excess of 6000 psi would result in shaft cracks.

Therefore, it is not prudent to design with normal
operating bending stresses in excess of this stress level.
Furthermore, the endurance limit of a propeller shaft
assembly can be essentially independent of the fatigue
limit of the material in air. If seawater contacts the
steel shaft, no endurance limit exists and it is ohly a
matter of time before cracks will occur followed by
ultimate failure.
4.3 Bearing Locations. In the past, bearing locations have been determined by criteria such as "each
shaft span shall have two bearings" or by intuitive judgment. With these criL-?ria.~roblemsdue to unload in^
of bearings, excessive rates bi weardown, shaft whirling,
and gearing misalignment were not rare. Problems
were frequently related to the system having too many
bearings. In order to better understand the optimum
locations for bearings, designers began analyzing shafting
as a continuous beam. However. the time reauired to
analyze one shafting system confibration by hand calculations precluded complete analyses. The development and general dissemination of digital computer
programs, such as reference [23], made it feasible to
routinely conduct in-depth studies to optimize shafting
systems as well as diagnose recurring problem areas.
Factors to be considered in determining the number
and location of shaft bearings
- are:
1
2
3
4
5
Ship's fixed structure and arrangement.

Equality of line shaft bearing reactions.
Bearing unit loads and LID ratios.
Shafting flexibility./
Lateral vibration natural frequencies (shaft whirl).
Ship's fixed structure such as bulkheads and stanchions

will usually require compromises in the shafting arrangement. Also maintenance and overhaul must be considered before final bearing locations are set.
From a cost and interchangeability standpoint, all
line shaft bearines should be identical. Therefore. the
bearings should bve spaced such that the bearing reactions
are approximately equal. If this is done, the total number of bearings in the run of shafting is set by the total
shaft weight, permissible design unit load, and the
acceptable LID limits. The number of line shaft bearings required to support a run of shafting can be tentatively determined a s follows:
where
total weight of shafting to be supported (note

that gear and stern tube bearings may
carry some line shaft weight)
p = design bearing pressure (maximum permissible
pressure less 5 to 10 psi to allow for variations) based on projected area
D = shaft diameter in way of journal (normal
practice is to increase the shaft diameter
%-% in. in way of bearings)
=
PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS '
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 6
Bearing
Bearing No.
Fwd
SlowS eed
Bear
1
Table 7 Tabulation of Bearing Reactions for the Shafting Arrangement Shown in Fig. 1
Bearing Reaction Influence Numbers for Shafting Arrangement Shown in Fig. 1

(Pounds per Mil of Vertical Displacement)
After
SlowS eed
Bear
2
Fwd
Line
Shaft
3
Line
Shaft
4
Line
shaft
5
Line
Shaft
6
Aft
Line
Shaft
7
Stern
Tube
8
375
Strut
9
Bearing No.
Reaction
Line-in-Line
Cold (as aligned)
Hot (as aligned)
Weardown Condition5
Measured (Hot)
~
Fwd
SlowS eed
8ear
Aft
SlowS eed
Bear
Fwd
Line
Shaft
Line
Shaft
Line
Shaft
Line
Shaft
26900
41700
36300
36300
49500
29700
37300
37100
38500
23200
29600
26500
26700
26700
25500
23700
24900
24300
26400
25200
25700
25400
27200
26300
27200
27000
27100
20100
30300
Line
Shaft
'7
Stem
Tube
Strut
...
15900
15900
15900
30800
11200
62600
62600
62600
51000
...
89900
89900
89900
'92200
'
...
a Assume a strut bearing weardown of 0.200 in. and a stern tube bearing weardown of 0.185 in. (consider weardown proportional to
bearing pressure).
Notes:
The numbers tabulated above represent the effect of raising a iven bearing one mil; e.g., if the forward line shaft bearing is raised one
mil, the forward slow-speed gear bearing reaction increaaea 336 lf~,the after slow-speed bearing reaction decreases 493 lb,the forward
line ahaft bearing increases 259 Ib, etc.
LID = bearing length/diameter ratio

After tentatively selecting the number of bearings and
'pacing them
a
of
the bearing loads under all normal operating conditions
is made. The
conditions of primary
tance are the cold starbup condition, the hot operating
condition, and bearing weardown and misalignment
conditions. Involved in this analysis is the influence of
the shafting on the reduction gear bearing loads or diesel
engine bearing loads resulting from the themla1 change
the
in the position of these
when going
cold to the hot operating condition. Criteria for aligning
the propulsion unit to the shafting are developed on the
basis of this analysis.
A parametric study of minimum line shaft bearing
'pacing was carried
and
in reference [241'
The conclusion n3ached was that for shafting arrangements having one or more line shaft bearings the minimum span ratio (i.e., ratio of bearing center distance to
shaft diameter) should be 14 for shafts with diameters in
the range of 10 to 16 in. and 12 for shaft diameters of
l6 30 in' The
'pan ratio
be in the
range of 20 to 22 but the final determination must be
and vibraat the
based On strength, shaft
tion characteristics.
4*4 shafting
Calcu'ation Output. The important output from most shafting calculations includes
the following in addition to the required shaft diameters:
(a) Line-in-line reactions.

(b) Slope of shafting a t discrete poids.
(c) Deflection of shafting a t discrete points.
(d) Moments in shafting a t discrete points.
(e) Lateral natural frequency of shafting.
(f) Bearing reaction influence numbers.
The significance of the shafting line-in-line reactions
(bearing reactions with all bearings set concentric), shaft
slopes in way of bearings, shaft deflections, shaft moments, and lateral natural frequency of the shafting is
apparent; however, the importance of bearing reaction

influence numbers is not as readily appreciated. Table 6
;s a tabulation of the bearing reaction influence numbers
for the shafting arrangementshown in Fig. 1. The
numbers given ih Table represent the change in the
magnitude of the bearing reaction of the various bearings
as a result of raising any bearing one mil. Thmugh the
application of these influence numbers, which reflect the
shafting system flexibility, it is possible to investigate
the influenceof shafting misalignment caused by thermal
expansion, weardown, and &her such effects.Alignmentrequirements are developed on the basis of the
Also, the principles
bearing reaction inRuence
employed with the hydraulic jack method of checking
shaft alignment ,(see Section 4.12) originate with the
numbers.
bearing reaction
4.5 Gear-to-Shafi Alignment. Particular care must
be taken in selecting the aftermost
and forwardmost line
shaft bearing locations to ensure that adequate shafting
flexibility is provided. These bearings are subjected to
a varying alignment in service. Weardown of the stern
tube bearing alters the load on the aftermost bearing;
the thermal expansion of the reduction gear structure
changes the load on the foMiardmost bearing. These *
effectsmay be noted from the tabulatioh given in
Table 7.
when the propulsion plant goes from the cold to the
operating condition, the slow-speed gear besings may
to 30 mils relative to the line shaft bearings.
rise
his rise can significantly alter the reactions of the slowspeed gear bearings and the forward line shaft bearings.
Of particular concern is the fact that the static load on
the forward slow-speed gear bearing decreases while that
on the after bearing increases,. As can be seen from the
typical reduction gear bearing reaction diagram shown in
Chapter 9, this causes the slow-speed gear to assume a
crossed-axis position relative to the slow-speed pinions
which are not similarly affected. As a result, the tooth
load will tend to be more heavy on one end of each helix.
Reference [25] contains a detailed discussion of the effects
of unequal gear bearing reactions on gear performance

and the maximum permissible differences between the
gear bearing static loadings. The gear manufacturer
should state the maximum difference permitted between
the static loadings on the slow-speed gear bearings (see
Chapter 9).
The alignment in the athwartship direction should be
such that no significant forces are imposed on the slowspeed gear bearings in the horizontal plane.
The allowable setting error is conveniently used as an
index of shafting flexibility in way of the reduction gear.
The allowable setting error, ASE, is defined as the allowable difference in the static vertical gear bearing loads
divided by the difference between the bearing reaction
influence number of the forward slow-speed gear bearing
on itself and the after slow-speed gear bearing on itself.
Therefore, the ASE is determined as follows:
*ASE =
AR
I11
I22
(11)
AR = allowable difference between two slow-speed

Ill
I22
gear bearing static reactions

reaction influence number of forward slowspeed gear bearing on itself
= reaction influence number of aft slow-speed
gear bearing on itself
=
The ASE number represents the total of the error

permissible in estimating the thermal rise of the slowspeed gear bearings relative to the line shaft bearings
and the error permissible in setting the gear to the line
shafting without exceeding the maximum allowable difference in the static slow-speed gear bearing reactions.
An absolute minimum acceptable value for the ASE has
been recognized to be f.010 in.; see reference [26] for
additional discussion of this parameter.
If the flexibility of the shafting meets the ASE criterion, the analysis proceeds to an investigation of the
gear-to-shaft alignment. Beginning with the line-in-line
reactions, that is, the bearing reactions with all bearings
concentric, and with the estimated thermal rise of the
gear bearings relative to the line shaft bearings when
going from the cold to the operating temperature, alignment data are established which will provide approxi-
mately equal slow-speed gear bearing static reactions

when in the operating condition. I t must additionally
be ascertained that the line shaft bearing reactions are
satisfactory under all operating conditions.
Since the actual positions of the slow-speed gear bearings are difficult to ascertain relative to the line of shafting, their positions are determined by measuring the
drop and gap of the slow-speed gear shaft flange";elative
to the line shaft flange. Drop is the vertical distance
between the centers of two adjacent flanges; gap is the
differencein opening between the top and bottom of the
two flanges (nonparallelism of the flange faces). It is,
of course,-necessaryto know the position of the line shaft
flanges relative to the line shaft bearings. One alignment technique is to support the line shafting sections so
that the centers of the flanges are concentric with the
bearing centerline and the flange faces are perpendicular
to the bearing centerline; this is accomplished by s u p
porting the sections at approximately the 2/9 points
from each end. When this is done, the drop and gap are
measured directly a t the flanges.
The positions of the slow-speed gear bearings $elative
to the centerline of the line shaft bearings are readily
determined from the drop and gap of the slow-speed gear
shaft flange relative to the line shaft flange; this is accomplished by means of simple geometry. With these
data, the bearing reaction influence numbers can be used
to plot the bearing loads for various alignment conditions. Such a plot is shown in Fig. 9. Figure 9 is an
informative means of illustrating the effect of thermal
rise of thevslow-speed gear bearings and the effect of
alignment errors in addition to bearing loads.
Table 7 shows the cold alignment bearing reactions
with an alignment corresponding to point A on Fi& 9.
The hot reactions listed in Table 7 are the bearing reactions estimated after the gear has reached operating
temperature; this is point B on Fig. 9.
Finally, bearing reaction influence numbers provide a
means to study the effects of bearing movements from
hull deflections and bearing weardown. An analysis of
bearing reactions with the stern tube and strut bearings
worn down is given in Table 7.
4.6 Propeller-to-Shaft Interface. Design details of
I'
I
I
Fig. 9
Gear-to-shaft alignment analysis
i'
the propeller-to-shaft interface are a critical aspect of a

shafting system design. DuringWorld War I1 and earlier
years, propeller shaft failures in way of the propeller
were not rare; and difficulties have been experienced in
more recent times [20, 211. However, the advances in
design technology (e.g., stress relief grooves a t the forward end of the propeller and the aft end of the liner,
shortened-and spooned keyways, slotted keys, and improved sealing methods) have significantly improved the
reliability of propeller shafts and increased their service
lives. Also, improvements in inspection technology have
provided the means to detect incipient cracks and thus
have greatly reduced the loss of propellers at sea.
Details of the propeller-to-shaft interface required for
naval ships are specified by reference [27]. The naval
type of propeller-to-shaft interface is consistent with
merchant praltice and is reported to have a comparable
service history.
The propeller keyway is a stress concentration and a
weakening factor to the shaft even though the keyway
has generous fillet radii and the forward end of the key is
slotted to relieve the key load at the forward end. For
this reason, propeller nuts have been developed which
incorporate annular pistons moved by hydraulic oil or
grease. These "hydraulic" nuts provide the means to
apply large forces of known magnitude to the propeller,
pushing it onto the shaft taper such that no propeller
key is required. Keyless propeller designs rely entirely
on the friction between the hub and the shaft to withstand the propeller torsional and thrust loads. Conse-
quently, the contact pressure, material stresses, shaft

taper, propeller-shaft interface friction coefficient, and
the push-on force must be thoroughly engineered.
Although some keyless propeller designs use oil pressure to expand the propeller hub while the propeller is
forced onto the shaft taper, most designs call for the
mating surfaces to be thoroughly degreased before the
propeller is fitted to the shaft taper to ensure that
the highest coefficient of friction is obtained. However,
it is maintained by some that when oil is used to expand
the hub for fit-up, shortly after the pressure is relieved
the oil layer is squeezed out of the propeller-to-shaft
interface, resulting in a friction coefficient equal to that
when the propeller is pushed up dry. Most designs use
a hydraulic pressure in the propeller-to-shaft interface
a t least equal to the calculated radial pressure to expand
the hub for removing the propeller.
For a dry, greaseless, installation the coefficient of
friction may vary from a low of approximately 0.13 to a
high of approximately 0.1s. The value of the effective
friction coefficient is dependent on the percentage area
of the mating faces which are in contact at initial fit-up
(prior to forcing the propeller up the shaft) and the ma-,
terials in contact. Some keyless propeller designs incorporate a cast-iron sleeve in the propeller hub bore
because tests have shown that higher coefficients of
friction can be obtained this u-ay. Using an intermediate
nodular iron sleeve with an initial surface contact area
between the sleeve and shaft taper of 95 percent or more,
a coefficient of friction of 0.18 can be achieved. When the
I
I-
initial surface contact area is approximately 50 percent,

a coefficient of friction of 0.13 can be expected. When a
bronze alloy propeller is fitted to a steel shaft without
using an intermediate cast iron sleeve, the maximum
coefficient of friction obtainable at the propeller-shaft
interface is a~~roximatelv
0.15.
The shaft taper used with keyless propellers generally
falls within the range of 1:12 to 1:20. The shaft taper
should be selected such that the sum of the maximum
astern thrust and the axial push-off force due to the taper
does not exceed the axial frictional resistance. This
consideration will limit the maximum shaft taper. On
the other hand, if the shaft taper is too small, the ahead
thrust may force the propeller up the taper and overstress
the hub.
4.7 Cold-Rolling. The development of fretting fatigue cracks in propeller shafts a t the forward end of
the propeller hub and a t the after end of the shaft sleeve
is one of the most common modes of propeller shaft
failures. Although surface cold-rolling will not eliminate
the occurrence of fatigue cracks, cold-rolling of propeller
shafts for a distance forward and aft of the forward end
of the propeller shaft taper and in way of the ends of the
liners has been shown to be an effective means of retarding the propagation of fatigue cracks [28].
4.8 Protection from Seawater. Except in the case
of designs in which all bearings are of the oil-lubricated
type, outboard shafting involves the use of sleeves which
are shrunk on the shafting in way of bearings, stuffing
boxes, and fairings. Shaft sleeves are made of bronze
or other materials which are resistant to attack by seawater.
Ships having a single short section of outboard shafting
employ a single continuous sleeve. Where continuous
sleeves are not used, the sections of shafting not covered
-by sleeves are protected by applying a rubber [29] or
plastic [30] compound directly to the shafting surface.
The adequacy of both rubber and plastic protective
coverings for outboard shafting has not been unifornily
good. The protection offered to outboard couplings by
such coverings has been particularly unsatisfactory on
occasions. Rotating coupling covers (fairwaters), which
clamp onto and rotate with the shaft, thereby eliminating
the violent erosive flow of water around coupling bolts,
have been used to avoid the deleterious effect of the
water.
A reliable static sealing arrangement a t the propeller,
which prevents seawater from contacting the propeller
shaft, is of the utmost importance. A propeller-shaft
assembly which allows seawater to contact the shaft will
not have an endurance limit and therefore it is only a
matter of cycle accumulation before a failure occurs.
Details concerning propeller-hub sealing arrangements,
which are necessary with systems utilizing water-lubricated stern tube bearings, are contained in reference [31].
4.9 Shaft Couplings. Except in instances where
special considerations preclude their use, shafting sections are connected by means of integrally forged couplings as illustrated on the line shaft section shown in
,,,
TYPICAL BOLT
SHAF
FT
LSPLIT
COLLAR
Fig. 10
Removable flange coupling
Fig. 10. Although the design of virtually all integral

shaft couplings is similar, details of shaft coupling designs can vary considerably. For example, despite individual preferences, no specific number of coupling bolts
has been established as optimum and the proportions of
flange dimensions may vary from one design to the next.
Guidelines for the design of flange couplings for merchant vessels are given in classification society rules such
as reference [18] and similar guidelines for naval vessels
are given in references [22,27]. An effort to standardize
shafting couplings was made in reference [19], and
SNAME T&R Bulletin 3-20 (Guide for the Design of
Line Shaft Couplings) was subsequently prepared.
Couplings with removable flanges are required in some
instances; for example, those cases where a liner must be
installed on a shaft which requires a bolted flange on
each end. Figure 10 illustrates a typical removableflange coupling and shows the means provided to transmit both thrust and torque. Both torque and thrust are
normally transmitted by friction between the shrunk-on
muff and the shaft. The keys are a backup for the transmission of torque and the split collar is a backup for the
transmission of thrust.
On occasions shafting arrangements are designed such
that it is necessary to remove the forward flange of a
stern tube shaft in order to withdraw the stern tube shaft
aft; this is not a preferred arrangement because it is most
difficult to remove a flange without damaging the flangeshaft interface. A preferred arrangement is one in
which the stern tube bushings are made sufficiently large
so that they can be removed to permit the stern tube
shaft to be withdrawn aft with the forward flange
in place.
4.10 Shaft Axial Movements. Axial movement of
the shafting relative to structure that is fixed to the hull
must be considered to establish proper clearances between the propeller and stern frame structure and the
clearances between bearing housings and rotating elements secured to the shaft within bearings (oil slingers,
oil disks, etc.)
There are four factors which contribute to the movement of the shaft relative to hull structure; these are:
378
MARINE ENGINEERING
PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANAtYSlS
effect a static balance. Good practice dictates that

adjoining shafting sections be installed such that the
residual static unbalance, as determined by a check on
the rails after final machining, tends to cancel.
Although shafting sections have occasionally been
specified to be dynamically balanced (shaft sectiorls
SHOWN IN FIG. I
rotated in a balancing machine to determine both static
and dynamic unbalance), there are conflicting schools of
thought regarding the necessity of a dynamic balance.
FIRST MEASUREMENT
It has been argued that the tolerances customarily im+ SECOND MEASUREMENT
posed on the manufacture of shafting sections in conjunction with good shop practice precludes objectionable
shafting unbalance.
4.12 Determination of Shaft Alignment. There are
basically two ways that the alignment of an installed
and complete shafting system can be checked. One,
which is akin to the drop-and-gap method of alignment
a t initial'installation, is to remove the bolts from a
coupling and compare the relative position of the two
o
1000
2000
3000
4000
SOW
flanges with the calculated value. The second method,
JACK PRESSURE, PSIG
which is both easier to accom~lishand more meaninnful.
,
is the so-called hydraulic jack method.
F i 11 baring reaction determined by hydraulic lack
With the hydraulic jack method of checking shhfting
alignment, a calibrated hydraulic jack is used-to determine the actual load Y U D D O bv
~ ~ a~ bearinn
~
and this
actual
load
is
then
compared
with
the
desired
gad.
The
1 Thrust bearing clearances. Axial clearances beload
is
determined
by
placing
a
hydraulic
actual
bearing
tween the thrust ccrlla~and shoes permit a corresponding
jack as close to the bearing housing as possible (bearing
fore-and-aft movement of the entire shafting system.
foundations
are often designed with an extension to
2 Axial deffections. The propeller thrust results in a
provide
a
jack
foundation). A dial indicator is located
small axial deflection of the shafting and thrust bearing.
immediately
above
the jack so as to measure vertical
3 Temperature difierences. The shafting can be a t
movement
of
the
shaft.
Where possible, the anchor
a wa& temperature (70-80 1;") relative t o that of the
point
for
the
dial
indicator
should be independent of
hull structure (about 30 F).
the
bearing
housing.
Before
recording
any readings, the
4 Hogging and sagging induces bending strains in
shaft
should
be
lifted
at
least
once
to
ensure that the
the hull wWe the shafting is not similarly strained.
shaft
can
be
lifted
20
to
30
mils
without
coming into
This is conveniently amessed by assuming an extreme
contact
with
the
upper
half
of
the
bearing;
this prefiber hull bending strem and the neutral axis of the hull
liminary
jacking
tends
to
reduce
hysteresis
in
the
shaft
in bending; the 8tress, and corresponding hull strain, a t
and
erratic
readings.
For
short
shaft
spans,
a
dial
the s h d t centerline ia then determined by interpolation.
indicator should also be installed on adiacent bearings
The foregoing factors would generally not reach maxi- so that any rise of the shaft in these dearings can be
mum values simultaneously, but they are prudently noted. At a later time, this may help t o explain unconsidered to do so. Typical axid movements of the predicted readings.
With the dial indicators and jack in place, the shaft is
propeller (the point a t which movement is a maximum)
d a t i v e t o the hull are 0.5 in., for tankers with very short raised and lowered in increments, noting the jack load
shafts, to 2 in., for ships with long shafts.
corresponding to each increment of shaft rise. These
4.1 1 Shafting Balance. Solid shafting is inher- data are plotted as shown in Fig. 11. The data points
ently bdmced, but hollow shafting requires attention in will conform to two basic slopes. The slope of the liftthb regard. The bdanee of hollow shafting is accom- versus-pressure curve as the load is transferred from the
plished during the machining operation by shifting lathe bearing to the jack represents the spring constant of
eentem prior to the fina.1 machining cuts. The amount the bearing shell, bearing housing, and the like. Wllerl the
of unbalance in a shaft can be determined by either a shaft lifts clear of the bearing, an abrupt change in
static OI dynamic balancing technique.
the slope of the data points occurs. The second slope
After the rough machining cuts have been made, a corresponds to the bearing reaction influence number
shaftipg section can be ataticafly balanced by removing for the bearing.
Due to friction in the shafting and jack system, the
the shaft seetion from the lathe, placing it on rails, noting
the equilibrium position of the shaft section, shifting the data points when raising and lowering the shaft do not
lathe centers to compensate for the unbalance, and then coincide, the result being the equivalent of a hysteresis
taking additional machining cuts on the shaft section t o loop. The deflection-versus-load plot will show a lower
shaft lift at a given jack load for the increasing load curve that the bearing should be raised or lowered should be
than for the decreasing load curve. Experience indi- based on the calculated influence numbers rather than
cates that the true relationship between the jack load the influence numbers determined by jacking.
When jacking bearings that are very close together and
and shaft lift is approximately midway between the lines
determined when raising and lowering as indicated by in cases where the jack must be located some distance
Fig. 11. However, in cases where the increasing and from the bearing, the jack load should be multiplied by
decreasing load lines are significantly different, the mean a correction factor to obtain the load a t the bearing.
The correction factor is as follows:
line should favor the increasing load line.
With the mean line representing the true relationship
between the jack load and shaft lift established, the load
which would be on the jack a t zero shaft lift and with
the bearing removed is determin$ by extrapolating the
mean line downward to zero shaft lift. Since the jack where
and bearing are close together, the load as determined
I& = influence of bearing on bearing
can also be considered as the load on the bearing if the
l i b = influence of jack on bearing
jack were removed (or the bearing load being sought).
Under favorable jacking conditions (no binding of the These influence numbers are determined by including
shaft in the bearing due to athwartship misalignment, both the jack and the bearing being jacked as support
interference with stuffing boxes, etc.) experience shows points in the shafting system calculations. To be
that the accuracy of the bearing reactions determined is theoretically accurate, this correction factor should be
usually within 10 percent. However, the influence num- used for every bearing that is jacked; however, only in
bers obtained by jacking may not be as accurate. When the aforementioned two caqes is it a factor of significance.
the bearings being jacked are located towards the middle
Table 7 contains a tabulation of the measured bearing
of the shaft and span lengths are fairly equal, jack influ- reactions for the shafting system in Fig. 1 and illustrates
ence numbers are generally within 30 percent of the typical jacking results. The oil in the reduction gear
calculated influence numbers. For bearings located near was heated and circulated a t operating temperature;
the ends of the shaft, the influence numbers obtained by therefore, the measured reactions should be correlated
jacking may disagree with the calculated values by with the hot reactions.
50 percent or more.
The hydraulic jack procedure can also be used to
Both the load and influence number errors aye due to detect bent shafts in that the bearing reactions can be
inaccuracies which are inherent in the jacking procedure; determined with the shaft rotated in 90-deg increments.
e.g., the jack not being located at the bearing center, the If the bearing reaction changes significantly with shaft
load center in adjacent bearings shifting as the shaft is position, a bent shaft can be suspected. This technique
raised, and hysteresis in the shafting system. Conse- is very useful when analyzing a shaft that is suspected
quently, when a bearing is to be realigned, the distance of being bent.
CALCULATED
MEASURED
379
Sectiwn 5
Bearings
5.1 Introduction. Main propulsion shafting is supported by bearings which maintain the shafting in proper
alignment. These propulsion shaft bearings divide
themselves naturally into two groups; those bearings
inside the watertight boundary of the hull and those
bearings which are outside the hull watertight boundary.
The requirements imposed upon the design of main
shaft bearings are extremely severe. The bearings are
required to operate a t speeds ranging from 0.1 rpm,
when on jacking gear, to 100 or more rpm in either
direction of rotation. And, unlike some applications,
the bearing loads do not vary with rpm but are essentially
constant at all speeds. Reliability is heavily emphasized'in the design of bearings because there is no redundancy for bearings and a single bearing failure may
incapacitate the propulsion system.
I n addition to the radial bearings which support the
main shafting, there is located inside the ship a main

thrust bearing which transmits the propeller thrust from
the shafting to the hull structure. Figures 1 and 2 show
the two typical main thrust bearing locations. Often,
the main thrust bearing is designed as an integral part
of the main engine and is provided by the main engine
manufacturer. l'or details concerning main thrust bearings, see Chapters 9 and 20.
5.2 Line Shaft Bearings. Bearings located inside
the ship's water-tight boundary are called line shaft
bearings, although they are sometimes referred to as
steady or spring bearings. Almost without exception,
these bearings are ruggedly constructed, conservatively
designed, babbitt lined, and oil lubricated. Except in
special cases, the bearings are self-lubricated by rings
or disks arranged in such a manner that lubrication is
effected by the rotation of the shaft. Roller bearings
MARINE ENGINEERING
OIL SCRAPER
rANTI- ROTATION DOWEL

r
WINGED INSPECTION COVER
HALF
,-OIL
LUBRICATING RING 7
COOLING COIL
CONNECTION
Rg. 12 Self-aligning line shaft bearing with oil disk lubrication
have been used in the smaller shaft sizes, but the advantages of lighter weight and lower friction have in
general not been sufficient to offset the higher reliability
and lower maintenance costs of the babbitt-lined type.
Line shaft bearing housings are made of steel castings
or fabricated of steel plates welded together. Completely
satisfactory bearing housings are obtained by either
method, and manufacturing costs govern the construction method used. Since rigidity is of more concern than
strength, low carbon steel is used as the material for
bearing housings with the exception of bearings for naval
combatant vessels, in which case high-impact shock requirements may necessitate the use of high-strength steel.
Bearing housings are split horizontally a t the shaft
centerline. The bottom half of the bearing must be very
ruggedly designed since it carries the vertical shaft load
and any side load that exists.
The bearing housing supports a h h v y steel removable
shell which is limed with babbitt. The shaft rests on the
babbitted surface. The bearing shell can be made with
a self-aligning feature by providing a spherical or crowned
seat at the interface between the bearing shell and housing. This allows the axis of the bearing shell to align
exactly with that of the shaft. Figure 12 is a section
through a bearing with a self-aligning feature and Fig. 13
is a section through a bearing that is similar but without
a self-aligning capability. The general construction of
bearing housings and shells can be observed from Figs.
12 and 13.
Except for the aftermost line shaft bearings in mer-
chant applications, it is general practice to babbitt only

the bottom half of the bearings since these bearings
would never be expected to be loaded in the top. However, the aftermost bearing (the one closest to the stern
tube) may become loaded in the top particularly when
the stern tube bearing is water-lubricated. Waterlubricated bearings are subject to a large amount of
wear which can result in severe misalignment. It is
considered good practice to provide the maximum practicable amount of babbitt in the top half of the aftermost
line shaft bearings when water-lubricated stern tube
bearings are used. With oil-lubricated stern tube bearings, the probability of the after bearing becoming
loaded in the top is considerably reduced. .
Babbitt that is centrifugally cast onto the bearing
shell is considered preferable to that which is statically
poured. The former technique dependably provides a
more secure bond between the babbitt and the bearing
shell. The desire for centrifugally cast babbitt has
required some adjustments in bearing shell and housifig
design.
Babbitt can be of either the lead or tin base type.
Tin-base babbitt has greater strength and is generally
preferred for shaft bearings; it is specified almost exclusively for centrifugally cast bearings. Lead-base babbitt
is preferred where embedding, conforming, and antifriction are primary considerations. Lead-base babbitt
has a lower yield point and a slightly better fatigue
resistance.
Physically the load-carrying length of the bearing
Fig. 13 Nan-self-aligning line shaft bearing with oil ring lubrication
should not exceed two times the shaft diameter

(LID = 2) nor should it be much less than one shaft
diameter (Ll D = 1). These limitations are set to assure
uniform bearing contact in the case of long bearings and
to prevent excessive end leakage of the oil from impairing
adequate lubrication for short bearings.
The oil reserv.oir must be sized to operate during extreme roll and pitch conditions without leaking oil by
the shaft or disabling the bearing lubrication system.
Furthermore, the oil quantity and sump surface must be
sufficient to dissipate the heat generated. Line shaft
bearings are sometimes designed with cooling coils located in the sumps as shown in Fig. 13; however, experience has shown that the cooling coils are rarely, if ever,
needed.
Line shaft bearings may be lubricated by means of oil
rings, an oil disk, or by a supply of oil under pressure
(wick-lubricated bearings have fallen into disuse). Ring
oil-lubricated bearings contain two or three metal rings
with a diameter of 1.25 to 1.5 times that of the shaft (the
ratio decreases with larger shaft diameters). The number of rings in a bearing should be selected such that no
ring is required to distribute oil for an axial distance
g,reater than 7 in. on either side of the ring. The rings
rest on top of the shaft and dip into an oil reservoir
located beneath the bearing shell. Figure 13 is an example of a ring-lubricated bearing. As the shaft turns, the
rings are rotated by the frictional contact with the top
of the shaft. Oil which adheres to the ring in way of
the oil reservoir is then carried up to the top of the shaft
where, a part of the oil is transferred to the shaft and

subsequently carried into the contact region of the bearing. Ring-lubricated bearings have proved to be capable
of accommodating large angles of list and trim and have
proved to be reliable in service with design bearing unit
loads of 45 psi. With regard to the possible adverse
effects of trim, tests have been conducted which demonstrated that ring-lubricated bearings can accommodate
angles of approximately 10 deg from the horizontal with
no sacrifice in performance. Reference [32] discusses
the performance of oil rings based on laboratory tests
and shows, among other things, the sensitivity of the
quantity of oil delivered to the oil viscosity.
Disk-lubricated bearings use a metal disk clamped to
the shaft a t one end of the bearing shell. The disk may
have a flange as illustrated by Fig. 12. As the shaft
turns, thelower portion of the disk, which is immersed in
, coated with oil. This oil is carried to
an oil r e s e ~ o i r is
the top where a metal bar scrapes the oil from the disk
and guides it into passages where it is admitted to the
top of the shaft and then into the contact region of the
bearing. Disk-lubricated bearings have been successfully applied with design unit pressures of 75 psi.
I n special cases, line shaft bearings may be lubricated
by oil supplied by a pump. If the shafting system is
very long, sump pumps are required to return the oil
from the bearings since a gravity drain is not feasible
considering the possible trim and pitch conditions of
the ship. While this method of lubrication assures an
adequate supply of oil a t all shaft speeds, it has the dis-
382
PROPELLERS, SHARING, AND SHAFitNG SYSCEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS
MARINE ENGINEERING
advantage of the extra pumps and complexity. Furthermore in the event of pump failure, the bearings may be
damaged from the lack of oil.
The load which can be supported by a babbitted journal bearing is dependent upon the method of lubrication,
the bearing length to shaft diameter (LID) ratio, and of
course the installation workmanship. I n the past, babbitted journal bearings were restricted to bearing pressures of 20 to 30 psi based on the projected bearing area.
This limitation on allowable pressure resulted in bearings
with LID ratios as large as 2. Even with high LID
ratios, the shafting systems had very closely spaced
bearings such that the bearing loads were very sensitive
to alignment. The use of higher bearing pressures
along with the use of more sophisticated techniques
in positioning bearings has resulted in more reliable
shafting systems by virtue of the more favorable bearing
LID ratios and more flexible shafting systems.
The most severe demands on the lubricating system of
a line shaft bearing do not correspond to full-power, fullrpm operation, but to the condition when the shafting is
rotated by the turning gear a t about 0.1 rpm for extended periods of time to facilitate uniform cooling or
heating-of the main turbine rotors. If the lubrication
system fails to deliver adequate oil to the journal under
this condition, the oil film which separates the bearing
journal from the babbitt will not be replaced as it is
squeezed out; consequently, metal-to-metal contact and
damage to the bearing surface may occur. Lubrication
provisions have a strong influence on a bearing's ability
to operate satisfactorily in the critical jacking mode of
operation; and, consequently, the means of lubrication
.strongly influences the extent to which line shaft bearings
can be loaded. As a guide, it has been found that as
little as 25 drops of oil per minute on the journal surface
is adequate to sustain indefinite operation in the jacking
mode a t bearing pressures of about 75 psi.
With proper attention given to design details, ringlubricated bearings, disk-lubricated bearings, and pressure-lubricated bearings can carry increasingly higher
unit loads in that order. Disk-lubricated bearings can
carry a higher unit load than ring-lubricated bearings
based on the assumption that the oil scraper functions
properly. Very close controls must be maintained in
the manufacture of oil scrapers because manufacturing
flaws which are hardly perceptible can have a large
influence on their performance.
5.3 Outboard Bearings. Outboard bearings can
be further classified as stern tube or strut bearings.
Figures 1 and 2 show the locations of these bearings
relative to the ship arrangement.
Outboard bearings can either be water lubricated or
oil lubricated. Almost without exception in this country, all outboard bearings were water lubricated up till
about 1960 when a transition to oil-lubricated bearings
began. This transition to oil-lubricated bearings was
stimulated by the unduly short service life of many of
the water-lubricated bearing assemblies during that
period. It is believed that the shortened life of the
water-lubricated bearings was caused by the larger ship

sizes which had greater bearing loads and more contaminated water passing through the bearings (larger
ships operate with less clearance between the hull and
channel bottoms such that more silt, mud, and sand is
drawn into the bearing surfaces). Reference [33] reports
the experience of ship operators regarding stern tube
bearing wear.
Minimization of vibration was also influential in the
promotion of oil-lubricated bearings. Particularly with
larger and fuller ships, variations in the water inflow
velocity to the propeller generate large variable bending
forces on the shafting; many instances of pounding of
the shafting in the forward stern tube bearing and the
stern tube stuffing box of single-screw ships have been
noted particularly when five-bladed propellers were being
used. Oil-lubricated bearings which have close bearing
clearances eliminate-the pounding and associated maintenance of propeller shafts and stuffing boxes.
Oil-lubricated stern tube bearings also reduce the
power losses in the shafting system. For a 22,000-shp
ship an efficiency improvement of about 1.5 percent can
be expected with oil-lubricated vice water-lubricated
outboard bearings.
Although oil-lubricated outboard bearings are favored
by many, water-lubricated bearings remain in common
use. Figure 14 illustrates a typical water-lubricated
strut bearing design. A water-lubricated stern tube
bearing design is similar ;xcept 'that the bearing bushing
is fitted inside the stern tube rather than the strut barrel.
Water-lubricated bearings basically consist of a bronze
bearing bushing which retains a number of bearing contact elements that may be made of either lignum vitae
wood, phenolic composition, or rubber bonded to brass
backing strips. A sleeve is installed on the shaft to
provide a corrosion-resistant contact surface. Careful
consideration must be given to the selection of the liner
material in relationship to the bearing material [34].
When brass-backed rubber strip bearings (rubber stave
bearings) are used, as is common in naval practice, dovetailed slots are accurately cut in the bushing to accommodate the bearing staves. Sufficient metal is left between each slot to hold the staves securely; the space
between staves also provides a cooling water flow ~ a s s d e .
As indicated by Fig. 14, bearings employing lignum
vitae and phenolic materials are similar to rubber stave
bearings. A "V" or "U" shaped groove is cut a t the
longitudinal joints of the blocks to provide lubricating
and cooling water flow. Brass retaining strips are generally placed at four points around the circumference to
secure the contact elements.
Lignum vitae and phenolic materials absorb water and
consequently tend to swell. Phenolic materials are
usually installed when dry and consequently swell significantly when put into service. Swelling must be considered in the design of both lignum vitae and phenolic
bearings. Lignum vitae must be kept damp a t all times
as it will otherwise become dry and crack. Reference [35]
FhClLtTATE SMAFT WlTHDRAWI)L

1--
ATHWARTSHIP V t E I TAKEN AT 'A-A'
F~~RWATER
\v
ALTERNATE DESRN
FOR LL6UUM VIThL
OR PHLWOLtC
eOMPOSITIQLIBLOCUS
383
f/
FORE a AFT VIEW TAKEN AT "B-B*

RUBBER
PEAK BULKHEAD
SEAL SLEEVE
Fie. t 5 TweuI
aif-hbticcrled rtacn hrbe bearing
conhim details pertinent to the application of lignum

vitae ta prapelIer shaft bearings.
Water-lubricated bearings are designed with L / D
ratios of the order of 4 for the bearing adjacent t o the
prop&er and 2 for those forward of the prnpdh3r bearing.
GIassifieation societies often specify these values as
minimum lengths. Unit loadings of the bearings based
on prcrf&ed area (shaft diameter times hearing length)
are normally under 40 psi; however, great care must be
taken in placing importance on the absolute value of
bearing eontact pressures which are based on the projected area. Not only does the eccentricity of propeller
thrust alter the loading but also the load distribution is
both difficult to assess and is subject to radical .change.
Outbwrd baring materials msy w a r 0.2 to 0.5 in.

M o r e being replaced.
O u t b o d hearings are occasionally aligned to ZL slope
corre8pnding ta the static slope of the shaft in way of
the bearing in order to obtain mom uniform bearing
eantmt when initially placed in service. However, this
procedure has not proven entirely satisfactory from a
we&down standpoint since only the starting point of the
wear process is changed and there may be little influence
on the ultimate wear pattern.
OiMuhricated beprings, as illustrated by Fig. 15, have
been used in stern tubes and bossings more so khan struts.
This Is partly because of the fewer bearing problems with
water-lubricated strut bearings and partly due t o the
3 84
MARINE ENGINEERING
),
T FILL
Fv7
CONNECTION
~
I 0 FT. A8OVE LOAD

WATER LlNE
LOW LEVEL ALARM
GRAVITY LlNE
THERMOMETER
CONNECTION
-DRAIN
CONNECTION
Fig. 16 Stern tube lubricating oil diagram
difficulties in adapting the system to struts. Oil-lubricated bearings do not require a liner to be installed on the
shaft since contact with seawater does not occur nor is
there any significant shaft wear. Also, no bushing is
inserted in the stern tube; the bearing shells, which have
heavy wall thicknesses, are pressed directly into the
stern tube. The L I D ratios of the heavily loaded after
stern tube bearing have ranged widely. Early designs

~
~
~
~
~
~
had ratios of 2.5 but a trend toward a value of 1 was
subsequently established.
Oil-lubricated stern tube bearings are totally submerged in oil, and seals on the after and forward ends
of the tube prevent the ingress of seaw3ter and the
leakage of oil into the ship, respectively. iThe pressure
of the oil in the stern tube is maintained above that
of the ambient seawater by means of a head tank which
is located about 10 f t above the full-load waterline.
Ships which have large draft changes may require two
head tanks; one for full-draft operation and one for
ballast operation. Figure 16 illustrates a typical lube
oil diagram for an oil-lubricated stern tube bearing. A
small pump is usually installed M shown to force oil
circulation through the stern tube. The oil flow is such
that oil is circulated through both bearings. Many variations of this system have been used including the deletion
of the pump; owners often specify filters, heaters, coolers,
and coalescers to condition the oil as it passes through
the circuit. Coolers are rarely used as the temperature
leaving most stern tubes does not exceed 120 I?.
Although the unit bearing pressure based on the
projected area normally falls in the 70-psi range for oillubricated bearings, the actual operating pressure is
probably closer to twice this value. An inspection of
the bearing contact area after operation reveals that the
after bearing is loaded only on the after end for a length
of about one shaft diameter; shorter bearings are often
advocated for this reason.
Section 6
Propellers
6.1 Introduction. Very early in the preliminary
design spiral, the hull resistance and propulsion system
must be established. Section 4 of Chapter 1 deals with
the considerations involved in developing the main propulsion system. The propulsor, a device which converts
engine torque to ship thrust, can be one of the important
determinants of the type of propulsion plant employed.
Because of the interfaces between the machinery, hull,
and propulsor, the design of the propulsor is usually a
task undertaken jointly by a naval architect and a marine
engineer. The responsibility for the design of the propulsor varies from one organization to the next, but one
approach is to assign the naval architect the responsibility of developing the hull lines and the propulsor
hydrodynamic design; he is supported by the marine
engineer who provides the proper interface between hull
and machinery to assure that an optimum overall propulsion system is obtained. This is the general basis
upon which the Society's two publications, Principles of
Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, have been
written. Accordingly, details regarding the propulsor
hydrodynamic design are not covered in this text.
Figure 4 of Chapter 1 compares the optimum efficiency

values for a number of different types of propulsors.
This information gives guihnce as to the relative merits
of one propulsor versus another from an efficiency standpoint. However in the preliminary design stage, more
specific information is required in order to make the
necessary trade-off studies to support a design selection.
Systematic model tests of propulsors provide the necessary information for the trade-off studies, and in many
cases the final design. Reference [I] provides the information necessary to carry out in-depth propulsor
studies.
Section 6.2 provides a description of the mechanical
aspects and performance characteristics of the various
types of propulsors to aid in defining the circumstances
involved with the possible alternatives.
Most ship propulsors are of the propeller type; therefore, Section 6.3 provides detailed guidance regarding
the preliminary selection of the characteristics of ship
propellers. Propeller manufacturing tolerances, which
a marine engineer is frequently called upon to control or
specify, are discussed in Section 6.4.
6.2 Propulsor Types. As noted in Chapter 1, the

L
y
type
of propulsor
to be used must be selected very early
in the ship design process as the type of propulsor can
have a strong impact on the design of the ship itself.
The vast majority of ship propulsors are of the solid
fixed-pitch propeller type. Nevertheless, there are a
number of other types of propellers which may be more
suitable in particular instances. A brief description of
the mechanical aspects of the various types of propellers
is as follows:
Canventional. Fixed-Pitch Propellers. Most propellers
are of the 'Conventional fixed-pitch type and are made
from a single casting. Conventional fixed-pitch propellers usually have an efficiency, cost, and simplicity
advantage over other types of propellers.
Detachable-Blade Propellers. Detachable-blade (or
built-up) propellers consist of a separately cast hub and
blades. The blades are bolted to the hub to form the
composite propeller. When operating conditions are
such that there is a great probability of propeller blade
damage, detachable-blade propellers offer the advantage
that individual blades can be replaced. Also some
blade attachment designs have elongated bolt holes
which offer the advantage that small modifications in
pitch can be made, which permits adjustment in the
operating rpm. The disadvantages associated with detachable-blade propellers, as compared with propellers
made from a single casting, are the greater first cost,
greater complexity, and inherently lower propeller efficiency (resulting from the larger hub).
Controllable- and Reversz3le-Pitch Propellers. The blade
angle (propeller pitch) on a controllable- and reversiblepitch (CRP) propeller can be controlled remotely. This
type of propeller is advantageous in any of the followinp: situations:
1 Where the operating conditions vary widely (such

tug and trawler applications).
2 Where diesel engines or gas turbines are used for
propulsion (the CRP propeller permits adjustment of the
engine rpm-power relationship to provide gr~ateroperating flexibility).
3 Where reversing capabilities are not readily obtainable from the main engine (e.g., gas turbines).
4 Where rapid or frequent changes in the direction
of thrust is a desirable capability.
M
At the propeller design point, the efficiency of CRP

propellers approaches the efficiency of fixed-pitch propellers. The larger hub of a CRP propeller prevents its
efficiency from exceeding that of a fixed-pitch propeller.
Off the design point, the CRF propeller efficiency is less
than that of a fixed-pitch propeller designed for that
operating condition. This is because all sections of a
CRP propeller blade are rotated through the same angle
as the pitch is changed; thus, the angles of attack of the
various blade sections along the propeller radii are
optimum only a t the design point.
Pitch changes are controlled remotely. The torque
required to turn the blades and hold them in position is
385
obtained by controlling the oil pressure on a piston which

is mechanically linked to the propeller blade throws.
The hydraulic pistons are located in the propeller hub
or in a section of shafting located inside the ship. For
a description of a typical CRP installation, see reference [36].
Propellers in Nozzles. There are two types of arrangements which fall into this category; namely, the pump
jet and the Kort nozzle. In the pump jet arrangement
the propeller is placed in a rather long nozzle with guide
vanes either forward, aft, or both places relative to the
propeller. The pump jet is normally considered where
propeller noise is important. Due to the resistance of
the nozzle and guide vanes, the overall efficiency of the
pump jet arrangement is strongly dependent on particular circumstances.
Kort nozzle propeller arrangements show efficiency
advantages in applications where the thrust loading is
high; examples of such applications are tugs, trawlers,
and large slow-speed ships (see Fig. 4 of Chapter 1).
The Kort nozzle arrangement consists of a propeller
located in a nozzle of relatively short length (the length/
diameter ratio of the nozzle is in the range of 0.5 to 0.8).
Kart nozzles are extensively used in connection with
tugboats because the bollard pull and towing pull can
be increased 30 to 40 percent as compared with a propeller operating alone without a nozzle.
Tandem Propellers. As the horsepower requirements
for a ship increase, a single propeller can become inadequate due to restrictions on the propeller diameter, draft
limitations, or excessive thrust loading. When this occurs, an increase in the number of propellers is required.
Since a single shaft is desirable from an economic viewpoint, there is justification for considering two propellers
in tandem on the same shaft.
Only small losses in propulsive efficiency (2.2 percent)
were reported from model tests in reference [37] for the
tandem arrangement over a twin-screw arrangement for a
large tanker. The economy of a single propulsion plant,
as opposed to two propulsion plants, in addition to the
sing%-screw simplicity of the shafting arrangement are the
advantages offered by a tandem propeller arrangement.
Contrarotating Propellers. Contrarotating propeller
arrangements consist of two propellers positioned in
tandem on coaxial shafts which rotate in opposite directions. Higher efficiencies can be achieved with this
propeller awangement because no rotational energy need
be left in the propeller wake. Reference [37] reported
a propulsion efficiency improvement of 6.7 percent for a
136,000-ton-displacement tanker with contrarotating
propellers as compared with a conventional single-screw
arrangement; similar tests for an 18,170-ton-displacement
dry cargo ship indicated a 12-percent improvement [38].
Contrarotating propeller arrangements have not been
used in connection with commercial ships due to the
mechanical complications involved with the coaxial propulsion system arrangement (see Chapter 9). Should
the advantages of a contrarotating system become enhanced because of higher horsepower, higher fuel costs,
MARINE NGINEERING
or lower first costs of the drive system, contrarotating

systems may appear ip merchant ship applications.
Some naval installations have been made, but their performance has not been made public.
FdEy Cwitating Propellers. The primary chjection to
propeller cavitation is the deleterious effect that it has
on the propeller blade surfaces. Once the propeller
loading conditions become such that cavitation can no
longer be avoided, as may be the case with very fast
ships, then rather than accept a limited amount of cavitation a more satisfactory choice is to design the propeller
such that it cavitates fully. In this event, the cloud of
vapor which forms on the suction side of the blades does
not collapse until it is clear of the propeller blade, thus
having no deleterious effect on the propeller blades.
Operation at offdesign conditions may result in severe
propeller cavitation erosion; and such operation (accelerating, decelerating, etc.) cannot be entirely avoided
in service. For this reason and to withstand the high
stresses resulting from the large thrust load, fully mvitating propellers are frequently made of exotic materials.
Reference [ I ] gives the expected performance of a theoretical series of 3-bladed supercavitating propellers which
can be used for estimating performance.
In order to achieve fully cavitrvting performance in a
speed range too low for the usual fully cavitating propeller design, but still in the range where conventional
.propellers would cavitate excessively, ventilation may
be conmdered. Ventilation is the term used to describe
the introduction of air into the cavitation areas to produce a fully developed cavity. Experience with ventilated propellers is very limited, but some model testing
has been carried out; reference 1397 is a report of one
such test.
6.3 Propeller Characteristics. An underatanding of
the considerations and trade-offs involved in selecting
the design characteristics of a propeller is required when
developing a shafting arrangement. Assuming that the
ship's power and speed requirements have heen established preliminarily as outlined in Chapter 1, the following propeller characteristics must be settled:
Propeller Diameter. In general, higher propeller e%iciencies are associated with larger propeller diameters
and lower shaft revolutions. Therefore, it is u m d y
desirable to install the largest propeller diameter that
can be accommodated by the hull structure. The propeller diameter is limited by the lines d the ship as
discussed in Section 2.2.
PropeUer rpm. The choice of the propeller rpm involves establishing a balance between propeller efficiency
and the weight, cost, and space requirements of the main
machinery. This is accompliihed by using standard
propeller series data (such as reported in reference [l])to
compute a series of curva of propulsive efficiency versus
revolutions for various propeller diameters. The envelope of these curves indicates the best efficiency and
optimum propeller diameter that can be obtained at
each propeller rpm. The point of maximum efficiency
on this curve for a propeller diameter is termed the
optimum propeller rpm. This envelope curve is used to

assess the sacrifice in &ciency which must, be awepeed
for any increase of revolutions. Data fmm this curve
combined with the effect of the revolutions on the weight,
cost, and space requirements of the main p p d l i n g machinery permit the final selection to be made.
It will be noted that at revolutions slightly higher than
the optimum propeller rprn for a given propellerdiameter,
the propeller efficiency d e e m only slightly. But on
the other hand, the effect of relatively small incraws of
propeller rpm (with the power remaining the same) on
the weight, cost, and spme requirements of the main
machinery can be significant. I n the case of higherpowered vessels, it is usual to select a propeller rpm
higher than optimum and to w p t some sacrifice of
propeller dciency in order to reduce the &e of the
propelling machinery.
Propeller revolutions higher than the optimum are dm
accepted for mamns related to the type of maehery.
Direct-drive diesel engines and electric-drive machinery
usually operate a t speeds higher than the optimum to
permit the use of a smaller engine or motor; %veij&t,cost,
and space requirements are factors of major importance
with these types of machinery.
N a d w of Blsdes. Propellers may have t h e , fod,
five, six, seven, or more blades. Over the years, the
trend has been to use a larger number of blades; three
blades fell into complete diswe for large ships during
the 1940's. During the I W s , six- and seven-bladed
propellera came into use. The major factor in the =leetion of the number of propeller blades is vibration considerations. Both the hull hydrodynamic pressure forms
and the forces transmitted through the shafting system
bearings are strongly influenced by the selection of the
number of propeller blades. I n general, the,propeller
exciting forces decrease rapidly with larger numbers of
blades; however, there are exceptions. For more detrtib
concerning the relationship between We number of propeller blades and the vibratory f o m generated, see
Section 3.2. Prudent selection of the number ofpropeller
blades iq an important variable which can be used to
avoid the excitation of natural frequencies in the propulsion system.
PropeEkr Pit&. The selection of propeller pitch can
be made when the power, speed, revolutions, and general
hull characteristics have been settled. The pitch ratio
may be selected on the basis of standard propeller m d e l
series data. However, when a propeller is highly loaded
or operates in a non-uniform wake field, it may be
desirable to design a propeller with a pitch ratio and
pitch distribution tailored to suit the particular operating
conditions. This can be accomplished by desiping a
propeller in accordance with the circulation theory (see
reference [I] for a description of circulation theorgr
methods).
BE& Skew. A propeller blade is termed skewed when
its outline is asymmetrical with respect to a s t d g h t
radial reference lime inthe plane of the propeller. Skew
is usually introduced by successively &placing the
blade sections awav from the direction of rotation.

Propeller blades with skew tend to enter and leave the
regions of high wake more gradually, resulting in a reduction of the alternating propeller loading due to wake
irregularities. The results of model tests have shown
that blade skew is an effective technique for reducing
the fluctuating forces and moments acting on a propeller.
It is normal practice to skew propeller blades a moderate
amount based on past experience, without specific knowledge regarding the benefits achieved.
Developed Area. With heavily loaded propellers,
which is usual with most modern ships, the developed
area must be established with care. Considerations in
the selection of the propeller developed area are the
penalty in efficiency associated with an excessive develo~edarea and the effects of cavitation due to an
inadequate developed area. Effects due to inadequate
area can be of greater consequence than those due to an
excessive area; therefore, prudent practice dictates that
a developed area be provided which is sufficiently large
to entail a minimal cavitation hazard. kcor a more
detailed discussion of propeller cavitation (and consequently developed area) see reference [I].
Propeller Blade Thickness. Requirements concerning
the minimum allowable blade thickness are given in
classification society rules such as i~ference[18]. A
thorough discussion of the development of the classific*
tion society rules is given in reference [40], which in
addition provides the basis for making an in-depth
analysis of the propeller blade stress.
Prweller Hub. The controllintz dimensions for the
propeiler hub outside diameter an; length are the stern
frame (or strut barrel) and the propeller blade fore-andaft length at the interface with the hub. These parameters onlv establish the lower limit. and thicker hubs
may be rkquired to provide adequate strength. Excessively large propeller hubs are disadvantageous in that
they increase the expense of the propeller and propeller
weight (and consequently propeller shaft stress).
Propeller Weight. An estimated propeller weight can
be obtained in several ways. The most accurate is to
conduct a calculatibn based on detailed drawines. Unfortunately, however, the need for the
weight
has usually passed by the time detailed drawings are
available. There are a number of approaches which may
be used to approximake propeller weights; one approach
is given in reference [40]. One of the less accurate
methods, but one requiring the least information, is
given in [41J; this method entails the use of wrves which
relate the weight of a propeller to its torque rating.
There are other methods such as
where
= propeller weight (manganese bronze),
lb (including hub)
K = conhnt, approximately equal to 0.26
D = propeller diameter
I
MWR
BTF
= mean width ratio
developed area per blade

D (blade radius - hub radius)
blade thickness fraction
maximum blade thickness extrapolated

to shaft axis
D
Care must be exercised in the use of approximate
methods because of considerations such as unusual hub
dimensions and allowances for ice strengthening.
6.4 Manufacturing Tolerances. As indicated in
Table 8, there is an array of tolerances which control the
dimensional accuracy of propellers. Table 8 gives a
range of propeller tolerances which have been used and
also shows recommended tolerances which are expected
to produce satisfactory results. Unless care is exercised
in establishing manufacturing tolerances, the tolerances
can easily be over-specified; that is, the tolerances may
be so tight that increased manufacturing costs may be
incurred with no corresponding increase in the value of
the finished propeller.
Various approaches have been used to check the dimensional accuracy of propellers. The usual technique
used with merchant propellers is to measure the blade
thickness and pitch at discrete points and to check the
remaining blade surfaces for fairness. A flexible steel
straight edge is held against the blade contours as a
means of detecting irregularities of the propeller surface.
The technique used with naval propellers is considerably
more rigorous; Cylindrical, edge, and fillet gages (which
are sheet metal templates machined to the desired blade
contour) are prepared which make it possible to comprehensively check the conformance of the propeller blades,
at a number of radii, to the design dimensions [42].
In addition to the tolerances governing the propeller
physical dimensions, balance tolerances are also specified.
Ship's specifications usually require that propellers be
balanced (with static or dynamic equipment) such that
the static unbalanced force at rated rpm is no greater
than one percent of the propeller weight. The following
expression may be used to determine the static unbalance
corresponding to an unbalanced force equal to one percent
of the propeller weight:
where
static unbalance which will generate an alternating force equal to one percent of the propeller
weight, in.-lb
W = propeller weight, lb
N = maximum rated propeller rpm
=
Limits are not generally placed on dynamic unbalance

because of the large diameter-length ratio of propellers,
but good practice dictates that corrections made for
static unbalance be accomplished so as to improve the
I
i
388
MARINE ENGINEERING
389
PROPELLERS, SHARING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS
Table 8
Dimension
Blade Thicktw.88
Maximum
Minimum
Blade Width
Maximum
Minimum
Propeller Manufacturing Tolerances
Naval
Rmge of Experience
Merchant
-0.00, +% in. or 2% of
deaign th~ekness,whichever
is greater
-0.00, +% in.
Recommended
Practice
+%.$a
in. or + l % of design -0.00 +>$ in. or 2% of
thickness, whichever is greater deaign thickness, whichever
is greater
- .02 in. % % of thickness)
d 4 in. +I % of thickness)
+g2in. or 1% of width
4
in. +0.25% of width)

in. +0.5% width)
+>b in.
iRd2
Bhde Position in Transverse Phne

+15 min
Maximum
+30 min
+15 min
&15 min
Minimum
Blade T r d at Tip
+1.0 in.
Maxlrnum
&%6 in.
& x 6 in.
Minimum
+% in.
Pro e* Diameter
-1.25 in., +0.00
daxlmum
&% in.
Minimum
+% in.
-.20 in., +O.OO
Deviation of Pitch cf.tany Radius from Designed value
Maxlmum
+2%
+1.5%
Minimum
%
+l.O%
Geatest Variation i Any Avetage Blade Pitch to Average Propeller Pitch
.Gum
+I%
Mi imum
&0.75%
z?5%
dynamic unbalance. Dynamic unbalance is generally

not found to be a problem; nevertheless, the dynamic
unbalance should be limited such that the alternating
force generated at the aftermost bearing is no greater
than an alternating force a t the aftermost bearing
corresponding to a static unbalance equal to one percent
of the propeller weight at the propeller center of gravity.
A useful expression for the maximum allowable dynamic
unbalance under these conditions is as follows:
+15 min
&% in.
&% in.
where
= dynamic unbalance which will produce same
force at aftermost bearing as a static' unbalance equal to one percent of propeller weight
applied a t propeller center of gravity, in.-lb-in.
W = propeller weight, lb
L1 = distance from propeller center of gravity to aftermost bearing reaction, in.
Lz = distance from aftermost bearing reaction to reaction of next bearing forward, in.
N = maximum rated propeller rpm
E = shaft modulus of elasticity, psi
I = shaft rectangular moment of inertia, in.4
Section 7
Torsional Vibration
7.1 General. Severe torsional vibration difficulties experienced with the early reciprocating engine
drives and particularly diesel engines moved the importance of torsional vibration as a design consideration
to the forefront. Subsequently, torsional vibratian became established as a factor which had to be carefully
considered in the design of all types of main propulsion
shafting systems, and the design methodology required
to conduct a reasonably accurate torsional vibration
analysis has been formulated [41,4349].
A summary of the analytical methods used to evaluate
the torsional vibration characteristics of geared turbine-
driven main propulsion shafting systems is included in

the following pages. The fundamental theory of torsional vibration is well documented in the existing
literature; therefore, it will not be reproduced here. A
discussion of details peculiar t o torsional vibration of
diesel-driven main propulsion shafting systems is similarly not included.
7.2 Modes of Torsional Vibration. The design of
most large turbine-driven ships is such that one or more
resonant modes of tonional vibration will occur within
the operating range. The first mode of torsional vibration is the one in which the node is immediately abaft
the slow-speed gear and the antinode is a t the propeller;

in this mode, the inertia of the propeller vibrates against
the inertia of the turbines and gears. For vessels with
fairly long runs of shafting, the first-mode frequency is
excited by blade rate excitation at a very low propeller
rpm (at about % of maximum rated rpm). For this
reason it is seldom objectionable as the alternating
torques developed are not of sufficient magnitude to be
deleterious. On the other hand, in the case of ships
which have short runs of shafting, the first mode may
occur above 50 percent of the maximum propeller speed
and warrant a comprehensive analysis.
Second and third torsional vibration modes are determined primarily by the characteristics of the prime
mover. With geared turbine drives, the turbine-gear
system generally cannot be designed such that the second
mode of torsional vibration (the one in which the two
turbine branches vibrate against each other) is out of the
operating range. This being the case, a so-called "nodal
drive" is frequently provided [43]. In a nodal drive, the
turbine branches are designed to have equal frequencies;
this forces the slow-speed gear to be a nodal point. The
second mode of torsional vibration will then consist of a
motion in which the two turbines vibrate so that their
vibratory moments oppose each other with a nodal point
a t the gear. This being the case, the turbine branches
cannot be excited by the propeller.
In the third mode of torsional vibratiqn, the vibratory
torques of the propeller and turbines oppose that of the
slow-speed gear. The third mode usually occurs considerably above the operating range; consequently, it is
rarely of concern. However, very high rpms or a large
number of propeller blades may bring it within the
operating range. The third mode is difficult to excite
because the antinode occurs a t the slow-meed gear,
which is not a source of excitation with modern gears,
and the node occurs near the propeller, which is a source
of excitation but has a very small vibratory amplitude.
The mode shapes of the first three modes of torsional
vibration are shown in Fig. 17.
7.3 Models for Torsional Vibration Analyses. A
typical steam turbine propulsion system is schematically
illustrated in Fig. 18(a). From an .inspection of2Fig.
18(a), it is apparent that a comprehensive torsional vibration analysis of such a system would be prohibitively
complex if the classical approach were used; cobequently,
simplifications must be made to facilitate a practical
analysis. The system can be reduced to an equivalent
svstem (model) in which all elements are referred to the
sime rdtationil speed, thereby greatly simplifying the
analysis. Such a procedure may be used to obtain the
model shown in Fig. 18(b). Figure 18(b) can be used to
evaluate all modes of torsional vibration which would
be expected to be of interest in practice. However, if
only the first three modes of vibration are of interest,
which would generally be the case, the model shown in
Fig 18(b) can be further simplified to that shown in
Fig. 18(c) without a serious loss of accuracy due to the
fact that the equivalent inertia of the turbines and stiff-
( a ) First Mode
( b ) Second Mode
Legend
I
2
3
4
5
6
L P Turbine
L P High-Speed Reduction
HP Turbine
H P High-Speed Reduction
Slow-Speed Retjuction
Propeller
(c) T h i r d Mode
fig. 17 Mode shapes of first three modes of tonional vibration of a turbinedriven propulsion system of nodal-drive type
ness of the turbine shafts are very high compared with

those of the first reduction gear elements.
If only the first mode of torsional vibration is of interest, then it can be approximated in either of two ways.
One way would be to directly add the equivalent inertia
of the turbine branches [JTL and JTH in Fig. 18(c)] to
the slow-speed gear inertia (Ja) and make an analysis
based on a two-mass system. A more practicable approach, since the inertias of the turbines and gears are .
frequently unavailable, is to assume that the nodal point
in the first mode of vibration is four percent of the
distance from the slow-speed gear to the propeller aft of
the slow-speed gear. With such an assumption, the
first-mode natural frequency can be simply determined
by considering the system to be a one-degree-of-freedom
model as shown in Fig. 18(d).
All of the system parameters which are needed in order
to evaluate the torsional natural frequencies can be
directly determined from the physical properties of the
system except for the propeller entrained water. Assessment of the propeller entrained water can be made from
the work of Burrill and Robson [49]. I n order to avoid
the tedious labor associated with calculating the moment
of inertia of the propeller in air, an approximate method
such as that described in reference [41] may be used or
the propeller radius of gyration may simply be estimated
to be between 0.40 and 0.44 of the propeller radius (lower
values correspond to larger propeller hubs and smaller
numbers of blades).
7.4 Determination of Natural Frequencies.
The
Holzer method of computing the natural frequencies of
lumped spring-mass systems is a convenient procedure
for determining the torsional natural frequencies of
MARINE ENGINEERING
:ond reduction
PROPELLERS, ,SHAFTING, AND SHAFTING SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS

Table 9
rn
LP f i r s t
HP f i r s t
Determination of First Natural Mode of Torsional Vibration for a Turbine Driven Propulsion System
Modeled as Shown by Fig. 18(b)
Number of pro eller blades = 6
Assumed propefler rpm
= 22.38
J = in.-lb-set' + 1W
k = in.-lb/rad + 10"
reduction r o t i o = n 2
reduction r a t i o = n,
391
o =
oa =
6(22.38) (2a)/BO rad/sec

197.7 rad'/sec"
( a ) S c h e m a t i c i l l u s t r o t i o n of a geored t u r b i n e
d r i v e n propulsion system
B L = -0.06477 Bp
011 = -0.06417 Bp
2Q = 1213 B L 321 .O OH 98.8 BP
2Q = -78.57 Bp 20.60 BP
98:s BP
+-
++
2Q = 0; therefore a resonant condltlon
( b ) Equivolent 6 moss system w i t h a l l

bronches r e f e r r e d to t h e propeller r p m
(c) Four mass system w i t h o l l bronches r e f e r r e d

t o t h e p r o p e l l e r r p m f o r opproximoting t h e
f i r s t t h r e e n o t u r o l frequencies o f torsionol
vibrotion
Fig. 1 8
( d l Single degree o f freedom system f o r

opproximating t h e f i r s t noturol frequency
of torsionol vibrotion
details concerning torque excitation, see references

[3, 50-521.
7.6 Damping. There are several sources of damping
which tend to reduce the maximum attainable amplitude
of torsional vibration; one of the most important is the
propeller, particularly in the first mode due to its being
a t the antinode. Propeller damping can be determined
in several different ways [44-46, 531. I n general, the
propeller damping coefficient, b, can be expressed as
Equivalent systems for determining natural torsional f requencies of geared turbine-driven propulsionsystems
b = KQ/Q
in.-lb-sec
rad
where
turbine-driven propulsion systems. I n order to review
the computational procedure for a practical example,
consider a turbine-driven vessel that is modeled as shown
by Fig. 18(b). Typical values of system inertia and
spring constants and calculations for the first torsional
natural frequency are given in Table 9. The calculation
is accomplished by first assuming the resonant frequency
of the system, relating this frequency to the propeller
rpm, and then calculating the corresponding vibratory
torque and torsional amplitude a t the slow-speed gear
(inertia JG) in terms of the amplitude a t the terminal
end of each branch. For convenience the amplitudes
a t the terminal ends of the three branches are initially
assumed to be one radian. Since the three branches
(propeller, LP turbine, and HP turbine) must have the
same amplitude a t the slow-speed gear mass, the amplitudes of the three branches can be expressed as a function of the same unknown amplitudefor instance, the
propelle~thereby obtaining the mode shape. The
torques imposed on the slow-speed gear are then summed;
if the sum is zero, a resonant condition is established.
If the sum is not zero, the process is iterated until the
sum is zero by assuming a different resonant frequency.
The same procedure can be repeated to determine the
remaining four torsional natural frequencies but, as
previously mentioned, only the first three modes would

generally be of interest. The mode shapes of the first
three natural torsional frequencies are shown in Fig. 17.
The node in the first mode is seen to be immediately
abaft the slow-speed gear. The two turbine branches
are tuned in the second mode such that the slow-speed
gear is a nodal point. The third mode is the one in
which the slow-speed gear is the antinode with the
terminal end of the three branches being near nodal
points.
7.5 Excitation Factors. There are several possible
sources of torsional vibration excitation with turbinedriven ships, but the propeller is the only one of consequence. With the accurate cutting of modern gears,
gear-excited criticals are either wholly absent or are of
negligible amplitude.
Propeller excitation of a frequency higher than blade
rate exists but it is normally negligible in magnitude. A
number of factors, such as the propeller loading, propeller aperture clearances, number of propeller blades,
hull lines, and hull draft, influence the magnitude of the
vibratory torque; consequently, generalizations in this
area must be used with care. Nevertheless, typical
ranges of torque excitation, expressed as a percentage of
the mean torque, are presented in Table 2; for additional
K = a constant
Q = mean propeller torque, in.-lb
Q = rotative speed of propeller, rad/sec
If propeller model test data are available, it may be

shown that
dependent and independent variables, moving along a

constant pitch line.
The energy loss via the propeller per cycle of torsional
vibration can be written as
E,
= ~ b w 8 , ~ in.-lb
(201
where
w = circular frequency of vibration, rad/sec
8, = amplitude of propeller vibration, radians
Energy is also dissipated as a result of elastic hysteresis

in the shafting, sliding fits, etc. Although such internal
damping losses in a shafting system would be expected
to be small when considered individually, they are
frequently estimated to dissipate about 5 percent of the
vibratory energy per cycle when totaled. The energy
dissipated due to internal damping crtn be expressed
as [46]:
I
where
where s is the propeller slip.
If the propeller data are given in the form of J, KQ
curves
If given in the form of a Troost diagram (B,, 6) as in

reference [I] :
As an approximation for many propellers, K = 3.7 to

4, which may be used in the absence of other data; a
value of 4 corresponds to a damping constant which is
double the slope of the torque-speed curve. I n all cases
the derivatives are computed a t the operating point of
the propeller by taking the ratio of small differences in
ar = fraction of energy dissipated; the value of this
quantity is approximately 0.05
J,
= moment of inertia of mass n, lb-in.-sec2
8, = amplitude of vibration of mass n, radians
The damping action of the turbines would general be

expected to be of secondary importance especial1 in
modes where the turbines have small relative amplitudes;
however, it may warrant assessment under some circumstances. The energy dissipated due to turbine damping
can be expressed as
ET =
z ~ c w 8 , ~ - in.-lb
(22)
where
c = turbine damping constant which can be approximated as the ratio of turbine torque to
turbine rpm a t the speed corresponding to
the point under study, in.-lb-sec/rad
392
MARINE ENGINEERING
w = frequency of vibration, rad/sec

8, = amplitude of vibration of turbine rotor, radians
If damping is introduced into the vibration calcolrlr

tions, the computational procedure is modified considerably. An external source of damping, such as that
at the propeller or turbines, introduces an external
moment of -jbw8 on the respective mass concentration;
and internal damping, such as shafting hysteresis,
between two masses is equivalent to changing a spring
constant k to a complex spring constant
evaluation. These attempts have not proven successful

due to many variables which must be considered. For
example, the propeller design (pitch distribution, skew,
number of blades, etc.), propeller aperture clearances,
hull lines in the vicinity of the propeller, harmonic
content of the wake in way of the propeller in conjunction with the type of reduction gear, system damping,
ship operating practices (shallow water, partial propeller
emersion, operating point) and similar considerations
vary so much from one ship to the next that there are
numerous exceptions which can be taken to all, except
the most trite, generalizations.
and by substituting the expression 4Q/Q, equation (16),

for the propeller damping coefficient and letting w = ZQ,
equation (25) can be simplified to
where Z is the number of propeller blades.

The maximum amplitude of propeller vibration can
be determined from the foregoing expression. In
conjunction with the normalized mode shape determined
from the system natural frequency calculation, Table 9,
where ar is the fraction of the elastic energy absorbed by the propeller amplitude is used to assess the vibratory
torque at resonance at any element of the system. The
the damper [45].
Calculations which incorporate damping as just alternating torques in the quill shafts between the highindi'cated are somewhat tedious, particularly if the cal- speed gears and low-speed pinions are usually the largest
culations must be done by hand; an easier procedure is to from a relative viewpoint; consequently, it is customary
compute the effect of damping at resonance only by to analyze these elements when investigating the possibility of torque reversals.
equating input energy to dampening energy.
As an example, referring to the calculation in Table 9,
7.7 Vibratory Torque Calculations. In many cases,
with
a propeller excitation equal to 3 percent of the mean
the torsional vibration characteristics of a shafting
propeller
torque, the alternating torque, q, in the lowsystem can be shown to be satisfactory in the design
stage with only a computation of the system natural pressure quill shaft in the first mode of torsional vibration
frequencies and without predicting vibratory torques would be :
q = 1213 8~ X lo6
and amplitudes. Normally this is possible when a
q = 1213 (0.06477 8,) X lo6
compar&on is made with a similar system that has
q = 78.6 (r/4Z) X lo6
proven satisfactory in service. For designs where the
q = 98,300 in.-lb
system natural frequencies, vibratory excitation, or
anticipated system operation may cause concern, investi- This is the torque in the low-pressure quill shaft referred
gation of the magnitude of the vibratory torques and to line shaft speed. With a second reduction ratio of
stresses is necessary.
7.5, the actual vibratory torque in the quill shaft will be
In order to illustrate the procedures used to assess 98,300/7.5 or 13,100in.-lb. In this particular case at the
vibratory torque amplitudes, again consider the calcula- resonant frequency, the low-pressure turbine develops
tions shown in Table 9. In the absence of speed-power 55 percent of the total power delivered to the propeller.
curves for the ship, the mean operatingtorque correspond- The mean torque in the low-pressure branch a t resonance
ing to the resonant frequency can be approximated by is consequently 33,500 in.-lb whereas the alternating
determining the rated propeller torque (the torque torque is estimated to be 13,100 in.-lb; therefore, torque
corresponding to 22,000 shp at 115 rpm) and assuming reversals in the low-pressure train at the first resonant
that the propeller torque varies as the square of the mode of torsional vibration are not expected. The
propeller rpm; therefore, the mean operating torque at vibratory stress in the quill shaft, kz, can be calculated
the resonant frequency is estimated to be
using the alternating torque across this shaft of 13,100
in.-lb.
In the more general case, where system damping in
addition to that associated with the propeller is of
importance, the maximum amplitude of propeller vibraThe exciting torque can be expressed as rQp where
tion at resonance can be found by solving the following
taken from Table 2, is the alternating torque expressed equation for 8p:
as a fraction of the mean torque. With a maximum
, vibrating energy
propeller exciting torque of r ~ the
EE = E,
El
ET
(27)
input per cycle of vibration is:
1
nrQ8, = ~ b ~ 8 ;
5
T C U B ~ ~ (28)
Y
EE = nrQ8,
(24)
All of the terms, except 8,) are either known or can be
In the first mode of vibration, the propeller would be expressed as a function of 8,. Once 8, is established, the
expected to be the only significant source of excitation calculation can be continued as shown.
and damping; therefore, by equating the expressions for
7.8 Acceptable Limits for Torsional Vibration.
the propeller excitation and damping energy, the maxi- Many attempts have been made to standardize the
mum propeller amplitude can be determined as follows: procedure to be used for torsional vibration analysis and
+ +
+C
+C
393
As a broad rule it may be stated that untuned torsional

vibration resonant frequencies should not occur in the
range of 60 to 115 percent of rated rpm; however, this
rule does not in fact ensure satisfactory torsional vibrs
tion characteristics; furthermore, there may be aatisfactory systems in service which it would exclude.
Generalizations can serve as a broad guide, but the
hazard associated with generaliiations is that their
limitations may not be appreciated. There appears to
be no satisfactory alternative to conducting an analysis
of each particular system and studying each factor
individually.
Section 8
8.1 Introduction. Severely objectionable longitudinal vibrations were not encountered until the advent of
several classes of large naval vessels in early 1941.
Reference [54] contains a description of the difficulties
experienced with these ships and also presents the most
thorough treatment of longitudinal vibration that has
been prepared. The works of Panagopulos [47], Rigby
[55], Couchman [56],and others have added to the knowledge of the subject; yet the fundamental problem areas
encountered today are the same as those identified by
Kane and McGoldrick [54].
The low level of shaft axial stress associated with even
the most violent instance of longitudinal vibration is not
sufficiently large to induce failures in the shafting itself;
nevertheless, longitudinal vibration can produce effects
which are destructive to engine room equipment. Shafting systems which have longitudinal vibration characteristics that are resonant with propeller blade rate f r e
quency forces experience a significant magnification of
the exciting forces. Such a force magnification can
result in such deleterious effects as:
1 Accelerated wear of gears, flexible couplings, thrust

bearings, etc., and destruction of turbine clearances due
to the increased relative axial movements.
2 Large vibration amplitudes and stresses in steam
piping, condensers, and main and auxiliary machinery
which ultimately result in fatigue failure.
3 Cracks in foundation and hull structures.
8.2
Determination of Natural Frequencies. There
are basically three approaches which may be taken in

determining the natural frequencies of longitudinal
vibration. The first approach would be to use a
simplified method for the purpose of quickly assessing a
situation. Approximate methods suitable for investigating the firstmode of vibration are given in references
[47,,541.
A second approach would be to model the shafting
system as discrete masses and springs and use the Holzer
method to determine the system natural frequencies.
The accuracy obtained with a discrete spring-mass model

will depend upon the masses used to represent the shafting system.
A third approach is the mechanical impedance method
proposed by Kane and McGoldrick [MI. This method
is inherently more accurate than the Holzer method since
the weight of the shafting is considered to be distributed;
however, the impedance method has the slight disadvantage of being somewhat more complex and diicult to
grasp. For illustrative purposes, a calculation of the
natural modes of longitudinal vibration of the shafting
arrangement shown in Fig. 1 will be made using the
mechanical impedance method. Figure 19 is a model of
the shafting arrangement which is suitable for analysis
by the mechanical impedance method. I t may be
noted that the difference in the diameter of the inboard
and outboard shafting is taken into account; in general,
M p ,= mass o f p r o p e l l e r , 227 lb-sec2/in

M g = mgss c f gears, 147 lb-sec2/in
M c = mass o f machinery, 7 6 7 lb-sec2/in
m l = mass o f larger (outboard) shafting, 301 lb-sec2/in
m 2 = mass o f s m a l l e r (inboard) s h a f t i n g , 3 6 6 lb-sec2/in
kt
= spring constant of l a r g e r (outboard) shafting,
k2
2 0 . 3 x 10' Ib/in
= spring constont o f smal ler (inboord) shafting,
, 5.9 x 10' lb/in
= t h r u s t bearing spring constant, 7 x 10' w i n
kt
kf
= t h r u s t bearing foundation spring constant, Ib/in
' number of
p r o p @ l l e r blades, 6
Fig. 19 Representation of a geared tutbina propulnion hafting system

( ~ g I. ) for a longitudinalvibration analysis
394
PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND SHAFTfNG SYSTEM VIBRATION ANALYSIS
MARINE ENGINEERING
especially with short spans of shafting, this additional

degree of sophistication is not yarranted.
The majority of the system parameters may be directly
calculated from the system scantlings, and therefore no
difficulty is experienced in obtaining their value. However, assessment of several of the system parameters can
be nebulous. For example, determination of the water
entrained with the propeller does not lend itself to an
accurate calculation; as a first approximation the
entrained water weight may be assumed equal to 60
percent of the propeller weight. The results obtained
from the experimental work of Burrill and Robson [49]
are widely used in estimating propeller entrained water,
and reference [54] suggests other approaches.
The behavior of flexible couplings in connection with
vibratory movements similarly cannot be stated with
certainty. The impact of the behavior of flexible
couplings, aside from the effect on the couplings themselves, is not great when the thrust bearing is located
well forward. But when the thrust bearing is located
aft and there is an appreciable vibratory amplitude a t
the slow-speed gear, the impact of flexible coupling
behavior can be significant. For a detailed discussion
of the behavior of flexible couplings and the complications
involved, see [54 and 561.
Some machinery liquid and foundation weight participates with the shafting system when vibrating longitudinally as a consequence of being near the main thrust
bearing; but assigning a magnitude to these quantities
entails numerous uncertainties. Assessment of the
"machinery mass," M,, to be included in the mathematics requires judgment which must be based on the
specifics of each system. In instances w-here only the
first mode is of importance, the machinery mass has a
small participation and consequently an accurate
assessment of its magnitude is not critical. On the other
hand, the machinery mass is expected to have a significant participation in the second mode, in which case care
must be taken in its determination. In general, the first
reduction gear rotating elements, gear casing, turbines,
condenser, foundation structure, or portions thereof may
be included as machinery mass. Reference [54] gives
some guidance in the assessment of the machinery mass.
Reference [57] contains an interesting approach on the
treatment of machinery masses in that a portion of the
machinery mass is given a leverage ratio relative to the
centerline of the shaft.
The spring constant of the thrust bearing, k t b , may be
considered to consist of three constituents: the spring
constants of the thrust bearing housing, the thrust collar,
and the thrust elements (or shoes). Aside from the
tedious calculations, no diiculty is experienced in calculating the spring constants of the thrust bearing
housing and collar inasmuch as the majority of the '
deflections are due to shear and can be estimated on the
basis of well-established techniques. But the spring
constant of the thrust elements can be difficult to
evaluate. In the absence of more specific data, the data
given in [54] may be used for guidance in establishing

the stiffness of thrust elements.
Determination of the thrust bearing foundation spring
corlstant can be a difficult and nebulous undertaking
even for an experienced analyst. In general, the thrust
bearing foundatiori structure is arranged such that an
accurate calculation of its spring constant would be
formidably complex. For this reason, longitudinal vibration calculatior~sare frequently conducted such that the
natural frequency is expressed in terms of the thrust
bearing foundation stiffness.
Table 10 contains a calculation for the first and second
resonant modes of longitudinal vibration of the shafting
system modeled as shown in Fig. 19. Table 10 utilizes
the mechanical impedance method described in [54] and
is arranged such that the resonant frequencies can be
plotted in terms of the thrust bearing fourldation stiffness. Figure 20 is such a plot and indicates the accuracy
required of the thrust bearing foundation stiffness
calculation. In some instances, as may be the case with
a ship having a very short run of shafting, an inspection
of the appropriate thrust bearing foundation drawings
may be all that is required to provide assurance that the
resonant modes of longitudinal vibration will be well
clear of the operating range. On the other hand,
lengthy and sophisticated thrust bearing foundation
stiffness calculations may be required in order to ensure
that ships with long runs of shafting have satisfactory
longitudinal vibration characteristics.
The thrust bearing foundation spring constant may be
considered to corlsist of three constituents: the bending
deflection of the thrust bearing foundation structure
above the inner bottom, the shear deflection of the thrust
bearing foundation structure above the inner bottom, and
the deflection at the thrust bearing due to inner-bottom
deflection. An appreciation for the effects of innerbottom deflection may be obtained from reference [55].
Calculation of foundation deflections above the inner
bottom entails the usual obscurities associated with
estimating the deflection of complicated structures. In '
order to assess the effects of inner-bottom deflection, it
is necessary to make simplifying assumptions concerr~irlg
the extent (length and breadth) of inner bottom effectivelj. supporting the thrust bearing and the boundary
conditions at its extremeties; each system must be
individually studied, in light of the degree of accuracy
desired, in order to establish appropriate assumptions
and calculation procedures.
In cases where design constraints make it impossible
to design a shafting system such that it is free of objectionable frequencies of resonant longitudinal vibration,
use may be made of a "resonance changer. " Resonance
changers are discussed in Chapter 20. Briefly, they
are thrust bearings which are modified such that the
thrust pads are floating pistons. The volume of oil
supporting the thrust pads can then be tuned to alter
the thrust bearing spring constant and avoid objectionable resonant frequencies.
Longitudinal Vibration Calculations for Shafting System Model Shown by Fig. 19
Table 1 0
o0
rpm
70
80
90
95
US
red/sec
43.98
50.27
56.55
59.69
395
x 106
Z,, = osMp
ib/in. X 106
0.0193
0.0253
0.0320
0.0356
0.4381
0.5743
0.7264
0.8081
tan a1 =
Zb/kll
kla tan a1
"=
180
<lo
red
0.1694
0.1936
0.2178
0.2298
= lr 1
deg
9.706
11.09
12.48
13.17
kin
lb/in. X 10'
tan (elo el0)

sZ.
k.~. a
3.439
3.930
4.421
4.665
0.1274
0.1461
0.1643
0.1732
a1
- r1
7.260
8.312
9.330
9.$26
z* =
red
0.3464
0.3959
0.4454
0.4701
e2O
Exciting freqiency, o
tan UP =
Z./krrp
3.
zc=
kaea tan as0
2LN
-X number of propeller bladee.
8.3 Excitation Fackrs. Longitudinal vibration of

propulsion shafting systems is exclusively excited by the
variable thrust developed by the propeller due to the
nonuniform wake pattern in which it operates. The
predominant periodic component of the thrust developed
by a propeller occurs a t blade rate frequency; i.e., the
number of propeller blades times the rotational frequency
of the shaft. Higher harmonics of blade rate frequency
occur but, due to their relatively small magnitude, they
are generally not of practical importance. A number of
factors influence the magnitude of the vibratory thrust;
consequently, generalizations in this area must be used
with care. Nevertheless, typical ranges of thrust excitation, expressed as a percentage of the mean thrust,
are tabulated in Table 3; for additional details concerning
thrust excitation, see references [3, 50-52, 591.
8.4 Damping. There are several sources of damping
in the longitudinal vibration system, the most important
of which is the propeller. Other sources of damping
such as hysteresis and sliding friction are relatively
small, difficult to estimate, and difficult to treat in the
NOTES:
ESTIMATED THRUST BEARING
FOUNDATION SPRING CONSTANT
7 X 10' LB/IN
RATED PROPELLER RPM I I S RPM
NO.OF PROPELLER BLADES. 6
Fig. 20
10
20
30
40
50
THRUST BEARING FOUNDATION
SPRING CONSTANT, K t , L B I I N X 10'
Effect of thrust bmring Youndotion Mness on bngiidinol resonon(

frequencies
MARINE ENGINEERING
calculations; therefore, their effects are usually considered to be lumped with the propeller damping
allowance.
A procedure for estimating propeller damping is
described in reference [54]. The prpcedure entails
plottiug the propeller thrust coefficient CT as a function
of the true s l i ~the
: rate of change
- of thrust with respect
to the fore-;id-aft vibratory velocity can then be
determined from the slope of the CT versus s curve a t the
operating slip point. The propeller damping constant,
C,,-, is accordindv
- - determined to be
1
C, = - P ~ D '
12 .
as
lb-sec/in.
(29)
This can be equated to the damping Per cycle

D = nC,wXa2
in.-lb/cycle
(31)
where
Cp
= propeller damping constant, lb-eclin.

w = resonant frequency of vibration, rad/sec
to obtain the following expression for the amplitude of

vibration at the
X, = t/wC,
77
Va
-Pn
established to be 2.95 X lo8; therefore, F d = 23,600 lb acceleration of the slow-speed gear should not exceed
and the ratio of the alternating thrust to the mean 3 ft/sec2;but this recommended criterion is accompanied
thrust is established to be 0.215, an entirely acceptable with the statement: "It is emphasized that each particvalue in view of the low power level a t which it occurs.
ular case warrants individual attention and that the
8.6 Acceptable Limits for Longitudinal Vibration. thrust variation levels must be given equal conSeveral attempts have been made to enumerate accep sideration."
tance criteria for longitudinal vibration characteristics.
There are so many variables which must be considered
The most well-known criteria are those specified in when analyzing the vipration characteristics of a system
reference [ a ] . Other acceptance criteria have stated that there appears tg be no satisfactory alternative to
that reversals of thrust in thrust bearings are not condudting an analysis of each particular system and
permitted. One criterion [56] has specified that the studying each system individually.
(32)
Once the amplitude of vibration a t the propeller has been

established, the alternating force at other points in the
system can be determined by using the mechanical
impedance method.
The procedure of determining the alternating force on
the main thrust bearing may be illustrated by referring
to Table 10 and Fig. 20. In addition, the following data
are required :
P = propeller pitch, ft
n = propeller speed, rps
D = propeller diameter, f t
CT = propeller thrust coefficient, T/n2P2D2
s = propeller slip = 1
t = maximum amplitude of alternating thrust, lb

X, = maximum amplitude of propeller vibration, in.
397
Section 9
Whirling Vibration
9.1 Introduction. Whirling vibration can best be kinetic energy is a t its maximum. D u r i n vibration
~
the
visualized by considering the motion to be-the resultant total energy in the shaft system remains constant;
of two shaft v i b r a t i o ~each in perpendicular planes therefore, the potential energy a t the point of maximum
passing through the shaft neutral position. Depending iV&kfifitudeisequ91. to the kineticenergy a t the point of t 6
e maximum
d <
kinetic and potential .
upon the manner in which the vibratory mptions com- ~ ~ ~ ~ l i ' T
..gKliTt;. -dByz
bine in the two perpendicular planes, the iesultant enem*-re--~etermined'~~e-.
masses
by the
fEK-~freesEiEiee;;"if-:.of
motion may be circular (analogous to the motion of a
-.+...-". .
TK..-.......,*.-,.. ""L. ....
skip-rope), elliptical, or in a single plane (if one of the vibration.
ese energies so determined may be equated
two combining vibrations is of negligible magnitude). and this equation then solved for the critical speed, N, in
Visualization of whirling vibration is further complicated cpm, as follows:
by the fact that the whirling frequen~ymay be either at
the frequency of shaft rotation -or a multiple of shaft
rotation, and the whirling motion can be either in the
direction of shaft rotation or opposite to the direction I n this formula d W is the weight of a short section of
of shaft rotation. Shaft whirling vibration is discussed shafting whose mass may be con$dered concentrated or
in references.[47, 61-63].
the weight of any concentrated mass caxried by the
9.2 Determination of Whirling Natural Frequencies. shaft (such as the propeller) and y is the deflection of the
There are basically two approaches which may be taken center of gravity of this mass. The summations
in evaluating whirling natural frequencies. One method, include all of the masses in the shaft system.
which has been used for many years, is to compute the
The static deflection curve can be calculated as
natural frequency from the Raleigh approximation. I n described in any standard book on strength of materials.
applying this method, an assumption must be made with It should be noted, however, that the loads on the
regard to the shape of the shaft centerline when the shafting should be reversed in direction in alternate.
amplitude of vibration is a t its maximum. I t is not spans; ,that is, the weights are assumed to act down in
necessary that the assumed curve have exactly the same one span and up in the next. This reversal is necessary
shape as the actual vibration deflection curve, but it to produce a deflection curve which has the same general
should have the same general characteristics. I n form as the vibration curve corresponding to the lowest
problems concerning the vibration of beams it has been natural frequency.
found satisfactory to use the deflection curve correThis ortlculation is readily accomplished by means of
sponding to the static loading condition and this computer programs similar to that described in [23].
assumption is considered sufficiently accurate in connec- Such calculations were made for the shafting system
tion with propulsion shafting.
shown in Fig. 1 and a plot of the mode shape for the
The total energy of vibration a t any instant consists whirling mode of vibration is shown in Fig. 21. It may
of two parts, kinetic ener_g;y_.due-Jovthe motion of the be seen from Fig. 21 that the large amplitudes of vibration are confined to the aftermost regions of the shafting
shaft-m~?es
~~te1?tk!.
stresses caused-,
by the sb.scft
system. From an inspection of the Raleigh equation it
is evident that only the regions of the shafting system
maximum
.-- amplidge
.
the_.-nana~stktionary,~~t~eJinetic
energy is-_.
which have relatively large amplitudes have an important
energy stored up ~ n " i ; g i i s a its
t maximum. On the impact on the whirling critical frequency. This fact can
is
other hand, when the a m p l i t u ~ e ~ o " B ~ enoe bendbe exploited to greatly simplify the problem when the
ing in the shaft, so&g*gti-dle
, but the calculations must be done by hand.
cti6iiiii,=-t;Ke
. *
V, = propeller advance velocity, fps

A somewhat different approach for determining system
damping was taken by Rigby [55]. Rigby used fullscale data to calculate an equivalent propeller damping
coris$ant and concluded that for three-bladed propellers
the equivalent damping constant was about 16.5
lb-sec/in. times the propeller developed area in square
feet; he further concluded that the propeller damping
constant tends to increase with larger numbers of blades
and suggested that a damping factor equal to 39
lb-sec/in. per foot of blade edge may give better results
based on tests made with four- and five-bladed propellers.
In cases where the thrust bearing is located well aft
and there is a significant amplitude of vibration a t the
slow-speed gear, investigations made and reported in [54]
indicate that machinery damping must also be considered; feference [54] suggests a procedure which may
be used to include the effects of machinery damping.
8.5 Vibratory Thrust Calculations. A meaningful
indication of the importance of a resonant mode of
longitudinal vibration can be obtained by assessing and
comparing the alternating thrust component to the mean
thrust component at the main thrust bearing and the
vibrat~ry'am~litude,
velocity, and acceleration a t the
slow-speed gear. This can readily be qccomplished by
assuming that the only source of system damping is the
propeller (the restriction need not be quite so severe in
that an "equivalent propeller damping" may be used
which incorporates other system damping effects) and
that the propeller is also the only source of excitation.
With this asspmption, the propeller input work per cycle
can be expressed as
Mean propeller thrust a t 75 rpm

(thrust is assumed to vary as the
rpm squared). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Propeller damping constant (based on
reference [55]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
110,000
lb
5,800
lb-sec/in.
Ratio of alternating to mean propeller

thrust (based on an analysis of the
propeller wake). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 percent
With these data the exciting force from the propeller is
established to be 3,300 lb and from equation (32) the
amplitude of vibration a t the propeller is
X, = 3,300/[2~(75)(6)/60] [58001
X, = 0.012 in.
The procedure outlined in [54] can now be used to
establish the amplitude of vibration a t the thrust bearing
(point d in Fig. 19). Based on reference [54], the
amplitude of vibration a t point b becomes
Xb = X, cos (tan-' Zb/klal)/cos (tan-' Za/klal) (33)
and the amplitude of vibration a t point c becomes
X, = Xb cos (tan-' Z,/k2a2)/cos (tan-' Zb/kzz)
(34)
(See Table 10 for a definition of terms.) A numerical
evaluation of the foregoing expression indicates a vibratory amplitude of f0.008 in. a t point d (the same as c).
This is the amplitude at the slow-speed gear from which
the velocity and acceleration can be calculated knowing
the frequency of vibration. The alternating force a t
point d is then determined from
, By interpolating the data shown in Table 10, Zd is
,'
"-.s-m-
I
X
,a.,z...-m*
%
,. .,
MARINE ENGINEERING

References
1 F. H. Todd, "Resistance and Propulsion," Prin-
Fig. 21
Mode shape of shafting arrangement shown in Fig. 1 during whirling mode of

vibration
Computation of whirling critical frequencies entails

several approximations which are easily criticized. One
is the assumed location of the resultant reaction in the
bearing just forward of the propeller. There is no way
of assessing the load distribution in this bearing; furthermore, in the case of water-lubricated bearings it changes
in service. With shafting arrangements. similar to that
shown in Fig. 2 (closely spaced stern tube bearings), the
forward stern tube bearing can become unloaded or even
develop a downward reaction. Since the load condition
of the forward stern tube bearing strongly affects the
whirling natural frequency, computations are usually
made with it loaded and also unloaded, particularly with
water-lubiicated bearings which are subject to large
amounts of wear.
- The effects of entrained water are normally approximated by increasing the weight of the propeller by a
percentage (usually 25 percent). Bearing flexibilities
are normally neglected in the Raleigh calculations as the
~ri>blemwould otherwise be considerably more corn~licated. However, neglecting bearing flexibility may
not be justified if the bearing is softly mounted in rubber
to achieve self-aligning capabilities. Propeller gyrosco~iceffects which tend to stiffen the 'ystem are
imilarly neglected. Fortunately the inaccuracies associated with considering bearings rigd and neglecting
propeller gyroscopic effects tend to cancel.
N. H. Jasper developed [61, 62, 631 a calculation
procedure which takes bearing flexibility and propeller
gy~oscopic effectsinto account. The procedure is
relatively simple and is feasibly done by hand calculation due to the fact that only the aftermost regon of the
shafting is considered. The results obtained by the
procedure developed by Jasper compare favorably with
the results obtained by using the Raleigh method; this is ,
attributed to the opposite effects of the additional factors
taken into consideration.
9.3 Acceptable Limits for Whirling Vibration. Important sources of whirling vibration excitation are
propeller and shafting unbalance and occur at a frequency
corresponding to propeller rpm. Also, where Z is the
number of propeller blades, the kZ f 1 harmonics of
the propeller wake field produce exciting frequencies;
however, these are generally not significant due to the
small exciting force and the dampening resulting from
the relatively higher frequency. Only the frequency
cormpondihg to the propeller rpm is considered to be
important by some authorities; however, this point can
be debated. I n any case, it must be agreed that the
severity of excitation a t blade rate frequencies must be
investigated for a specific case before they can be
categorically dismissed.
I n order for the whirling natural frequency to be
coincident with the propeller rpm, conditions considerably different from those on the usual large ship
must exist. For example, bearing spans would have to
be abnormally long, shaft diameters would have to be
abnormally small, a bearing would have to become
etc. whirling f
~
unloaded for some
corresponding to blade rate frequencies can and do fall
within the operating range. Fortunately, however, the
exciting forces at blade rate frequencies are generdly
unless coupled with other adverse
not of great
conditions (such as the forward stern tube bearing
becoming unloaded).
Perhaps the only generalization which Can be made
with respect to acceptance criteria for whirling vibration
is that shafting arrangements should be d e s i ~ e dsuch
that, in the upper operating range, whirling resonant
frequencies do not become in close proximity to the
propeller rpm or the blade rate frequencies which have
strong exciting forces. Blade rate exciting forces can be
evaluated as discussed in Section 3.2.
399
Standardization of Propulsion Shafting and Bearings, "

Afarine Technology, vol. 3, no. 2, April 1966.
20 Archer M. Nickerson, Jr., "Summary Report of
the Investigation of Tailshaft Failures," prepared for
SNAME under Order 352, January 1966.
21 J. W. Heck and E. Baker, "Marine Propeller
Shaft Casualties," Trana. SNAME, vol. 71, 1963.
23 "Propulsion Shafting," Design Data Sheet DDS
9430, Department of the Navy.
23 E. T. Antkowiak, "Calculation of Ship Propulsion
Shafting Bearing Reactions on an IBM 650 Computer,"
Boston Nav J Shipyard, Development Report No. R-1 1,
October 1957.
24 W. E. Lehr, Jr. and E. L. Parker, "considerations
in the Design of hlarine l'ropulsion Shaft Systems,"
Tratls. SNAAiE, vol. 69, 1961.
25 H. C. Andersen and J. J. Zrodowski, "Coordinated Alignment of Line Shaft, Propulsion Gear, and
Turbines," Trans. SNAAfE, vol. 67, 1959.
26 H. C. Andersen and D. E. Bethune, "Summary of
Studies on Recent Ship's Main Propulsion Lineshaft
Systems and Recommendations for l'uture Designs,"
General Electric Co. Report DF1-MSD-200 dated June
12, 1961.
27 "Propulsion Shafting and Components," NavShips Drawing 510-2146000.
28 L. L. Shook, Jr. and C. L. Long, "Surface Cold
Rolling of Marine Propeller Shafting," Trans. SNAME',
vol. 66, 1958.
29 "Rubber, Shaft Covering Materials (For Marine
Propeller Shafts)," Military Specificatio~lMIL-R-15058.
30 "Instruction Manual Glass Reinforced Plastic
Coatings for Propeller Shafting, " NAVSHIPS 250-634-4.
31 "I~lvestigationof Propeller-Hub Sealing ArrangeNovember
ments,"
Technical
1959. and Research Bulletin 3-7, SNAME,
ciplesof Naval Architecture, J. P. Comstock, ed., SNAME,

1967.
2 F. M. Lewis, "Propeller-Vibration Forces, " Trans.
SNAAfE, vol. 71, 1963.
3 F. H. Todd, Ship Hull I7ibratio1~,
Edward Arnold
Ltd., London, 1961.
4 T. Iiumai and Y. Sakurada, "On the Measurements of Propeller Surface Force of the Self-Propelled
Model of a Tanker," Europea?~SAipbuildi~~y,
no. 3, 1966.
5 R. J. Boswell and M. L. Miller, "Unsteady
Propeller Loading-Measurement,
Correlation with
Theory, and Parametric Study" 'XSRDC Report 2626,
October 1968.
6 J. H. ~ c ~ a r t "On
h ~ the
, Calculation of Thrust
and Torque Fluctuations of Propellers in Nonuniform
Wake Flon-," DTMB Report 1533, October 1961.
7 H. Y. Yeh, "Thrust and Torque Pluctuatio~lsfor
APA 249, TMB Model 4414," DTMB Report 1364,
June 1960.
8 L. C. Burrill, "Calculation of Marine Propeller
Performance Characteristics, " Trans. North East Coast
Institute of Etlgineers and Shipbuilders, vol. 60, 1943-44.
9 G. R. Stuntz, Jr., P. C. Pien, W. B. Hinterthan,
and N. L. Ficken, "Series 60-The Effect of Variations
in Afterbody Shape Upon Resistance, Power, Wake
Distribution, and Propeller Excited Vibratory Forces,"
10 J. B. Hadler and H. M. Cheng, "Analysis of
Experimental Wake Data in Way of Propeller Plane of
Single and Twin-Screw Ship Models," Trans. SNAME,
vol. 73, 1965.
11 N. H. Jasper and L. A. Rupp, "An Experimental
and Theoretical Investigation of Propeller Shaft Failures," Trans. SNAAlE, vol. 60, 1952.
12 E. P. Panagopulos and A. M. Nickerson, Jr.,
32 R. Baudry and L. M. Tichvinsky, "Performance
"Propeller Shaft Stresses Under Service Conditionsof Oil Rings," ASME paper, 1936.
The SS Chryssi Investigation, " Trans. SNA ME, vol . 62,
33 "Report of Ship Operators' Experience with
1954.
Stern Tube Bearing Wear," Technical and Research
13 H. R. Neifert and J. H. Robinson, "Further Bulletin No. 3-12, SNAME, September 1962.
Results from the Society's Investigation of Tailshaft
34 W. J. I<ommers, "Progress Report on the Wear
Failures," Trans. SNAME, vol. 63, 1955.
Characteristics of Stem Tube and Strut Bearing sad
"Propeller
Shaft
~14 E. F. Noonan,
~
~
~ Bending
i Stresses ~ Journal Materials,
~
" U. S. Naval Engineering Experion the SS Esso Jamstown, " ASNE Journal, August 1961. mental Station Report 9A066835 NS-633-001, October
15 R. L. Price, E. F. Noonan, and S. Veldman, 1951.
"Bending and Torsional Stresses in Propeller Shaft of
35 W. V. Smith, "Lignum Vitae in Propeller Shaft
USS ObservQticnIsland (EAG 154) in Smooth and Rough Bearings," prepared for SNAME under Order 413,
Sea," DTMB Report 1596, June 1962.
March 1966.
16 R. L. Harrington and W. S. VONS, "Dynamic
36 P. K. Wennberg, "The Design of the Main
Shock Analysis of Shipboard Equipment," Marine Propulsion Machinery Plant Installed in the U0CGC
TechnoZqg, vol. 4, no. 4, October 1967.
Hamilton (WPG-715)," Trans. SNAME; vol. 74, 1966.
17 "Mathematical Model and Dynamic Analysis
37 J. B. Hadler, W. B. Morgan, and I<.A. Meyem,
Guide for Main Propulsion Shafting, " Supervisor of "Advanced Propeller Propulsion for High-Powered
Shipbuilding, USN, Third Naval District Report Single-Screw Ships, " Trans. SNAME, vol. 72, 1964.
8Ul'SHIP 280-1, July 1968.
38 H. Yeh and N. Hubble, "Propulsive Character18 Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels, istics for a Cargo Ship With Contrarotating Propellers,"
American Bureau of Shipping.
DTMB Hydromechanics Laboratory Report 111-H-01,
19 S. A. Fielding, "Design Improvements and November 1965.
2-
MARJNE ENGINEERING
39 Richard Hecker, "Powering Performance of a

Ventilated Propeller," DTMB Report 1487, June 1961.
40 K. E. Schoenherr. "Formulation of Pro~eller
*
Blade Strength," Trans. SNAME, vol. 71, 1963.
4 1 I. K. Mott and R. Fleeting, "Design Aspects of
M , k e Propulsion Shafting Systems," The Institute of
Marine Engineers, June 1967.
42 "Manual of Instructions for Design and Application of Propeller Blade Gages," NavShips 387-0547,
Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, November 1964.
43 J. H. Smith, "Nodal Arrangements of Geared
Drives," Trans. Institute of Naval Architects, 1922.
44 F. M. Lewis, "Torsional Vibration in the Diesel
Engine," Trans. SNAME, vol. 33, 1925.
45 F. M. Lewis, "Dynamic Effects," A4arine Engineering, H. L. Seward, ed., SNAME 1944.
46 S. C. Powell and W. V. Bassett, "Practical Aspects
of Torsional Vibration in Marine Geared-Turbine
Propulsion Units, " Trans. SNAME, vol. 52, 1944.
A7 Eugene Panagopulos, "Design-Stage Calculations
of Torsional, Axial, and Lateral Vibrations of Marine
Shafting, ' Trans. SNAME, vol. 58, 1950.
48 A. D. Andriola, "Torsional Vibration in GearedTurbine Marine Propulsion Plants-An Introduction to
the Subject," Trans. SNAME, vol. 58, 1950.
49 L. C. Burrill and W. Robson, 'Virtual Mass and
Moment of Inertia of Propellers," North East Coast
Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders, Newcastle
upon Tyne, 1962.
50 A. J. Johnson and W. McClimont, "Machinery
Induced Vibrations," Trans. The Institzlte of Marine
Engineers, 1963.
51 R. .wereldsma, "Propeller Excited Shaft and Hull
Vibrations of Single Screw Ships," International Shipbudding Progress, December 1964.
52 S. Archer, "Propeller Excited Vibration; Five

Blades or Four?" International Shipbuilding Progress,
March 1962.
53 S. Archer, "Torsional Vibration Damping Coeficients for Marine Propellers," Engineering, May 13,1955.
54 J. R. Kane and R. T. McGoldrick, "Longitudinal
Vibrations of Marine Propulsion-Shafting Systems,"
55 C. P. Rigby, "Longitudinal Vibration of Marine
Propeller Shafting," Institute of Marine Engineers,
February 1948.
56 A. A. J. Couchman, "Axial Shaft Vibration in
Large Turbine-Powered Merchant Ships," Trans. Institute of Marine Engineers, March 1965.
57 G. P. Antonides, "Longitudinal Vibration of
Propulsion System on USS Simon Lake (AS33)," DTMB
Report 2147, January 1966.
58 A. A. J. Couchman, "Mechanical Exciter and
Axial Vibration Measurements on the Thrust Block and
Shafting of a 48,000-Ton DWT Tanker," British Ship
Research Association Report No. 8, 1963.
59 R. T. McGoldrick, "Ship Vibration," DTMB
Report 1451, December 1960.
60 "Mechanical Vibrations of Shipboard Equipment, " MIL-STD-167 (Ships).
61 N. H. Jasper, "A Theoretical Approach to the
Problem of Critical Whirling Speeds of Shaft-Disk
Systems," DTMB Report 827, December 1954.
62 N. H. Jasper, "A Design Approach to the Problem
of Critical Whirling Speeds of Shaft-Disk Systems,"
DTMB Report 890, December 1954.
63 N. H. Jasper and L. A. Rupp, "An Experimental
and Theoretical Investigation of Propeller Shaft Failures," Trans. SNAME, vol. 60, 1952.
CHAPTER XI1
0. W. Soete
1.
Pumos. Forced-Draft Blowers,

Compressors, and Ejectors
I
'
Section 1
Centrifugal Pumps
1.1
Basic Fundamentals
a. Classification and Types. The basic purpose of a

centrifugal pump is to maintain a flow of fluid through a
system of piping connecting two reservoirs. If there are
differences in fluid pressure or static head between the
two reservoirs, the pump must supply the energy ,corresponding to the work done in overcoming these differences, plus the energy loss due to friction in the piping
system. An example of an elementary system is shown
in Fig. 1.
A simple type of radial-flow centrifugal pump is shown
in Fig. 2. The caaing is of the volute type and the impeller is double-suction. As there is only one impeller,
it is known as a single-stage pump. The vertical position
of the shaft axis, the pump base a t the bottom, and the
Fig. 1
Elementary application of a centrifugal pump
driver location above contribute to its being known & a

vertical centrifugal pump. A single-suction pump is
shown in Fig. 3. The fluid passes from the first-stage
impeller to the second-stage impeller; that is, the head
is developed by two impellers in series, and it is known as
a two-stage pump. This pump is also of vertical construction. Multi-stage pumps of horizontal construction '
are shown in Figs. 4 and 5. Both are of the volute casing
type. In each example, the pumped fluid discharges
from one impeller and passes to the next-stage impeller
through an external crossover passage not indicated in
the figure.
Pumps are also classified as radial, mixed, ' A d axialflow types according to the direction of the discharged
flow. Radial-flow pumps are depicted in Figs. 2 through
OEAERATINQ
f EEOWATER HEATER
MARINE ENGINEERING
PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS; COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS
.
Fig. 4
Horizontal, axially split casing, two-stage boiler feed pump
PPP
Fig. 2
CASING
IMPELLER IST STAGE
IMPELLER 2ND STAGE
IMPELLER WEARING RING
CASING WEARING RING
INTERNAL BEARING
SHAFT
SHAFTSLEEVE
JOURNAL SLEEVE
BEARING HOUSING
MOTOR BRACKET
PUMP FOOT
Fig. 3
Fig. 5
Horizontal, axially split casing, fou~stageboiler feed pump
Vertical, axially split casing, two-stage pump
Vedical, axially split casing, single-stage, double-suction pump
5. A pump of the mixed-flow type is shown in Fig. 0 and

an axial-flow type, sometimes known as a propeller type,
is shown in Fig. 7. These last two examples are singlesuction, single-stage, vertical pumps. They are also
known as end-suction types, whereas the examples of
Figs. 2 to 5 are known as side-suction types. A small
pump of the radial-flow, end-suction type is depicted in
Fig. 8.
The essential detail parts of a pump are shown in Figs.
CASING
IMPELLER
STAGE PIECE
CASING WEARING RING
SHAFT
SLEEVES
THRUST BEARING
LINE BEARING
LEGEND
LEGEND
CASING
IMPELbER
CASING WEARING RINGS
IMPELLER WEARING RINGS
SHAFT
.SHAFT SLEEVE
STUFFING BOX PACKING
GLANDS
THRUST BEARING
LINE BEARING
BEARING HOUSINGS
PUMP BASE
MOTOR BRACKET
COUPLING
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2 to 8. Wearing rings are fitted in closed-type impellers

to prevent discharge or high-pressure fluid from passing
to the lower-pressure zone at the suction side of the impeller. They may be fitted to both the impeller and
casing, as in Figs. 2 and 3, or may be fitted only to the
casing, as in Figs. 4 and 5. They serve to protect the
impeller and casing in that, when wear occurs at themclose
running clearance, the wear is confined to the relatively
inexpensive rings which can be easily replaced. In an
open type of impeller, such as in Fig. 7, the ends of the
impeller blades form the wearing surfaces, requiring
relatively close clearances. The impeller shaft must be needed"to carry any residual axial thrust as well as the
sealed against leakage by a stuffing box.
rotor weight. The pumps of Fig. 4 and 5 are inherently
Single-suction impellers generally require some means axially balanced in that the two and four impellers, reof reducing the axial unbalanced thrust. In many amall spectively, are positioned ''back to back."
pumps the axial unbalance is carried by the pump thrust
b. Expression for Total Pump Head. The following
bearing. The double-suction pump of Fig. 2 is inherently system of notation is employed with subscripts as indiaxially balanced, but requires a thrust bearing to carry cated:
.
the weight of the rotor. The two-stage pump of Fig. 3
p = fluid pressure, psi
is almost completely axially balanced; this is ach, = friction loss, ft
complished by positioning the impellers "eye to eye," by
Z = static head, ft
proportioning the wearing rings so as to aid in the reducp = weight density, pcf
tion of thrust, and by providing a balancing hole at the
V = fluid absolute velocity, fps
center of the shaft in the first stage. A thrust bearing is
H = total pump head, ft
PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS .
MARINE ENGINEERING
Fig. 6
Mixed-low-type pump
THRUST BEARING SLINGER

THRUST BEARING COVER
LlNE BEARING SLINGER
LlNE BEARING COVER
LEGEND
Referring to Fig. 1, the energy increase in foot-pounds

per pound of fluid transferred from point 0 to point 3 is
144bs - po)/p
2 8
- zo
(1)
The pump must also supply the total friction loss, hr, in
the piping. Thus, the total work done by the pump in
foot-pounds per pound of fluid is the sum of these quantities, or
H=l44(ps-po)/~$Z8-Zo+hr
M
N
(2)
It is desirable to express the total pump head in terms

of the energy conditions per pound of fluid at the pump
suction and discharge connections, points 1 and 2 of Fig.
1. This is done by application of Bernoulli's equation
for the conservation of energy, with an appropriate term
for the friction loss. First consider points 0 and 1, and
then points 2 and 3, with the following results:
Fig. 8
R = impeller radius, f t
D = impeller diameter, f t
B = impeller passage width, f t
Fig. 7 Axial-low, or pmpelle~typepump
lab2
- PI)/P
(5)
This equation simply expresses the fact that the total

pump head is obtained by the difference between the
total pressure at the dischaxge and the total pressure at
Radial-low, end-sudon, centrifugal pump
the suction of the pump. When the latter is less than

atmospheric pressure, it is generally called the suction
lift and is ordinarily expressed in feet, or as a vacuum in
inches of mercury. It should be noted that, whereas the
aymbol H represents feet of fluid, it also represents footpounds per pound of fluid.
c. Velocity Diagrams and Theoretical Pump Head.
The principal elements of a radial-flow centrifugal pump,
consisting of an impeller with a central inlet and curved
vanes and an enclosing casing, are indicated in Fig. 1.
The theoretical fluid velocity diagrams for the impeller
inlet and outlet are shown in Fig. 9.
The following additional notation is used:
Thus, when Z1 = Z2 and VI = V2, as is the case for

equal suction and discharge pipe areas and elevations,
and further noting that hnl
hn8 = hr, it results that
the total head is given by
H =
SPRING
BELLOW
DRIVING BAND
SEALING RING
FLOATING SEAT
SEATRING
PUSHCOLLAR
impeller angular velocity, rad/sec

impeller speed, rpm
impeller speed, rps
impeller peripheral velocity, fps
angle between peripheral and absolute velocities,
deg
B = angle between peripheral and relative velocities,
del3
o =
=
n =
u =
a =
N
,
Fig. 9
Velocity diagrams for a radial-low pump
v = fluid relative velocity, fps

,= fluid kinematic viscosity, sq ft/eec
TV = weight rate of flow, lb/sec
PUMPS, KIRCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS
406
MARlNE ENGINEERING
the discharge velocity triangle in Fig. 9, uz"

VZ2 ~2~
- 2~2V2cos a 2 . Similarly, at the entrance velocity triangle, q2 = V12 ulZ - 2ulVl cos al. Noting that Vu2
= Vz cos a 2 and Vul = Vl cos all substitution of Vu2 and
Vul in the foregoing expressions results in 2ulVu2 = VzZ
Uz2 - vz2 and2ul?,,l= V12 u12 - q2. Substitution
The expression for theoretical impeller torque is ~ b of
these latter expressions in equation
leads to the
tained by assuming that the flow conditions at the imfollowiog version of Euler,s equation:
peller inlet and outlet are perfectly uniform; that is,
every particle of fluid hrts the same velocity entering the
impeller, and a similar situation exists at the impeller
exit. - It is necessary also to assume that the entire flow
is steady (that is, independent of time), but other than The first term in equation (11) represents the change in
this the conditions of flow within the rotor can be of any kinetic energy of the fluid as it passes through the impeller. In order that this energy change may contribute to
sort whatever [I].'
the
total head, there must also occur corresponding presFollowing the treatment of references [2] and [3], if in
Fig. 9 a fluid particle enters the impeller through area da, sure changes elsewhere than in the impeller. Assuming
then the moment of momentumof thisfluidparticleismass equal suction and discharge diameters (s and d) so that
V8 = Vd, then (Vd2- V12)/2g is the increase of pressure
per unit time X velocity X lever arm or
energy a t the inlet to the impeller. Also (Vz2 - Vd2)/2g
represents the conversion of kinetic to pressure energy in
the
discharge casing, and the Bum of these two energy
Integrating over the impeller inlet area all the total
changes is equal to the first term in the foregoing expresmoment of momentum of the entering fluid is
sion for H I .
The last two terms represent the pressure changes
occking across the impeller itself. The term (us2 u12)/2g containing the impeller peripheral velocities is the
The foregoing equation applies to incompressible
increme of pressure due to centrifugal force, alld the final
as P is taken to be constant. In like manner, the moment term (&z - v1~)/2gis
pressure change resulting from
of momentum of the fluid leaving the impeller is
the change of relative velocity of the fluid. In an axialflow pump, this final term is the entire change.of pressure
. VzVu2R2h
across the impeller, but is not the entire head except in
the case where V2 = Vl.
Since in most practical cases for pumps, Vu2R2> VulR1,
e. The Head-Capacity Curve, Effect of Shape of
and the impeller exerts a net torque on the fluid, the Impeller Vanes. In the absence of stationary guide vanes
total theoretical torque is
at the inlet, a desirable simplification is obtained by
assuming that the absolute fluid velocity at the inlet is
radial. Thus, there is no peripheral component regardless of the shape of the impeller inlet (that is, Vul is zero).
(8) Sincse Vl is perpendicular to ul, it follows that v12 - V12
- u12 equals zero because the three terms are respecIn the foregoing, Vu2R2and VulR1are assumed to be con- tively the hypotenuse and adjacent sides of a right tristant over the two surfaces of integration.
angle. The expressions previously given for the theoretiSince Vldal and V2da2are equal and represent the total cal head become
rate of flow through the impeller, then
Q = volume rate of flow, cu ft/sec
q = volume rate of flow, gpm
T = theoretical rotor torque, ft-lb
H , = theoretical pump head, ft ,
a = acceleration due to gravity,
ft/sec2
-
's"
II
The expressioti for work is obtained by multiplying

the impeller torque by the angular velocity o. After
dividing through by the weight rate of flow, there is obtained the usual equation foi the theoretical head:
1
(10)
9
d. Physical Interpretation of Theoretical Head. The
foregoing ex~ressionfor the theoretical head may be
traniforked b y means of the cosine law. ~ e f e r r i i gto
Ht
To
--
- (ulVu2- ulVul)
LEGEND
TUEDRETICAL HEAD
To show the relation of theoretical head to the volume

flow, or capacity Q, it is necessary to make another application of the cosine law, whereby
9
The im~ellerexit area Az (in the diredtion of vz) is
rD2B2 sin '& in square feet (neglecting the vane tip?, and
02 equals Q/Az, SO that
3.6
ACTUAL HEAD
I- CIRCULATING PUMP, RADIAL-FLOW TYPE

(a) NORMAL CHARACTERISTIC,& =2?.s0
3.4
3.2
+ 3.0
2.8
2.6
2-FEED PUMP. RADIAL-FIDW
TYPE
STEADILY RISING CHARACTERISTIC,&~I~~

3-DREDGE PUMP, RADIAL FLOW T Y P E , ~ ~ = ~ O ~
4-CIRCULATING PUMP, AXIAL-FLOW TYPE
AXIAL-FLOW CHARACTERISTIC,~m=240
2.4
K 2.2
t*
2.0
1.8
\
1.6
FLOW RATIO
FLOWIRATED FLOW
Fig. 10 Theoretical and actual charactariatics of various centrifugal pumps
This equation shows that for a constant rotational

speed and with a discharge angle & less than 90 degrees
(backward-curving vanes), the theoretical head decreases
as the capacity is increased, following a straight line of
downward slope. This is illustrated by curve l(a) in Fig.
10.
In this figure the head-capacity characteristics are
shown in ratio form, with all heads, both theoretical and
actual, being divided by the actual head at rated capacity
and plotted against the corresponding capacity divided
by rated capacity.
If the discharge angle is 90 degrees (radial vanes), tan &
in the foregoing equation is infinite, the second term of
the equation is zero, and the theoretical head is a horisontal straight line independent of the volume as shown
by curve l(b). Likewise, if the discharge angle is made
greater than 90 degrees (forward-curving blades), then
tan /32 is negative and the theoretical head increases with
capacity as shown on curve 1(c) .
The actual head-capacity characteristic is always less
than the theoretical, and the various curves of Fig. 10
reveal the wide discrepancy between the theoretical and
actual heads. In the region of the designed capacity, the
ratio of actual to theoretical head may be anywhere from
0.25 to 0.75 and this ratio is usually smaller when the

capacity is greater or less than the design value. This
discrepancy cannot be explained by the elementary
theory previously outlined, which necessarily assumes an
infinite number of guide vanes of zero thickness. However, the '(circulation theory" of hydrodynamics shows
that for a finite number of vanes there must exist a circulation or eddy flow within the impeller which has the
effect of reducing the mean peripheral component of the
absolute exit velocity [2]. This has been confirmed by
experimental work.
Curveq 2 and 3 depict the characteristics of other radial
pump types. The characteristics of the axial-flow type of
pump are shown by curve 4. The theoretical headcapacity curve of an axial-flow pump rises steeply, while
the actual head-capacity curve has an irregular shape,
being relatively flat near design capacity but rising
sharply at lower capacity and falling rapidly at higher
capacity. The elementary theory for this type of pump
is the same as for the radial type, but as shown in Fig. 11
there is a different velocity diagram for every radius at
the pump suction and discharge. Thus, in setting up an
equation for the theoretical head, it is necessary to use
the velocity diagrams at a mean discharge diameter Dm.
PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS, COMPRESSORS, AND EJECTORS
MARINE ENGINEERING
11
1.
CYLINDRICAL SECTION
NEAR RIM. R,
approach is one in which actual test results are used in

the development of various correlations. The applic*
tion of dimensional analysis that follows is a logical
derivation of the various centrifugal pump design constants.
Primary interest is focused on the volume flow Q, in
cubic feet per second, and the actual net head H, in feet
of fluid, of a centrifugal pump, but it is also recognized
that the most important physical characteristics of a
pump are the speed w, in radians per second, and the impeller discharge diameter Dl in feet. Other physical
characteristics, such as inlet diameter, width of impeller
passages, inlet and discharge pipe diameters, and the corresponding area. or surfaces are described by ratios of
these quantities to the basic diameter D or D2,depending
on the number of linear dimensions involved.
Two physical properties of the fluid may enter into
consideration. These are the weight density p, in pounds
per cubic foot, and the kinematic viscosity v, in feet
squared per second. The acceleration of gravity g, in
feet per second per second, must also be taken into account.
Thus the problem contains seven distinct physical
quantities, all expressed in three fundamental unitslength in feet, force in pounds, and time inxeconds. The
basic theorem of dimensional reasoning holds that a
general relation between all seven physical quantities
may be expressed in seven less three, or four compound
quantities, each of zero dimensions. One general expression of this form is
CYLINDRICAL SECTION
NEAR ,HUB, %
I
a1
"RI
Fig. 1 1
(1) Impeller inlet vane shock losses. (When diiuser

vanes are fitted in the discharge casing, there are also
similar losses a t the inlet to these vanes.)
(2) Impeller and diffuser vane exit losses, due to
eddies formed by the edges of the vanes.
(3) Friction losses in the inlet section, impeller, diffuser, and diiharge casing; similar to the friction losses
in piping.
(4) Additional eddy and turbulence losses in the impeller and discharge casing where kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy.
I
charge casing back to the inlet through the impeller running clearances.
(7) Balance-device leakage where the rotor axial
thrust is equalized by a balancing drum or disk.
(8) Friction losses in bearings and stuffing boxes, including thrust bearings.
The foregoing losses can be calculated approximately
from appropriate special theory for each type of loss, and
the net pump efficiency determined accordingly. However, it is generally more satisfactory to correlate actual
test efficiencies of centrifugal pumps from the laws of
similarity; this method of approach is developed in the
following.
The water horsepower, Pw,for a pump is given by
and for a brake horsepo.cver, P, the phmp efficiency, El
equals Pw/Por
1" the foregoing, Q is the volume flow in Cu ft/~ec. If q

represents the volume flow rate in gpm and p'the head in
1.
psi, the efficiency becomes
E = - Pq
All of the above losses affect the head generated and
(17)
1714P
therefore contribute greatly (but not exclusively) to lower
the value of the actual head. The following losses affect
Additional detsils regarding pump design
only the power input:
tions are contained in references [3] through [a].
1.2 Laws of Similitude. Purely theoretical reasoning
(5) Frictional losses a t the exterior surfaces of the impeller, similar to windage losses of steam turbine wheels. does not at present afford a very satisfactory basis for the
(6) Flow losses due to leakage of fluid from the dis- study of centrifugal pump performance. A more direct
equal -to rD. Thus, it is seen that this last group of

terms has the usual Reynolds number (R,) form, except
that it is inverted. This group will therefore be of importance when considering the effects of frictional forces
on the pump performance, but usually it is secondary in
importance to the more general characteristics indicated
by the first three dimensionless groups.
Since the basic groups in equation (19) are dimensionless, they may be combined without a loss of generality.
Thus, multiplying the two middle groups gives gH/
n2DW and: denoting the head coefficient by #,
The first group in equation (19) is the specific capacity,

q,, divided by r, that is,
This expression for specific capacity states the wellknown relationship that, for a pump of given diameter,
Q varies directly as the speed n. Or, for similar pumps a t
a constant speed, Q varies directly as the cube of the
diameter. To be correct, the head and flow rules as expressed by equations (20) and (21) must be taken together, and, therefore, if the capacity changes in proportion to the speed, then the head changes in proportion to
the square of the speed. Likewise, for geometrically
similar pumps, if the capacity changes in proportion to
the cube of the diameter a t a constant speed, then the
head changes in proportion to the square of the diameter.
The specific speed for a particular pump may be deThe requirement that each group must have zero fined as the speed required by a pump of similar design,
dimensions makes it possible to determine the values of shape, and hydraulic characteristics to develop a head of
the exponents a, b, 6, etc., in the foregoing expression. 1 foot when delivering a t a volume rate of 1 cubic foot
This is done by substitution of the dimensional formula per second. Thiis, if a set of values D, n, H, and Q are
for each physical quantity in the groups. For example, selected for a given pump (usually the rated values),
the first group must then have the form
then, in order to have similar characteristics, a second
pump must be such that its corresponding physical
quantities will give numerical values for all the basic
dimensionless groups equal to those obtained with the
original pump.
hence
If Dl, nl, HI, and Q1 represent the physical quantities
of the second pump, then the following relations satisfy
the requirements for equality of all dimensionless groups:
"RZ
Velacity diagrams for an axial-flow pump
It is seen in Fig. 11 that the development of a cylindrical section through the impeller is a series of vanes resembling air-foil sections. This is the basis for the calculation of axial-flowpump performance from airfoil theory,
which has given results that are surprisingly close to the
actual pump characteristics.
f. Pump Losses and Efficiency. Flattening of the
discharge angle, as previously described, causes actual
flow conditions at the impeller outlet different from those
assumed in the foregoing elementary theory, but it should
not be inferred that the difference between the actual and
ideal theoretical heads represents a corresponding loss in
efficiency.
The principal losses in centrifugal pumps are as follows:
409
Thus, the first group in equation (18) is found to be

Q/wD8, and when the same process is carried out for the
remaining groups, with n-n substituted for w, the general
expression becomes
The last term in equation (19) may also be written

v/uD = l/R,, since the impeller peripheral velocity u is
However, Q1 = H1 = 1 by definition. Combining all

three equations:
I.#
1.6
g 1.4
D:
5
3
1.2
1.0
50 0.8
$
0.6
22 0.4
2 0.2
%
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

FLOW RATIO r FLOW / RATED FLOW
Fie. 12
MARINE ENGINEERING
41 0
Copacitphead and efficiencycharacteristics of a cedtrifugal pump

at various speeds
QIHl
-=
r8nl8Dl6
1
- QH
a8nlaD16 . aanaD5
or
multiplying it by the term n/(2g)'/'. Specific speed is the

most important single index to the potential performance
characteristics of a centrifugal pump. After some
limited experience one can examine the shape of a centrifugal pump impeller and make a fair estimate of its
specific speed. Then, from curves such as Fig. 14, the
efficiency and other performance characteristics of the
pump can be estimated. Of course, the brake horsepower
,
level is also an important index.
One great value of the parameter specific speed is that
it expresses the requirements for similarity of flow conditions in terms of the three essential pump characteristics-capacity, head, and speed-independently of any
physical dimensions ~f the pump.
a. Performance Curves for a Single Pump. By
means of the dimensionless constants derived in the foregoing, it is ,possible to extrapolate the results of a constant-speed test of a particular centrifugal pump to predict its performance at other speeds and also, within
reasonable limits, to predict the performance of any
geometrically similar pump of different size.
The extrapolation process for a single pump is illustrated in Fig. 12. The solid curve represent, in ratio
form, the capacity-head and capacity-efficiency characteristics from actual tests at a constant speed N. To predict the characteristics at a different speed NI, select any
point (Q, H) on the test curve and calculate new values
(Q1, HI) for the new speed such that the dimensionless
constants II. and q, remain the same. Thus for $1 = II.,
By combining only the last two equations:
Also, since qel = q,, it follows that
and
It should also be noted that since the head coefficient II.

and specific capacity q, have remained unchanged, the
specific speed N,, is also the same. The efficiency would
also be expected to remain the same, except for the influence of losses which vary according to laws other than
the fundamental forms in the foregoing. Test results,
such as those shown in Fig. 12, show the efficiency to be
essentially constant.
The principal results are again summariaed in the
familiar rule that if the capacity changes in proportion to
the speed, then the head changes in proportion to the
square of the speed, the efficiency remaining relatively
constant. Also, since the horsepower is equal to capacity
times head, it is seen that the bralce horsepower varies
directly as the cube of the speed, provided the efficiency
is constant. The foregoing rules must be applied cautiously, taking into consideration deviations due to
changes in Reynolds number, size effect, and cavitation.
Also illustrated in Fig. 12 are curves representing the
normal system head and the throttled discharge head.
A particular condition of capacity and head is produced
at the point of intersection of the pump performance
and finally
Usually the units of rpm and gpm are used. The symbol N,, is sometimes used for specific speed (to distinguish it from n,) and the expression becomes:
The specific speed as defined in the foregoing is not a

purely dimensionless number, but this makes little difference since it can be made dimensionless simply by
FLOW RATIO= FLOW/ RATED FLOW

fig. 13
Characteristic curves for a aeries of geometrically similar pumps
curve with the system head curve. It is customary to

specify the rated pump performance at or near the best
efficiency point (abbreviated BEP), and it w
ill be noted
that the pump illustrated in Fig. 12 has a BEP (capacity
ra&o = 1.0) almost on the normal system head curve.
The capacity-head curves of Fig. 12 tend to approach
zero at relatively high rates of flow. It is uncommon to
specify pumps for such a broad range of performance due
to the deleterious effect of high velocities beyond the
BEP, which may cause erosion of the internal parts, and
the extreme low head which may cause an upset of the
internal axial hydraulic balance. When applying centrifugal pumps to a specific set of performance requirements, an operating flow limit twenty percent beyond
the BEP or rated point is commonly accepted.
b. Performance Curves for a Series of Geometrically
Similar Pumps. The same line of reasoning as described
in the foregoing is used to predict the approximate performance of a new pump which is of a different sise but
geometrically similar to one that has been tested. I n
this case the advantage of plotting the capacity-head
values.in ratio form is that such a dimensionless leadcapacity curve then represents approximately the performance of a whole series of geometrically similar
pumps, and only the values corresponding to the design
point need be calciiated from the similarity relationships. If &, H, N , and D are used as the test values at
the designed capacity and speed of the original pump,
then the corresponding values for any other similar pump
of diameter Dl and speed NI may be determined as shown
in the following equations:
Q1 = Q
Nl Dl
(z)
and
& =H
(&)'
(26)
It sometimes is useful to plot the characteristics for

both the original and the new pumps to the same scale.
For example, a design might be laid down for a series of
geometrically similar p,umps with a 10 percent range
of diameters. Then, since the capacity usually can be
varied from about 0.75 to 1.2 times the rated values with
not over a 5 percent change in efficiency, this series of
pumps could cover a fairly wide useful range of headcapacity performance without any .change in the,pbxnp
speed. This is illustrated by the zone outlined with cross
hatching in Fig. 13. Referring to the foregoing equations,
it is seen that construction of the head-capacity curve
for a geometrically similar pump of different size is obtained by varying the head as the square of the diameter
and the capacity as the cube of the diameter, if the speedis held constant.
This same figure also shows how a new useful range
zone can be constructed from the original one by increasing the speed and using a different range of diameters.
I n this way it is possible to constmct a series of slightly
overlapping zones which would serve as a chart for selecting the required size and speed of pump for any desired
combination of capacity and head.
c. Factors Affecting Pump Efficiency. The d c i e n c y
of various sises and types of pumps may, be plotted as a
function of the specific speed N,, with the results shown
in Fig. 14. The specific speeds were calculated on the
basis of the installation conditions of service and are not
necessarily the BEP for the actual pumps. Owing to
such considerations,aa reliability, maintainability, first
cost, space requirements, or choice of stock pump sires,
pumps as selected are generally less efficient than those
designed for optimum efficiency. Thus values of maximum efficiency are frequently found in practice that are
MARINE ENGINEERING
LEGEND

I
41 3
A -RADIAL-FLOW CIRCULATING PUMPS

8- AXIAL 8 MIXED-FLOW CIRCULATING PUMPS
C FEED PUMPS
D- MAIN 8 AUXILIARY CONDENSATE PUMPS
E CARGO W M P S
EFFECT OF VISCOSITY
I MAX. EFF. PUMPING WATER AT ROOM TEMP.

2- MAX. EFF. SAME PUMP WlTH OIL AT 6 0 0 SSU
3 MAX. EFF. SAME PUMP WlTH OIL AT 2 0 0 0 SSU
e 0.2
5
1x
0.2
0.4
RATIO=
0.6
0.8
1.0
ACTUAL FLOW
RATED FLOW
1.2
1.4
Fig. IS Hfect of viscosity on single-stage, double-suction pump

characteristics
SPECIFIC S@EED,N,
RPM fin
CEN
Fig. 14
MIXFLO
n'"
PROPELLER
Repmsentahve pump diciencies Venus specitlc speed for actual

installations
five to ten points higher than those of Fig. 14, for pumps
of low and medium capacities.
The zones on Fig. 14 indicate roughly the regions to
which the particular pump application is confined by
experience and practice. The portion of zone A beyond
6000 specific speed for radial-qow circulating pumps
represents a comparatively small number of installations
where the puinps were selected for a capacity considerably in excess of the maximum efficiency point. Conversely, the range of zone B below about 6000 for mixedflow and axial-flow pumps represents a few cases where
these types were selected for a capacity below the maximum efficiency point. In general the value of 6000
specific speed at maximum efficiency represents the
dividing l i e between radial and mixed-flow pumps.
Similarly, pumps above specific speeds of 7500 are of the
axial-flow propeller type.
The c w e s reveal that the efficiency rises to a maximum and then gradually drops as the specific speed is
further increased. Also, up to a certain limit, higher
efficiencies are obtained with greater volume flows.

Both of these effects are mainly due to the iduence of the
frictional losses in the pump. . If the specific speed is
maintained constant, then, as the capacity increases, the
head loss due t b surface friction becomes a smaller percentage of the actual net head while the shock losses,
clearance losses, and rotation losses remain a relatively
constant percentage. In the case where the volume flow
is maintained constant and the specific speed is varied,
the percentage shock loss remains relatively constant
while the percentages for clearance and windage losses
decrease as the specific speed is raised. The percentage
friction loss decreases rapidly at first, reaches a minimum, and then &dually becomes greater as the specific
speed is further increased.
When using the curves of Fig. 14 for multi-stage
pumps, N,, must be computed for a single stage. When
considering double-auction pumps, the practice of using
one half of total capacity is not consistent and care must
be taken to compare vyious pumps on the same basis.
d. Viscous Liquids. The effect of viscosity on the
characteristics of a singlestage doublbsuction pump is
shown in Fig. 15. The head-capacity and efficiency
versus capacity curves are plotted as ratios referred to
the design conditions for pumping water.
Two important effects of increased viscosity are seen.
First, the head-capacity curve at a constant speed is
lowered so that the speed would have to be increased for
the pump to operate at the rated head and capacity.
The efficiency also is greatly reduced, although the
I
I
I ,
SUCTION LIFT
I
"0
0.2
Fig. 16
0.4
I
1.2
+ DISCHARGE STATIC HEAD
0.6
0.0
1 .O
FLOW RATIO = FLOW/:RATED FLOW
I C
1.4
Condensate pump characteristic curves showing effect of variable suction
epecific speed for a given capacity is higher because of Vl, (c) the impeller inlet peripheral velhity ul, and (d)
the reduced head. Most importantly, the horsepower re- the inlet shock angle. For complete breakdown at zero
quired is significantly increased, either overloading an shock angle (i.e., at about the designed capacity) the
,--relation is found to be
existing driver or requiring a new larger driver.
The values corresponding to the peak efficiency for
V12 0.085 ulS
each curve also have been plotted against specific speed
Haw= 1.485 (27)
2g
2s
on Fia. 14, where they follow a curve which is not greatly
steeper than the effiEiency curves for constant ~ i ~ a c i t - Equation
~
(27) expresses the suction condition limits
at low specific speeds. This resemblance supports the strictly as a function of impeller inlet design. For more
foregoing conclusion that the reduced pump efficiencies general considerations it is found that the requirements
associated with low specific speeds are due primarily to for similarity of impeller inlet conditions can be expressed
greater frictional losses. Further information on viscous- by a dimensionless grouping faentical in form with the
liquid performance may be found in references [9] and previously described 'specific speed. This parameter is
[lo].
known as the suction specific speed S, and is obtained by
e. Suction Lift and Cavitation. The maximum abso- replacing the total head H in the usual specific speed
lute fluid velocity in the suction part of the system usu- formula by the net positive suction head H,. [ll]. Thus,
ally occurs at the impeller inlet, hence this is the zone of in the customary units of rpm and gpm
minimum absolute pressure. If at any point in this zone
the vapor pressure of the fluid is reached, then a portion
of the fluid will evaporate and form vapor pockets in the
stream. These cavities disturb the flow stream and then
I n a radial-flow pump where the suction and discharge
collapse as they are carried into regions of higher pressure, thus producing noise, vibration, and rapid erosion zones of the impeller are clearly separated, the suction
of the surrounding metal surfaces. This general behavior specific speed by itself is usually suf5cient to define the
is known as cavitation and the necessity to avoid it im- cavitation limits independently of the discharge flow
poses definite restrictions on the design and application conditions. However, when the inlet diameter apof centrifugal pumps. C~ndensatepumps are sometimes proaches the discharge diameter, the discharge flow condesigned to operate in the cavitation range as a simple ditions also have an influence on the cavitation condimeans of self regulation in spite of the many disad- tions, so that it becomes necessary to consider both S and
vantages already mentioned. The effect of cavitation on the usual specific speed NEW.When considering doublethe pump characteristic curve is shown in Fig. 16. The suction pumps, care myst be taken to use one half of the
beginning of cavitation is indicated at point B for ten- total flow rate.
The curve's of Fig. 17-"~epr6sent
%he upper limits of
inch submergence and at point D for eightrinch subfor double-auction pumps handling
mergence. Points C and E on the steeply falliig curves specific speed, NEW,
clear water at 85 F at sea level, as published by the Hyare in the region of complete breakdown.
Conditions for incipient cavitation and also for com- dradic Institute [9]. For other conditions of higher
plete breakdown are expressed by correlating: (a) the temperature, for liquids other than water, and for singlenet positive suction head H , , defined as the total suction suction, mixed-flow, and d - f l o w pumps, reference [9]
head in feet of liquid, absolute, less the vapor pressure of contains additional data. When considering the cavitathe liquid in feet, (b) the impeller absolute inlet velocity tion pe$ormance of a pump in relation to its application,
MARINE ENGINEERING
SPECIFIC SPEED. Nw
Ill1If
RPY M
m
Hv4
FOR DOUBLE SUCTION PUMPS
Fig. 17 Upper limita of speciflc speeds for double-suction pumps handling clear water at 85 F at sea level
the user must be careful to distinguish between the net

positive suction head available (abbreviated NPSHA)
and the positive suction head required by ,the pump (abbreviated. NPSHR). For satisfactory performance,
NPSHA must exceed NPSHR by a certain margin which
depends on the particular application. An appreciation
of the extent of analysis and testing that is required in
pursuing the solution to cavitation problems may be obtained from references [12-141.
'
1.3 Pump Characteristics

a. D e s i g n F e a t u r e s . The physical components of a
centrifugal pump consist of one or mor&+pellers, casing,

shaft, bearings, stuffing boxes, coupling, minor components associated with the rotating or stationary parts,
instrumentation, controls, and supporting auxiliaries.
Energy is imparted to the pumped fluid by the impeller, which may be of any of the types described in Section
1.1. All other components play a supporting role in the
makeup of a particular pump design. The casing guides
the fluid from the suction pipe to the eye of the impeller, collects the fluid exiting from the impeller outlet,
guides the fluid to the discharge pipe, and acts as the
major pressure boundary in the manner of a pressure
vessel. Casing designs, classified as to type of flow, are
described in Section 1.1. In addition, casings may be
classified as to the type of collector, i.e., volute casings
which have the form of a volute or spiral in the direction
of flow from the impeller, circular casings which have a
constant cross section concentric with the impeller, or
diffuser casings which have a multiplicity of vanes to
guide the fluid exiting from the impeller and convert the
developed velocity head into pressure.
.Shafts of centrifugal pumps are designed to transmit
the torque needed fox &king the impeller,.to resist the
bending loads that occur due to internal hydraulic forces,

external alignment forces, and weight of parts, and to
control critical shaft vibratory conditions. Practically
all pumps operating at 3500 rpm or less are designed with
a first critical speed above the running speed. For speeds
above 3500 rpm, such as for boiler feed pumps, the operating speed may be above the first critical speed but suitr
ably below the ~econdcrikical speed.
Bearings are of the antifriction type (ball or roller
bearings) or of the sleeve type. (hydrodynamic type).
Ball bearings, such as depicted in Fig. 2, find frequent
application. Pumps running above 3500 rpm usually use
journal bearings of the sleeve type and Kingsbury thrust
bearings, as depicted in Figs. 4 and 5. Figure 3 shows a
combination of types, that is, a ball bearing for the
thrust and upper journal bearing, and a sleeve bearing at
the lower or internal journal. In the latter case, the ball
bearing is grease lubricated and the internal sleeve bearing is water lubricated. The ball bearings shown in Figs.
2, 3, and 8 are lubricated by a self-contained system;
that is, fittings are provided for injecting fresh lubricant
and draining used or excess lubricant. Seals are provided
to retain the grease or oil within the housing. Sometimes
cooling water is circulated in a surrounding cored pas-sage, as in Fig. 2. The bearings for the pumps in Figs.
4 and 5 are lubricated by a separate pressurized system.
The pump in Fig. 7 contains an internal water-lubricated
journal bearing immediately above the impeller. However, it has no thrust bearing, the axial hydraulic t h r u ~ t
and rotor weight being carried by the thrust bearing in
the driver. Water-lubricated bearings are satisfactory
only for clean-water service.
Packed stuffing boxes prevail in marine centrifugal
pumps, although mechanical seals and packless boxes are
finding wider usage. The s t a n g boxes for the pump in
'
Fig. 2 are subjected to positive suction pressure and

therefore no special provision is needed to ensure a steady
trickle of leakage through the packing rings. When the
atuffing box could be subject to lift or vacuum conditions,
such as with the pump in Fig. 3, provision must be mqde
to inject sealing water under positive pressure at a point
~pproximately midway between several rings. Some
sealing water \vill therefore enter the pump, and a small
portion nil1 trickle from the box. The packed stuffing
boxes in Fig. 5 require water cooling jackets due to the
high temperature of the boiler feedwater being pumped
(200-350 F), and due to the greater friction heat generated by the higher speeds. The pump in Fig. 4 contains
packless boxes. Condensate is injected into closerunning-clearance serrated bushings at both ends of the
pump. A small portion of the injection water enters the
pump, but the major part leaks out the ends, collects in
the drain chambers, and passes out the large drain connections. The pump depicted in Fig. 8 contains a mechanical seal. Many commerical pump designs can be
equipped with either conventional packing, mechanical
seals, or packless boxes.
Couplings connect the pump to its driver. Commonly
used types are pin and buffer (Figs. 2 and 3), gear (Fig.
4), rigid or solid (Fig. 7), and hub and spider (Fig. 8).
Couplings are flexible to accommodate small misalignments between the pump and driver, except for the
single-bearing pump of Fig. 7 which requires a solid
(nonflexible) connection. Couplings for small pump
shafts and drivers usually have a straight pressed or
shrink fit (Fig. 8). Medium size and larger pumps usually have the coupling hubs mounted on a tapered fit
(Figs. 2 through 7) for ease of removal.
Marine centrifugal pumps are almost universally
fitted with packing sleeves (Figs. 2 through 4, and 8) and
journal sleeves in water-lubricated bearings (Fig. 3). A
small flinger devise is usually fitted on the shaft immediately outside the stuffing box for throwing off water
migrating along the shdft (Figs. 3, 4, 5, and 8). Casing
wearing rings are universally installed in all types,
whereas impeller rings are generally furnished only on
medium and larger size pumps up to 3500 rpm (Figs. 2
and 3). High-speed boiler feed pumps (Figs. 4 and 5)
generally do not have impeller rings, due to the relatively
higher stresses in the impeller, and the difficulty of maintaining a reliable fastening 'at the joint.
Centrifugal pumps are usually fitted for a minimum of
instrumetation consisting of discharge and suction pressure gages and a lubricant supply indicator. Additional
instrumentation may consist of a speed indicator, vibration indicator, pressure gages for seal water, intermediate-stage pressures, leakoffs, and lubrication systems,
thermometers or thermocouples for indicating temperatures of the pump fluid, lubricant, bearings, and casing,
and' flowmeters to indicate pump flow, recirculation
flows, or leakofl flows.
Control devices are usually associated with the system
(i.e., recirculation control, pressure or temperature control of injection water for seals, remote-operated suction
41 5
and discharge valves, low suction pressure trip) but may

be associated with the diiver (i.e., automatic or remote
s t a ~arid
t stop or shutdown upon loss of lubricant).
The wide range of uses and characteristics of centrifugal pumps on shipboard are described in the following paragraphs.
b. C o n d e n s e r C i r c u l a t i n g P u m p s . Both the main
and auxiliary condensers re@ire a largc+volume flow of
circulating water at relatively low heads; therefore, the
specific speeds of. pumps for this purpose are high. For
the same con9tions of capacity and head, the higher the
specific speed, the lower the size and weight of the pump.
Thus, circulating-pump designs of the radial-flow type
were developed in the direction of increased specific
speed until the limit due to cavitation was reached-at
about N,, = 6000 at maximum efficimcies for doublesuction pumps.
At the same time, mixed- and axial-flow main circulatr
ing pumps are used widely for high-speed'qhips fitted with
scoop circulation. In such cases the circulating pumps
are used only for very low ship speeds and for maneuvering. Since they are operated at full capy5ty for only
short periods, the specific speeds are increased beyond
the usual cavitation limits. These pumps have slightly
lower efficiencies due to the higher specific speeds, but
this is unimportant because of their infrequent oper*
tion, and is fully justified by the large savings in weight
and space.
Motor-driven axial- and mixed-flow pumps require a
larger motor than indicated by the design conditions,
because the steeply rising head'yaracteristic results in a
rising horsepower curve as the capacity is decreased. An
error on the low side in estimating the system head requirements would result in overloading the motor, if its
ratihg were very close to the pump brake horsepower at
the design capacity and head. Radial-flow circulating
pumps are available with a fairly flat, non-overloading
horsepower characteristic, and these units can be used
safely with a motor which is rated close to the pump
horsepower. A typical circulating pump of the vertical
double-suction type, for smaller vessels, is depicted in
Fig. 2. Circulating pumps of the vertical mixed and
axial-flow types for larger vessels are depicted in Figs. 6
and 7.
Seawater circulating pumps for submarines are of the
radial-, mixed-, or axial-flow types, but differ in construction $ that their casings must be designed to withstand the ambient pressure due to submergence, shaft
seals must be suitable for the ambient pressure, and
thrust bearings must be sized for possible high axial
thrusts. Circulating p u q ~ ~ r e e c ~ m m ofound
n l y to be
constant-speed and motor-dr~venin c;mme~cial vessels,
although multi-speed motors are sometimes used. Steam
turbine drives are often used on naval vessels due to the
flexibility of the variabIe-speed driver and the reliability
of steam as a power source. Additional details regarding
circulating
applications may be found in ~eferende
r151.
.
c. C o n d e n s a t e and rain P u m p s . Continuing deA
41 6
MARINE ENGINEERING
where
p, = atmospheric pressure, psia
pop= vapor pressure, psia
p = specific weight of liquid, pcf
ha = total suction head, ft
SINGLE SUCTION PUMP CAPACITY, GPM
Fig. 18
Capacityspeed limitations for condensate pumps wilh h a f h *rough eye of impeller
velopments in marine power plants have increased the

condensate pump head requirements. A typical condensate system consists of an air ejector and gland vapor condenser and a deaerating-type feedwater heater having a
shell pressure of 10 to 60 psig. Such installations, in
general, require a two-stage condensate pump. The condensate pump (sometimes referred to as the condenser
or hotwell pump) is required to develop a total head made
up of the sum of: the friction loss in the system due to
heat exchangers, piping, fittings, and valves; the difference in elevation head between liquid levels in the
hotwell and receiver (usually a deaerating-type feedwater heater); and the difference in pressure levels between the hotwell (usually being under vacuum) and the
receiver which is usually at a shell pressure of 10 to 60
psig.
Because of the moderate to small capacity of these
units, the impellers are generally of the sin&e+uction
type. In vertical pumps the submergence at the top
inlet eye becomes too low if a double-suction construction
is used. With two-stage pumps both suctions are placed
on the inner side of the impellers, that is, the impellers
are positioned "eye to eye," so that the shaft passes
through the casing at the upper part and the single
stufFing box is usually under discharge pressure. A twostage vertical condensate pump is depicted in Fig. 3.
The specific speed is inherently low because of the low
capacity-head ratio, and is limited by the available motor
speed, which is 3500 rpm for a-c motors. However, only
condensate and drain pumps of relatively low capacity
(generally below 100 gprn), such as used with turbogenerator condensers and distilling plants, can operate
at this speed due to the low values of net positive suction

head available. The demand for condensate pumps to
operate at reduced submergence requires lower speeds,
so that the majority of the condensate pumps operate at
1750 rpm or less. Consequently, quite low efficiencies
are to be expected with condensate pumps; this is shown
by zone D of Fig. 14.
Limitations of capacity and speed for condensate
pumps are given by Fig. 18 for single-suction pumps; for
double-auction pumps, the capacities read from Fig. 18
should be doubled [9]. For the small capacity of 100
gpm for the 3500 rpm pump mentioned earlier, the suggested NPSH is four feet. Computing the suction
specific speed, as defined previously in this section, S is
found to equal 12,360. For a condensate pump of 330
gpm operating with an NPSH of 2 feet, the suggested
speed is 1150 rpm and the computed S is 12,400. In
general, condensate pumps perform with a range of suction specific speeds of 12,000 to 18,000, whereas pumps
for other applications p e r f o p with suction specific
speeds below 12,000.
In applying condensate pumps, a distinction must be
made between the terms submergence, NPSH, and suction head. Submergence relates the liquid level in the
hotwell to the elevation setting of the pump. It is a
static dimension, and it is customary to measure it to
the centerline of the suction nozzle of vertical pumps,
and to the shaft centerline of horizontal pumps. Suction
head refers to pressure above atmospheric. NPSH is the
total suction pressure above the vapor pressure of the
liquid on the absolute scale [9]. Thus, denoting NPSH
by Ha,,
-
When the pump takes suction from a hotwell where the

prevailing pressure equals the vapor pressure corresponding to its temperature, the NPSH is the difference in
elevation between the liquid level and the datum (suction
nozzle), minus the entrance and friction losses in the suction piping.
Actually, condensate pumps operate a large part of the
time at values of NPSH below the design value. This is
because condensate pumps are generally driven by constantrspeed motors and there is no external response to a
change in the amount of steam condensed. Turbinedriven units are controlled only by a speed-limiting governor so that their behavior is similar. The results of a reduction in the amount of steam condensed is shown in
Fig. 16. Point A is the maximum-load operating condition corresponding approximately to the pump rating.
This point is at the intersection of the pump headcapacity m e with the system m e .
Assume there is a sudden reduction in condensation
rate to the value E. At first the pump continues to deliver at capacity A, thus reducing the hotwell level and
submergence. When the submergence has lowered to the
value corresponding to the cavitation curve BC, the
pump will be delivering at a capacity corresponding to
point C, and finally equilibrium will be reached at the
submergence and capacity corresponding to point E. A
condensate pump operating on the vertical head curves,
such as BC or DE, is said to be "operating in the cavitation break." Thus the part-load operating conditions
for condensate pumps are severe from the standpoint of
cavitation, and special consideration is given to this in
the impeller and overall design. Aside from the possibility of rapid wear, these conditions are also difficult
from an operating standpoint. If the cavitation part of
the pump curve is very steep, operation is likely to be
unstable with large fluctuations of the pump discharge
pressure. There is also the possibility that the pump will
become completely vapor bound and deliver much less
then the required capacity until the submergence has
risen considerably above the normal value, thus resulting
in intermittent or slug flow in the condensate piping.
An alternative method of operation employs an automatic level control. This arrangement causes part of the
pump discharge flow to be bypassed back to the hotwell,
thereby maintaining a prescribed level of condensate in
the,hotwell and ensuring an adequate NPSH at the pump.
Pump operating conditions sometimes are aggravated
by insistence upon excessive margins in the specified head
and capacity of the pumps. Better operation and longer
life will result if the capacity and pressure loss require-
417
ments are carefully selecked and the design maxgins are

held to moderate values. 'In this connection it should be
noted that great care is necessary in the installation to
prevent air leaks, as tests show conclusively that very
small leaks will cut down the capacity by a marked d e
pee. For the same reaaon it is quite important to avoid
forming air pockets in the syction line. A vent connection located at or near the suction nozzle and connected
to the condenser assists in cleaxing vapor' from the im,.'
peller eye.
d. Boiler Peed Pumps. The etliciency characteristics of boiler feed pumps are shown in Fig. 14. It is seen
that the efficiency zone is slightly higher than for condensate pumps because of the somewhat larger capacity
required. For the same capacity and specific speed, aciencies of the two are about the same despite the larger
number of stages in feed pumps. The efficiency is about
the same for volute and diffuser-type pu,mps, the choice
of type being principally a matter of the pump manufacturer's practice or the customer's preference.
Advances in design have increased pump speeds and
consequently the maximum head per stag6 so that twostage and single4tage feed pumps are available for boiler
pressures up to 1200 psig.
Centrifugal boiler feed pumps are not widely used for
capacities below about 100 gpm because the combination
of low capacity and high relative velocity (due to the
high head per stage) results in impeller passages which
are quite small and therefore are more likely to become
clogged or restricted by smqll-particles or boiler water
deposits.
Figure 4 depicts a horizontal two-stage boiler feed
pump and Fig. 5 depicts a horizontal four-stage pump.
Single-suction impellers of boiler feed pumps develop a
large axial thrust due to the pressure diffeience on the
two sides of the impeller unless both back and front
wearing rings are fitted. For reasons of reliability and
maintainability, however, boiler feed pumps do not have
back wearing rings, nor do they have impeller rings at
the eye. Where an even number of impellers is used,
these axial forces may be balanced by arraaging the impellers to face each other. For more than two stages,
this arrangement requires some of the interstage passages to cross over other stages, thus complicating the
casing design considerably. A balance drum with
labyrinthdthrottling paasages is often used to compensate for the axial thrust of several impellers, but this
arrangement will not always balance the thrust under all
operating conditions; therefore, an external thrust bearing is also required. One means of automatically balancing the axial thrust unde?5al~~condit,ns
of_-operationis
the balance disk, which varies the clearance in the
throttling element and hence the balancing pressure by
permitting a slight axial movement of the pump shaft.
Operation of boiler feed pumps under cavitating conditions is never permissible because of the risk that the
pump suction might become vapor bound. If this happens, all the water in the pump may be evaporated
quickly owing to the large energy losses in the pump
MARINE ENGINEERING
relative to the volume of water it contains, and serious

damage to the running parts probably will result. For
this reason most feed pumps are provided with low-suction pressure trips. For the same reason boiler feed
pumps cannot be operated safely at conditions approaching shut-off and are provided with a recirculating line
which discharges from 5 to 15 percent of the rated
capacity back to the deaerating feed tank. The chances
of complete vapor binding at rates approaching shut-off
are greater than in condensate pumps, not only because
of the larger energy losses in the pump, but also because
a t higher water temperatures a small rise in temperature
results in a greater increase of the vapor pressure.
The limiting suction conditions must depend, therefore, not only upon the specific speed and suction specific speed, but also upon the temperature of the water,
owing to the greater rate of vapor pressure rise. Figure
19, as presented in reference [9], depicts the recommended minimum NPSH for pumps handling water at
temperatures of 212 F and above.
Since, for boiler feed pumps, the specific gravity is
usually less than 1.0, care must be taken to include this
factor when converting actual suction pressures in psi to
values of NPSH, and when converting suction and discharge pressures to total head.
A boiler feed pump is required to supply water a t a
pressure sufficient to overcome the sum of the highest
safety. valve setting of the boiler, the pressure due to the
static elevation of the boiler above the pump, and the
friction head loss in the system of piping, valves, and
fittings. It is usual practice to plot the system head
curve and superimpose on it the head-capacity curve of
the pump as depicted in Fig. 20(a).
A turbinedriven boiler feed pump may employ any of
the following three types of governors:
1. Constant-speed governor only.
2. Constant-pressure governor to maintain a constant discharge pressure at all capacities.
3. Differential-pressure governor to maintain a specified differential-pressure across the feedwater
regulator.
These governors are described further by the simplified
diagrams of Fig. 20. In the constant-speed governor
system, Fig. 20(b), the feedwater regulator throttles all
the difference between pump discharge pressure and the
required pressure. The throttled pressure differential
represents a large waste of power, hence a constant-speed
governor is rarely used alone; it is usually provided
along with a constant-pressure or differential-pressure
governor, in which caqe the speed governor provides a
secondary means of control when the pressure governor
may be temporarily out of service. In the constant-pressure governor system, Fig. 20fc), the governor controls
the turbine and pump speed to provide a specified constant pressure at the pump discharge. The feedwater
regulator throttles the variable difference between the
constant pressure and the system head curve. In
the differential-pressuregovernor system,-Fig. 20(d), the
SYSTEM MAD CURVE

WlTH PEEDWATER
REGULATOR FULLY
H-o CHARACTERISTIC
OF PUMP
500
400
P
OPEN
OESIQN -HEAD
300
200
-----
~ O I L E RPRESSURE
L
C
a
o
+.I00
r 90
I OESIGN
80
*
5
In
PLUS STATIC
ELCVATION
70
60
50
CAMCITY
CAPACITY
(a1 TYPICAL BOILER FEED SYSTEM
40
30
2
k
20
SPEED
V)
I0
I
CAPACITY, GPM
Fig. 19
Net positive suction head for single-suction, centrifugal, hot water

Pump'
governor oontrols the turbine and pump speed to provide

a specified differential pressure across the feedwater
regulator. The pump discharge pressure coincides with
the system head curve.
,
The diagram in Fig. 20(e) shows the system head curve
for the boiler feed system of a nuclear steam plant. In
this case the pump is called upon to operate at its highest
speed at the low-flow condition. The operation of the
pump is stable, however, since, even though there may be
an inflection in its speed curve, there is no inflection in
its horsepower curve throughout the range of needed
capaoity.
When applying boiler feed pumps, the method and
amount of recirculation must be coordinated with the
method of pressure governing. A widely accepted practice [5] is to hold the temperature rise at low flows to 15
deg F, though rises of 20 or 25 deg I? may be found in use.
A boiler feed pump operating under the control of a differential-pressure governor system requires a certain
amount of horsepower at the minimum-flow condition,
aa indicated in Fig. 20(d). If for some reason the control
system is made inoperative and the pump then operates
at constant speed, the horsepower to be dissipated is a
larger amount, as shown in Fig. 20(b). Thus the reek
culation flow must be sized for the \\?orst condition that
the system may encounter. In addition, consideration
must be given to whether the recirculation flow is permitted only a t or near the minimum-flow condition, or
whether it is continuous.
The various types of recircualtion devices and systema
may be summarized as follows. All systems require a
pressure breakdown device which may be a singb plate
orXce, a multiple orifice (spool type), or a small-bore
tube (friction tubing). The pressure breakdown device
SYSTEM HEAD CURVE

wlm FEEDWER
RESULATQR
/:
---ELEVATION
I'
URE
-*---
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
IMSIGN
CAPACITY
CAPACITY
tb) CONSTANT-SPEED GOVERNOR SYSTEM
H-Q GHARACTERISTIC
OF PUMP-CWSTAMT SPEED
WlTH F E E D W E R
is installed in a line connected from the pump discharge

back to the deaerating feed tank. For continuous recirculation, no other devices are fitted, except stop valves
for isolating the line. For automatic intermittent recirculation, a control device is required. This may be a
diaphragm-operated valve, controlled by an air signal
from a flow transmitter, which in turn is connected to a
flow-measuring orifice in thwpump discharge line. Another type is a special discharge check valve in which the
movement of the-internal check operates a pilot valve
that opens or $lcises the recirculation line.
Most marine boiler feed pumps are driven by steam
turbines. Whereas Figs. 4 and 5 depict coupled designs,
single- and two-stage types that have pump shafts common with the turbine shaft are frequently found. Smallcapacity pumps for waste-heat boilers or small auxiliary
boilers are usually of the end-suction type, Fig. 8, and
are motor driven. Some ir~stallationsutilize vertical
multi-stage pumps, either motor or turtine driven, and
some vessels have the feed pump driven by the main propulsion turbines or by the turbogenerator set.
e. Feed Booster Pumps. Feed boosterr-pumps
- are
needed in connection with deaerating heater type feed
systems where
deaerating
heater
space
at arestrictions
sufficient static
prevent
elevation
locating
above
the
the boiler feed pump suction to provide the required net
positive suction head. In the absence of a large static
submergence a t the suction, the required cavitation
limits are satisfied by the booster pump discharge pressure.
With this arrangement a relhxivelv low NPSH condition occurs at thevfeed booster
However, these
pumps usually are designed for much lower speeds and
heads so that the impeller is larger and the suction
velocities are lower than in boiler feed pumps. The result is that, for about the same suction specific speed, 8,
PLUS STATIC
CAPACITY
le 1 CONSTANT-PRESSURE GOVERNOR SYSTEM
H -Q CURVES AT
SPEEDS ABOVE 100%
H-Q C M M E R I S T I C
OF PUMP-160% s m
H-Q CHARACTERISTLC
0
W
REWLAlOR ,
V A R I a I L E PRESSU#
VARIABLE SPEED
5 STATIC
I
CAPACITY
(dl DIFFERENTIAL-PRESSURE GOVERNOR SYSTEM

Fig. 20
CAPACITY
(el NUCLEAR STEAM POWER PLANT
Boiler feed pump and system characteristic curves
MARINE ENGINEERING
a lower net positive suction head is permitted for the

booster pump. Also, the possibility of complete vaporbation is reduced in the booster pump because the ratio
of energy loss to pump volume is so much smaller than
for boiler,feed pumps.
Feed booster pumps are in many respects similar to
condensate pumps. Booster pumps do not operate in the
cavitation break, a s mentioned previously for condensate
pumps, 'as a positive stable performance is required in
order to provide the NPSHR for the boiler feed pump.
The capacity of the booster pump is essentially controlled
by the boiler feed pump, which in turn is controlled by
the boiler feedwater regulator. A booster pump must be
provided with a recirculating line, usually piped back to
the deaerating feed tank, to protect the booster pump
when the feed pump is not in operation. A typical twostage booster pump is similar to the condensate pump
depicted in Fig. 3. A singlestage booster pump would
be similar to that of Fig. 3 except that there would be no
second (upper) stage. Booster pumps frequently use
only ball bearings, due to the severe duty imposed upon
them by tbe higher water temperatures and danger of
flashing w h i ~ bmake water-lubricated bearings less suitr
able.
f. Cargo Pumps. Representative efficiencies of cargo
pumps are shown in Fig. 14. Axially split casing types of
pumps, with double-suction impellers, similar to that depicted in Fig. 2, are used in the capacity range of 2000 to
20,000 gpm at total heads of 500 ft. This type of pump
can be horisontal or vertical, being driven by a geared
steam turbine in the main machinery space, with the
driving shaft extending through a bulkhead or deck stuffing box to the pump located in an adjacent pump room;
or the pump may be of the deepwell type. The geared
turbine drive permits the use of a highly efficient turbine
far the large power requirements and permits compatible
,matching of the most desirable pump and driver speeds.
It provides variable-speed operation in order to obtain
high speeds for producing the highest heads or lower
speeds to suit lower values of NPSHA, thus enabling the
pump to respond to the wide range of system head
characteristics that are encountered under different
operating conditions.
The horiaontal-shaft arrangement has the disadvantage that misalignment may ensue under different conditions of vessel loading. To overcome this, and to reduce fore-and-aft space requirements, vertical doublesuction pumps are used in many vessels. Here the pumps
are driven by a turbine and reduction gear located on a
machinery flat extending from the main machinery
space, directly over the pump room. Vertical shafting is
used to connect the pumps and drivers.
Cargo pumps are required to pump a variety of volatile liquids and thus require means to ensure continuous
pumping under possible vapor-binding conditions. Most
older vessels used reciprocating steam pumps, which were
operated during the stripping operation. This type of
pump, being positive displacement,was capable of pumping vapor6 as well as liquids. It wm operated coin-
i
LEGEND
1
2
3
4
6
8
7
8
B
10
11
12
13
14
15
18
SUCTION BELL
FIR-AGE
IMPELLER (AXIAL.FLOWTYPEI
FIRSTSTAGE DISCHARGE BOWL
EWALlZER LINE
SPACER PIECE
SECONDSTAGE SUCTION BELL
SECOND STAGE IMPELLER (MIXED-FLOWTYPE)
SECONDSTAGE DISCHARGE BOWL
THIRD,STAGE SUCTION BELL
THIRD STAGE IMPELLER (MIXED-FLOWTYPE)
THIRDSTAGE DISCHARGE BOWL
VENTLINE
SUPPORT COLUMN
WAFT
PACKING BOX
DISCHARGE HEAD 81DRIVER SUPPORT
Fig. 21
Deepwell-type centrifugal pump
cidently with the centrifugal cargo pump, where it effectively removed the vapor collection at the suction of the
centrifugal pump. A variety of systems for removing
vapor is found in modern vessels. One such type employs an integral priming or scavenging impeller located
at both ends of the regular impeller. The vapor discharged from the priming impellers is piped to a separator tank, from which any liquid present may drain back
to the pump suction, and from which vapor is piped to
the overboard vent system. Another type makes use of
a separate vacuum pump which pumps vapor from a
separator tank located in the main pump suction line (see
Fig. 21 of Chapter 18). The vapor passes through an

interceptor tank, where any liquid carryover is removed
and drains back to the main pump suction. The discharge of the vacuum pump is piped to the overboard
vent system. Associated instrumentation and con.trols
cause the vacuum pump to start and stop as the amount
of vapor accumulates in the separator tank. Another
type, which is used with the deepwell type of pump, incorporates an automatic priming valve.
In addition to steam turbine drives, cargo pumps may
be driven by electric or hydraulic motors, by diesel
engines, or by gas turbines. A common arrangement is a
vertical deepwell-type pump driven by a vertical explosion-proof votor, or by a horizontal diesel or steam turbine driviqg through a rightrangle gear. Such a design,
depicted in Fig. 21, is of the single-suction type and is
multi-stage. It may contain a specially designed firstr
stage impeller to suit the particular suction conditions.
For the handling of low-temperature liquefied gases,
cargo pumps are almost without exception of the submerged deepwell type, or of the completely submerged
canned-motor type. The deepwell type is mounted vertically, with its driving motor located on the deck above.
It is also used for chemical cargoes. The canned-motor
type is mounted vertically with the motor a t the bottom
of the cargo tanks. The motor windings and bearings
are completely submerged in the pump fluid. Both
types usually contain a special design of suction impeller
compatible with the low values of NPSHA. Additional
discussi~nregarding cargo pumps is given in references
[lo], [16], [17], and [18].
g. Bilge and Ballast Pumps. The general requirements of bilge pumps are similar to those of condensate
pumps in that, due to the liftrequired of bilge pumps, the
suction pressure is considerably below atmospheric. In
comparison, the capacity is larger and the discharge pressure is less. The impeller passages must be much larger
in order to pass dirt and bilge debris.
As no static submergence is available to fill the pump
with water, an auxiliary priming devide is required. This
usually ia a positive-displacement air pump either
directly attached to the main pump shaft or operated
separately. An air float valve is used to isolate the air
pump after priming has been accomplished, thus avoiding the chqrning loss of this element during normal operation. Some vessels employ an independent central
priming pump for all bilge and ballast services.
Bilge and ballast pumps are usually of the axially split
type, either horizontal or vertical, similar to the pump
depicted in Fig. 2.
h. General Service. Centrifugal pumps are used for
many minor and supporting services for capacities up to
5000 gpm and for total heads up to about 350 ft. Typical
applications are for fire main, flushing, cargo oil tank
cleaning, refrigeration condenser cooling, distilling plant
feed, condensate, brine overboard, fresh water, and sanitary systems. Pump construction for these services is
42 1
usually that of the axially split casing type, either horizontal or vertical, similar to that depicted in Fig. 2, or
of the end-suction type as depicted in Fig. 8.
i. Primary Cooling Service. Pressurized water reactor systems require a circulating pump that is of the endsuction type with the impeller mounted directly on the
motor shaft. The bearings are lubricated by the pump
fluid, and the motor'windkgs are isolated in a separate
casing.
j. Jet Propulsion. Pumps are finding increased
usage as pro dlsion devices, either as the main propulsion
device or asPan auxiliary device such as a bow thruster,
These pumps are usually of the mixed-flow or axial-flow
type. The particular design depends on the exact matching of the pump capacity, total head, speed, and type of
driver, which may be an electric motor, internal combustion engine, or gas turbine. Additional discussion of jet
propulsion applications of pumps is contained in refer,
ences [I91 to [21].
\
k. Materials. Centrifugal pumps for merchant vessels usually are made entirely of nonferrous materials
when used for seawater applications. Cashgs and impellers are generally of cast and machined bronze. Shafts
and sleeves are generally of nickel-copper alloys, suitably
hardened. Sleeves and wearing rings are of bronze or
nickel-copper alloys, depending on the severity of service
conditions. Occasionally impellers and the internal surfaces of casings are coated with one of several commercial
coatings available. Seawater casings subject to submergence pressure aboard submarines are cast of highstrength alloy bronze or of a.8opper-nickel alloy.
For freshwater services, cast iron is occasionally used
for casings, but bronze is the most common casing material for condensate and other low-pressure applications.
Various grades of stainless steel are used for high-pressure boiler feed pump casings. Impellers for low-pressure
services are of bronze or nickel-copper alloy and are of
stainless steel for boiler feed service. Shafts for lowpressure services are of carbon steel or stainless steel and
are of stainless steel for boiler feed service. Sleeves and
wearing rings are of bronze, nickel-copper alloys, or
stainless steel depending on the severity of the service.
Materials for cargo oil pumps must be suitable for seawater, as they are often used for ballasting service.
Pumps for low-temperature liquefied gases are usually of
stainless steel, the particular grade depending on the low
temperature encountered.
Wearing rings for the caaing and impeller are always
made of dissimilar grades of bronze or other alloys and
are of different hardnesses to provide the best wearing
properties at the close running cleyances. The same
practice is followed for th%rotatiig Eidd s t a h n a r y parts
of pressure breakdown labyrinths and balancing disks
and drums.
Bolting is usually made of bronze or a nickel-copper
alloy for low-pressure services and of low-alloy steel for
boiler feed pumps.
422
MARINE ENGINEERING
Sectien 9
Reciprecating Steam P~mps
2.1 Ckrssificdion and Types. The use of recipmcatr
ing pumps in the marine field has diminished such that
they are now primarily used only for specialized purposes.
Reciprocating pumps are of the positivedisplacement
type; that is, pumps which displace a constant volume
of fluid from the suction to discharge port, for each stroke
or revolution of the driven shaft. Reciprocating pumps
are basically of two types: ( 1 ) the steam-driven directr
acting type, where the steam-end and the reciprocating
pump are built together as a unit with the motivating
Power being provided by the steam-end; and ( 2 ) the
Power Pump t.We where the reciprocating action of the
Pump is provided by the rotary motion of an external
prime mover and is converted to reciprocating motion by
crankshafts, eccentrics, and cam plates, piston rods, etc(see Section 3 ) . Regardless of the type, the Pump end is
classified the same.
A reciprocating steam pump consisting of single steam
and liquid cylinders and pistons with one piston rod is
known as a single or simplex pump. Figure 22 shows a
vertical simplex double-acting type. Where two such
pumps of identical size are arranged side by side and the
steam valve of one side obtains its motion from the piston
rod of the other side, the unit is known as a duplex pump.
Figure 23 depicts a vertical duplex double-acting type of
pump.
Both of the pumps shown in Figs. 22 and 23 are known
as vertical pumps because the axial centerline of the
cylinders is in a vertical position. Horizontal types are
those having the axial centerline of the cylirlders in a
horizontal position.
The size of a reciprocating steam pump is described by
giving first the steam cylinder diameter, then the water
cylinder diameter, and finally the pump stroke, all in
inches.
2.2 Flow Rate and Piston Speeds. A reciprocating
steam pump produces a constant rate of flow throughout
most of each stroke; however, the flow is reduced
abruptly at the end of each stroke as the piston decelerates and reverses direction. Figure 24 shows, in relative
terms, the maximum and mean flows for a simplex pump
and duplex pump. It is desirable to fit air chambers a t
the discharge to smooth out the flow pulsations to acceptable values.
Basic piston speeds, as recommended by the Hydraulic
Institute [9], are shorn in Fig. 25. The curve applies to
simplex and duplex pumps of conventional design operating on cald water or on liquids possessing a viscosity of
250 SSU or lees. However, for handling viscous liquids,
and when pumping hot water, lower piston speeds must
be used; for recommended values, consult reference [Q].
Where U is the piston speed in fpm, Q is the volume
rate of flow in cfs, D is the liquid piston diameter in feet,
and S is the slip ratio, the piston speeds may be calculated
by one of the following formulas:
For simplex pumps:
u=-
WQ
(30)
(*/4)D2(1 - S)
pumps:
'
*WQ
(31)
(u/4)D2(1- S )
2.3 ~ ~ l steom
~ + i pump
~ ~
cylinder sizes,
The steam piston diameter must be proportioned torrectly in relation to the liquid piston diameter to obtain
the desired pump pressure for a given steam pressure.
Since the steam cylinder can have no cutoff, due to the
negligible inertia of the moving parts, the pressure at the
end of the stroke is less than the steam line pressure only
because of friction and shock losses.
The required ratio of steam piston area to liquid piston area can be calculated from the following expression:
Da2 Dm2 &(pa
PW
- p,
--
(32)
~
where
p, = net liquid pressure, psi

p, = steam inlet pressure, psia
p, = steam exhaust pressure, psia
pl = steam pressure loss entering and leaving steam
cylinder, psi
D , = steam piston diameter, f t
D , = liquid piston diameter, f t
Em = mechanical efficiency
I n selecting cylinder diameter ratios, it is common
practice to add a margin of 10 to 15 percent to the values
obtained by calculation.
2.4 Mechanical and Volumetric Efficiency. Average
values for the mechanical efficiency of reciprocating
steam pumps are shown in Fig. 26. The volumetric efficiency is given as a loss in percentage of the displacement
and is then called "slip." The slip a t rated piston speed
for new pumps averages from 2 to 5 percent, but this
value increases as the pumps wear in service, so that far
design purposes it is better to allow for about 10 percent
slip. The slip values at different rated pressures are
based on pumps with packings designed for these pressures.
2.5 Steam Consumption. The approximate steam
consumptio~lof a reciprocating pump at any given rate of
fluid flow and total pressure is readily calculated from a
consideration of the equilibrium of steam and liquid
forces on their respective pistons at the ends of the discharge stroke. At this instant these forces, with due
1
2
3
4
6
6
7
8
0
Fig. 22
LEGEND
STEAMCYLINDER
STEAM CYLINDER l
STEAM ROD
LIQUID CYLINDER
- LIQUID CYLINDER LINER
LIQUID PISTON
LIQUID PISTON ROD
VALVE SERVICE
LIQUID PISTON P ~ K I N G
Vertical simplex pump
allowance for mechanical friction, are equal and the

steam cylinder terminal pressure may be determined
accordingly. The cubic content of the steam cylinder
divided by the specific volume of steam in the cylinder
gives the weight of steam contained in the cylinder at this
inetant, and this weight of steam multiplied by the
double strokes per minute of the pump gives the approximate steam consumption for each end of a double-acting
cylinder.
LEGEND
STEAM CYLINDER
STEAM ROD
LIQUID CYLINDER
LIQUID CYLINDER LINER
LIQUID PISTON ROD
LIQUID PISTON
LIQUID PISTON PACKING
LIQUID VALVE SERVICE
AIR CHAMBER
Fig. 23
Vertical duplex pump
The actual specific v o l p e of-the &earn a t the terminal

pressure will depend upon the amount of-wndensation
occurring during the stroke, and the steam leakage during the stroke also must be considered. It is customary
to assume that the steam is in a saturated condition a t
the terminal pressure and determine a corresponding
overall condensation and leakage factor from actual
steam consumption tests. On this basis the steam consumption may be obtained as follows. Using the nota-
MARINE ENGINEERING
PUMP STROKE
Fig. 26
~ 1 24
~ .
the following additional notation
w = pump steam consumption, lb/hr

Q = volume rate of liquid flow, cfa
V, = saturated specific volume a t PI, CU fft/lb
The steam consumption
for a simplex double-acting pump and twice this for a

duplex double-acting Pump. But
,
'
Mechanical efficiencies and clearance ratios for reciprocating pumps
rate
0 ~
variation in reciprocating pump
tion stated earlier with equation (321, first estimate the

steam cylinder terminal pressure, Pr, from
Emplo&
- INCHES
425
40
- WPLEX POWER
c-
TRIPLEX
AND
WMPS
MULTIPLEX
the factor C2 are given in curve form on Fig. 27. It will

be noted that the condensation factor depends primarily
(38) on the piston speed, but is also influenced by the steam
cylinder diameter and the terminal pressure. The choice
It is often useful to have this result in terms of piston of these three factors and the wgy in which they are used
speed rather than capacity, and since
is not accidental, but is based on an analysis of the heat
exchange between the steam and the cylinder walls.
WQ
U =
2.6 Steam-End Valves and Linkages. The simplest
(.~/4)D~'(l- S)
(39) type of steam valve is the direct-acting D-slide valve
showncan
onbethe
duplex
pump
of Fig.
23.where
Thisthe
type
of
for a simplex pump, substitution of this in the foregoing valve
used
only on
a duplex
pump
valve
steam consumption equation results in
motion for one side is obtained from the motion of the
W = 0.106 C1CZUDaZpt
piston
rod of the other side. For a simplex pump, a free(40)
moving
steam-operated main valve with a meahanically
+
or twice this for a duplex pump.
actuated pilot valve is required since at slow speed there
A further useful relation is obtained by dividing the might be only power enough to bring a mechanically
Steam comum~tionby the liquid homepower. Thus the actuated main valve to dead center, thus causing the
liquid horsepower (any fluid)
pump to stop. Even for duplex pumps a slide valve canQP
144
not
have lap or lead for the same reason.
pw= A
When a slide valve, either main or pilot, is used for a
550
vertical pymp, a lateral preseure is required to hold the
valve against its seat; for this reason piston-type main
valves are more suitable for vertical pumps. However,
small-area slide pilot valves are found to be quite satis-
PW= 0.~03427Em(l - S)U(p, - p,)Da2
(41)
So the steam rate per fluid horsepower is
2(r/4)DWzL(1 S)
S.R.
w = 30.9 ClCZ
-
p,
(42)
Em(1 - 8 ) bt - pa)
for either simplex or duplex pumps.
Average values of the mechanical efficiency, slip ratio,
and clearance ratio CI are shown in Fig. 26. Values of
p w
Independent inlet and e&aust cyli&r ports are used

with the direct-acting D-type slide valve-?n duplex
pumps, the exhaust ports being on the inside so that as
the piston approaches the end of its stroke the exhaust
port is closed, and steam trapped ahead of the piston
becomes compressed and serves as a cushion which prevents the piston from striking the cylinder head.
For duplex steam cylinders of about 10 in. diameter
and over with a direct-acting slide valve, a cushion-
MARINE ENGINEERING
release valve is usually fitted between the steam and

exhau9t ports which is essentially an orifice
the cushioning actionat the end of the stroke. The valve
is located in a bypass between the inlet and exhaust ports
and is manually adjusted by a handwheel on the outside.
If the cushion valve is fully closed, complete cushioning
is obtained; if the valve is partly opened, the compression is partly relieved by the amount steam flowing
through the omhion valve. B~ manually adjusting the
cushion valve a smooth stopat the end of the stroke can
be obtained under all ordinary conditions of pressure and
~h~ application of a steamdperated main piston valve
with a direct-acting pilot slide valve to a simplex pump
is shown in ~ i 22.~ . this case the main slide valve of
the fully balanced piston typeis controlled by the pilot
valve and has a
slide valve which rides above the
Slide valves are limited to

sizes of about 25 in'
pressures
150 psig'
in diameter and steam
of
They are further
to
for
diameters
about 400 F for the larger sizes and 450
of 10 in. and kss. Above these temperatures it
is
difficult to lubricate the slide properly, and the
likely to become warped and cause excessive leakage'
Balanced piston valves are used when the size Or
arc
perature limits exceed those for which D-slide
may
bo
suitable. For a duplex pump the piston
must
direct-operated, but for simp1ex pumps the
consist, as previously explained, of a steam-operated
main valve controlled by an auxiliaw
of either the 'lido
With a steam-operated main
or piston type, starting and cushioning at the end of tho
stroke are accomplished through the starting and
ports. AS the main steam piston approaches the end
its stroke, the main port, which is open to exhaust,
'*
In the case of a duplex pump it is evident that the

slide valve must not reach dead center until the piston
is near the end of its stroke and that this cannot hold for
both pistons unless lost motion is provided in the valve
linkage. Even with a liberal amount of lost motion
some variation in the length of the stroke of a duplex
pump is to be expected under different load conditions.
2.7 Liquid-End Valves. Two of the numerous types
of liquid-end valves employed appear in the pump sectional illustrations. Stem-guided metal disk valves are
~houmin Figs. 22 and 23. Rubber composition disk
valves may be used for moderate pressures handling cold
water. For higher pressures \ring-guided valves with a
conical facing are used.
There are numerous other types of pump valves for
various special applications. Among these may be menh n e d the spherical or ball valve and the semi-spherical
valve, both desirable for handling viscous liquids because
of the clear area through the seat, and the hinge or flap
valve which is used for liquids carrying solid matter such
HS sewage. It mill be noted that all valves are installed in
11 horizontal position and that the valves are all mounted
427
pumps are not suitable for operation with more than

about 50 to 75 deg F of initial superheat, since a higher
superheat prevents the formation of sufficient condensate
to lubricate the moving parts.
2.10 Materials. For steam-ends, steel is used for
greater strength in cylinder castings and heads when the
steam pressure exceeds about 300 psig, and is used exclusively for this purpose in naval vessels because of the
low shoclr resistance of cast iron. Ductile iron is also
used and bas proven to be shock resistant.
For pump ends handling fresh water, the cylinder castings may be of iron or steel depending on the pressure.
The working parts generally are made of bronze; but
piston rods, valve disks, and stems may be made of
monel preferably or hewreated .atahless steel for
greater strength or improved wearing quality.-'For m&umum corrosiorl resistance, one of several grades of
austenitic stainless steel conforming to ASTM specific*
tion A296 may be used.
For seawater service, nonferrous working parts are
used exclusively in the pump ends, and it is better t o have
the complete pump end of nonferrous construction.
Mineral oils of any character, including petroleum fuel
MARINE ENGINEERING
and lubricating oils, generally are handled by pumps of

The pump-end cylinder liner and
all-ferrous
pistonhaterials are usually made the same as the comesteel is
Bponding steam-eIld itemsbut hardened
for valve seats, disks, and springs, with the
valve seats of a material or hardness different from the
Additional discussion of materials for reciprocating
steam pumps and their design features are contained in
references [9] and [161.
2.1 1 Applicatidns. At the present time Very few reciprocating steam pumps are used for continuous service.
They are very useful, however, and continue to be used
or emergency units for boiler feed service.
as
The simplicity of operation and self-priming characteristic of a reciprocating steampump make it well suited
to bilge, ballat, general service, fuel oil transfer, and
cargo oil stripping.
Vertical Pumps are preferred for thelarger sizes since

less floor space is required for a given capacity- 4further
advantage of the vertical Pump is that the weight the
in less
pistons is not carried by the cylinders,
piston friction and wear.
For the same capacity and Pressure) a simp1ex pump is
generally lower in cost and more economical than the
duplex type. A simplex pump is also more suitable for
severe suction conditions where the pump may lose its
supply of liquid temporarily. I n such m5es the simplex
pump, which always operates on full stroke, may recover
its suction sooner than a duplex pump which may shod
stroke under these conditions.
The steadier flow characteristics of a duplex pump, as
compared to the simplex pump) have been mentioned'
This effect may be offset to a considerable extent by the
longer pause a t the end of the duplex Pump stroke-
Section 3
Power Pumps
Basic Types. The term "power
3.1 Detlnitions
pump" is used to describe any type of pump whose action
depends on the recipmcating motion of pistons or
plungers and whose motive power is from an external
The fixed-stroke power pump is driven through a

crankshaft and connecting rods by a driving unit (USUally an electric motor) that is either direct connected,
chained, belted, or geared to the crankshaft. Variablestroke power pumps usually employ other means of conVerting rotary motion of the applied power to the reciprocating motion of the pistons or plungers.
Power pumps are further classified according to the
arrangement of pistons or plungers. A single or simplex
pump has one piston or plunger. A duplex pump has two
pistons or plungers. In like manner a triplex pump has
three, and a
pump has more than three pistons
or plungers. The reciprocating pistons or plungers may
be single-acting or double-acting.
3.2
Fixed-Stroke Power Pumps
General Considerations and Applications. The

pump end of a fixed-stroke power pump is identical in
function u<th the pump end of a direceacting reciproeating steam pump. An important differencein principle
is that the power pump is essentially a constant-speed
machine and rill deliver approximately the same capacity at any pressure within the capability of the driver and
the strength of the pump.
of motor-driven fixed-stroke power
The
pumps is usually limited to systems which require a
of speed change. These types are suitable for
start and stop service in conjunction with pneumatic
Power pumps of the triplex construction, which is not

practical in directacting steam types, have a smoother
discharge flow than single and duplex pumps and were
formerly used for boiler feed service or low-capacity Po*
feed pumps. Power pumps offer higher mechanical efficiencies than centrifugal Pumps for small to moderate
capacities with moderate to high pressures.
I n general, fixed-stroke Power Pumps are provided with
a discharge relief valve of ample capacity to take care of
changes in the flow that are in excess of the range pre
vided by the speed regulation and to-prOtect the pump
from damage due to the accidental closing of the discharge
line.
b. Performance Char=teristics- The flow rate
ations of single and duplex d0uble-acting and trip1ex
single-acting power Pumps are shown in Fig. 24. Owing
to the crank action, the piston speed and pump capacity
sine wave characterfor a simplex pump have a
will be noted that the capacity variation is
istic.
greatly reduced in duplex pumps and is reduced still more
in triplex pumps with equal crank phase angles.
Limiting piston speeds of Power Pumps are somewhat
higher than for directacting Pumps shown in Fig. 25.
The limitation on piston speed is, in general, due to the
time required for the neceSSwuY acceleration and retardam
of
tion of all m0Vi11g elements including the
fluid in the suction and discharge pipes rather thanfrom
The
consideration of stress in the working pa*pump is limited to someurhat lower piston speeds because
of the necessity of cushioning or smoothly retarding the
steam piston, connecting rod, valves, and linkages which
represent a considerable reciprocating mass that is not
present in the power Pump. Acceleration and retadation of the fluid columns are often limiting f~Ct0mand
O
FLUID HORSEPOWER
Fig. 28
Mechanical efficiency of fixed-stroke power pumps
are reduced
a minimum in the triplex Pump because
of less flow variation.
The
of power Pumps is influenced
to a considerable extent by the friction l0SSeS in stuffing
boxes, crank and rod bearings, and by the gearing losses.
Figure 28 indicates the appfoximate efficiency of singlereduction geared outside-packed power pumps as a funcof the fluid
Double-reduction geared
units will have a loss from 2 to 4 percent greater.
c- ChnetIuction Details. Both the piston-type constmotion with piston packing rings and the outside
packed plunger
are used for Power pumps. The
outside-pacM type has less slip and also has the practiadvantage that any packing ledage will be evident
and can be remedied without disassembling the pump.
A
duplex piston-tme Power pump is shown
in Fig. 29- In general, the remarks in Section 2 (on
Steam pumps) regarding liquid-end parts
and
to fixed-stmke Power Pumps
when used for similar services. The horizontal duplex
type is used for capacities of 1to 500 gpm and mdderate
pressures up to
PS&. For larger sizes,
vertical Pumps are preferred because of their reduced
'pace
Vertical Pumps are used for
capacities of l5 to 1300 gPm and higher discharge pressures up to 800 psig.
Power ends of horizontal pumps are usually of the enclosed crankcase type with splash lubrication depicted
in Fig- 29- Smaller sizes may employ a rotating eccentric
instead of a crankshaft. The side thrust of the connect
ing rod is carried by a guided crosshead. The piston rod
is supported a t one end by the crosshead and by the
liquid piston a t the opposite end. The drive is of the
double-reduction type, thacis, the crankshaft is driven
by herringbone gears from an intermediate shaft which
in turn is belt p'i. chain driven by the diving motor.
Owing to the inherently low pump speed of 100 to 450
Ppm because of piston speed limitations, motor speds
usually are kept ]ow in order to reduce the gearing ratio.
A balance must be maintained between the increased
cost of slower speed motom and the costof the reduction
gearing, chain, or belt drive. F~~smaller sizes this results in motor speeds up to 1750 rpm, but in the larger
units 550 to 850 rpm are more frequent,
3.3 Variable-Shoke power pumps. \ There are two
fundamentally different types of variablestroke pumps.
These are the radial-piston type and the axial-piston
type.
,
a. Radial-Pmn Type. ~ ~ , - ~ i variable~ l - ~ i ~
stroke pumps are espaially suitable for the hydraulic
transmission of power where the machinery to be driven
is relatively large and 8lOwmoving, &]thoughtheir appfication is by no melimited to this category. ship
machinery of this type includes steering gears, windlasses,
cranes, and
As a direct source of energy.this typeof pump is subject to the limitation that it can be used only wit. fluids
which are suitable lubricants for the worbg
parts. F~~
hydraulic power transmission, the fluid used generally
can be selected to suit the lubrication requirements of the
pump.
The efficiencyof radial-piston pumps is in the range of
85 to 95 percent. The influence of capacity, speed, presSure, and degree of slip is not entirely consistent, but in
1 FRAME
2 BEARINGS
3 CRANKSHAFT
4 CYLINDER
5 LINER
7 VALVE SERVICE
8 PISTON PACKING
Fig. 29
429
Horizontal duplex power pump
MARINE ENGINEERING
rn
YOKE \
43 1
,
"
ADJUSTMENT
OMPENSATOR
PASSAGE "A"
YOKE RETURN
SPRING
YOKEPISTON
AC~UATING
Fig. 3 1
PASSAGE "8"
Axial-piston-type pump wickers]
general, for a particular capacity, the efficiency is greater

for larger slower-speed pumps.
The radial-piston type of variablestroke pump is
shown in Fig. 30. The rotating cylinder block contains
several radial cylinders fitted with pistons. As the
cylinder block rotates, the piston sleeves move in and
out, and the amount of stroke depends on the eccentricity
between the housing and the cylinder block. Control of
the stroke may be automatic, that is, of the constantr
pressure type, or the control may be of the start and stop
type regulated by the rise and fall of pressure in a hydraulic accumulator. Manual stroke control i~ provided
usually in addition to automatic control.
b. Axial-Piston Type. Axial-piston variable-stroke

pumps are used in the same applications as radial types.
They are subject to similar limitations of use with fluids
which are suitable lubricants and exhibit the same range
of relatively high efficiencies. The axial-piston type is
shown in Fig. 31. A cylinder block contains several
cylinders; as the swash plate rotates, the pistons are forced
to reciprocate within their respective bores. The angle
of the yoke determines the piston displacement. Control of the yoke can be automatic or manual, as for the
radial-piston type.
Additional discussiod%f pow13 p"ump d - e ~ i 6features
is contained in reference [9].
433
MARINE ENGINEERING
Section 4
4.1 Classification and Types. Rotary pumps, like
reciprocating pumps, are known as positive-displacement
pumps, that is, mechanisms \vhich displace a constant
volume of fluid from the suction to the discharge port for
each revolution of the driving shafts. Additionally,
however, in the case of rotary pumps, the principal motion of the pumping elements is pure rotation and the
pump has no valves except in some instances an internal
relief valve. It should be noted that constant displacement does not mean constant delivery, since there is
always some slippage of flow through the mechanical
clearances.
( 0 ) RlNG GEAR WITH ONE MORE

TOOTH THAN PINION
I
Fig. 32
Simple geor pump
P,
Fig, 33 Lobe pump (two-lobe typd
= pHQ/550
E = pHQ/550 P
E = pq/1714 P
Fig. 34
( b)
RlNG GEAR WITH TWO MORE

TEETH THAN PINION AND
WITH STATIONARY CRESCENT
Intemal-gear pumps
the lobe to the discharge side. This is essentially a gear

pump with only two teeth per gear. Power transfer between the two shafts must be accomplished by timing
geara and the flow pulsations are, of course, greater than
in the spur gear type.
This type of pump is also built with three and four
lobes per rotor and as a combination lobe and spur gear
type. Renewable wearing pieces are often fitted a t the
tips of the lobes so that the original clearances may be
ieadily restored after a period of use.
4.5 Internal Gear Type. Internal gear pumps are of
two general types. In one type, Fig. 34(a), the ring gear
has one more tooth than the pinion, and the seal is maintained by close clearance between the tips of the gear
teeth on the open side. I n the second type, Fig. 34(b),
the ring gear has a t least two more teeth than the pinion,
and the seal is maintained by a stationary crescent on the

open side. I n either type the fluid may enter the gear
spaces axially through ports in the cylinder head or
radially through ports in the ring gear. Either the ring
gear or the pinion may be the idler. The internal gear
pump has an advantage over the spur gear pump due to
its larger suction port area and longer arc of admission,
together with less change ~f fluid direction entering the
pump. This results in less suction turbulence and better
vacuum performance at equal gear speeds. However, the
internal gear pump cannot be hydraulically balanced,and
is, therefore; not as adaptable to high-pressure service as
the external gear pump,
4.6 Screw Type. A single-screw pump is shown in
Fig. 35(a). The rotor is a single-thread helix of circular
cross section rotating and oscillating radially in a doublethreaded helical stator of oval cross section. The pitch
of the stator helix is twice the pitch of the rotor helix.
At least one complete stator helix is necemary for sealing.
The rotor is hollow and is driven by a connecting rod
with universal joints on each end. The drive shaft is
supported on external bearings. Since _the rotor oscillates, the inertia forces limit the speed of rotation.
A twin-screw pump or single-idler screw is shown in
Fig. 35(b). The rotors are similar in appearance to
square-thread screws, but the helical mating surfaces
must be concave. The discontinuous contact between
the rotors prohibits power transfer between them, so the
shafts must be geared together by auxiliary timing gears.
Two sets of pumping elements are usually opposed on
the same shafts to balance the end thrusts. Since a lensshaped gap exists between the two concave screw faces
SECTION OF CYLINDER
PU
SECTION OF CYLINDER
SUCTION
(b)
TWIN-SCREW OR SINGLE-IDLER TYPE
( C)
Fig. 35
Screw pumps
DOUBLE-IDLER TYPE
MARINE ENGINEERING
LEGEND
1
2
3
4
( 0 ) SLIDING-VANE TYPE
(b)
SWINGING-VANE TYPE
Fig. 36
(c)
5
6
ROLLING -VANE TYPE
Vane pumps
when meshed, a number of pitch lengths are necessary to

provide adequate sealing.
A two-idler-screw pump is shown in Fig. 35(c). The
central rotor is a double-threaded helix with convex surfaces, and the idling rotors are double-threaded with concave surfaces. Power transfer occurs directly between
rotors so that auxiliary driving gears are not required.
Shaft bearings are not required since adequate bearing
area is provided by the outside s u r f w s of the screws in
the rotor housing or liner. This type is also built doubleended to balance the thrust loads and increase the
capacity of the pumps. Transfer pumps are generally
double-ended, but where high pressures are required,
such as in boiler fuel service, a single-ended pump is used.
The twin-screw and two-idler-screw pumps are particularly adaptable to operation at high rotative speeds
since the fluid velocity may be much less than the surface
speed of the rotors and a hydrodynamic film is developed
at high speeds.
4.7 Vane Type. Vane-type pumps may have'sliding,
swinging, rolling, oscillating, or stationary vanes.
Typical examples are shown in Fig. 36. All vane pumps
involve reciprocating motion and the maximum speed is
limited by the inertia forces. The pumps shown in these
figures are basically identical except for the form of the
vanes. The essential elements are a concentric-running
rotor carrying reciprocating vanes which maintain contact with an eccentric or elliptical cylinder. Although
some pumps have been built with eccentric circular
cylinders, it is preferable to make the portions of the
cylinders between the p ~ r t concentric
s
with the rotor to
avoid fluid compression. The portions of the cylinder in
way of the ports must provide smooth radial acceleration
and deceleration.
The bearings may be subjected to a hydraulic load approximately equal to the diameter of the cylinder times
the length of the rotor times the pressure differential.
However, pumps similar to Fig. 36(a) are built with four
or more vanes and sometimes with two suction and two
discharge ports disposed alternately at 90 degrees around
the cylinder. The hydraulic loads are then completely
balanced and the pump is suitable for high-pressure

service.
Vane pumps usually depend on centrifugal force and
springs to maintain the vane tips in contact with the
cylinder. Thus, for any condition of vane mass and
fluid viscosity, there ia a minimum speed below which the
pump will be ineffective. T h i type is at a disadvantage
when handling high-viscosity liquids, because the speed
and vane weight required for sealing produce high inertia
loads on the bearings. The performance is not affected
by vane tip wear up to the point where the vanes fail to
seat properly in the rotor recesses, or until the weight is
reduced below the amount required for centrifugal sealing.
4.8 Rotary Liquid-Piston Type. A rotary liquid-piston pump is shown in Fig. 37. This unit is similar in condruction to the vane pump of Fig. 36(a) in that it consists of a vane-type rotor revolving in an e1lip;tical casing.
The operating principle is, however, entirely different.
The "vanes" have a different function, since these vanes,
in combination with their side shrouds, really constitute a
series of chambers which function very much as do the
cylinders in a reciprocating air compressor. This is primarily an air removal pump, and depends for its oper*
tion on a water (or other liquid) seal which is maintained
a t a constant level from an external source of supply.
When the rotor is turning a t operating speed, the water,
revolving with it, is thrown to the outer periphery of the
elliptical casing by centrifugal force. Air, or other gas,
is admitted to the rotor chambers by suitable ports, and
is entrained between the walls of the chambers and the
water.
As any particular rotor chamber rotates from the narrow part of the elliptical casing to the wide part, the
water, following the contour of the casing, leaves a gap
at the inner portion of the chamber. Into this gap air,
entering the chamber through slots in the rotor at the
bottom of each chamber, is drawn from an inlet port in
the fixed central cone in the rotor hub. As this particular
&amber passes the wide part of the casing and again
approaches the narrow portion of the casing at the opposite side, the entrapped air is forced out through a Cia-
ROTOR
ROTATING LIQUID CHAMBER
NARROW PART OF CASING '
WIDE PART OF CASING
ELLIPTICAL CASING
ROTOR VANES
Fig. 37
Rotary liquid-piston pump
charge port also located in the central cone. This cycle

represents a half rotation, and occurs twice in a full revolution, producing a fully balanced condition in the pump.
The air removal capacity of single-stage pumps of this
type is relatively constant up to a vacuum of about 22
inches of mercury, dropping off somewhat a t higher
vacuums. Thia pump is used for vacuum priming
service for centrifugal pumps and has been used in lieu of
air ejectors as main vacuum pumps for the condensate
system.
4.9 Regenerative Type. The regenerative type of
pump is shown in Fig. 38; it does not come within the
definition previously given for rotary pumps, since it is
not a positive-displacement pump. This pump is
definitely not a centrifugal type; the nearest physical
counterpart is the helical-flow steam turbine, so that it
might well be described as a peripheral or helical-flow
type pump. For many years, however, this type of pump
has been given the inappropriate designation of "turbine"
pump. It is included here because its range of usefulness
and performance characteristics are more closely akin to
the positive-displacement types.
The radial cross section in Fig. 38 illustrates the peripheral or regenerative principle of this pump. The suction passages connect with the casing channel surrounding the impeller vanes at a point near the casing discharge port. Liquid is carried once around the casing ,
from suction to discharge but, as shown in the radial section, the liquid is recirculated through several impeller
passages in its course. The liquid is picked up in one
passage between impeller vanes and then thrown out
radially into the casing channel by centrifugal force, and
-6
LEGEND
,
Fig. 38
Regenerative pump
k-
- -
"1
2'
3
4
5
6
7
9
8
10
11
LINERS
IMP-EUER
CASING &COVER
O.RING SEALS
IMPELLER BUSHING
IMPELLER NUT
IMPELLER NUT WAS1
SHAFT
PACKING SLEEVE
PACKING GLAND
SEAL CAGE
436
MARINE ENGINEERING
later picked up by another impeller passage and the process repeated several times between the suction and d i s
charge ports. Thus the same liquid particles have energy
imparted to them by the rotor not merely once as in the
centrifugal pump, but several times. For this reason the
head developed by a regenerative pump will be several
times that obtained from a centrifugal pump of the same
rotor diameter and speed.
The pressure in the pump casing channel increases continuously around the periphery from the suction to the
discharge port, and, therefore, the pump capacity becomes less as the total head increases due to increased
back flow through the casing channel. The regenerative
pump characteristics are intermediate to the centrifugal
and rotary pump, and in the region of maximum efficiency are more closely related to those of the rotary-type
pump.
4.10 Applications. The major field of application
for rotary pumps is for high viscosity, small to moderate
volume flows (fraction of a gpm to 5000 gpm), and
moderate pressures (25 to 500 psig) to high pressures
(3000 psig). They are used also outside of this range for
both small and large volumes and for high pressures
where their self-priming or constant-delivery characteristics are desirable. They cannot compete in efficiency
with centrifugal pumps for large-volume, low-pressure,
low-viscosity applications. In small sizes, the rotary
pump is more efficient than the centrifugal pump, even
for low pressures and viscosities. As compared to the
reciprocating type, the rotary pump is valveless, it can
be run at higher speeds, and is usually smaller, lighter,
and cheaper. The smaller sizes of rotary pumps can be
direct-connected to standard-speed electric motors.
A rotary pump can be designed to pump any material
that will flow into the suction port, including gas, vapor,
liquid, slurry, or powder. Rotary pumps are used for

circulating lubricating oil to the bearings of engines,
turbines, .and other machinery; supplying fuel oil to oil
burners and diesel engines; pumping water for marine
engine cooling; and for transfer services.
Spur gear pumps are used for very small to medium
capacities and for high pressures. To reduce the slip and
shaft length and deflection, they are provided with ball
or roller bearings. Double- and triple-screw pumps are
used for large capacities because higher rotative speeds
are permissible. Internal gear pumps are limited to lowpressure services.
Vane pumps are used for small to medium capacities,
for vacuum and low-pressure services, and for low- and
medium-viscosity fluids.
Rotary liquid-piston pumps are commonly applied as
primers for centrifugal pumps on bilge, ballast, and other
services requiring a suction lift. They may be incorporated on the same shaft as the main impeller, or they
may be used as separate pumps, either belt driven from
the main pump shaft or as independent units. Rotary
liquid pumps have also been used as vacuum pumps in
condensate systems.
Regenerative pumps are well suited to small capacities
up to 70 gpm at moderately high heads up to 750 feet.
They may be used for distilling plant, freshwater, and
sanitary services where there is little variation in flow
and wide variation in head. Unlike centrifugal pumps,
as the flow is reduced the head rises steeply as does the
power. Hence the pump driver must be sized for the
maximum head that will be encountered.
Additional discussion of rotary pump design features
and applications are contained in references [9], [15], and
[22]. Regenerative pumps are described further in
reference [7].
Section 5
Forced-Draft Blowers
5.1 Classification and Types. Forced-draft blowers
are of two types, centrifugal and axial-flow. Forceddraft blowers (sometimes referred to as "fans") are used
to develop a relatively low pressure, as contrasted with
compressors. The term "blowers" normally refers to
those equipments which are used for a compression of air
from inlet to outlet resulting in an increase of density of
up to seven percent. For practical purposes, the air is
considered to be incompressible under these conditions.
Centrifugal blowers consist of a runner or impeller having blades, whose sides generally are parallel to the shaft
axis; the impeller is enclosed in a casing. The blades
,may be radial, backward curved, forward curved, or
double curved. Centrifugal blowers are further classified
as single-inlet (where the air enters the impeller from one
end of the casing) and double-inlet (where the air enters
at both ends of the casing).
Axial-flow blowers are usually of the multi-stage type

(generally two or three stages) consisting of alternate
rows of stationary and rotating blades having an airfoil
shape. The casing and rotor are arranged for single inlet
and through-flow in the axial direction. The required
rotative speeds are relatively high, making them adaptable to direct-coupled high-speed prime movers.
5.2 Basic Fundamentals. The following notation is
used in the ensuing discussion:
volume rate of flow, cfs

TYPE
.LEGE% 8!Pate
~ A I C H T
[RMVLI eLAMS
IS0
437
LEGEND
Y-lTf
RATIO
TIP SPEED
. FPS
la0
B c u u v e~ L~n a s
--
Fig. 39
-_.
DOUBLE BACKWAR0
CURVED BLADES
180
0.65
108
300
300
0.72
0.60
0.50
RATIO TO CAPACITY A1,MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
RATIO TO CAPACITY AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
-0-
VELOCITY
RATIO
Characteristic curves for centrifugal blowen with straight
Fig. 40
Characteristic curves for centrifugal blowers with backward-curved
and forward-curved blades
blader
H, = total head, actual, f t air

H', = total head, theoretical, ft air
P = brake horsepower, hp
Pa = a u horsepower, hp
V = air absolute velocity, fps ,
v = air relative velocity, fps
u = impeller peripheral velocity,fps
p = weight density of water at 70 F (62.4 pcf)
pa = weight density of air, pcf
w = impeller angular velocity, rad/sec
The net energy output of a blower moving a column of
air is
in ft-lb/sec, resulting in the following expression for air horsepower:
(43)
It follows from the Bernoulli equation that the total

head developed by a blower is equal to the sum of the
absolute static head and the velocity head at its d i s
charge less the sum of the absolute static head and the
velocity head at its suction. When the suction is open
and at atmospheric pressure, then the total head is as
meastlred at the blower discharge.
The velocity diagrams in Fig. 9 for radial-type centrifugalgumps apply equally to centrifugal blowers. The
develo~mentof the ex~ressionsfor the total theoretical
head fiom the ~ u l e r i kor momentum theory are identical for the two cases. The theoretical head is conveniently expressed in the form
The total head in feet of air, H,, may be expressed in

the customary units of inches of water, h,, as follows,
q = volume rate of flow, cfm
N
re
h,
h,
h',
blower speed, rps
= blower speed, rpm

=
=
=
static head, actual, in. water

total head, actual, in. water
total head, theoretical, in. water
Substitution of this result in the previous equation

leads to the following popular expression for air horse
power:
h'' = 12
where
0.075
(=)
UZV,~
uzVUz
-= g
2230
(47)
Vuzis the tangential component of the absolute
11111' 1
MARINE ENGINEERING
438
Fig. 4 2
Centrifugal forced-draft blower
RATIO TO CAPACITY AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY

Fig. 4 1
Characteristic curves for an axial-flow blower
discharge velocity Ve, and the weight density of standard

air is taken as 0.075 pcf.
Centrifugal blowers are more responsive to changes in
vane outlet angles than are centrifugal pumps. Figures
39,40, and 41 depict the shape of the characteristic pressure-capacity and horsepower-capacity curves as affected by vane design. Static pressure, efficiency, and
horsepower characteristics for radial, partially backwardcurved, and forward-curved vanes are shown in Fig. 39.
The same characteristics for backward and doublecurved vanes are shown in Fig. 40, and for an axial-flow
blower in Fig. 41. The vane system of an axial-flow
pump depicted in Fig. 11is equally applicable to an axialflow blower. It is customary to assume that the flow
proceeds through the vanes in cylindrical layers of radius
R and thickness AR. Then, for each cylindrical layer,
the Euler equation is
5.3 Laws of Similitude. The similarity equations

and design coefficients for blowers can be derived in exactly the same manner as was done for centrifugal pumps
in Section 1. The general sinlilarity laws which state
that the capacity varies directly with the speed and the
head varies as the square of the speed follow from the
fundamental analysis and are equally applicable to centrifugal blowers.
The efficiency of a blower is the ratio of the air horsepower (output) to the brake horsepower (input). Using
the air horsepower as expressed in equation (43), for a
brake horsepower, P, the blower efficiency is expressed as
5.4 Performance. The volume flow requirements of

forced-draft blowers depend primarily on the air necessary for efficient combustion plus a margin for leakage
losses and special service conditions. Allowances must
be made for deviations in air inlet temperature, pressure,
and relative humidity and the composition and heating
The resulting head quantities at various radial sections value of the fuel. Air leakage losses may occur in ductare then combined into a weighted average head for the work, boiler casings, s-nd air heaters, and at soot blower
impeller. The results by this method, when proper al- penetrations.
The blower pressure must be sufficient to overcome the
lowances are made for friction and shock losses, are in
good agreement with test results for axial-flow blowers various elements of resistance in the system, such as the
inlet duct, air and gas ducts, steam or regenerative air
and pumps.
A complete treatment of the theory of centrifugal and heater, boiler wind box, fuel oil burner registers, boiler
axial-flow blowers is given in references [3] and [6], and superheater and main tube banks, economizer, and stack.
In machinery spaces, the interaction of the ventilation
selected topics are discussed in reference [23].
1
2
3
4
Caring inlet
Impdlen
Guide vanes
Labyrinth seals
Fig. 4 3
'5
6
7
8
Bearing
Bearing housing
Support bracket
Shaft
Axial-flow blower
f':s=
supply and exhaust fans must be considered, as the

blower inlet pressure has a significant effect on the blower
capacity. The effect of natural draft due to the temperature of the stack gases is relatively small.
In older vessels where the pressure requirements were
moderate, the radial or forward-curved blade blower was

suitable; their characteristics are shown in Fig. 39.
More recent installations employ double-cased boilers
with positive furnace pressures requiring higher blower
pressures. The backward-curved blade fan meets the
440
requirements for moderate speeds up to 1750 rpm and

higher pressures up to 25 inches of water. Figure 40
depicts the characteristics of blowers having backwardcurved blades.
For naval installations, the importance of weight and
space results in higher blower speeds, and pressures in
excess of 45 inches of water. The axial-flow blower with
a direct turbine drive fits these requirements. This type
is operated in the range of 5000 to 10,000 rpm and gives a
performance typically as depicted in Fig. 41:
5.5 Speed and Volume Control. With direct-current
motors, 30 to 50 percent speed adjustment below rated
speed is generally provided by rheostat control. A
further adjustment of capacity may be obtained by the
use of outlet dampers.
When alternating-current motors are used, they are
sometimes of the multi-speed type. Speed combinations
of 1800/1200/900/600 rpm are common. The rated
speed, in this case, would be 1200 rpm, that is, 2/3 of
maximum speed. Thus a maximum speed 50 percent
greater than rated would be available; this is an advantage in vessels where a significant boiler overload is a requirement.
Inlet vane control is generally used with blowers driven
by either single-speed or multi-speed a-c motors. Vanes
a t the blower inlet are positioned in such a manner as to
vary the rotational velocity of the air entering the impeller, thus modifying the flow characteristics of the impeller to suit the air requirements of the system. When
the blower flow is controlled by means of inlet vanes, as
opposed to the alternative of throttling the discharged
air with an outlet damper, the horsepower requirements
are reduced.
In lieu of using multi-speed motors and inlet vane control to achieve capacity variation with a-c motor-driven
blowers, a variable-speed fluid drive has also been introduced which can provide a flexibility comparable to turbine drives.
For the blowers in naval vessels, a turbine drive is used
to provide the necessary flexibility of speed control to
meet efficiently and rapidly the wide range of boiler operating conditions and maneuvering demands of the vessel.
Frequently two blowers are installed with a single
boiler; one is used for air up to rated power and two are
put in operation for the boiler overload condition. In

general, any type of blower All parallel satisfactorily
provided the system head curve for parallel operation
does not intersect the blower characteristic a t a point
considerably to the left of the blower's best efficiency
point. Paralleling of a-c motor-driven blowers is readily
accomplished as they are constant-speed machines. For
turbine-driven blowers, the nozzle control valves of
paralleled units must have matched characteristics.
This permits a single control handwheel to be mechanically connected to the nozzle control valves of both units,
resulting in both units running at nearly the same speed.
Another method is that of using a single steam throttle
valve for regulating the steam flow to the two units.
Control of volume can also be accomplished by using
inlet vanes that can be moved in such a manner aa to
vary the rotational velocity of the air entering the impeller, thus affecting the impeller's characteristics.
5.6 Design Features. A centrifugal forced-draft
blower is depicted in Fig. 42. Blowers of this type are
always mounted with their shaft axis horizontal. The
shaft bearings may be of the journal type with ring or
forced-feed lubrication, or the bearings may be of the
L
ball or roller type.
The figure depicts a double-inlet blower without inlet
ducting; that is, the blower takes suction directly from
the machinery space. Partially backward-curved blades
are used. The shaft is connected to the driver by a suitable flexible coupling. Such a unit is mounted where
,it can be accessible for operation and servicing in addition to being near the boiler. With the low speeds and
moderate pressures found on merchant vessels, noise is
seldom a problem, thus permitting the exposed blower
inlets.
High-speed axial-flow blowers may be horizontal or
vertical; a horizontal one is depicted in Fig. 43. Lubrication of the shaft bearings is by pressurized oil furnished
by a lube system common to the turbine driver and
blower. This type is often enclosed in a separate blower
room due to its high noise level.
A detailed discussion of design considerations for boiler
forced-draft systems is given in reference [24]. A special
instance where combustion air is provided under supercharged conditions is described in reference [25].
Section 6
Compressors
Compressors may be
of either the reciprocating, rotary, or centrifugal type.
Compressors for medium and high pressure are of the
reciprocating type, and are almost always multi-staged.
They are usually single-acting and are further classified
as h~rizontalor vertical depending on whether the orientation of the reciprocating action is in a horizontal or
6.1
MARINE ENGINEERING
Classification and Types.
vertical plane. Compressors for marine services are

usually vertical. When the reciprocating action is in the
same vertical plane as the horizontal crankshaft, it is
termed "in-lime construction.'' When the vertical plane
of the reciprocating action is at 90 degrees to the horizontal crankshaft, the cylinders are disposed about the
shaft in such a manner as to resemble letters. Thus a
two-cylinder machine is commonly termed "V" type, a

three-cylinder machine is termed "W" type, and a fourcylinder machine is termed "X" type.
Compressors for low and medium pressures may be of
the reciprocating, rotary, or centrifugal type. R ~ t a r y
compressors are further classified as screw, lobe, fixed
vane, or sliding vane. Centrifugal compressors resemble
a centrifugal pump in construction, and are typified by
an impeller with a relatively large number of vanes discharging to a vaneless or multi-vaned diffuser. They
may be single or multi-staged.
Compressors are further classified as to being air cooled
or water cooled.
6.2 Basic Fundamentals. The following notation is
used in the ensuing discussion:
HP, .= theoretical horsepower for compression, hp

pl = initial pressure, psia
p~ = discharge pressure, psia
r = compression ratio = p2/p1
VI = actual volume flow at initial pressure, cfm
k = exponent for adiabatic compressioii (1.4 for
air)
The work of adiabatic compression may be exprkssed
as
,HP -
( ) [
k
144
33,000 k -
k-l
-1
(50)
For air initially a t atmospheric pressure, this equation

reduces to
I
HP,
= 0.225 Vl(r".286- 1)
(51)
and is, of course, applicable to any type of compressor,
either single- or multi-stage, in which the compression is
substantially adiabatic with no appreciable external cooling during or between compression stages. For very low
pressure ratios approaching unity this equation can be
simplified to the following approximation
which, with proper regard for units, will be found to be

identical to equation (43), which is the expression for the,
air horsepower of blowers.
In a reciprocating compressor the actual compression
curve follows a polytropic curve with the same type of
formula, but with an exponent m = 1.3 to 1.35 for air in
place of the adiabatic exponent k.
The horsepower for isothermal compression is
144
HP c - 33,000 PIVI log. r
(53)
For very low pressure ratios this equation also approaches

the air horsepower expression given for blowers.
Intercooling between stages in a multi-stage compressor materially reduces the work of compression by reducing the volume flow to the succeeding stage or stages.
For minimum work of compression the work should be
.a
44 1
divided equally between the various stages. For two

stages this requires pt := (plpz)'" where pi is the intermediate compression pressure. Perfect intercooling requires a reduction of the interstage compression temperature to the inlet air temperature, 80 that the net
compressive effectfor any stage and its aftercooler is isothermal. This means that the pv product after each
intercooler equals the initid pv value.
Application of these considerations leads to the following expression for minimum work of adiabatic compression in a mullti-stage compressor with perfect intercooling :
144
HP, = -
where n represents the number of compression stages.

Other important advantages of intercooling are (1) a
reduction in the temperature in the succeeding stages,
which greatly simplifies the lubrication of the pistons;
(2) a certain amount of the original water vapor content
is condensed and can be drained off; (3) volumetric efficiency is higher, due to reduction of the clearance expansion loss; and (4) maximum piston loads are reduced.
6.3 Performance. The volumetric efficiency of a
compressor is the ratio of the actual intake air volume
flow to the compressor displacement. Volumetric losses
are due principally to re-expansion of the air in the clearance volume, heating of the air during admission to the
cylinder, and leakage past valves and pistons. The first
item can be determined from the compressor indicator
card as shown on Fig. 44, but the overall volumetric
efficiency can be determined only by actual measurement
of the air received by the compressor. For multi-stage
compressors, the piston displacement of the first stage
only is commonly stated as that of the entire machine.
Figure 44(a) depicts an idealized indicator card for a
single-stage compressor. At point 1, the piston is at the
top end of its stroke and a certain amount of gas a t discharge is trapped in the clearance volume. At the top
end of the piston stroke, the clearance volume is that
which exists between the piston and head and includes
the small amount around the piston down to the first
ring and under the valves.
As the piston starts its return stroke, the clearance gas
expands until, at point 2, the inlet valve opens and a
charge of air starts to enter the cylinder. The cylinder
continues to fill until the piston reaches point 3. Just
after leaving point 3, the inlet valve closes, permitting
the compression to take place. The piston then returns
to point 4, compressing-the gas along curve 3 4 . At
point 4, the pressure in tiie cylinder exceekthat in the
discharge line and the discharge valve opens, permitting
the piston to discharge the compressed gas into the system along line 4-1.
Figure 44(b) represents an idealized indicator card for
a two-stage compressor. The compression begins a t
point 3 and would ordinarily continue to point 4 in a
single-stage machine. In a two-stage compressor, how-
MARINE ENGINEERING
442
(a) SINGLE STAGE COMPRESSOR
\6
1
2
3
4
5
6
LEGEND
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Fig. 45
VOLUME
(b) TWO-STAGE
Fig. 44
COMPRESSOR
Theoretical indicator cards for reciprocating compreuon
ever, the compression in the first stage continues to point

3a, at which point the gas is withdrawn from the cylinder
and cooled, reducing its volume to that represented by
point 3b. Compression then continues in the second
stage along curve 3b4a.
The work of compression is considerably reduced by a
lower inlet air temperature. On vessels where the installdinn
--- - - nf
- - an
.
.- inlet air duct is economically unjustified, the
compressor should be located in a space where the ternperature normally does not run significantly above the
outside air temperature, such as an auxiliary machinery
space or pump room.
The mechanical efficiency of a compressor is defined as
the ratio of the air indicated horsepower from the compressor indicator cards to the brake horsepower input.
The mechartical efficiency accounts for all mechanical
friction losses and ranges from 88 to 93 percent.
INTERCOOLER '
FAN &BELT
PISTON &PIN
CRANKSHAFT
MAIN BEARING
DRIVESHAFT
OIL PUMP
Two-stage reciprocofhg compressor
Compression efficiency is the ratio of the adiabatic

work of compression to the indicated horsepower from
compressor indicator cards. Compression efficiency accounts for all thermodynamic and fluid friction losses.
For multi-stage compressors the minimum work of
diahatic
com~re88ionwith perfect intercooling is some---times used inAplaceof the adiabatic compression work
without intercooling. The actual basis used should
always be stated in any particular case. The compression efficiency ranges from 85 to 93 percent.
In the case of motor-driven compressors, the overall
efficiency of the compressor is defined as the ratio of the
work of isothermal compression to the brake horsepower
of the motor. The overall efficiency ranges from 75 to 85
percent.
It should be noted that the compression work equations and corresponding efficiencies are based on actual
intake air and are, therefore, not influenced by the clearance volume. The clearance volume affects only the required cylinder sizes for a given duty and does not influence the horsepower required.
Air, of course, enters the compressor at the prevailing
relative humidity. Owing to the rise of temperature, the
Fig. 46
COMPRESSOR
INCREASER GEAR
DRIVER
INTERCOOLER
CONTROLCABINET
AUXILIARY LUBE PUMP
.,
Multi-stage centrifugal compressor
relative humidity of the compressed air is much lower

when discharged. However, after the air is discharged,
it is cooled eventually to a condition approaching its
original temperature. At a constant temperature the
relative humidity varies almost directly with the pressure
so that condensation eventually will occur. I n the case
of air discharged to hydraulic-pneumatic accumulator
systems, using oil as a working fluid, it is important to
remove as much condensed moisture as possible to avoid
contamination of the hydraulic oil and corrosion of parts.
Moisture causes excessive wear of valves, cylinders, and
rings. For this reason moisture separators often are installed at air inlet connectiops.
Dust entering compressors from the inlet air causes
rapid wear of working parts so that inlet air filters usually are fitted. These are often of a silencer type which
also helps to reduce air compressor noise.
6.4 Reciprocating Compressors. A cross section of a
two-stage, single-acting, motor-driven reciprocating air
compressor for general ship's service is shown in Fig. 45.
It is driven by a motor through multiple V-belts. The
intercooler is of the air-cooled radiator type with the fan
belt driven from the main shaft. The crankshaft is s u p
ported by tapered roller bearings. Sleeve bearings are
used for connecting rod ends. All bearings are pressure
lubricated through holes drilled in the crankshaft; rods
are pressure lubricated from a gear-type oil pump on one
end of the crankshaft. Cylinders and pistons are splash
lubricated.
Automatic stopping and starting of this type of compressor is controlled by an air-operated switch which
stops the motor when the accumulator pressure has
reached the rated value and restarts the motor when the
pressure has dropped a certain amount. In order to

start the motor without load, a special unloading device
is necessary which forces open the suction valves for both
stages and releases air in the discharge line up to the discharge check valve. A del@ feature is incorporated in
this unhader which permits the motor to reach full speed
before the compressor is loaded.
Compressors of this type are used for many shipboard
air services such as diesel engine starting, ship's service
air, combustion and other control air, tube cleaning, air
tools, and sand blasting. They range from 50 to 250 psig
and from 15 to 600 cfm. Air or water may be used for
cylinder cooling and intercooling. They may be belt
driven, direct c o ~ e c t e dthrough a coupling, or closecoupled, and are usually limited to 1150 rpm.
Multi-stage compressors are also found with their
cylinders in a horizontal plane, disposed radially about a
vertical shaft. For charging high-pressure flasks, O2N2
plants, and submarine services, this type ranges from 500
to 5000 psig, from 5 to 100 cfm, and usually has 4 or 5
stages. 'Specific types for refrigeration, LPG, and other
cryogenic services require the incorporation of special
design features in the seals, bearings, and lube systems to
ensure no entrance of lubricant into the gas so as to maintain the integrity of thet>w side, .6.5 Rotary Compressors. A two-lobe-type of positive-displacement rotary air compressor resembles the
pump shown in Fig. 33. The speed of this type of compressor makes it well suited for attachment to highspeed diesel engines to supply scavenging air. The principle of operation is identical with the lobe-type rotary
pump described in Section 4.
Other rotary pump types which are used successfully
444
MARINE ENGINEERING
as air compressors include the sliding-vane type and the

liquid-sealed elliptical-casing fixed-vane type, similar to
the vacuum priming pump described in Section 4.
Rotary types generally are suitable for pressures up to
100 psig, but are predominantly used for lower pressures.
Intermediate pressures up to 100 psig are usually furnished by reducing valves fitted in the 100psig (or higher
pressure) system being served by a multi-stage reciprocating compressor.
6.6 Centrifugal Compressors. A motor-driven multistage centrifugal compressor of the tjrpe used for general
service air supply is shown in Fig. 46. A noise-attenuating enclosure is usually provided, although such an
enclo~ure is not shown in Fig. 46. Details of construetion, including the shape of impeller vanes, are quite
similar to those of centrifugal pumps.
The inherently high speeds of centrifugal compressors
require them to be driven through a speed-increasing
gear connected to the driving motor or engine, or they
may be direct connected to a turbine. Speeds in the

range of 5000 to 40,000 rpm are common. They are used
for diesel engine scavenging services and refrigeration and
air conditioning services, as well as general ship air
service. A high-speed turbine drive is ideal for special
services requiring variable speed. Centrifugal compressors may be either single-stage or multi-stage, and they
range up to 125 psig and 2500 cfm. A special advantage
is their ability to deliver oil-free, clean air. They are
essentially free of vibration, and noise can be attenuated
to acceptable levels.
The theory for centrifugal compressors is similar to,
and is as fully developed as, the theory for centrifugal
pumps described in Section 1. However, the compressibility of the gas is an additional factor which must be
considered. A complete discussion of centrifugal compressor theory is given in references [3] and [6]. Special
compressor applications are described in references (171,
[18], and [25].

LIVE STEAM INLET
EXPANDING
SUCTION,
INLET
CONVERGING
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AT SUCTION
Section 7
Ejectors
The steam jet ejector
is employed principally to remove air and noncondens
able gases fromvacuum equipment. The ejector is a simple type of compressor in which high-pressure steam is
passed through a nozzle where it is expanded to a pres
sure corresponding to the desired vacuum. The steam
exits from the nozzle at a high velocity, and air and other
noncondensable gases surrounding the issuing jet are
entrained in the high-velocity jet and carried into a diffuser. The passage of the mixture through thii divergent
tube effects conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure
energy, thereby elevating the pressure a predetermined
amount above the suction inlet pressure. The ejector, in
schematic form, is illustrated in Fig. 47.
Ejectors are classified as single or multi-stage depending on whether the compression is accomplished in one
unit or several units in series. They are classified as
single or multiple element depending on whether one or
more units are installed in parallel. They are further
classified as to being condensing or noncondensing, that
is, with regard to whether or not the discharged steam is
condensed.
7.2 Performance. The amount of pressure elevation,
commo,nly referred to as compression ratio, that can be
accomplished satisfactorily in a single stage of compree
sion is governed by the initial steam pressure available
for operating the ejector, the vacuum to be maintained,
the importance of efficiency measured in terms of steam
consumption, and the requirements for stability. Ejector stability under all normal operating conditions is a
matter of prime importance. Unstable operation results
when the steam jet momentarily and at irregular inter7.1
Classification and Types.
vals breaks down thereby allowing a temporary reversal

of flow to take place through the combining tube; this
can result in a partial or temporary loss of vacuum.
The experience of the ejector designer dictates the
maximum allowable ratio of compression per ejector
stage that will ensure stability, after giving due consideration to the governing factors. For conditions usually
encountered with marine installations, it is customary to
employ single-stage ejectors for vacuum requirements up
to 26+ in. of mercury, thereby establishing a maximum
compression ratio of 8.57 to 1, and two-stage ejectors
where the requirements exceed thii figure. Threestage
ejectors can be designed having a better operating efficiency than two-stage ejectors for installations operating
a t 29 in. vacuum or more, but they are seldom used in
marine service by reason of their more. complicated
structure, higher initial cost, greater weight and space
requirements, and certain operating deficiencies, all of
which combine to offset the initial advantage of better
economy.
An ejector must be designed for a predetermined minimum motive steam pressure. If the steam pressure a t
the inlet to the ejector nozzles is less than the design
pressure, the ejector will not operate satisfactorily and
will not maintain a vacuum. An ejector will work satis
factorily with a reasonably higher steam pressure than
that for which it was designed, with a resulting increase
in ejector steam consumption proportionate to the increase in absolute steam pressure above the design value.
It is normal to operate ejectors up to 10 psig above rating
to allow for steam line pressure fluctuations. Partial
clogging of the nozzle has the same effect as reduced
445
Fig. 48
OISCHARBE
Fig. 47
- INCHES
MERCURY
Capacity of two-stage ejector with inter- and after-condenser for

various air sudion pressures and temperatures
Steam jet air ejector
steam pressure. Selection of the operating pressure is of

great importance. Very low pressures are uneconomical,
whereas extremely high pressures necessitate very small
nozzle bores with consequent fouling difficulties. Operating pressures from 80 to 300 psig constitute a preferable range, with the upper limit being 150 psig for smallcapacity ejectors.
Superheat is of no economic benefit; however, a nominal degree of superheat is desirable since it provides
added insurance for a supply of dry steam to the ejector
nozzles. Wet steam seriously interferes with the operation to an ejector, with the smaller sizes being affected
more than the larger sizes. Wet steam also causes rapid
erosion of the ejector nozzles and should be avoided by
the use of suitable steam-line separators or other drainage
devices located close to the ejector steam inlet connection.
The air leakage into a system under vacuum is subject
to considerable variation and does not lend itself to a
precise assessment. Air leakage design values selected
must be influenced by experience. The air removed from
a steam condenser is saturated with water vapor. It is,
therefore, necessary to determine the amount of water
vapor contained in the air-vapor mixture to be removed
from the condenser by the ejector. The water vapor
component is dependent on the absolute pressure and
temperature existing at the exit from the air-cooling section of the condenser or external air cooler.
To provide ample air ejector capacity, the temperature
of the air-vapor mixture at the air-vapor outlet of a welldesigned surface condenser equipped with either an internal or external air cooler is considered to be 73 deg F
less than the saturated steam temperature corresponding
to the absolute pressure required at the steam inlet to the

condenser. The amount of water vapor with which the
air will be saturated can be calculated by the following
expression:
#
i-
where
W = pounds of water vapor per pound of air leakage

pw = steam saturation pressure, inches of mercury
absolute, corresponding to the assumed temperature of the air-vapor mixture
pa = absolute pressure, inches of mercury, at the airvapor outlet of the condenser
0.62 = 18/29 = ratio of molecular weights of water
vapor and air
It is customary to provide sufficient ejector capacity
to permit a condenser vacuum of 29 in. to be developed
when thq cooling water temperature and loading conditions permit, even though a lower degree of vacuum is
specified for the base design condition. For this reason
the estimated ejector capacity is usually specified at an
absolute pressure of 1 in. of mercury when intended for
turbines. Figure 48 i&&-rates fypical performance
curves for a two-stage ejector having intesYand aftercondensers for various suction inlet temperatures and
pressures when handling a saturated air-vapor mixture.
Figure 49 illustrates a similar set of c w e s applicable to
a single-stage ejector.
The steam consumption of air ejectors for a specified
condition is dependent on design refinements and other
highly important operating features; namely, the ability
446
Fig. 49
MARINE ENGINEERING
I
2
3
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AT SUCTION
- INCHES MERCURY
Capacity of single-stage ejector forvarious air suction pressures and

temperatures
to handle an overload without an excessive loss of

vacuum. r a ~ i devacuating ca~acitvfor starting UD and
quick pick^* in case the"sysiem & accidentally flioded
with air, and the ability to operate satisfactorily under
conditions with verv low water auantities being: circulated through the inter- and after-condenser with due
regard for pressure drop limitations at full power.
For estimating approximately the steam consumption
of air ejectors employed for marine service, a value of 4.5
lb of steam required per pound of air-vapor mixture removed at 1 in. of mercury absolute and 71.5 F temperature can be used for turbine service. For other lowvacuum services a value of 6.5 lb of steam required per
poqnd of air-vapor mixture at 3.5 in. of mercury absolute
and 113 F temperature may be used.
7.3 Applications. Air ejectors are used aboard ship
for the following systems:
Main propulsion engine condensing plant.
Turbogenerator condensing plant.
Low-pressure-type distilling plant condensers.
Heating system drain condensers.
Auxiliary condensers for condensing auxiliary
steam.
Air ejectors usually are installed in duplicate, one set
being sufficient for normal operating requirements and
the other set used for standby service and abnormal requirements. This arrangement is commonly termed a
"twin unit" and is designed so that either one of the
ejector elements may be inspected and cleaned without
interfering with the operation of the other element. This
may be accomplished by the use of interstage isolating
valves or by compartmentation of the inter- and aftercondensers.
Fig. 50
TWO-stagedual-element air ejector
Figure 50 illustrates a twin two-stage air ejector unit

with surface-type inter- and after-condensers arranged in
a common shell employing interstage isolating valves.
This type of unit is used extensively for condensers serving main propulsion turbines and for condensers of turbogenerator sets. The flow of steam and air-vapor mixture
is depicted in Fig. 51. Live steam enters at (1) through
strainer,,,
(2) to second-stage nozzle (3) and also firstrstage
nozzle (4).
After expansion through the nozzles the mixture of
entrained noncondensables and steam from the firststage nozzle enters the first-stage diffuser (9) wherein
the first stage of compression to inter-condenser vacuum
occurs. The compressed mixture then enters the intercondenser through interstage valve (5), wherein condensation of steam takes place as the mixture passes
upward in successive vapor passes formed by longitudinal
baffles (6). The remaining noncondensables exit through
manifold valve (7) to the suction of the second-stage element (8) and are entrained by the jet of steam issuing
from second-stage nozzle (3) and finally compressed to
atmospheric pressure after passing through the secondstage diffuser tube (10). The discharge from the secondstage diffuser enters the lower section of the after-condenser through opening ( l l ) , and again passes upward in
four successive vapor passes formed by horizontal baffles
(12). Saturated noncondensables are expelled through
the after-condenser vent opening (13) to the atmosphere.
I
i
3
448
MARINE EN(
Condensate discharged by the condenser condensate

pump is circulated first through the inter-condenser and
then through the after-condenser in a closed circuit; the
condensate flows inside the tubes, thereby preventing
absorption of noncondensables by the condensing medium
while effecting full heat recovery through condensation
of the ejector exhaust steam.
The drainage from the inter-condenser, which operates
at a vacuum somewhat lower than is maintained in the
condenser being served by the ejector, is effected through
opening (14), by means of a loop seal drain pipe connected to the condenser. The amount of loop seal required depends on the maximum vacuum differential. A
minimum loop seal of 7 ft is usually sufficient for most
ejector installations. The drainage from the after-condenser dhrough opening (16) is usually led by gravity to a
freshwater collecting tank located in the engine room.
Although air ejectors can be designed t,o operate without
condensers, all marine ejectors are condensing in order to
conserve feedwater and recover heat. The use of an
inter-condenser between stages of a two-stage ejector
effects a substantial saving in overall steam consumption,
since the motive steam of the first stage plus some of the
entrained vaDor are condensed in the inter-condenser.
thereby greatly reducing the required second-stage
capacity. A turbine gland steam condensing section is
frequently provided in the air ejector after-condenser,
thereby effecting additional heat recovery (by the condensate being used as circulating water) through condensation of the turbine gland leakoff steam. When such
an arrangement is employed, a gland leakoff exhauster is
connected to the after-condenser vent for maintaining a
slight suction effect in the after-condenser. The slight
vacuum must be sufficient to induce flow of the gland
leakoff steam through suitable pipes leading from the turbine glands to the air ejector condenser. A suction effect
of 5 to 10 in. of water usually is sufficient for this purpose.
In order to cool effectively the noncondensables prior
to their exit from the after-condenser vent opening, it is
preferable to limit t,he condensate circulating water outlet temperature from the air ejector condenser to a maximum of 140 F. When insufficient condensate is available
to maintain this limiting temperature, due to light loading or while maneuvering, recirculation is employed which
may be manually or thermostatically controlled.
Air ejectors for main engines and turbogenerators
always use condensate as the cooling medium. Ejectors
for distiIling plants use the saltwater feed as a cooling
medium, thereby providing a stage of feedwater heating.
The ejector principle is used also to pump water and
other fluids against a low pressure by means of a highpressure jet. They are used aboard ship for laundry and
plumbing system drains and are commonly referred to as
"eductors." They offer a convenient means of evacuating remote compartments that are not connected to a
drainage system, but which have a seawater fire main
nearby that can furnish the motive water. They may- be
motivated by air pressure and often are combined with
centrifuga1 pumps to afford a means of priming.
Further discussion of design and operating features of

ejectors is contained in references [4], [5], and [26].
References
1 S. A. Moss, C. A. Smith, and W. R. Foote,

"Energy Transfer Between a Fluid and a Rotor for Pump
and Turbine Machinery," Trans. ASME, 1942.
2 A. Stodola, Steam and Gas Turbines, translated by
L. C. Loewenstein, Peter Smith, New York, 1945.
3 George F. Wislicenus, Fluid dfechanics of Turbomachinery, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1965.
4 I. J. Karassik and R. Carter, Centrzfugal Pumps,
F. W. Dodge Corp., New York, 1960.
5 I. J. Karassik, Engineers' Guide to Centrifugal
Pumps, .McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
1964.
6 G. T. Csanady, Theory of Turbomchines, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1964.
7 S. Lazarkiewicz and A. T. Troskolanski, Impeller
Pumps, Pergamon Press, New York, 1965.
8 F. J. Wiesner, "A Review of Slip Factors for
Centrifugal Impellers," Trans. ASME, 1967.
9 Hydraulic Institute Standards, Hydraulic Institute,
New York.
10 A. W. Feck and J. 0 . Sommerholder, "Cargo
Pumping in Modern Tankers and Bulk Carriers,"
Marine Technology, July 1967.
11 G. F. Wislicenus, R. M. Watson, and I. J. I<arassik, "Cavitation Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps
Described by Similarity Conditions," Trans. ASME,
1939.
12 Ii. Pilarczyk and V. Rusak, "Solution of Cavit*
tion Problems in Pumps by Means of Model Air Testing," Marine Technology, October 1965.
13 Erosion and Cavitation, ASTIT Technical Publication STP 307, 1961.
14 Erosion by Cavitation Impingement, ASTAI Technical Publication STP 408, 1966.
15 T. AfcAlpine and I. S. Paterson, "Recent Developments in Pump Auxiliaries for Ships," Trans. The
Institute of Marine Engineers, 1960.
16 W. G. Cowan, "Cargo Pumping Installations in
Tankers," Eastern Canadian Section Paper, SNAME,
March 1958.
17 L. J. Clark, "Ocean Transport of Liquefied Natural Gas-The Problems and Their Solutions," The
Motor Ship, March 1966.
18 C. G. Filstead, "Low-Temperature, Liquefied-Gas
Transportation," Trans. SNAME, 1961.
19 J. H. Witte, "The Pump-Driven Lateral-Thrust
Unit with Ejector Augmentation," Marine Technology,
July 1969.
20 J. H. Brandau, "Aspects of Performance Evaluation of Water-Jet Propulsion Systems and a Critical Review of the State-of-the-Art," AIAA/SNAME Paper
67-360, May 1967.
21 "Symposium on Pumping Machinery for Marine
lJropulsion," edited by J. H. Brandau, ASAfE, 1968.
22 G. M. Thomas and R. W. Henke, "Pumps for
Fluid Power," ilfechanical Engineering, September 1968.

23 A. J. Stepanoff, Pumps and Blowers, John Wiley
and Sons, New York, 1965.
24 R. P. Giblon, K. M. Shauer, and I. H. Rolih,
"Design Considerations for Boiler Forced-Draft Systern," Marine Technology, October 1969.
449
25 R. P. Hoover and G. J. Rascher, "Design of Simplified Combustion Control System for Supercharged
Steam Generators," ASME paper 62-WA-288, November 1962.
26 Heat Exchange Institute Standards, Heat Exchange Institute, Wew York.
M A I N A N D AUXILIARY CONMNSERS
CHAPTER Xlll
FsebaM
I Main and Auxiliary Condensers
Section 1
General Characteristics
1.1 Introduction. Rankine's modification of the
Carnot cycle provides the practical basis for the design of
the modern marine steam power plant. With the passage of time, the Rankine cycle has undergone a number
of changes and modifications but still remains fundamental to the more efficient and refined regenerative and
regenerativereheat cycles in common use today. Small
steam plants, and more frequently than not the auxiliary
marine steam plants, are classic examples of the elementary or basic Rankine cycle.
Rudolf Clausius, a theoretical physicist, in 1850 first
enunciated the second law of thermodynamics in the
following form: "Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder
to a hotter bodv." In ~racticalterms this means that in
order to constrht an e&ne which will operate in a cycle
and produce work, heat must be rejected from the cycle
to a heat sink. The smaller the amount of heat rejected
to the heat sink in relation to the amount of heat supplied,
the greater is the amount of heat energy available to
produce useful work. Consequently, the lower the temperature at which the heat energy can be removed from
the system, the higher will be the thermal efficiency of
the cycle.
For the shipboard steam power plant, the ocean, or
any body of water in which the ship operates, provides an
ideal heat sink. It is a heat absorbing medium of practically unlimited capacity, although its ambient temperature limits, in effect, the extent to which heat energy
is made available for producing work by the cycle.
The steam surface condenser provides the means for
the efficient utilization of the body of water in which the
ship floats as a heat sink for the steam power pIant.
1.2 Steam Surface Condensers. The steam condenser controls the exhaust pressure or back pressure at
which the turbine operates by condensing the turbine
exhaust steam at a pressure corresponding to its saturation temperature. Typical examples of main condensers
are shown in Figs. 1, 2, and 3; auxiliary condensers are
shown in Figs. 4 and 5.
The condensing process is accomplished by the transfer
of heat from the exhaust steam to the cooling water and
is the basic function of the steam condenser. A heat
transfer system must have a heat source and a heat receiver, and if there is to be a significant flow of heat from
the source to the receiver, there must be an appreciable
Fig. 1
Main condenser for turbines with axial-tlow exhaust (single-plane

machinery) [I ]
temperature difference between the two. I n the marine

steam power plant, the turbine exhaust steam is the
higher temperature heat source and the circulated cooling
water is the lower temperature heat receiver. In addition to the requirement for a temperature difference
there must also be an area or surface thrbugh which the
heat can pass. I n a surface condenser this area is composed of thin-walled metal tubes, enclosed within a shell
or pressure container. It provides a means for the heat
to flow from the steam to the circulating water, and also
is the means for keeping the two fluids separated.
I n a surface condenser steam is condensed; that is, it
changes from its vapor state to its liquid state at substantially constant pressure, and at the saturation temperature corresponding to that pressure. During the
condensing process the steam gives up its enthalpy, less
the enthalpy of its liquid (condensate) to the condenser
1
MARINE ENGINEERING
TUBE LENGTH, %
Fig. 6
Condensing and circulating water temperature dirtributions

typical surface-type steam condenser
throu~houtthe condenser steam space. The T;

shin
r
Fig. 4
Typical auxiliary condenser [2]
cooling water. As the cooling water absorbs this heat,

its temperature increases during its passage through the
heat transfer tubes. A typical temperature distribution
of the condensing steam and the heat-absorbing cooling
water is shown in Fig. 6.
For convenience, the steam condensing temperature is
shown as constant, although this is not completely accurate. The condensing temperature shown in Fig. 6
may be considered as an average temperature; whereas
in the actual condenser the steam temperature and preasure vary in a saturation temperaturepressure relation-
/,
S T W INLET AND EXPANSION JOINT
tion, whii; small, reflects internal pressure losses and

must be considered in the design of the condenser.
T---h e -smaller the tem~eraturedifference between the
heat source and the heit receiver, the lower will be the
condensing temperature for a given flow of cooling water
and the lower will be.the amount of heat energy rejected
from the cycle. If the condensing temperature could be
reduced to that point at which it approaches the cooling
water inlet temperature, a maximum availability of heat
energy for producing useful work would result, and the
highest cycle efficiency might be obtained. An approach
to such a condition can be made by consideration of a
number of factors-among these are increased heat
transfer rate, increased cooling water flow, and increased
FLEXIBLE MOUNTING BRACKET
Fig. 5
OUTLET
1 Condensate is of high purity, containing only

extremely small quantities of dissolved solids.
2 Condensate is neutral or slightly alkaline in
character, in terms of hydrogen ion concentration, with
very small amounts of various gases (oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, or ammonia) in solution.
3 Condensate is collected a t a temperature corresponding to condensing pressure or slightly higher, in the
order of magnitude of 1 to 3 deg F, providing the means
for effecting condition 2 as described above, ,and enhancing the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
$
INLET AND EXPAWION JOINT

AUXILIARY EXHAUST DUMP
/RIGID MOUNTING
WATER BOX VENT
\CONDENSATE
condensing surface-all of which reduce the temperature

difference between the condensing steam and the cooling
water. The net effect is a reduction in back pressure on
the turbine and improved cycle efficiency.
Available space on board ship, the increased volume of
steam at low pressures, the high moistlure content of lowpressure exhaust steam, and mechanical limitations associated with turbine design generally determine practical condensing pressures in relation to cooling water
temperatures. However, improvement in heat transfer
rates achieved through the design of the condenser, selection of tube materials, and tube geometry are practical
means for reducing the size, weight, and cost of steam
condensers for a given set of design conditions. Therefore, designing for the highest heat transfer rate possible
is of primary importance to both the designer and user.
Because of its effect on the economy of the steam plant,
optimization in condenser design and application is considerably more important with main condensers than
with auxiliary condensers.
1.3 Feedwater Recovery. One of the important
functions of the surface condenser is the recovery of feedwater. In the process of condensing the exhaust steam
from the main or auxiliary turbines, steam condensate
is recovered to be used'as feedwater. In a properly
designed and maintained feedwater system the condensate has the following three important characteristics:
\-CONDENSATE OUTLET
Auxiliary condenwr arranged for overhead deck mounting and longitudinal expadon wppofl [2]
Current steam plant design pressures with their associated boilers or steam generators require extremely
pure feedwater, and it is no longer practical, because of
the condensate loss, to construct noncondensing steam
plants or steam plants using jet or contact condensers.
The small, simple, low-pressure marine steam plant
generally has given way to internal combustion engines.
The auxiliary condenser, like the main condenser, will
also produce condensate of high purity. However, because of size and geometric configuration it does not lend
itself to appreciable condensate reheating.
1.4 Condenser Shell Struclure. The condenser shell
structure may involve many combinations of geometry;
some to obtain an efficient tube bundle arrangement,
some reflecting economies in manufacturing costs, some
reflecting minimum space requirements, and others a
combination of these factors. Further variations occur
in relation to the means used to achieve the pressure
integrity of the various geometries such as ribbed supports, diaphragm supports, compression stays, self-
supporting shell structures, and various combinations

of
these.
While the pressure differentid between atmospheric
pressure and the condenser operating pressure is rel*
tively small, approaching 14.7 psi as a limit, the conditions under which this pressure must be supported require
relatively heavy or well-brayed structures. A loading of
14.7 psi is small when compared with the operating
pressure of boilers or high-pressure heaters, but it is
substantial with respect to vessels, such as condensers,
subjected to Ahexternal
pressure. There are several re*
sons for this. First, condensers are relatively large structures, especially the main condensers. Second, structural failure from external loading is usually in buckling
with cylindrical shapes, and in bending with flat or nearflat surfaces. This is in contrast with failures, generally
in tension, for the cylindrical or spherical shapes used for
boilers and pressure vessels subjected to internal pressure. As an example, a 72-in-dia cylindrical vessel
designed for an external pressure of 14.7 psi would be
suitable for an internal pressure of approximately 130
psi.
Even though t'here are many variations in condenser
shell geometry, only two basic configurations are generally used. For small main condensers and for auxiliary
condensers, condenser shells of circular cross section are
most frequent. This type of condenser shell is usually
designed with sufficient thickness to be self-supporting
under pressure without the use of internal or external
bracing. The supports are, &tached so that external
mechanical loads are properly distributed through the
use of saddles, ribs, doubling plates, and, on occasion, by
increased thickness of shell plate over that required for
pressure alone.
For main condensers, the condenser shell is usually
designed as a flat-sided, box-like structure. It may be
ribbed, compression stayed, diaphragm-supported, or
supported withvarious combinations of bracing to achieve
adequate strength and minimum weight.. Flat-sided
steam condensers serving engines are never designed as
self-supporting box structures because of the excessive
plate thickness needed and the resulting excessive weight.
When carefully designed as braced structures, they compare reasonably well in terms of weight with large unsupported cylindrical shell condensers. Their major
advantages are campactness and their inherent structural rigidity which makes them suitable for supporting
the turbine or auxiliary machinery with little additional
bracing needed.
1.S Condenser Suppolting Arrangements. Most
steam turbines used for m ~ i npropulsion exhaust downwardly into a steam surface condenser located bebw the
turbine (see Figs. 2 and 3). However, some turbines
have been designed with an axial-flow exhaust, and discharge into steam condensers located forward or alongside of the turbine, with the centerline of the steam inlet
of the condensers on, or close to, the same level as the
centerline of the turbine (see Fig. 1). Condensers servicing the more conventional downward-exhausting tur-
454
MARINE ENGINEERING
bines may be mounted in a number of different ways.

Three of the most common arrangements are with t,he
condenser supporting the turbines, the turbine support7
ing the condenser, and wit,h the turbine and condenser
mounted separately.
Condensers used to support main propulsion turbines
offer the advantage of compactness. When they are
used in this manner, condensers are built with supports
as an integral part bf the shell structure. The supports
are located high on the shell structure, near the steam
inlet. With this arrangement, they hold the weight of
the turbine and a minor portion of the condenser (usually the exhaust transition section) on top of the s u p
port, +th a major portion of the condenser (shell, tube
sheets, tubes and internal baffles, support plates, and the
waterboxes) hanging below the support. In principle,
the upper portion of the condenser structure can be
likened to a number of beams upon which the turbine
rests and from which the condenser hangs. The beam
structure itself is supported from foundations built into
the ship. A typical condenser design for supporting the
turbine is shown in Fig. 2. In addition to the integral
supporting structure holding the condenser and turbine
in position, sway braces and collision chocks at the lower
section or bottom of the condenser are also provided.
Misalignment resulting from temperature changes during
operation can be minimized by locating the condenser
supporting structure as close to the turbine centerline as
possible. Expansion and contraction movements are
especially undesirable if the turbine shaft is attached to
separately mounted gears or to electric generators, which
are not subject to the temperatuie changes characteristic
of the condenser and turbine. Small vertical movement ,
can become relatively unimportant if the condenser, as a
supporting structure, can be used for supporting the
turbine and its associated reduction gear or electric generator.
In recent years, two of the main objections to using the
condenser for supporting the turbine have been largely
eliminated. One objection, that of shell structures generally too light to support the turbines, was eliminated by
mounting the supporting structure high. The other,
that of significant dimensional changes associated with
temperature changes during operation, has also been
minimized by locating the supports high on the condenser
shell as described previously. Using the above configurations, condensers supporting turbines are not limited to
small plants.
With, separate turbine foundations it is frequently
possible to suspend the condenser from the turbine flange.
In some cases, depending upon the weight of the condenser and the strength of the turbine casing as a structure, the entire weight of the condenser can be hung from
the turbine flange. In those cases where the loading is
too great, a portion of the condenser weight may be
supported on springs designed to carry the weight of the
cooling water in the condenser tubes and waterboxes,
with a portion of the load from thermal expansion leaving
a downpull on the tybine flange a t all times. Whether
the condenser is wholly supported from the turbine or

only partially so, sway braces, to react with normalinertia forces, and collision chocks are also required. A typical example of a main condenser of this general type is
shown in Fig.3.
Separately mounted condensers and turbines are
usually associated with auxiliary condenser installations,
but not necessarily so. Common pract,ice is to arrange
auxiliary condensers with top supporting structures for
mounting on the underside of the deck. In most instances, the auxiliary turbine is mounted on the topside
of the deck and the turbine and condenser are connected
with an expansion joint between. A typical design is
shown in Fig. 5.
The principle of a separately mounted turbine and
condenser can also be applied to the main propulsion
unit,. In this case the condenser is mounted rigidly on
foundations near or at the bottom of the shell. The
turbine is mounted on separate foundations above, and
the condenser and turbine exhaust openings are connected
together using an expansion joint or a flexible element.
Such installations are rugged, but the requirement of
separate foundations for both the condenser and turbine
results in more weight and more cost.
1.6 Condensing Pressure and Performance Characteristics. Steam surface condensers for marine power
plants, and in particular those used for the main propulsion system, are required to work at absolute pressures
which are somewhat lower than those associated with
the more recently built stationary power plants because
of the trend to use cooling towers as the heat sink for
stationary power plants. For the main condenser, on
merchant ships the operating pressure at full power is
selected to correspond to a temperature approximately
16 to 20 deg F above the cooling water temperature.
The operating pressure at full power for main condensers
on naval ships is selected to correspond to a temperature
that is 30 to 60 deg F above the cooling water temperature. Large steam condensers in stationary service are
usually selected for operating pressures with corresponding temperatures 25 to 40 deg F above the cooling water
temperature.
An extremely low absolute pressure imposes the need
for great care in design in order to meet performance
requirements. Pressure losses within the condenser are
most critical, and large-volume steam flows are difficult
to accommodate without excessive pressure losses, in
compactly designed units. For example, a 0.10-in. Hg
pressure loss at 1 in. Hg absolute represents a temperature loss of approximately 3.19 deg F ; a t 2 in. Hg absolute, the same pressure loss represents a temperature loss
of 1.71 deg F. The respective steam volumes ass~ciat~ed
with these pressures are 652.3 and 339.2 cu ft/lb. When
considering the physical properties of steam in a condensing environment it becomes apparent that these
characteristics must be skillfully accommodated in the
condenser design if satisfactory performance is to be
obtained. As a consequence, low-pressure condensers
must have liberal flow passages on the steam side for

Table 1
Recommended Design Conditions, Pressures, Temperatures, Cleanliness Factors, and Water Velocities
Large turbines,
high efficien
low exhaust%&
Intermediate or
large turbines,
moderate efficiency,
moderate exhaust loss
Small or intermediate
turbines,
low efficiency,
high exhaust loss
Very small
turbines,
low efficiency,
high exhaust loss
Vac. temp., F
Abs. press., in. Hg
Cleanliness factor, %
Water vel., fps
Vac. temp., F
Abs. press., in. Hg
Water vel., fps
Vac. temp., F
Abs. ress., in. Hg
c l e d n e s a factor, %
Water vel., fps
Vac. temp., F
Abs. press., in. Hg
Water vel., fps
78-83
0 . @7-1.14
85
6-7
93-98
1.56-1.82
85
6-7
100-107
1.94-2.38
85
5.5-6.5
120-125
3.45-3.95
85
5.5-6.5
steam distribution around the perimeter of the tube

bundles, as well as longitudinally for their entire length.
Obstructions to the steam distribution flow path should
be held to a minimum consistent with safe structural
design.
The selection of the condenser design conditions is
extremely important to the economics of the turbine and
to the steam condensing plant. While an extremely low
back pressure can improve the cycle efficiency, it may also
increase the cost of the turbine, the condenser, the condenser auxiliaries, and their installation disproportionately. The most economical backpressure can also be a
function of machine size. The cost of small mechanicaldrive turbines requiring low back pressures to attain
high thermal efficiency can seldom be justified. As a
result, most condensers serving small auxiliary turbines
are designed for higher back pressures.than those serving
the main propulsion turbines or those driving larger
auxiliary equipment, such as the main generators. Table
1 lists recommended condenser design points, giving
absolute pressures, corresponding condensing temperatures, cleanliness factors, and water velocities that represent good engineering practice.
1.7 Air Inleakage and Removal. Without exception,
steam surface condensers used in marine service are required to condense impure vapors; that is, vapors which
contain air or other noncondensable gases. Because
most condensers operate at atmospheric or subatmospheric pressures, air leaking into the condenser or into
the condensing system is the most common impurity in
the condensing vapor. However, some of the noncondensables present are not the result of direct air inleakage,
but enter the boiler feed system from the makeup feedwater evaporators or by condenser tube leakage, and may
even result from boiler feedwater treatment chemicals.
The noncondensable gases most commonly found to
originate from these sources are carbon dioxide and
ammonia.
The presence of a very small amount of air in the condensing vapor has little or no effect on heat transfer.
88-93
1.34-1.56
85
6-7
98-103
1.82-2.12
85
6-7
107-112 a
2.38-2.75
85
5.5-6.5
12&130
3.95-4.52
85
5.5-6.5
'
99-104
1.88-2.18
85
6-7
10k110
2.25-2.60
85
6-7
112-117
2.75-3.20
85
5.5-6.5
130-135
4.52-5.18
85
5.5-6.5
102-107
2.05-2.38
85
6-7
108-113
2.45-2.83
85
6-7
112-117
2.75-3.20
85
5.5-6.5
130-135
4.52-5.18
85
5.5-6.5
10&110
2.25-2.60
85
6-7
111-116
2.67-3.10
85
6-7
117-122
3.20-3.70
85
5.5-6.5
135-140
5.18-5.85
85
5.5-6.5
In fact, some observers have been able to show that

under controlled conditions, noncondensables may promote dropwise condensation and actually improve heat
transfer. Similar experiments with larger amounts of
air present, and with heavy liquid films on the condensing
surfaces, have shown substantial reductions in the measured heat transfer. Equally important, however, is
that air or other noncondensables may accumulate in the
condenser to such a degree that a significant increase in
total pressure in the condenser will result. Such an
increase in total pressure almost always results in a reduction in cycle efficiency.
Should a significant loss in performance occur in a welldesigned condenser, it is usually an indication of excessive
amounts of air leaking into the system, or fouled heat
transfer tubes. Either or both can cause overloaded
air-removal equipment, and the condenser performance
will be limited accordingly.
Good ~erformanceunder various conditions of air inleakage ;equires adequate and effective cooling and dehumidification of the noncondensable gas-vapor mixtures so that both their saturated weight and volume
are reduced before being withdrawn by vacuum pumps or
other air-removal equipment. A vapor flow path of the
displacement type, free from zones of stagnation and
short circuiting, is essential for achieving maximum condenser p'erformance. Adequate noncondensable cooling
permits the application of minimum-sized vacuum pumps,
thus effecting a saving in weight, space, and cost.
The Heat Exchange Institute suggests in their standards that air-removal ep-ipment he sized proportionately to steam flow as in' icated in Table 'L, Paragraph
5-29 of the HE1 Steam Surface Condenser Standards also
suggests values for the venting equipment suction temperature.
1.8 Condensate Removal. Surface condensers which
operate below atmospheric pressure require pumps for
removing the collecting condensate. The volute type of
centrifugal pump, designed to operate with low submergence heads, is commonly used for this purpose.
456
Table 2
Recommended Air Pump Capacities [3]
Steam Condensed,
lb/hr
CFM of
Dry Air at 70 F
Special multistage vertical volute pumps have been

built which are capable of handling condensate from a
condenser hotwell with as little as 12 in. of water submergence. More frequently, submergence heads are
higher and may be as much as 60 in., especially with
auxiliary condensers. Main condensers, because of their
location in the ship, require minimum-submergence condensate pumps to permit the condensers to be installed
low in the ship. Most marine condensate pumps are
designed to operate with 18 to 30 in. of water submergence.
Condenser hotwells used for collecting the condensate
are usually equipped with strainers and antivortex devices at their condensate outlet. They are designed to
457
MARINE ENGINEERING
provide optimum hydraulic conditions for the condensate

pump. The water level in the hotwell may be controlled
by the pump itself (i.e., the pump is permitted to cavitate
when there is insufficient condensate to maintain rated
flow of the pump) or by level controllers and condensate
recirculation systems. In general, most marine installations are arranged with devices to control the condensate
level in the condenser hotwell so as to minimize cavitation erosion of the condensate pump impeller.
1.9 Condensate Storage. The steam surface condenser can also serve as a means for collecting and storing
feedwater. This function is of considerable importance
with respect to the main propulsion system, as the storage
volume in the condenser provides some additional surge
capacity for the boilers. The storage capacity provided
in most hotwells for main condensers corresponds to
about 1 to 1.5 minutes of full steam flow.
With some installations, condensate levels in the hotwell are used to maintain an adequate suction head for
the condenate pumps by using float-operated mechanisms to regulate the condensate pump discharge flow.
The deaerating feed tank is used as the principal control
point for the boiler feedwater system and provides the
necessary surge volume for control.
COND~NSATE
OUTLETS
Fig. 7
Large single-pau condenser with central air cooler [ I ]
-.
STEAM INLET
EXPANSION JOINT
-AIR
VAPOR
OUTLET
FIXED MOUNTING
BRACKET
*.
Section 2
Condenser Design
2.1 Steam Condensing Space. Most marine steam
surface condensers are designed so that steam condenses
on the outside of heat transfer tubes, with cooling water
flowing inside the tubes, and with the steam condensing
space contained by the shell. Good design practice requires that the steam entering the condenser have free
access to all areas defined by the perimeter of the tube
bundles with minimum pressure losses. In order to
achieve this requirement, the condenser shell must be
sufficiently large in cross section to allow the steam a
relatively free passage around the tube bundles and also
to provide for longitudinal distribution of the steam to
both ends of the condenser. The cross section of flow
areas must not be excessively blocked by braces, baffle
plates, ribs, diaphragms, or other obstructions.
For main condensers, especially the larger ones, the
steam inlets cover a substantial portion of the condenser
shell, and lateral distribution of the vapor flow within the
condenser can be readilv achieved without excessive
pressure losses. Should the available space for steam
flow be unduly limited, its effect on condenser performance is likely to be serious; therefore, pressure loss d e
terminations should be made and evaluated.
Steam velocities at the entrance to main steam lanes
between tube bundles, or between tube bundles and the
shell, should be held below accepted maximum values.
Recommended velocities, which vary inversely with
design pressure, are given in Table 3. Longitudinal

flow velocities should not exceed 50 percent of the values
given in Table 3 at the steam entrance section of the
condenser.
The main condenser cross section shown in Fig. 7
illustrates the good steam distribution characteristics
inherent with condensers of larger sizes. Steam d i e
tribution around the tube bundle is achieved by providing space above and below the tube bundle to permit
effective lateral distribution of the steam.
The auxiliary condenser cross section shown in Fig. 8
illustrates steam distribution provisions for accommodating an off-center steam inlet. Baffles are provided to
reduce steam impact effects on the tubes and to direct
steam both laterally and longitudinally within the shell.
Table 3
Recommended Steam Design Velocities
Condenser Design
Pressure, in. Hg
Recommended Maximum
Main Steam Lane
Entrance Velocity, fpsa
1
2
3
4
5
500
400
300
250
200
Assumed as average velocity with

section area under consideration.
flow at the cross-
l 6 A G E GLASS
LSTRAINER
PLATE
CONDENSATE
OUTLET
Fig. 8
Two-pass auxiliary condenser with centrally located air cooler [2]
The baffles are perforated to allow a predetermined por1 The depth of tube banks (number of tube rows
tion of the total steam flow to feed the tube bundle sec- deep) can be controlled by :
tion directly beneath them.
changing the geometric shape by using substan2.2 Arrangement of Condensing Surface. In recent
or trapezoidal
tially circular, squaf9- rectangular,
years, almost all condenser designers have adopted ar-- -.
cross
section
configurations,
rays of heat transfer tubes which are best described as
controlling
the
effective
tube
bank
depth
through
bundles. Essentially, each bundle is an operating conthe use of variable tube pitch,
denser. Small condensers need only one such tube
selecting the optimum number of tube bundles per
bundle, but the larger main condensers may need two,
as needed to control the tube bank depth
condenser
although seldom more.
and steam flow distribution.
The principles which apply to the design of a unit
condenser tube bundle are quite fundamental. Five of
2 Steam fed to the tube bundle throughout its
Ihe more important ones are listed as follows:
whole perimeter decreases the average steam entrance
MARINE ENGINEERING
458
459
I
I
Ii
i
I
i
Fig. 9
Typical full-load h a m flow distribution at a turbine exhaust flange [4, 51
velocity to the tubes and thereby mitigates the tube

bank pressure loss.
3 Steam fed from all directions, including the bottom
areas of the tube,bundle perimeter, aids in condensate
deaeration.
4 Location of tube bundles as separate modules in
the condenser shell promotes steam distribution to the
tube bundles and condenser surface areas.
5 Means for direct steam flow to the condenser
hotwell provides for condensate reheating.
The tube arrangement in Fig. 7 is an example of a
single-tube-bundle condenser with no auxiliary steam
inlet lanes in the tube bank, but with main feeder lanes
around its perimeter.
The tube arrangement in Fig. 8 is an example of a
single-tube-bundle condenser with no auxiliary steam
inlet lanes in the tube bank, but with main feeder lanes
around its perimeter. The main steam lanes reduce in
cross section at the bottom of the condenser shell, but
still provide adequate flow area for condensate reheating
and deaeration. The single tube bundle is circular in
configuration.
2.3 Steam Flow Profiles and Distribution. Most auxiliary condensershave relatively small steam inlets in relation to their shell size, and should be provided with impingement and distribution b a e s to redirect the incoming steam. The steam flow to small condensers
displays little or no stratification. I n some cases,
especially with long steam supply lines, its velocity contour may approach the ideal "flat" front flow. Generally, there is no major steam flow distribution problem
which is directly caused by the turbine exhaust steam
flow pattern.
The main condenser, with its large steam inlet, is
usually subjected to highly stratified steam flows. Its
design geometry, its installation in the ship, or both, can
significantly affect the manner in which the undesirable
characteristics of stratified flow can be lessened.
The flow pattern characteristic of the downward exhaust single-flow turbine is markedly stratified, but the
pattern is reasonably symmetrical and usually can be
effectively accommodated. A steam flow distrib~t~ion

map for a single-flow, downward exhausting turbine at a
high flow is shown in Fig. 9. The numbers shown on the
flow contours are the factors by which the average veloc- .
ity is multiplied to obtain the local velocity of the steam,
and it may be seen that there are areas where the steam
velocity reaches 2.9 times the average velocity. With
average velocities in the order of 500 fps, such a turbine
exhaust pattern can easily have flow areas which sustain
velocities in the sonic range.
In general, the flow distribution shown in Fig. 9 will
not interfere with the performance of condensers with
single- or multi-tube-bundle designs, provided the turbine shaft and the condenser longitudinal centerline are
substantially parallel. When the turbine shaft is perpendicular to the condenser centerline, the condenser
tube bundle design can partially compensate for the nonuniform flow characteristics of the turbine. However, in
some instances, offsetting the tube bundles from the
condenser shell centerline may be required in order to
widen one of the main steam distribution lanes so that
steam may be fed into the tube banks at high flow rates
from both the bottom and top of the tube bundles. On
occasions, b d e s may be needed to redirect some of the
steam to other sections of the condenser. The use of
baffles for this purpoee will result in some pressure loss in
the distribution of steam, although if steam flow conditions are severe, a greater loss might result if baffling
were not used. Each case must be resolved with full
consideration of the specific conditions which exist.
2.4 Control of Tube Vibration [6]. The failure of
heat transfer tubes in steam condensers through the
mechanism of tube vibration has often created problems.
Fortunately, high incidence of failure from this cause has
been periodic rather than general, and for the most part
more annoying than catastrophic. If the interior of the
condenser is accessible, mechanical means such as installing wood, fibre, or metal slats between the tubes may
be used to alleviate the vibration failure incidence. As
an interim repair, this is a reasonably effective modification for reducing tube failures.
With small condensers, the addition of slats is seldom
rr possibility. However, in some instances, slats can be

installed between the tubes by cutting holes in the condenser shell. If this cannot' be done, the condenser must
he rebuilt internally, and additional support plates and
now tubes will be required to correct the problem.
With the present technology there is little or no need
to experience severe condenser tube vibration failures,
r~lthoughan occasional tube failure from vibration may
occur, especially when a severe corrosive environment is
present. In such cases the tube failures normally show
ovidence of corrosion fatigue.
The primary cause of tube vibration is from the dynamic effects associated with the flow of steam. A secondary cause may be transmitted mechanical vibration
from attached machinery, from nearby machinery, or
from other vibration sources, with energy transmitted
through the foundation, piping, or other solid connections.
Transmitted mechanical vibration, as a general cause,
is seldom of sufficient magnitude to be trouble-some.
Transmitted vibration from the turbine has commonly
been suspected as a major cause of tube vibration but is
rarely a significant contributor. The allowable vibration amplitudes for large turbines and the resulting transmitted energy is geaerally too small to develop significant
tube vibration, even in those cases where the rpm of the
turbine shaft corresponds to the natural frequency of the
tubes. Field and laboratory tests have shown tube vibration amplitudes at their natural frequency to be within
the limits of 0.011 in. and 0.030 in. when excited at the
same frequency from their supporting structure, with the
energy input to the supporting structure in the laboratory
equal to that measured on a condenser in the field. Vibration amplitudes of these magnitudes do not result in
tube vibration failures.
The primary cause of condenser tube vibration is
steam velocity and its lift and drag effect on the tubes.
For condensers it is not usually related to the von
Karmen vortex effect of critical velocity. Laboratory
tests show that with condensers operating at a low absolute pressure, the velocity energy level at which the von
Kannen vortex effect occurs is much too low to have a
significant effect on tube vibration. For example, for a
a/rin.-~dtube it is about 32 fps. Obviously, the flow
energy of steam at these velocities, with the low density
associated with condenser pressure, is negligible. However, with auxiliary condensers, some of which may
operate at atmosphere pressure where vapor densities are
appreciable, the critical velocity effect may need to be
examined. It can be computed from the following:
Fig. 10
Drag coefficient for tubes in cross tlow [6]
V is the critical velocity when f equals the natural

frequency of the tube. S ranges in valut? from 0.10 to
0.30 for Reynolds numbers varying between 100 and
630,000. A Strouhal number of about 0.20 is a typical
value for steam entrance conditions to a tube bank,
whereas 0.10 is a reasonable value for the innermost
sections of the tube bank. For high-pressure closed
heaters, the evaluation of the critical velocity is of fundamental importance.
In the condensing environment, the velocity effects of
steam surrounding the tubes initiate the significant
vibrating forces, and the tube4 vibrate at their natural
frequency. The steam floh causes a loading to be
imposed on the tubes from both drag and l i t effects, and
results in tube deflection as a function of this loading.
Experience has shown that it is reasonable to assume that
the velocity loading effects of lift and drag will deflect
the tubes according to the theory of beams under static
loading and that the tubes will vibrate with that amplitude without significant amplification. The equations
which apply follow:
where
W a= load on tube in direction of fluid flow, Ib

Cd = +&agcoefficient
A = tube projected area, sq ft
p = fluid density, pcf
V = fluid velocity, fps
g = gravitational acceleration, ft/sec2
+' '<
- Pv2
w, = CIA-
where
V = critical velocity of fluid stream, fps

S = Strouhal number, dimensionless
I
f = tube natural frequency, cps

d = diameter of tube, ft
.-
MACH NUMBER
-2
--
2s
'
(3)
where
W L= load on tube 90 deg to direction of fluid flow, lb

CL = lift coefficient
The value of the drag coefficient Cs in equation (2)
may be obtained from Fig.10. It is important to note
MARINE ENGINEERING
that Cd reaches a maximum value of 2.1 at Mach 0.95.

Data on the lift coefficient CL, or coefficient of lateral
thrust, is not as well documented as the data on the drag
coefficient. Values which have been suggested range
from 0.20 to 1.00, and 0.65 to 1.71. In general, for a
cylinder, the lift coefficient is less than the drag coefficient, Cd,and the effect of drag controls the amplitude of
vibration.
The value of Wd from equation (2), when used in conjunction with applicable beam deflection equations, can
be used to determine the minimum distance between
support plates or between support plates and tube sheets
for steam condensers operating at a low absolute pressure.
The design steam velocity should be determined from
data similar to that shown in Fig. 9 using full-load flow
for determining the average velocity at the turbine
exhaust flange. If the product of the average velocity
and the local velocity multiplying factor approach the
sonic velocity, the design should be based on the sonic
velocity. The design should also be evaluated at the
lowest absolute pressure expected in the condenser at
full load to determine if those conditions are more severe
than the design operating condition.
The classic equations for beams under uniform loading
can be used to compute tube deflections. Because of the
relatively high span length to tube diameter ratio normally used, the deflection equation for a simply supported beam may be used for the center spans, and the
deflection equation for a beam simply supported on one
end and fixed at the other may be used for the end spans.
The equations are as follows:
For center spans
For end spans
where
Y = tube maximum deflection, in.

Wd = load on tube (sum of drag, weight, and contents)
between supports, lb
L = length of tubes between supports, in.
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
I = tube moment of inertia, in.4
The mid-span or maximum tube deflection determined
from equations (4) or (5) must be less than one half of the
ligament between tube holes in the tube sheet or the
tubes will contact one another. Good practice is t o
limit the deflection to one fourth of the ligament, or one
half of the ligament less one sixteenth of an inch, whicheyer is greater.
The tube spans or support plate spacing should be
finalized only after determination that the bending
stresses in the tubes are of an acceptable magnitude, and
that premature failure will not occur from fatigue. The
I
30
40
50
60
70
CIRCULATING WATER INLET TEMPERATURE, F
------Fig. 1 1
80
LEGEND
IDEAL CONDENSER PERFORMANCE
AIR PUMP PERFORMANCE WITH NORMAL AIR LEAKAGE
AIR PUMP PERFORMANCE WITH EXCESSIVE AIR LEAKAGE
Effect of air leakage on condenser pressure
maximum bending stresses in the tubes may be computed

by using classical beam equations. The fatigue life
should not be less than the expected life of the tubes with
respect to anticipated waterside and steamside corrosion
and erosion effects.
2.5 Air Cooler Design. The purpose of the air
cooler is to reduce the water vapor content of the noncondensable gases to be removed from the condenser.
The Heat Exchange Institute recommends that the airvapor mixture be cooled 7.5 deg F below the saturation
temperature correspond,ing to design pressure or 25
percent of the difference between the saturation temper*
t u e corresponding to the condenser pressure and the
design inlet circulating water temperature, whichever is
greater. In some instances it has been found practical
to cool to lower temperatures, and some condensers are
designed to cool to within 5 deg F of the cooling water
inlet
This increased cooling results in a decreased load on
the air pump (or other venting equipment) for a given
air leakage, and as a result a smaller air pump may be
used. Also, im~rovedcondenser performance can result
by applying standard-size air pumps to condensers
provided with more effective coolig sections than those
designed for 7.5 deg F cooling. An example of the effect
of air leakage on condenser pressure under conditions of
normal operation and under conditions of excessive air
leakage or an undersized vacuum pump is shown in Fig.
11.
The line 1-2-2'-3 shows the typical performance of a
condenser, in terms of absolute pressure versus cooling
water inlet temperature, avsuming that air leakage has no
effect. The line 4-2-5 shows the pressure which may be
46 1
the main tube banks before entering the air cooler section.
At the same time, the air cooler should not be such a
large portion of the total condensing surface that it
significantly detracts from the high heat flux surfaces in
the tube banks of the condenser. Air coolers containing
5 to 7 percent of the total condensing surface can be designed to meet normal perfgrmance requirements effectively.
The displacement flow path is extremely important to
the correct fundtioning of an air cooler. If possible, it
should be incbrporated into the design by providing large
entrance areas into the air cooler with the flow cross
section decreasing gradually to the air-vapor outlet. It
is just as important, however, to use a geometry where
the length of the flow path through the air cooler is not
less than the effective depth of the main tube banks.
One of the most important requirements for condenser
air coolers is40 provide means for positive flow, in and
out of each section, between support plates. This requirement is fundamental to good condenser performance
because it eliminates short circuiting and a buildup of
large zones of stagnation with the attendant accumulation of noncondensables that result in a loss in performance. It prevents the air pump or venting equipment
from being overloaded by causing all air cooler sections
to work equally and effectively, and the dehumidification
of the noncondensable gas-vapor mixture becomes
where
optimum.
P6= total pressure in condenser
The determination of the heat transfer surface required
P, = vapor pressure of condensing steam
for
an air cooler to meet spepific requirements is a comPo = partial pressure of nondondensable gases
plex task. The heat transfer rates at.the
. - entrance
. . - - t,n
- - the
- -- As the vapor-gas mixture flows from the steam inlet to cooler, where the noncondensable gas content of the
the vapor-gas mixture outlet, the ratio of P, to P, mixture is low, are close to the average rates for the condecreases, while P6also decreases, thereby causing flow. denser. The velocity of the air-vapor mixture at the
Bince the condehsing temperature also decreases along entrance to the air cooler is usually greater than at any
the flow path as P, decreases, the temperature of the other point in the air cooler. As dehumidification
tii-vapor mixture also decreases. As this occurs, the becomes appreciable, the heat transfer rate decreases and
quantity of vapor in the vapor-gas mixture also decreases. the velocity of the mixture decreases. For the heat
The degree to which this is accomplished is related to the transfer system involved, the opposite situation for
vapor flow path, which also affects the conductance of velocity is desirable and would aid in sustaining high
I;he condensing boundary of the heat transfer system. transfer rates throughout the flow path. In practical
As condensation takes place, the vapor-gas mixture designs this is not always possible to achieve and addibecomes more impure, and if optimum heat transfer is tional surface is needed to compensate for the effect of
t,o be attained, the concentrating noncondensables must decreasing velocity.
be displaced toward the end of the flow path in the conDesign methods for determining air cooler size are, for
denser by the incoming purer vapor. This displacement the most part, approximations and are largely based on
flow path minimizes the effect of diffusion of noncon- empiricism. The Colburn and Hougen basic method is
densables throughout the condenser, and results in Po complex. Reasonably good approximations have also
being at minimum values in the major portion of the been made by Mickley. Simplified methods by Colburn
unit. With suph a flow path, noncondensable gases can and Hougen, and by Smith, compare well with limited
oasily be vented from the condenser without requiring test results. Silver al~&~eniploye*-an ap-proximate
excessively large air pumps.
method for interpreting data from condensers where low,
The ability to maintain such a flow path is, in con- noncondensable gas velocities were encountered, with
niderable measure, dependent upon the air cooler and its reasonable success. The fundamentals of these works
rolation to the remainder of the condenser. It must be may be found in reference [7].
located so that it draws the air-vapor mixture proporThe air coolers shown in Figs. 7 and 8 are single
lionately from all sections of the tube banks. I t must (vapor) pass types. Each air cooler section between
be large enough to maintain adequate steam or air-vapor support plates discharges into a collection header through
mixture flow velocities at the point where the fluid leaves proportioned orifices, assuring that each section between
produced by the air pump, assuming normal air leakage

rind subcooling of the air-vapor mixture. The portion
4-2 of this line represents conditions wherein the air pump
cannot remove the air-vapor mixture at as low a pressure
rm that which the condenser can produce. The condenser
operating presstre will then correspond to line 4-2, and
(,he air pump is said to limit the back pressure. The
portion of the line 2-5 represents a condition where the
Llir pump can remove the noncondensables at a lower
pressure than the condenser can produce; under these
oonditions, the condenser is said to limit the back presnure, and the condenser pressure then corresponds to line
2-2'-3.
The l i e 4'-2'-5'
represents vacuum pump
performance with a condition of excessive air leakage
(the same effect can be caused by too small a vacuum
pump or an inefficient air cooler). It should be noted
that in this case, the vacuum pump controls the condenser pressure from points 4' to 2'. Above point 2' the
vacuum pump is adequate and the condenser will perform
along the l i e 2 ' 3 .
The total pressure in a condenser at any point is the
' sum of the vapor pressure at the lobal saturation temperature and the noncondensable gas pressures. This may
be expressed as:
462
MAIN AND AUXllLlARY CONDENSERS
MARINE ENGINEERING
-020
.
t
J
0
0
,015
Y+
X
o
.010
V)
6 ,005
o
0
Fig. 12
20
40
-60
PERCENT LOAD
80
Performance of typical mechanical deaerating sections with

partial air preuure negligible
the support plates receives its share of the load and is

properly vented.
Liberal air cooling surfaces in the designs shown in
Figs. 7 and 8 have the potential of cooling very close to
the cooling water ,inlet temperature. These designs
effectively use the last rows of tubes in the air cooler
which have a very low temperature rise, usually less than
3 deg F, because of the extremely low heat flux characteristic of air-vapor mixtures which have a low percentage
of vapor.
2.6 Condensate Reheating arid Deaeration. The
principles associated with effective deaeration and reheating of condensate zire not unlike those applicable to
power plant deaerators of the tray type. As the heat
passes through the films of condensed steam adhering to
the condenser tubes in its path to the cooling water, the
condensate on these tube surfaces reduces in temperature
to slightly below the saturation temperature at condenser
pressure. The temperature gradient across these condensate films, which must occur in order to produce a
flow of heat, requires that the mean temperature of this
film be less than the condensing steam temperature, but
greater than the temperature of the contacting tube
wall. Unless provisions are made to reheat this cohdensate before it is removed from the condenser hotwell,
a measurable amount of heat energy is lost from the
cycle. Ih addition, the subcooled condensate absorbs
air an! other gases, such as carbon dioxide and ammonia,
from the condensing steam. If these gases are allowed
to accumdate in the oondensed steam, corrosion of the
boiler feed system and the boiler may result.
The heat loss from condensate subcooling may be
eliminated by directing a portion of the incoming steam
to the condenser bottom and hotwell area in such a
manner that a substantial amount of its velocity energy
is converted to pressure. I n this way, the local static
pressure in the hotwell area and under the tube bundles
may actually exceed the static pressure at the condenser

steam inlet. If provisions are made, the condensate
falling from the tube bundles through this zone of
increased static pressure can be heated to a temperature
above that which corresponds to the saturated steam
pressure at the condenser steam inlet, and thereby effect
a thermal gain in the cycle.
I n the process of being reheated, the condensate also
loses its tendency to retain noncondensable gases in
solution. This tendency for the condensate to become
deaerated may be augmented by providing deaerating
trays or bafhes underneath the tube bundles for receiving
the condensate and prolonging its time of contact with
the heating steam.
The degree of deaeration which may be effected in a
steam surface condenser, while principally dependent on
the amount of direct-contact heating surface provided, is
also dependent upon a number of other factors. I n a
steam condenser, deaeration occurs under vacuum and
can be affected by excessive air inleakage, especially if
the leakaee is below the water level in the hotwell.
Other factors which can affect deaeration are the introduction of makeup feedwater, heater drains, and other
condensate returns to the condenser.
The capacity of the air-removal equipment in operation
limits the condenser vacuum (Fig. 11) and consequently
affects deaeration. The effect is greatest a t very light
loads and with cold cooling water. To install enough
vacuum pump capacity to overcome the effects of this
characteristic is usually economically unsound.
Four factors which influence deaeration are: (1) the
noncondensable gas pressure in the deaeration area, (2)
the amount and effectiveness of reheat and deaeration
surface, (3) the vacuum pump characteristics in relation
to air inleakage, and (4) the effectiveness of converting
inlet steam velocity energy to pressure in the hotwell
area. A further explanation of these factors is as
follows :
(1) The partial noncondensable gas pressure in the
deaeration zone may be minimized with good steam
distribution and by eliinating noncondensable buildup
from stagnation. Tube bundle arrangements with
centraliued air coolers are most effective in this regard.
(2) The amount and effectiveness of deaeration and
reheat surface below the tube bundles is of extreme
importance. Figure 12 shows the deaeration effect of
two arrangements of surface working in an environment
of very low partial air pressure. With one arrangement,
direct surface-producing bafiles made of perforated trays
are provided. With the other arrangement, the condensate falls without interruption from the bottom tubes
of the tube bundles to the water level in the bottom of
the shell or hotwell.
(3) The effect of partial air pressure, resulting from
vacuum pump capacity limitations, is illustrated in Fig.
13. The curve shown is for a given cooling water inlet
temperature. A family of curves would result if a
number of d i e r e n t cooling water inlet temperatures
were shown.
PERCENT LOAD
Plg. 13
Typical effect of partial air preuure resulting from vacuum pump

limitations
PERCENT LOAD
The combined effect of (2), deaeration trays, and (3),

vacuum pump limitations, is shown in the performance
curves in Fig. 14. Poorest performance occurs a t very
light loads with cold water. Best performance begins a t
about 45 percent load, but may be extended to higher
loads by providing more reheating and deaeration surface
or a larger air pump.
(4) The effectiveness of converting velocity energy
to pressure energy a t the condenser hotwell zone is
usually a function of the directness of the main steam
distribution lanes in relation to the inlet steam flow and
to the bottom of the condenser. Single-bundle arrangements do not perform quite as well as condensers with
two bundles. The latter appears to be an ideal geometry.
The prediction of deaeration performance which may
be expected from a given condenser design and its
associated special deaeration provisions is not easily
made. First, such predictions are related to the projected area of the tube bundle as a measure of unit liquid
(condensate) flow rate as it falls froq the tubes to the
water level below. Secondly, deaeration is related to
the height of fall or to the time of contact of the condensate to be deaerated with the reheating and scrubbing
steam. Thirdly, if perforated or other types of trays are
used, their effectiveness is not only a function of the
number of vertically disposed horizontal rows, but also
of the area they cover (the projected bundle area or less).
In addition, the liquid-vapor flow paths within the
deaeration b d e section have a marked effect on deaerator performance. Preferred arrangements have a crosscounterflow design with a positive vapor demand, through
the baffled section, to a portion of the main condenser
tube bundle directly above.
As an approximation, with a tube bundle construction,
liberal steam flow around the bundle, and with the
effective feeding of steam around its perimeter, a dissolved oxygen content of approximately 0.03 cc/liter
may be expected with a 12 in. free fall of condensate.
This arrangement is also usually adequate for condensate
reheating.
Fig. 14
Performance of a typical deaeraing hotwell
,-
The use of b d e s or trays to augment condensate

deaeration in auxiliary condensers is seldom, if ever,
practiced; nor are they often used with main condensers.
In general, dissolved oxygen levels not exceeding 0.03
cc/liter are satisfactory since most conventional marine
power plants include deaerating feed tanks for further
deaeration. The deaerating feed tanks reduce dissolved
oxygen levels to 0.01 cc/liter asd less before the feedwater
reaches the boilers.
2.7 Condensate Returns and Feedwater Makeup.
Condensate drains a t pressures above deaerator pressure
are usually drained into the deaerator. Most of the
condensate drains which are discharged into the condenser are generated in the feed system at pressures less
than the operating pressure of the deaerating feed tank.
The lower pressure drains are usually from the gland
leakoff condenser, the gland leakoff ejector condenser,
the air ejector intercondenser, the shell-and-tube feedwater heaters below the deaerator in the cycle, the drain
cooler, and the distilling plant. (Since there are many
variations in feed system design, the components listed
may not apply in their entirety.) Some of these drains
in passing downward in the system are cascaded in order
to impar$ heat to the feedwater, and thereby reduce
thermal losses from the cycle. Not infrequently, and
especially in systems using cascading, drains are mixed
and are collectively discharged to the condenser.
The condensate drains are frequently at pressures
below atmospheric and
bg a s o q e of air infiltration
to the condenser. The steam air ejector inter- sad aftercondenser drains are also a source of noncondensable gas
infiltration. In order to compensate for these possible
sources of air inleakage, provisions must be made for
their deaeration to a degree sufficient to maintain the
desired purity of the feedwater.
Most condensate drains are returned to the condenser
at temperatures substantially above the temperature
q
4 64
DISTRIBUTION
HEADER
HYDRAULIC
POCKET
LIWID INLET
v,=o , n v2
Vp= 0.75 Vs
Vn=VEU)CITY LENING ORIFICE
Fig. 15
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 4
Maximum Recommended Energy Level Coefficients

for Flashed Returns
Coefficient,
Service
Ca
Cmtinuous--Sprayed against shell
79
Continuous-Sprayed into hotwell condensate
159
Intermittent-Sprayed on tube bundle8
79
ZntermittentSprayed against shell
159
Intermittent-Sprayed into hotwell condensate or
238
on erosion-resistant target areas
a Values of C are for guidance and are b&ed on orifice diameters
not exceeding Q4 in.
b Except for the deaeration of makeup, this practice should be
avoided if possible.
I
Design details of makeup, condensate return, and bypass steam

distribution system
pressure differential across the orifices; therefore, the

velocity must be maintained at sufficientlylow values so
corresponding to condenser pressure. In general, a tem- that excessive erosion of impingement surfaces will not
occur, Acceptable velocities for the flashing condensate
perature of 5 to 10 deg F above the condenser tempera- mixture discharging from the orifices are given by the
ture provides sufficient energy to deaerate the condensate equation:
returns to less than 0.03 cc/liter. However, the design
of the system within the condenser can have a significant
effect on its ability to provide adequate deaeration.
Most frequently the design of the condensate return
system inside the condenser incorporates a "perforated"
pipe header to distribute the condensate over a wide where
area. These perforations are usually drilled holes which
V = acceptable velocity of mixture, fps
act as orifices. Their size and number are predetermined.
p, = density of mixture, pcf
The smaller the diameter of the holes and the greater
C = energy level coefficient (see Table 4)
their number, the less concentrated will be the jet energy
The density of the mixture, p,, is calculated immedieffect from the fluid flow streams upon emerging and
ately
downstream of the orifices. The velocity of the
discharging into the condenser; in addition, a greater
amount of direct-contact surface will be provided for mixture, V, is calculated by using the discharge area of
heating with condenser steam should the drain temper* the orifice in conjunction with a suitable coefficient.
tures fall below the condenser temperature, or for di- For orifices made by drilling holes in a pipe header or
sipating high-energy flashed vapor should the temper* plate, a discharge coefficient of 0.80 to 0.85 may be used.
The design details of a typical spray header distribution
ture become higher.
The return distribution headers should be located in system are shown in Fig. 15. The relationship of
the condenser steam distribution space and above the velocities given are for relatively short lines. It is
maximum expected water level in the hotwell. The important to adhere to the velocity sequence shown if
sprayed returns may be arranged to impinge directly uniform distribution is to be achieved. For long spray
against the condenser shell or into the condensate in the headers, the friction losses should be determined. Headhotwell on the bottom of the condenser. In general, as ers should be sized so that the friction loss from any
the temperature of the condensate returns approaches or section to the end of the header is approximately equal
becomes lower than the temperature corresponding to to the velocity head at that section.
The preceding design requirements are applicable in
condenser pressure, the sprays should discharge into the
condenser at a higher position to allow for deaeration principle to both main and auxiliary condensers.
2.8 Bypass Systems. Nuclear-powered steam power
and/or reheating. High-temperature, high-energy replants
require heat removal from the reactors even when
turns are preferably sprayed directly into the collected
condensate with their velocities and distributions de- the propulsion turbines are out of service. This heat
signed to avoid splashing condensate on the tube bundle. energy, in the form of generated steam, is arranged to
Makeup, although frequently admitted to the hotwell, bypass the turbine and discharge into the condenser for
requires deaeration. Very effective deaeration of makeup energy absorption. The steam generated for reactor
may be achieved by spraying the makeup high onto cooling may be as much as 10 percent of the reactor
the tube bundle, preferably on the top tubes from above. capacity and must be cooled, condensed, and returned
However, the design of the sprays must provide a good to the steam generator.
Since the available energy from this steam is not being
distribution, low admission velocities, and minimum hole
used to produce power, its total enthalpy less the enthalpy
diameters in order to avoid damage to the tubes.
Considerable velocity may develop as a result of the of its condensate at condensing temperature is absorbed
by the condenser. The main condenser when supplied

with rated cooling water flow is more than adequate to
absorb this energy. The important consideration is that
of providing means within the condenser to dissipate the
velocity energy of the steam in addition to absorbing its
available heat.
The most elementary and yet most effective system for
handling bypass steam employs two pressure breakdown
elements. The first is the friction in the piping between
Ihe condenser and the steam source; the second is the
pressure loss through the orifices provided in the steam
bypass distribution system imide the condenser. The
greatest portion of the total pressure loss occurs within
Ihe condenser, and the steam bypass distribution system
must be capable of dissipating this energy so that it can
be absorbed as heat without causing mechanical damage.
Three of the most important conditions which must be
satisfied are: (1) the steam must be desuperheated
within the condenser rapidly and effectively; (2) shock
wave effects from sonic discharge impinging on tubes or
other metal surfaces must be avoided; and (3) the massvelocity energy effects must be distributed over a wide
urea.
In designing a steam bypass distribution system to
meet these requirements, condition (1) can be satisfied
by introducing the bypass steam into the condenser
directly below the tube bundles. In this way it is discharged into the "rain" of its own condensate, effectively
desuperheating the steam without additional desuperheating sprays or other automatic devices for temper*
ture control. Condition (2) can be met by selecting
appropriate diameters for the holes in the distribution
headers as discussed in the previous section. In this
case, however, the vapor leaving the breakdown orifices
in the distribution headers will be substantially superheated and will be at velocities of Mach 1 or greater.
Good practice is to discharge the steam above the condensate level in the hotwell such that it is directed at the
aondensate surface in the bottom of the condenser; this
avoids damaging metal surfaces by erosion, temperature,
shock wave effects, and vibration. When bypassed
steam is discharged into the exhaust trunk, care should
be taken to avoid its impingement on the condenser
tubes. Further mitigation of shock wave and highvelocity erosion effects may be achieved by using many
small-diameter orifices in the distribution system within
the condenser. The shock wave from sonic flow through
an orifice dissipates in a distance of about 30 orifice
diameters; therefore, it ib good practice to exceed this
distance by a substantial amount before allowing the
stream flow to impinge on metal surfaces, with the
exception of specially designed impingement bafles.
Condition (3), that of spreading the velocity energy
effectsover a wide area, is extremely important and will
influence the requirements under (2) above. In the
design of headers for the purpose of flow distribution it
is important that the maximum fluid flow velocity in the
header does not exceed 75 percent of the fluid velocity
leaving the orifices in the header. If it does, uneven
465
distribution will result and the effectiveness of the system

will be impaired.
2.9
Cooling Water circuit
a. Condenser Cooling Water Passes. Condensers in

which all of the cooling water flows through the condenser tubes in one direction, from cooling water inlet
to cooling water outlet, a d Irnott-11as single-pass condensers. Figures 3 and 7 are examples of typical singlepass condenserg, Configurations where all of the cooling
water flows from one end of the condenser to the other
through one half of the tubes and then returns in the
opposite direction, through the remaining half of the
tubes, to be discharged are classed as two-pass condensers.
Figures 2, 5, and 8 are typical examples of condensers of
this type. The tubes of multi-pass condensers are
arranged in groups of substantially the same number, so
that the cooling water which flows through each group
successively from water inlet to water'outlet is at the
same velocity. Each group of tubes represents a water
pass, and the number of such groups in a given condenser
gives rise to the terminology of one-, two-, or three-pass
condensers.
The air cooler tubes are preferably located in the first
water pass so that the coldest water is made available to
cool the noncondensable gases. The use of more than
one water pass in the design of a condenser increases, in
effect, the tube length or the distance the cooling water
must travel from the water inlet to the water outlet.
The product of the tube lengtk and the number of water
passes is the effective tube length of the condenser, and
as such may be directly compared with the actual tube
length of single-pass condensers.
For a given heat load, the primary variables which
determine the condenser tube length are:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
the temperature rise of the cooling water,

the water velocity through the tubes,
the tube diameter and gauge, and
the condenser surface and space conditions or
requirements.
With respect to (I), the greater the temperature rise,

the longer the effective tube length required for a given
velocity. With respect to (2), the higher the water
velocity, the longer the effective tube length required for
a given temperature rise. Regarding (3), the larger the
internal tube diameter, the longer the effective tube
length required for a given velocity and temperature
rise. With respect to (4)) the condenser surface and the
available space conditions, the effects of (I), (2)) and (3)
will contribute to the fipl selectiq of effective tube
length and, consequently, the required number of water
passes in the condenser.
One of the important factors which must be considered
in condenser design and which directly afTects the number
of water passes required is the ratio of condenser shell
length to mean condenser shell cross-section area. A
long shell of small diameter does not lend itself to good
longitudinal steam distribution; a short shell of large
MARINE ENGINEERING
466
Fig. 16
Condenser with circular array of tubes and peripheral steam inlet and central air cooler with venh cascaded to inlet water
end of flnt-pass tubes for final cooling
diameter may result in objectionably heavy or deep tube

banks. Either of the geometries can result in excessive
pressure losses on the steam side of the condenser.
Single- and two-pass condensers are the designs most
frequently applicable to marine condensers, with the
single-pass more commonly used with main condensers
to accommodate the hydraulic characteristics of scoops,
and multi-pass condensers more commonly applicable to
auxiliary condensers. Constructions using three or
more passes are only occasionally needed to meet the
performance requirements associated with marine steam
power plants. Multi-pass condensers require less cooling
water but more surface than single-pass condensers for a
given heat load. The smaller cooling water piping
associated with the smaller flow may be desirable in
some cases.
b. Condenser Waterboxes. Waterbox designs used
for marine condensers may be divided into two classes:
the bonnet type and the ring-and-cover type. In recent
years, the bonnet-type waterbox has been used almost
to the exclusion of the ring-and-cover type. Figures 1,
2, 3, 4, and 5 illustrate bonnet-type waterboxes. A
typical ring-and-cover type of waterbox construction is
shown in Fig. 16.
The bonnet-type waterbox is constructed with all
elements of the waterbox, including waterpass partitions,
flow dividing partitions, and inlet and outlet cooling
water nozzles, combined as a unit structure. The ringand-cover type of waterbox is constructed with all
elements of the waterbox, except for the cover, but
including waterpaas partitions, flow-dividing partitions,
and inlet and outlet cooling water nozzles, combined as a
unit structure comprising the ring section only. The
covers are separate and attached by means of bolted
flanges.
It is obvious from s comparison of the figures shown
that ring-and-cover waterboxes provide the greatest
accessibility for tube and tube sheet maintenance and
tube replacement. There is little or no advantage in
using ring-and-cover waterboxes unless they also are

equipped with cooling water inlet or outlet connections,
or both. Normally, bonnet-type waterboxes without
cooling water connections are just as easily removed to
provide maintenance accessibility as their ring-and-cover
counterparts. Condensers with an even number of
passes have cooling water connections on one end only,
and are almost invariably built with bonnet-type return
waterboxes. The nozzle-end waterboxes may be of
either the bonnet or ring-and-cover type.
Nozzle-end waterboxes of the ring-and-cover type
provide complete access for servicing tubes, tube sheets,
and tube replacement without the need for disconnecting
the inlet and outlet cooling water piping. Condenser
maintenance is less d i c u l t than with nozzle-end bonnettype waterboxes, and tube repair, cleaning, and replacement can be easily done.
Nozzle-end waterboxes of the bonnet-type must be
removed for servicing tubes and tube sheets and the
cooling water lines disconnected, except in the case of
very large condensers wherein maintenance personnel
may enter the waterboxes for tube servicing. For
retubing, however, the waterboxes must be removed.
The disadvantage of the bonnet-type waterbox is
mainly the limited accessibility to tubes and tube sheets
for maintenance. The advantages are lighter weight,
better hydraulic design, lower cost (especially when corrosion-resistant materials are required), and fewer bolted
joints. The selection of the type for a given installation
should take into account the preceding, and also the
materials used for tubes, tube sheets, and waterboxes.
The use of 90-10 copper nickel for these parts with its
excellent corrosion resistance (rather than aluminum
brass tubes, naval brass tube sheets, and steel or coated
steel waterboxes) has been a major contributing factor
to the use of bonnet-type waterboxes for marine condensers.
c. Single- and Divided-Circulation Condensers.
Most condensers used in marine services, and especially
those used for auxiliary applications, are of the single-circulation type. Single-circulation condensers are characterized by having but one cooling u-ater circuit from inlet
to outlet. Condensers of this type must be taken out of
service when maintenance is required; and if the main
condenser is involved, the ship may also remain oet of
~erviceuntil all repairs are made.
Condensers provided with divided-circulation coolingwater circuits may be operated with one half of the
condenser in service while the other half is out of service.
Maintenance is obviously restricted to t,he cooling-water
side of the condenser. Condenser designs with open
center steam lanes, such as are characteristic of two- or
four-bundle tube arrangements, are characteristically
ndaptable to a divided-circulation design.
The cooling-water system must also be divided and
valved so that each half of the condenser may operate as
s separate unit. The design, when operating with both
halves in service, performs in identical fashion to a singlecirculation type of condenser.
When one circuit of a divided-circulation condenser is
isolated, the condenser operates with one half of the
normal cooling-water flow and one half of the condensing
~urfaceactive. The other half is out of service and the
wsterboxes of the condenser may be opened to provide
uccess to the tube sheets such that urgently needed
minor repairs may be accomplished, especially temporary
correction of leaking tubes or tube-end connections.
Repairs may be made by plugging and/or welding as
needed.
Ordinarily, the condensing temperature at full load
wiil not exceed 105 F for condensers designed for 2.25 in.
Kg absolute with 85 F cooling water. However, with
one half of the condenser out of service and with the full
steam load condensed by only half the surface and half
of the cooling water supplied to the condenser, the back
pressure and condensing temperature will increase. At
equivalent steam loads the cooling-water temperature
rise will approximately double. Should the condensing
temperature reach levels which impair maintenance
activities, the load on the turbine may be reduced to
provide more acceptable working conditions.
Waterboxes for divided circulation may be made as
single boxes with a partition or as separate boxes. If
partitioned single boxes are used, each side of the waterbox must be capable of withstanding the design working
pressure when the other half is out of service. Dividedcirculation cooling circuits are almost never used for
auxiliary condensers.
d . Pressure Losses in Cooling-Water Systems. I n
ostablishing the total dynamic head required to circulate cooling water through the condenser cooling-water
~ystem,the pressure loss resulting from flow through the
condenser must be determined. For marine power plants
the pressure loss in the cooling-water circuit of the main
condenser is solely from flow friction; but the pressure
lbss of auxiliary condensers may have a static-head component, such as in those cases where the overboard discharge is above the waterline of the ship.
467
0.90
0.80
0.m
5
*L 0.60
O
0.50
$ 0.40
3
0.30
K
ki
Ilz5
IL ,Q20
3
'
0.15
ui
0.10
,0.09
0 0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
3
78910
WATER VELOCITY, FPS

TUBE SIZE CORRECTION
TUBE SIZE
5/8"
3/4"
7/8"
Fig. 17
16 BWG
1.10
1.06
1.06
18 BWG
1.00
1 .OO
1 .OO
.,.
20 BWG
0.94
0.95
0.96
ridi ion loss in condenser tubes [3]
The most reliable data available for computing condenser cooling-water flow
losses are those published by the Heat Exchange Institute, "Standards for
Steam Surface Condensers" [8]. These Standards
provide graphs for determining the friction loss through
tubes for various water velocities with correction factors
for gauge and tube diameter and for cooling-water
temperature. The standards also include graphs for
determining waterbox and tube-end losses for velocities
through tubes or nozzles for single- and two-pass condensers.
The head loss resulting from circulating-water flow
through tubes and in the condenser waterboxes is shown
in Figs. 17 and 18 respectively. The data in Figs. 17
and 18 are limited to those tube sizes and gauges normally used in marine condensers; more complete informationis given in the Heat Exchange Institute Standards.
2.10 Mechanical Design practice
a. Tube Sheets and Tube Spacing. Tube sheets are

drilled to a prescribed m&termto raeive the heat transfer tubes. The holes into which the tubes are secured
have a number of geometries intended to meet specific
needs. These geometries are described in paragraph c.
The tube holes are first drilled and then reamed for
finish and sizing. The shell sides of the tube holes are
in. X 45 deg bevel, or
chamfered, usually with a
preferably with a
in. radius. The finished dimension
x6
x6
468
MARINE ENGINEERING
2.0
Table 5
Recommended Tube Sheet Thickness [3]
Area of Tube Sheet, sq in.

to 1965
1966 to 3739
3740 to 8495
8496 to 30791
30792 and up
Table 6
Thickness of Tube Sheet, in.
Diagonal Tube Pitch Data
Tube diameter, in.

Tube pitch (30' X 60'
diagonal), iw.
No. tubes ~ e sa
r ft of
tube sh&t *
96
3/a
1H6
1x6,
1%
189
147
106
~
t
2
3
4
6
7
8
9
VELOCITY THRU TUBES OR NOZZLE, FPS
Fig. 18
Waterbox and tube end losses [3]
of the tube hole should be made equal to the nominal

tube diameter plus a minimum of 0.005 in. and plus a
maximum of 0.007 in. The thickness of tube sheets varies with tube sheet
size (area). Tube sheets drilled for % in., % in., or
74 in. tubes which are to be rolled or packed should not
be less than J$j in. thick. If the tubes are welded and
rolled, the tube sheet should not be less than % in.
thick. The earlier recommendations of the Heat
Exchange Institute regarding tube sheet thickness are
shown in Table 5. The Heat Exchange Institute no
longer publishes dimensional standards; however, the
standard established by Table 5 remains in general use.
The location of drilled holes in tube sheets for receiving tubes is not only a function of the overall tube
bundle design but also a function#of tube diameter and
pitch. Most condensers are designed with a 60 deg
triangular pitch, for which standard dimensions have
been developed. ".'he accepted standard used by most
condenser designers is given in Table 6.
Condensing pressures higher than the normal values
shown in Table 1 permit reducing the pitch to values
lower than those shown in Table 6, except that the
pitch should never be reduced to such that the ligament
is less than
in. The tube pitch in combination with
the tube bank depth determines the internal pressure
loss, and design conditions will determine if the values
of tube pitch shown in Table 6 should be strictly followed.
The relation of tube pitch to internal losses in condensers
is discussed in Section 4.
b. Support Plates. The condenser tube support
plates serve a number of purposes. They are used to
support the tubes between tube sheets in order to control
tube vibration and to provide means for bowing the
tubes for reducing stresses from differential expansion.
Also, they provide a convenient means for reinforcing

the condenser shell against external pressure.
Support plates should be sufliciently thick to provide
a good bearing surface for the tubes they engage. Typito % in. for small condensers,
cal thicknesses are
including most auxiliary condensers. Thicknesses of
to J$j in. are used with large condensers, including
main condensers.' The tube holes should be chamfered
to avoid cutting tubes on sharp edges. Accepted pracin. radius
tice is to use a H6in. X 45 deg bevel or a
on both sides of the support plate, or the equivalent by
the use of wire brush deburring.
The dimensions of the tube holes should be equal to
the nominal diameter of the tube plus a minimum of
0.010 in. and plus a maximum of 0.015 in. To provide
a smooth surface, the tube holes should be reamed after
drilling.
The spacing of the support plates, in most instances,
will be about 40 to 45 tube diameters, but these dimensions should be verified using the procedures outlined
in Section 2.4.
Support plate areas which do not engage tubes should
be cut out or relieved as much as possible to provide
means for longitudinal steam distribution. When they
are also used for reinforcing the condenser shell, support
plates should be securely welded in place and provided
with sufficient bearing area against the shell to properly
distribute loading. Since the support plates act as
edge-loaded diaphragms, they may require staying
along the length of the shell to avoid buckling under
heavy loading.
c. Tube-to-Tube-Sheet Joints. Condenser tubes in
marine condensers are usually one of tn-o standard
sizes: % in. or yi in. outside diameter. The % in. od
size is most commonly used for merchant ships and 44 in.
for naval ships. The wall thickness most frequently
employed is 18 BWG (0.049 in.).
The method selected for securing condenser tubes to
tube sheets should provide leak-tightness and strength
as a supporting structure for the tube sheet, or a leaktight sliding joint to compensate for expansion. The
various methods maytbe used in combination to provide
characteristics consistent with design requirements for
x6
specific service conditions. Details of the more commonly used methods of securing tubes are shown in Fig.
19.
Figure 19(a) shows a typical configuration of a tube
expanded into a tube sheet with a rolled straight section
and a swaged flared section. The flare is for irnpro9ing
the tube inlet-end geometry to miniize cavitation
effects from the entering cooling water. Also, the tubes
mav be rolled and flared a t both ends. The cvlindrical
section of the rolled joint in Fig. 19(a) is shown smooth,
but it may be grooved for an improved holding ability.
The grooves, which are machined into the tube holes,
are usually two in number, spaced about
in. apart,
and are about 0.015 in. deep X
in. wide.
Figure 19(b) shows a typical configuration of a tube
expanded into a tube sheet with a straight section only.
When used, this design is applied to the tube outlet end.
The tube hole is shown without grooves, but grooves
may also be added to improve the holding ability as
noted above.
Figure 19(c) shows a typical design of a packed tubeto-tube-sheet joint using a combination of fiber rings and
metal-foil packing. The ferrules are provided with
clearance to allow for longitudinal tube expansion, but
the clearance is limited to prevent excessive longitudinal
tube movement. If the tube is packed on both ends,
ferrules are required to prevent the tube from coming out
of the tube sheets.
Figure 19(d) shows a typical design of a packed tubeto-tube-sheet joint using a combination of fiber rings and
metal-foil packing. The tube hole is threaded so that
the metallic packing can be driven into the threads and
hold without ferrules. This design is used for the outlet
ends of the tubes only and must be used with inlet-end
geometries (such as rolled or welded joints) which secure
the tube in position.
A geometry similar to that in Fig. 19(a) may be used
to secure a tube to a tube sheet by welding; while the
design incorporates a flared entrance to improve water
inlet flow conditions, this design is alsp used at the outlet
end of the tube. A geometry embodying a straight
section only, with no flared section, may also be used,
but specificallyfor the tube outlet end. The tubes should
be welded first and then rolled. Welded joints without
rolling me susceptible to fatigue failures from vibration.
Properly rolled joints are substantially as strong as
the tube itself. This is generally true only when the
tubes are expanded into holes with grooves, or welded
and rolled; however, the uniformity of holding strength
will vary between these methods.
d. Tube and Shell Expansion. The condenser
operates at a temperature quite different from that prevalent during assembly. Even under normal operating
conditions the temperature differences are sufficiently
lwge to generate stresses high enough to cause tube
failures. Three methods are commonly used to avoid
the undesirable stresses which can result from thermal
expansion differences.
The use of packed tube ends, or tubes with one end
(a)
(b) CUTLET END
INLET END
EXPANDED ONLY
EXPANDED a FLARED
METALLIC RING
METALLIC RINGS
-h
x6
(cIINLET OR OUTLET END

PACKED WITH METALLIC
WKING WITH FERRULES
(d)
OUTLET END
PACKED WITH METALLIC
=KING W W T FERRULES
Fig. 19 Tube-to-tube-sheet loinb
packed (outlet end) and one fixed (inlet end), allows

movement of the tube longitudinally in the tube sheet
joint, thus minimizing differential expansion stresses.
This method has been used successfully for many years
but does have a tendency to develop leakage (cooling
water to condensate) at the packed ends. However,
with proper design, assembly, and maintenance, the
leakage is small enough to be tolerated with moderatepressure steam plants; but s > j han arrangement would
not be acceptable for use with a nuclear steam plant.
When tubes are expanded on both ends or welded and
expanded on both eads, differential expansion between
the shell and tubes resulting from different materials
and temperatures may be accommodated by arranging
the support plate positions so that the tubes are bowed.
Under compressive loading the tubes act as eccentric
columns which deflect easily and thereby hold the
stresses caused by end loading to acceptable levels. A
disadvantage of this method occurs if operating conditions place the tubes under tension. In this case
there is little flexibility in the tubes and the expansion
load can cause excessive tube sheet deflection. If the
differential expansion movement is large enough, very
high local stresses can develop and s'ome tube-to-tubesheet joints may fail.
An alternative method, which is used when the tubes
are rigidly fixed in both tube sheets, is the shell expansion joint, Figure 20 shows a toroidal joint which offers
substantial flexibility. It is especially suited to condensers with long tubes &may_becused in multiples if
one does not provide sufficient flexibility. Figure 21 is a
diaphragm type of joint, shown with the diaphragm
attached to a circumscribing ring. The flexibility is
less than that of a toroidal joint of equal diameter, but
it is less expensive to build. Where space permits, it
may be increased in diameter and used as a single rather
than a double diaphragm. I n such cases, the circum-
470
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 7 Condenser Shell Thickness for Cylindrical Shells
(fabricated stbel) [3]
Cross Section Area

of Shell, sq in.
to 2460
2461 to 5670
Fig. 20
Toroidal shell expansion loinl
Fig. 21
Diaphragm shell expansion foint
scribing ring may be used as the tube-sheet bolting or

welding flange.
e. Condenser Shell. The important geometrical
characteristics of marine condenser shells are described
in Section 1.4. The methods for designing condenser
shells to withstand external pressure generally vary with
space requirements. Common practice is to provide
compression stays to carry the external loading on large
flat surfaces in preference to the use of ribs. While
ribs may also be used, they are sometimes employed
as secondary members or to distribute loads. Support
plates may be used as full ribs, partial ribs, or as
anchors for compression stays.
I n the case of cylindrical shells, support plates may
be used as circumferential supporting rings; however,
cutouts must be provided for longitudinal steam flow.
Also, cylindrical shells may be designed as self-supporting
structures with the support plates used to carry external
mechanical loading.
The Heat Exchange Institute promulgated standards
for the thickness of condenser shells. These standards,
which are listed in Table 7, have been accepted by most
condenser designers. While these thicknesses are recommended and establish an economic guide for average or
normal conditions, they do not necessarily represent the
optimum selection of plate thickness for marine condensers. The design principles described in Section
VIII, Division 1, of the ASME Code for Pressure Vessels
are applicable in addition to the thicknesses listed in
Table 7. Stress levels for the materials used and the
joint efficiency factors listed for vacuum or external
pressure also apply. One exception is the pitch dimension for compression stays. Experience has shown that
the 8% in. pitch dimension limit listed in the ASME
Code may be exceeded and that the alternative dimension of 15 times the diameter of the stay is a safe and
practical limit.
Corrosion allowance is usually a matter of judgment;

Table 8 Condenser Construction Materials
Shell plate flanges,

ribis, and reinforcements
Tube support platea
Steel, ASTM, A-285, Grade C, Flehge Quality

steel, ASTM,A-283
Steel, ASTM, A-285, Grade C, Flange Quality
Steel, ASTM, A-283
Steel, ASTM, A-36
Steel, ASTM, A-7
Waterboxes and
Iron. ASTM.
A-278
Cast Iron,
ASTM, A-278
waterbox cwers
covers
Cast N
Nodular
Iron, -&TM,
ASTM, A-395
A-395 /
,
,
cast
&&
I;&,
Steel, ASTM, A-285, Grade C, Flange Quality
Steel, &EM, A-283
Aluminum Bronze.
Bronze, ASTM.
ASTM, B-169.
E169, AUov
Alloy D
n
Copper Nickel, 90/10,ASTM, E l 7 1
Tube sheets
Muntz Metal, ASTW E l 7 1
Naval Brass, ASTM, E l 7 1
Aluminum Bronze, ASTM, E169, Alloy D
Silicon Bronze, ASTM, B96, Alloy A
Copper Nickel 90/10, ASTM, E l 7 1
Tubes
Admiralty Metal, ASTM, Ell1
Aluminum Bronze, ASTM, Ell1
Aluminum Brass, ASTM, Ell1
Copper Nickel 70/30, ASTM, Ell1
Titanium. ASTM, B-338
NOTE: This is a re resentative list of materials suitable for marine condensers and is not
intended to knit the application of other suitable materials.
Steel Plate Sbll

Thicknem, in.
Bf;
5671 to 11500
11501 to 29000
29001 and above
xs
in. allowance
however, experience has indicated that a
is usually adequate.
f. Monitoring Condensate Purity. The need to
control condenser condensate purity, because of the
requirements of increasing boiler pressures or of thermonuclear steam plants, has resulted in the general use of
monitoring systems in steam surface condensers. The
monitoring devices are usually instruments which measure the specific conductivity of the condensate as an
indication of dissolved solids concentration or measure
condensate salinity as an indication of tube-to-tubesheet joint leakage or leakage through the tubes themselves.
Monitoring systems designed as a means for measuring condensate impurities may also indicate the
general area where leakage occurs. There are two
areas where the monitoring of leakage is especially important. One of these is the tube sheet area. This
zone is used for determining the soundness of tube-totube-sheet joints. The second area is that of the heat
transfer tubes between the tube sheets.
To monitor the tube-to-tube-sheet joints there are
four methods in general use: (1) the double-tubesheet
arrangement may be monitored by pressurization with
condensate between the tube sheets, with leakage indicated by pressure decay; (2) an inner supporkbaffle
plate, located close to the tube sheet, may be used to
confine tube-to-tube-sheet joint leakage between the
support-baffle plate and the inner surface of the tube
sheet; (3) a catch dam may be used to catch condensate
and any tube-to-tube-sheet joint leakage which drains
down the inner faces of the tube sheets; and (4) a
compartmented hotwell may be arranged with series
flow, from initial compartments at the tube sheets
through other compartments in sequence to the condensate outlet.
The double tube sheet arrangement is used with
marine nuclear power plants; it may be noted, however,
that the high reliability of tube-to-tube-sheet welding has
resulted in the almost exclusive use of welded tube-totube-sheet connections in the major applications of
nuclear power. The inner support-bae plate used to
confine condensate and leakage from the tube-to-tubesheet joints is effective and improves the reliability of
monitoring. I t is more costly than the use of catch
dams or weirs, described as method (3), but also is more
reliable. Method (4), that of compartmenting the
hotwell and providing series flow, is used in combination
with methods (11, (21, or (3). Most designs divide the
I
I
hotwell (if it is the whole condenser bottom) into four or

more parts: two lengthwise and two or more crosswise
of the condenser. Water flow is sequential, with the
outlet from each compartment monitored, thereby
indicating by the change in concentration of impurities
the location and degree of leakage. With small condensers, such as auxiliary condensers, it is usually
sufficient to monitor condensate quality at the condensate outlet only.
2.1 1 Materials of Construction. Materials used in
marine condensers are selected to meet the requirements
of strength, cost, and corrosion resistance. A number of
material types and grades may be suitable for the same
part or parts of a condenser, and the determining factors
in making a selection should include,those criteria listed
above as well as other considerations which may be
controlling. Strengtfi, corrosion resistance, and in some
instances weight are of major importance and may take
precedence over economic considerations.
Condenser shells, support plates, internal bracing,
and nozzle connections which comprise the condenser
shell structure, except possibly minor parts, are fabricated by welding. The materials most frequently
used in the construction of marine condensers are
tabulated in Table 8 and are described in the designated
specifications.
There are two major arem or zones in a condenser
which are susceptible to significant corrosion attack.
They are: (1) the steam or condensing area, comprised
of the condenser shell, hotwell, tube sheets, internal
baffles, piping and ducts, and the outside surfaces of the
heat transfer tubes, and (2) the cooling-water side of
the condenser, comprised of the waterboxes, tube sheets,
and the inside surfaces of the heat transfer tubes.
The corrosion environments coincident with these two

areas or zones are significantly different and the corrosion
mechanisms involved, while similar in some respects,
are vastly different in degree. The steamside corrosion
in marine condensers is usually minimal and is seldom
a major problem. The matsrials of construction, which
are mostly carbon steel for'shells, support plates, baffles,
and bracing, and nonferrous tubes and tube sheets,
present no serious problem in this environment. The
low operating temperatures, low dissolved oxygen levels
in the condensate, and very pure condensate (in terms of
dissolved solids) do not present a severely aggressive
environment to the materials normally used. An exception, however, can occur due to carbon dioxide
which, if present in significant quantity, may attack the
condenser tubes, especially in the areas at the support
plates and adjacent to the inside face of the tube sheets.
The action may be chemical, with carbonic acid attacking
the copper-base alloy tubes, or it also may be galvanic
with the, carbonic acid acting as a local electrolyte at the
interface between tube surfaces and support plates.
The soyrce of carbon dioxide is the breakdown of carbonates and bicarbonates in the salt water evaporator
which provides feedwater makeup (see subsection 2.5 of
chapter 15). The evaporator temperature, point of
admission of the evaporated vapor as makeup, and the
provision for venting.~condenmt>lesall affect the
concentration of carbon dioxide in the steam and condensate. Air cooler designs which eliminate short
circuiting and stagnation of air-vapor mixtures, thereby
reducing the carbon dioxide concentration, are helpful in
controlling carbonic acid corrosion. Ammonia is seldom
a by-product of saltwater evaporation at sea, but may be
a factor with the evaporation of polluted harbor waters.
472
MARINE EN
It may also be present in the condenser condensate if it is

used for pH control in the feed system. In condenser
service copper-nickel tubes and tube sheets are quite
resistant to ammonia and may be considered to be a
most reliable means for avoiding ammonia corrosion
effects. The brasses, Admiralty and aluminum, and
also aluminum bronze are susceptible to stress corrosion
from ammonia, even at the characteristically low condenser temperatures. The susceptibility of these alloys
to ammonia attack is reduced if the tubes, especially
those in the air cooler, are not under significant tension
stresses. Some control of this may be achieved by using
packed tubes in the air cooler section, or by rolling air
cooler tubes last, if rolled or rolled-and-welded tube-totube-sheet joints are used. Experience has shown that
the corrosion of steel condenser shells and internal baWe
parts is very minor and that a corrosion allowance of
about
in. is adequate on the steam side for the
planned operating life of almost any condenser in marine
service.
Corrosion can be extremely severe on the coolingwater side of marine condensers if not properly controlled
by design, selection of materials, and installation. Seawater, the condenser cooling medium, is an excellent
electrolyte. It promotes galvanic and crevice corrosion
in combinations of materials which are displaced from
one another in the galvanic series. Not only must the
difference in corrosion potential between materials be
considered, but the relationship or ratio of their respective areas in contact with their environment must be
taken into account. For example, highly corrosionresistant materials such as the nickel-copper alloys or
high-nickel stainless steels may be safely used for
bolting or for fasteners in combination with major parts
made of cast iron or steel because the ratio of their respective areas (alloy to steel or iron) is small. The steel
or iron is sacrificed by galvanic action in protecting the
high-alloy materials. The steel or iron, by comparison,
is so great in area that its loss through galvanic corrosion
becomes insignificant.
Some basic principles and recommended practices
with respect to mitigating galvanic corrosion in condensers are as follows:
(1) Where possible, use one material for all parts of
the condenser cooling-water system, or select materials
close to one another in the galvanic scale.
(2) The materials used for bolting and fasteners,
and in some instances welding, should be selected to be
more corrosion resistant than the materials they join.
(3) Provide a greater corrosion allowance for less
noble materials in a galvanic system (such as carbon
steel or cast iron as opposed to copper-base materials or
high nickel-chromium alloys of steel).
(4) The use of corrosion-resistant metals such as
copper-nickel, aluminum brass, and naval brass has
been an effective means for controlling corrosion. These
materials resist corrosion by the formation of a durable
protective oxide film on the exposed surfaces. Corrosion
has also been mitigated by using ferrous sulphate to form
a protective iron oxide film on the metal surfaces. Such

a film can be established by injecting a ferrous sulphate
solution into the condenser cooling water circuit before
the f i s t use; the solution is circulated for about three
days. The coating may be maintained by providing
anodes of soft grey iron or low-carbon steel which will
continue the plating action on the metal surfaces in the
system. If the coated surfaces are subjected to an erosive washout of the oxide coating by a high water velocity, cavitation, or suspended abrasive particulate matter, the protection can be damaged and concentrated corrosive action can result.
The use of protective coatings or paints on cast iron or
fabricated-steel waterboxes requires special consideration. Defects in the coating can cause accelerated corrosion where the seawater penetrates the coating. Applying the coating to the face of a nonferrous tube sheet
used in combination with a cast iron or steel waterbox,
and leaving the ferrous material exposed, frequently
offers greater protection to the system than coating the
iron or steel surfaces themselves.
(5) Sacrificial anodes attached to the inside of the
waterboxes are useful in protecting iron or steel surfaces
and are especially needed when the ferrous material is
protected by coatings or paints. Common metals used
for anodes are soft iron, zinc, and magnesium. For these
materials to function properly in the galvanic system
they should be of high purity, except for magnesium
which is frequently alloyed with manganese, or with zinc
and aluminum to increase the duration of the required
current levels. Iron or steel anodes have been used successfully with most systems which do not include iron or
steel. If cast iron condenser waterboxes are part of the
system, zinc anodes should be used to reduce the rate of
wastage of the waterbox material. Zinc anodes should
not be installed on systems which do not have iron or steel
components; otherwise corrosion is usually accelerated.
Combined with coatings, anodes improve the distribution
of current and the protective coating used may be allowed
to have some porosity without damaging effects (also see
section 1 of chapter 14).
(6) Galvanic corrosion can be accelerated by stray
currents. It may be greatly reduced or eliminated by
bonding. Usual practice with condensers is to metallically connect the condenser shell, tube sheet, and waterbox with a number of nonferrous metal straps, usually
made of copper or high-copper alloy. Because of the low
voltages associated with galvanic systems, an adequate
number of bonding straps should be used (they may be
spaced on 18in. to 24 in. centers around the periphery of
the tube sheet).
I
(7) Crevice corrosion develops where there is an
irregularity in surfaces, a junction, sharp bends, or other
discontinuity where oxygen does not have ready access.
The difference in oxygen concentration in the crevice and
that outside the crevice sets up a corrosion cell. It may
be manifested by corrosion within the crevice itself, or
external but adjacent to the crevice. It may be avoided
by design, or by the selection of materials. I n the cir-
culating-water system of marine condensers, the selection of materials such as 70/30 and 90/10 copper nickel
for tubes, tube sheets, and waterboxes is an effective
means of controlling crevice corrosion.
(8) The water velocity in the cooling-water circqit is
a major factor in the selection of materials in the design
of marine condensers. The damaging effects of corrosion
are greatly accelerated by the erosion effects of water
velocity. The major concern is with the condenser tubes.
They are subject to inlet-end attack and to general attack, both of which may be related to the velocity of the
cooling water. The usual method of controlling this kind
of attack is to select a tube material which not only is
suitable for use in a seawater galvanic system, but is also
compatible with the design velocity of the condenser.
Table 9 lists some tube materials commonly used in
marine service and the recommended design water velocity for which they may be considered suitable. Adherence to these values usually achieves satisfactory results
with respect to the general corrosion of tubes but may
not be satisfactory in terms of tube inlet-end corrosion.
Tube inlet ends may be subject to accelerated corrosive
attack should cavitation flow occur. Cavitation may result when the contraction of the flow stream a t the entrance is greater than the contraction contour of the tube
at the entrance and the water flow stream leaves the side
of the tubes. This causes an erosion action and wears
away the protective film that the tube material develops.
Thus, unprotected metal is continuously exposed and
corrosion proceeds rapidly. Cavitation is increased with
waterboxes of poor hydraulic design, especially those
where the velocity of the cooling water entering the
waterbox equals or exceeds the average water velocity in
the tubes. The cavitation effect caused by the high
entrance velocity of the water in the waterbox, with respect to the water velocity in the condenser tubes, can be
473
Table 9 Recqmmended Design Water

Velocities Through Tubes
Tube Material
Water Velocity, fps
Titanium
3-15
70/30 copper nickel
3-15
90/10 copper nickel
3-9
Aluminum Brass
3-7
Admiralty
,
3-4
NOTE: The 3 fps lower limit is'lbecauae of heat transfer considerations. It is not a corrosion limitation for the materials
listed. .,
0
reduced by special designs to absorb the velocity head

energy; however, additional space is required. Where
conditions, economic or otherwise, require high tube
entrance velocities and high waterbox entrance velocities,
the effect of cavitation may be greatly reduced by the use
of tube inlet-end inserts.
Tube inserts are usually made of a plastic material,
although some are made of corrosion-resisting metal.
They are inserted into the inlet end of -the tube, and
cemented in place. They are made with a well-rounded
entrance with their thickest wall just inside the entrance,
forming an almost imperceptible throat. The wall then
tapers gradually to a feather edge, offering a minimum
discontinuity where it terminates in the tube. They are
made in various lengths (about 4 to 10 tube diameters)
and are selected on the basis of the extent of cavitation
previously experienced or exppted. Tube-end inserts
have proved to be effective %hen properly installed. It
is important that they are securely cemented or wedged
into place and that the feather edge is extremely thin and
well bonded. Otherwise, the junction may set up its own
cavitation effect downstream and transfer the damage to
another tube area.
Section 3
Surface Cnsdenser Performance
3.1 General Considerations. The Heat Exchange through their application can be designed and built to
Institute Standards for Steam Surface Condensers pro- meet the performance specified.
vide a comprehensive treatment of surface condenser
3.2 Tdrms and Nomenclature. The terms and noperformance and describe levels of performance which menclature that are commonly used to describe steam
oan be obtained from well-designed condensers. The surface condenser performance are as follows:
aotual operating performance of condensers is usually
Condenser Duty-Condenser
duty is the net heat
oompared for meanful interpretation with the HE1 per- transferred to the cooling water f r o u l l sources of heat
formance standards. These standards do not serve as a entering the condenser. 16% also called the-hourly heat
design tool except that they establish a guide for the /and is expressed in Btu per hour.
application of rational design methods and procedures.
Absolute Pressure-Absolute pressure is the measure of
The Heat Exchange Institute Standards are suitable pressure with reference to a perfect vacuum. It is exfor determining condenser size and type and can readily pressed in inches of mercury, absolute.
bo used as a basis for determining equipment costs for
Static Pressure-Static pressure is the stagnation presline in economic optimization studies. Also, their valid- sure less the pressure effect of velocity. When the velocity is sufficient to assure that condenser selections made ity of the fluid is zero, the static pressure and stagnation
'
MARINE ENGINEERING
pressure are equal. Static pressure is expressed in inches

of mercury.
Condenser Pressure-Condenser pressure is the absolute static pressure in the condenser shell, measured
within one foot of the f i s t tubes in the inlet steam flow
path, and with the distribution of measurement points in
conformity with ASME PTC 12.2 Steam Condensing
Apparatus.
C o n d e ~ n gSteam Temperature-Condensing steam
temperature is the saturation temperature of the condensing steam at the "condenser pressure" and is expressed in degrees F.
Initial Temperature Diference-The
initial temperature dierence is the difference between the "condensing
steam temperatureJJ and the temperature of the inlet
cooling water expressed in degrees F.
Temperature Rise-The temperature rise is the difference between the cooling-water outlet temperature
and the cooling-water inlet temperature expressed in
degrees F.
Terminal Temperature Dzference-The
terminal temperature difference is the difference between the "condensing steam temperatureJJand the outlet temperature
of the cooling water expressed in degrees F.
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Diference-The
logarithmic mean temperature difference is the ratio of "temperature riseJJto the Napierian logarithm of the ratio of
the "initial temperature dierenceJJto the "terminal temperature differenceJJexpressed in degrees F.
Condensate Temperature Depression-Condensate temperature depression is the difference between the "condensing steam temperatureJJand the temperature of the
condensate leaving the hotwell. It may be either posi(heating) and is expressed in
tive (cooling)
-- or negative
degrees F.
Coolino-Water Velocit~i-Cooling (circulating) water
velocitv is the average velocity of the-cooling water flowing through the h e 2 transfer tubes. It is expressed in
feet per second.
Heat Transfer Coemnt-The heat transfer coefficient
is the average rate of overall heat transfer, from all heat
sources, to the cooling water. It is expressed in Btu/hrsq fMeg F.
Cleanliness F a c t o ~ T h ecleanliness factor is the ratio
of the overall heat transfer of tubes in service which are
fouled, to the overall heat transfer of new clean tubes.

It is dimensionless.
C h s e r SurfaceCondenser surface is the surface
measured on the outside of the heat transfer tubes between the inside faces of the tube sheets, including internal and/or external air coolers and that portion of the
tubes within the support plates. It is expressed in square
feet.
Nomenclature
C = condenser tube heat transfer constant from
Table 11
C' = ratio: gpm of cooling water to square feet of
condensing surface, p m / s q f t
D = outside tube diameter, in.
Fl = heat transfer temperature correction factor from
Fig. 22
Fa = tube material and wall thickness correction factor from Table 10
Fa = heat transfer tube cleanliness correction factor,
selected as indicated from experience
Hl = initial temperature difference : condensing
steam temperature less cooling-water inlet
temperature, deg F
Hz = terminal temperature difference: condensing
steam temperature less cooling-water outlet
temperature, deg F
h = heat transferred to cooling water, Btu/lb (of
steam)
Kl = surface constant for tube diameter and gauge.
See Table 12
L = exposed length of tubes, ft
N = number of tubes
P = number of water passes in condenser
P, = absolute static pressure in condenser steam inlet,
in. Hg
Q = quantity of cooling water, gpm
S = exposed tube surface, sq f t
Ti = cooling-water inlet temperature, F
To = cooling-water outlet temperature, F
Tt = cooling-water temperature rise, deg F
Table 1 1
Values of Tube Heat Transfer Constant, C [3]
Tube OD, in.
eat Transfer Constant
Tube Wall Gauge, BWG

20
1.02
1.00
1.00
0.94
0.90
0.87
0.77
18
1.00
0.97
Q. 97
0.90
0.86
0.82
0.71
16
0.96
0.94
0.94
0.85
0.81
0.77
0.67a
Corrections to 0, for the variable specific heat may be

neglected. For calculations which require extreme accuracy, such as thdse associated with the establishment
of condenser final designs, equation (8) should be modified to compensate for the changes in T, which result from
pressure losses in the condenser and the effect of the
partial pressure of noncondensable gases. This will reflect the true heat transferponditions as they exist in the
condenser; see Section 4 for additional discussion on this
3.4 ~oeffiidentof Heat Transfer. The coefficient of
subject.
30
Fig. 22
50
0
70
80
90
COOLING WATER INLET TEMPERATURE, O F
40
100
heat transfek recommended by the Heat Exchange Institute is expressed by an equation which is a reasonably
accurate simplification of the classical heat transfer resistance summation equation. The Heat Exchange Institute equation is as follows:
Heat transfer temperature correction factor [3]
T, = saturation steam temperature in condenser

steam inlet, corresponding to P,, F
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu/hr-sq ftr
deg F
V = water velocity in tubes, fps
W = steam condensed, lb/hr
Y = ratio of initial temperature difference to terminal
temperature difference, dimensionless
19, = logarithmic mean temperature difference, deg F
Equation (9) is limited to water velocities in the tubes

of 3 fps minimum and 8 fps maximum. For velocities
greater than 8 fps,'the equation usually yields high values
for U.
The factor FI may be obtained from the graph in Fig.
22, and Fais given in Table 10. The factor Fa is selected
on the basis of experience. Values of C for different tube
sizes are given in Table 11.
+-
3.5
Heat Transfer Performance Standards
a. Fourier Equation. The Fourier equation for unidirectional heat transfer is used to express the hourly
heat floly in terms of the hehkmtransfersurface, coefficient
of heat transfer, and mean temperature difference. For
condenser calculations it is written as follows:
3.3 Mean Temperature Difference. The true mean

temperature difference across the heat transfer path from
the temperature of the heat source to the temperature of
the heat receiver is most accurately expressed as the
logarithmic mean temperature difference. I t is as important in determining heat flow or required heat transfer surface as is the overall heat transfer coefficient.
b. Heat Balance Equation. The heat balance equaAs commonly used in condenser calculations, the tion used for condenser calculations equates the heat
logarithmic mean temperature diffexence is a close ap- given up by the heat source to the heat absorbed by the
proximation of the true temperature difference between circulating water. It is usually written as follows:
the temperatures of the heat source and heat receiver.
The reasons for the errors are as follows: First, it is
based on the condensing temperature, as previously defined, which is assumed constant throughout the condensing steam space; actually the condensing temperaNOTE: Wh in equations (10) and (11) may be from a
ture reduces as steam flows through the tube banks. number,of heat sources in addition to the exhaust steam
Second, it is based on the assumption of constant specific from the turbine. When considering all heat sources,
heat; actually, a constant specific heat is not attainable Wh = W I ~ I Wahz . . . W.h,.
The constant 512
when condensing impure vapor.
is for a seawater coolant; for a freshwater coolant, the
Fortunately, however, the total error is relatively small, constant is 500.
and the logarithmic mean temperature difference as
c. Equations Used-'&I Sizing-. Condensers. The
generally used in condenser performance calculations is four basic equatioas used in sizing condensers are
sufficiently accurate. The equation for the logarithmic equations (8), (9), (lo), and (11). Additional equations
mean temperature difference is:
derived from these and other relations of tube geometry
and surface simplify the computations for determining
surface, general dimensions, and other characteristics of
condensers. The more commonly used supplementary
equations are as follows:
Table 10 Values of Tube Wall Thickness and Material

Correction Factor, Fp [3]
Tube Material
Admiralty Metal
Aluminum Bronee
Aluminum Brass
Copper Nickel 90/10
Copper Nickel 80/2@
Copper Nickel 70/30
Titaniumb
a Estimated values.
b Tentative values.
Table 12
Tube
Diapleter,
m.
%
94
Values of Surface Constant for Tube

Diameter and Gauge, K1
16 BWG
18 BWG
0.272
0.208
0.168
0.141
0.240
0.188
0.155
0.131
20 BWG
0.216
0.175
0.144
0.123
476
MARINE ENGINEERING
C'
V
For values of Kl
P L K ~ see Table 12
Tf = 75 F
T, = 8 deg F
D =%in.
Tube gauge = 18 BWG
Tube material = 90/10 copper nickel
V = 6 fps
L = 9 ft 0 in. exposed
P =2
W = 7750 I b / h
h = 1000 Btu/lb
F8 = 0.85 (85y0 clean tubes)
P-, = from steam tables,

corresponding to T,
Derive from the abbve assumptions

F1 = 1.020
Fig. 22
F2 = d.90
Table 10
Kl = 0.240
Table 12
C = 267
able il
To = T i + T, = 7 5 + 8 = 8 3 F
3.6 Design Criterici and Performance Standards

a. Considerations in Determining Condenser Size.
The design of condensers, based upon a desired performance, is influenced by eight principal variables as follows:
(1) Total hourly heat transferred, or condenser duty,
in Btu, which is a function of:
The condenser surface, cooling water required, conWeight of steam condensed

densing pressure, number of tubes, and cooling-water
Enthalpy of entering steam less the enthalpy friction loss are computed as follows:
of the condensate
Heat loss or gain from drains and makeup
v
- = 1.389 gprn per sq ft
Heat loss or gain from condensate depression C' = PLKl
(2) Absolute static steam pressure at the condenser
t
in the
inlet, (measured within one foot of the f i ~ stubes
steam flow path) and the corresponding saturated steam
temperature from steam tables.
(3) Cooling-water quantity.
(4) Cooling-water inlet temperature.
(5) Cooling-water outlet temperature.
(6) Cooling-water velocity through tubes.
(7) Effective heat transfer surface, which is influenced by:
T o t d area
Number of tubes
m b e diameter
Tube gauge
. Tube length
Tube material
Number of water passes
(8) Service envirolllhent and maintenance; i.e.
Tube cleanliness
Air inleakage
All of the above factors must be considered in deter-
Waterbox inlet loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.82 f t

(good practice requires waterbox
inlet nozzle velocities of 0.70 to 0.80
times the condenser tube water velocity; in this case 0.75 X 6 fps =
4.5 fps was used)
Waterbox outlet loss (V = 4.5 fps; 2
pass). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.15 ft
Total condenser friction loss. . . . . . . . . . .l.70 ft of water
b. Establishing Condenser Size (Example 1). There

are a number of mathematical procedures used in establishing the size of a condenser, depending upon the information assumed for the application. One of the more
commonly used procedures is outlined in the following
example for an auxiliary condenser.
Assume
FIF$aCVO.' = 510.3 Btu/hr-sq ftrdeg F
wh
1892 gpm
512T,
Q = 1362 sq ft condenser surface

5 = C'
-
P8
c. Condenser Designed for a Given Back Pressure

(Example 2). When the condenser is to be sized for a
given back pressure, the computation procedure is
typically as follows for an auxiliary condenser:
Assume
Tf = 75 F
D =%in.
Tube gauge = 18 BWG
i
V = 6 fps
P =2
W = 7750 l b / h
h = 1000 Btu/lb
Fa = 0.85 (85% clean tubes)
P8 = 1.5 in. Hg
Derive from the above assumptions
F1 = 1.020
Fig. 22
F2 = 0.90
Table 10
Kl = 0.240
Table 12
C = 267
Table 11
Steam table for 1.5 in. Hg abs
T, = 91.72 F
HI = T, - Ti = 16.72 deg F
Q=-=
T, = Hz
Recapitulation of results
Condenser surface = 1362 sq f t
Cooling water required = 1892 gprn
Condenser pressure = 1.450 in. Hg
Condenser friction loss = 1.70 ft of water
Number of tubes required = 925
v
1.389 gprn per sq f t
PLKl
U = E1F$aCV0.5 = 510.3 Btu/hr-sq ftrdeg F
C'
= -=
1.450 in. Hg condenser pressure
DL
925 tubes
To determine the coolihg-water friction loss, refer

Section 2, Figs. 17 and 18.
mining the she and characteristics of a steam surface

condenser, and also when determining the performance Tube loss (0.325 X 9) X 2 =
Tube end loss (V = 6 fps) =
of a condenser on test.
3 825
DL
Hz
.
Hl
= -G =
8.16 deg F
T, = HI - Hz = 8.56 deg F
'
= -=, 865 tubes
The condenser friction loss is the same as for Example

1, because the water velycity in the tubes, the tube
lengths, and the waterbox characteristics were assumed
to be the same. The amount of surface and cooling
water required'change because of the difference in the two
back pressures, one calculated, the other assumed.
Recapitulation of results
Condenser surface = 1273 sq f t
Cooling water required = 1768 gprn
Condenser aressure = 1.50 in. HE
Condenser kction loss = 1.70 ft;f water
Number of tubes required = 865
d. Determination of Condenser Performance (Example 3). In the process of testing a condenser, it is
general practice to compare the condenser performance
with a standard, such as those published by the Heat
Exchange Institute. A procedure commonly used for
determining condenser performance from test data is outlined below using the condenser from Example 1.
Given
5 = 1362sqft
Tube
D
=%
gauge
i n . = 1$ BWG
,
z2

P =2
Table 12
Kl = 0.240
F2 = 0.90
Table 10
C = 267
Table 11
Data from test (assumed to be typical)
Ti =
To =
W =
h =
70 F
77.9 F
7800 lb/hr
995 Btu/lb
P, = 1.30 in. Hg
Determine the condenser surface, number of tubes,

cooling-water flow, cooling-water velocity, and coolingwater friction loss as follows:
\
+ T, + Tf = 90.63 F condensing temperature
N = -3'825
eke from test data

T,
T,
Hl
Hz
Fl
To - Ti = 7.9 deg F
87.17 F from steam tables
= T8-. &=17.174eg F
= Hl - T, = 9.27 deg F = 1.00
Fig. 22
=
=
.
'
Determine the performance of the condenser as follows :

Wh - 1919 gprn
Q=-512T,
MARINE ENGINEERING
MAIN AND AUXll.IARY CONDENSERS
1
@,,,=-I_=
HI
12.82 deg F
hl-
H2
Wh
- = 444.5 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F
e d
The value of Fa corresponding to new clean tubes is

1.00. The design value used for Example 1is Fa = 0.85
or 85 percent of clean-tube performance. However, the
assumed test data show the condenser to be performing
at Fa = 0.750 or 75.0 percent of the new clean-tube heat
transfer rate.
If the condenser had been cleaned prior to test, the
75.0 percent of new clean-tube performance could have
resulted from a number of factors. First, condenser
tubes which have been in service do not fully recover new
clean-tube performance after mechanical cleaning. Experience indicates that recovery after mechanical cleaning will be about 90 to 95 percent of new clean-tube
values. If the tubes are acid cleaned. in addition to
mechanical cleaning, recovery should be close to 100 percent. Second, poor performance may result from excessive air leakage, undersize vacuum pumps, or the combined effects of both. Third, poor performance may result from a poorly designed condenser, including an improperly designed air cooler.
In general, fouled tubes (less than 100 percent of new
clean performance) are always a factor and cannot be
entirely eliminated without careful mechanical cleaning
followed by acid cleaning. Most condensers are mechanically cleaned only because of the problems associated with chemical cleaning, and less than 100 percent of
clean-tube performance during service periods is to be
expected.
In the actual design of a condenser, a design margin of
from 5 to 10 percent (equivalent to 105 to 110 percent of
new clean-tube performance) is good practice. Condensers designed with allowances of this magnitude usually show close to 100 percent performance (Fa = 1.00) if
tested immediately after a thorough mechanical cleaning.
Section 4
Performance Predictions from Design Geometry
4.1 Introduction. The Heat Exchange Institute
Standards recommend values for condenser performance
standards which have been determined through field and
laboratory test experience. These standards represent
empirical values which have resulted from observation
rather than from the development of theoretical considerations. The Standards list basic heat transfer values
for the usual sizes of tubes used in condenser construction
with the applicable factors for adjusting these values for
tube material and gauge, for cooling water temperature,
and for specific water velocity ranges (see Section 3).
The performance of a condenser sized by the use of
these standards is based on standardized heat transfer
values. However, it is important to understand that
these established values of heat transfer in the Standards
include an adjustment for pressure losses within the condenser and therefore do not conform with normal heat
transfer values established by rational means. Actually,
the steam condenser is a thermodynamic device which
incorporates both the principles of heat transfer and the
thermodynamics of fluid flow, and both of these disciplines must be carefully considered in its design. The
literature contains a large amount of data, on heat transfer which relate to water flowing through tubes and
steam condensing on tubes. Generally, these data apply
to single-tube condensers and they describe performance
with good accuracy. If applied to multi-tube condensers, serious error will result unless other factors in addi-
tion to heat transfer are considered. The development of

these factors and their application to condenser design
parameters are discussed in the following paragraphs.
4.2 Modes of Heat Transfer. Three modes of heat
transfer comprise the heat transfer system characteristic
of shell-and-tube-type steam condensers. These modes
are conduction, convection, and condensing heat transfer.
As resistances, the reciprocals of their respective conductances, they are in series with the heat flowing from the
higher temperature condensing steam through the tube
wall and whatever fouling reeistances have accumulated
on the tube surfaces to the colder cooling water.
a. Condensing Heat Transfer. Condensing heat
transfer, with respect to steam condensing on a colder
surface, is characterized by a relatively high value of
conductance. The usual method of computing condensing heat transfer coefficients for tubes is by the
theoretical equation of Nusselt. Experimental data for
organic vapors are in good agreement with the Nusselt
prediction; for steam condensing on small tubes at low
condensing rates, the conductance determined with the
Nusselt equation for a single tube is about 65 percent of that empirically determined for a single tube.
Experimental results with steam for a bank of 20 tubes
is in reasonable agreement with the Nusselt equation for
a single horizontal tube. The adjustment for additional
rows of tubes is small, with the heat transfer coefficient
reducing only about 10 percent for tube banks with as
c
.r
many as 120 tube rows. The net effect on the overall

heat transfer coefficient is minor, and the following classical form of the Nusselt equation for single horizontal
tube condensing heat transfer is suggested for design where
purposes:
r b = resistance of tube wall referred to the outside diameter, hr-sq fedeg F/Btu '
t = tube wall thickney, in.
Do = tube outside diameter, in.
D, = tube inside diameter, in.
where
k = t h e r ~ h conductivity
l
of tube material, Btu/hrh, = conductance (steam to tube outside surface),
q ffedeg F/ft
Btu/hr-sq ffedeg F
Values of roz, the resistance of the oxide film on new
k = thermal conductivity of condensate, Btu/hr-sq
clean tubes, are not generally available. Values which
ft-deg F/ft
are available will be found to vary with the source,
p = condensate density, pcf
largely dependent on the nature of the experimental
g = acceleration due to gravity, 4.17 X lo8 ft/hrs
data. Data published in the Heat Exchange Institute
p = condetlsate viscosity, lb/hr-ft
Standards for Steam Surface Condensers and other pubW = steam condensed, lb/hr-ft (length of tube)
lished Heat Exchange Institute data on condensing heat
NOTE: The physical properties of the condensate cor- transfer are possibly the most comprehensive and valid
respond to the mean condensate film tempera- sources for this kind of information. The values for rozare
ture.
combined in the overall heat transfer datg given by HE1
b. ConductionHeat Transfer. The conduction mode but can be determined as separate values through the
of heat transfer may be considered to be made up of application of analytical procedures. The values listed
five resistances to heat flow arranged in series. The for rozin Table 13 have been derived from published HE1
data by such a procedure.
relation is expressed as follows:
The value used for r , the resistance due to fouling of
the tubes in service, is comparable to the cleanliness
factor generally used with the HE1 performance standwhere
ards. It may be computed as a resistance from the HE1
re = resistance from outside to inside of tube inclu- standards; however, since i t h expressed as a percentage
sive of all resistances e x c e ~ that
t
of the con- of new clean-tube heat transfer and is taken as a redensing steam and heatingAwater,hr-sq ft-deg sistance, it wi!l vary as a function of the HE1 heat transfer rate used. It is suggested that the fouling resistance
F/Btu
.
.
roz, = resistance of the oxide film on the outside of a be calculated on the basis of Admiralty metal tubes at an
8-fps water velocity with an inlet water temperature of
new clean tube, hr-sq ftrdeg F/Btu
roz, = resistance of the oxide film on the inside of a new 80 F. For example, when computed in this manner, for
85 percent clean tubes, rf is approximately equal to
clean tube, hr-sq fMeg F/Btu
0.00023
hr-sq ftrdeg F/Btu. Values of rf derived from
r~ = resistance of tube wall, hr-sg fedeg F/Btu
m = resistance from fouling on the outside of the the HE1 cleanliness factor for a constant value of "percent clean" increase as the overall heat transfer upon
tube in service, hr-sq ffedeg F/Btu
r, = resistance from fouling on the inside of the tube which they are based decreases. The major controlling
variables are water velocity, tube material, tube gauge,
in service, hr-sq ffedeg F/Btu
inlet water temperature, and tube diameter.
General practice is to simplify equation (21) by combinc. Convection Heat Transfer. The mode of heat
ing :
transfer which applies to the cooling water flowing
through' the condenser tubes is known as convection
roz,
Tom = roz
and
+
rf, + rr*
rr
rc
roz + rf + rtco
=
so that
(22)
The resistance of the tube wall is determined from the
thermal conductivity of the tube material and its thickness. For thin-walled tubes there is no need to correct
for tube diameter; nevertheless, the general equation for
rt,', 1s:
b
Table 13 Values of r., the Resistance of the Oxide Film

Tubes
on the Inside and OtikMe-Surfacas.of Clean
Tube Material
Admiralty Metal
Aluminum Bronze
Aluminum Brass
90/10 Copper Nickel
80/20 Copper Nickel
70/30 Copper Nickel
Titanium
tor,
hr+q ft-deg F/Btu

0.000136
0.000153
0.000167
0.000178
0.000193
0.000243
0.000195
MARINE ENGINEERING
480
heat transfer. Since the flow is established by mechanical means, the type of flow is classified as forced convection. Further, the normal design velocities used
maintain the flow in the turbulent range.
The following classical Nusselt expression for determining the conductance of liquids being heated while
flowing through horizontal tubes is recommended for determining the convection heat transfer value, for Reynolds numbers greater than 2100.
Nu
= C(Re)"(Pr)*
where
(24)
48 1
where
U, = overall heat transfer coefficient as determined

from rational methods, Btu/sq ft-hr-deg F
h, = conductance of condensing steam, Btu/sq ft-hrdeg F
h, = conductance of cooling water, Btu/sq ft-hr-deg
F
rtw= resistance of tube wall, sq ftrhr-deg F/Btu
ro, = resistance of new clean-tube oxide film, sq fbhrdeg F/Btu
rf = resistance of fouling in service, sq fbhr-deg F/
Btu
Re = Reynolds number
= Nusselt number
P r = Prandtl number
4.3 Steam Space Pressure Losses. In the process of

condensing a vapor, the condensing temperature is a
function of the vapor pressure in accordance with the
With the exponents evaluated, equation (24) is com- saturation pressure-temperature relationship of the
monly referred to as the McAdams equation, or the thermodynamic fluid involved, in this case steam. The
Dittus-Boelter equation, which is as follows :
steam flow from the condenser steam inlet, around the
tube bundles, and through the tube banks is characterised by a pressure loss with the condensing steam temperature in conformity with the saturation pressuretemperature relationship. This pressure loss results in a
where
reduction in temperature in the direction of flow, and the
h, = conductance (inside tube surface to water), Btu/ resulting change in temperature from steam inlet to air
hr-sq ft-deg F
cooler inlet affects the rate of heat transferred in the variD = inside diameter of tube, f t
ous pressure zones of the condenser.
k = cooling-water thermal conductivity, Btu/hr-sq
The mechanism of heat transfer requires that heat
fbdeg F/ft
flow take place from one temperature to another lower
p = cooling-water density, pcf
temperature. To correlate with theory, heat flow must
V = water velocity, ft/hr
be based on the temperature of the steam in contact with
p = cooling-water viscosity, lb/hr-ft
the tubes themselves, rather than the commercially acC, = water specific heat, Btu/lb-deg F
cepted definition of condenser heat transfer performance
C = constant
of the Heat Exchange Institute or the ASME Performance
Test Code.
The proposed values of C vary as follows:
To simplify the analysis of the heat flow system, it can
McAdams, 0.0225
be assumed that a single tube can be selected which will
Dittus-Boelter, 0.0243
represent the average performance of the entire tube
HE1 data, 0.0240
bundle, or bundles. Considering
- such an average tube,
the
steam
pressure
at
its
surface
is quite dieerent than
For steam
operating in the temperature
that
at
the
condenser
steam
inlet;
and, consequently,
range characteristic of marine power plants, c = 0.024.
the steam temperature, in conformity with the saturation
is recommended.
pressure-temperature relationship will also be different.
l-he physical properties of the cooling water
spend to the mean bulk temperature of the cooling In addition, the performance standards of the HE1 and
test measurements conforming to the ASME Performance
rrm41.r
wal,Gl.
d. Overall Heat Transfer. The overall heat transfer Test Code for Steam Condensers are based on static prescoefficient U,can be calculated from the conductances sure. The condenser tube, however, senses a temperafor condensing vapor and heating water, and the total ture more closely related to total or stagnation pressure
of the conduction resistances. In condenser practice than to static pressure. It is, therefore, necessary to conit is customary to calculate the coefficient U,based on sider these relationships in performing a rigorous heat
transfer analysis.
the outside surface of the heat transfer tubes.
The heat transfer representing the contract performThe general equation for the overall coefficient U,for
ance
of the condenser and the actual heat transfer of
steam condensers, with steam condensed on the outside
of the tubes and cooling water heated on the inside of the the average tube in the tube bank are based on the same
duty. The heat transfer corresponding to contract pertubes, is as follows:
formance includes losses within the condenser steam
1
1
Do
space and is based on a higher condensing temperature
- - - +rho
70,
71
u, h8 h W a
(26) than the average condensing temperature within the tube
Nu
"
(a) Tight tube spacing, low steam entrance velocities
(b) Moderate tube spacing, moderate steam entrance'velocities
+ +
I
(c) Loose tube spacing, high steam entrance velocities
Fig. 23
Condenaer design geometry alternatives
bank. Consequently, it is 10Ger than the heat transfer

computed on the basis of the average condensing temperature in the tube bank. The two condensing temperatures can be related to condensing pressures, one
representing contract pressure, and the other representmg the average pressure within the tube bank. It is deeirable to produce a design so that there is a minimum
difference between the pressure representing contract
condenser performance and the average pressure within
the tube bank. To accom~lishthis it is necessarv to Droduce a design wherein thk internal losses are less than
those included in the contract performance standard
(inherent in HE1 performance).
In order to illustrate the principles involved in the determination of condenser pressure losses, consider the
condenstr design shown by Fig. 23. Figure 23 represents a condenser shell geometry which is based on a
given available space. It is assumed that the condenser
surface, water flow, and tube size, gauge, length, and
number have been determined. The task remaining is to
establish the optimum tu&g.arrangement.
The steam flowing from the steam id& to the air
cooler inlet incurs a pressure loss. This loss may be considered to be made up of two components: (1) the distribution loss, that is, the loss in pressure required to
cause the steam to flow from the condenser steam inlet,
throughout the length of the condenser, and around the
tube bundle; and (2) the penetration loss, that is, the
loss in pressure required to cause the steam to flow
482
MARINE ENGINEERING
UNITS OF
PRESSURE
Loss
CONDENSER DESIGN GEoMETR~

Fig. 24
Determination of optimum tube arrangement
steam inlet lane and the loss due to the change of direction (at the hotwell) of the steam flow leaving the main
steam inlet lane. The average of these three total or
stagnation pressures may be considered to be a reasonably valid estimate of the average stagnation pressure of
the steam entering the tube banks.
The steam flow in a condenser is a compressible, variable-area flow with fluid friction and a transfer of heat.
Except at the tube bank interface with the steam distribution passages, the flow is adiabatic with changing
mass. It cannot be treated as isentropic because of fluid
friction, nor as Fanno line flow because of area change
and mass change along the flow path. In addition to the
above, the flow entering the condenser is usually stratified (see Fig. 9). It has been observed that under some
flow conditions, steam entering the condenser assumes a
pressure gradient much like that of an expanding nozzle.
To simplify the problem, it is customary to treat the
steam flow as if it were one dimensional and uniform in
velocity rather than stratified, incompressible rather
than compressible, and adiabatic rather than nonadiabatic. Once the basic condense^ geometry is established using the above simplifications, adjustments may
be made to compensate for stratification of flow. The
other simplifications do not materially affect the validity
of the design calculations.
Since the Heat Exchange Institute Standards define
the condenser design pressure as the average static pressure measured withii one foot of the first tubes in the
flow path, the longitudinal pressure distribution loss is
usually included in the specified condenser pressure.
This is especially true with main condensers where the
steam inlet area covers a very high percentage of the
condenser shell area. The designer is cautioned, however, to check the center-to-end flow distribution losses;
that is, the pressure loss from steam flowing around the
support plates at those sections where the support plates
are outside of the steam inlet area of the shell. The sum
of these losses, including end flow in the condenser,
should be significantly less than the distribution loss
around the tube bundle. An estimate of this loss for
each support plate may be made from the following equation, which is empirical and limited to area ratios greater
than 0.70 in this application.
through the tube bundle, from its perimeter to the air

cooler within it. The arrows surrounding the tube
bundles in Fig. 23 represent the steam flow for distribution and their length represents the steam velocity.
The arrows arranged radially within the tube banks
represent the steam flow for penetration, and their
length also represents steam velocity. Since the pressure
loss is a function of the velocity of the fluid stream, the
length of the arrows is indicative of the pressure loss.
Figure 23(a) shows a design where the pressure loss from
distribution is small because of a large flow area and low
velocity, and the pressure loss from penetration is large
because of the compact tube bundle and, consequently,
high penetration velocity. Figures 23(b) and (c) represent modifications of the tube bundle in Fig. 23(a). Successively, the tube bundle is expanded reducing the
steam velocity of penetration, but increasing the steam
velocity of distribution. Consequently, Figs. 23(a), (b),
and (c) represent design geometries of increasing distribution losses and coincident decreasing penetration
losses. Some arrangement of the tube bundle, with
given condenser shell dimensions, will result in a minimum pressure loss (distribution loss plus penetration
loss) from the steam inlet to the air cooler entrance.
Curves which permit a determination of the optimum
tube arrangement are shown in Fig. 24. The letters A,
B, and C represent the design geometries of Figs. 23(a),
(b), and (c), respectively. It will be noted that the total
pressure loss, the sum of the distribution and penetration
losses, reaches a minimum value at a design geometry
approaching that of B or Fig. 23(b).
AP/support plate =
By application of the preceding technique, the optimum condenser design geometry can be determined. where
However, the actual values of internal pressure loss assoAP = pressure loss across support plate, in. Hg
ciated with each design must first be established. The
A1 = net area between support plates and condenser
procedure for evaluating these losses follows.
shell, sq f t
a. Determination of Mean Total Pressure Around
Az = net area between tube bundle perimeters and
the Tube Banks. The mean total pressure around the
condensch shell, sq f t
tube bank is taken as a weighted-average total pressure.
p = density of steam, pcf
It is based on (1) the average total pressure immediately
V,, = steam velocity between shell and support plate,
above the tube bundle, (2) the average total pressure
immediately above the hotwell, and (3) the average total
fps
pressure at the tube bundle centerline. Included in these
C = conversion constant, psf to in. Hg = 0.01414
pressure determinations are the entrance loss to the main
483
S r U M INLET
7
PRESSURE ZONE 1
&IR WM
5~hlON
Fig. 25
PRESSURE ZONE 2
Condenser pressure zones
PRESSURE ZONE 3
,:
CONoENSATE OUTLET
ACWENSATE
PUMP

The steam flow and the resulting velocities around the
C = conversion constant, psf to in. Hg = 0.01414
eupport plates must be determined by calculating the
relative steam demand for each section between support
plates for the entire condenser in order to properly apply In this example, all pressure losses around' the tube
bundle periphery are based on the pressure in pressure
equation (27).
To compute the pressure distribution around the tube zone 1.
The second step is to comgyte the entrance loss from
bundle, the following procedure may be applied to each
pressure zone 1 to the main'steam inlet lane as follows:
section between the support plates and averaged as the
sntrance steam pressure around the tube bundle. The
cpv2 (29)
difference betyeen this preeaure and the specified conAP,, (entrance loss) = 0.05 2s
denser pressure when both are computed as total or
ntagnation pressures represents the pressure loss for where
ateam distribution. The process may be simplified without significant error, if the longitudhal pressure losses
AP,, = entrance loss, in. Hgare small. The sim liication can be accomplished by
V = steam velocity at entrance area, fps
aomputing the losses around the tube bundle at that section of the condenser corresponding to the specified de- and other terms are as defined for equation (28).
The third step is to calculate the pressure loss due to
sign pressure. The procedure for computing these losses
in this manner is as follows. (It is also applicable to each friction from pressure zone 1 to pressure zone 2. This is
accomplished by computing the flow area at the respecindividual pressure section.)
First, the steam flow area within one foot of the first tive zones and calculating the steam velocity at these
tubes in the steam flow path is computed and the steam areas. In calculating all steam velocities, it is assumed
velocity is determined assuming uniform unstratified that the' net steam flow reduces proportionately with
flow. The stagnation or total pressure at this location, flow along flow distances 4, Lz, La, and Lq. The flow
or pressure sone 1 (see Fig. 25), is computed from the areas are considered to be the distances between the tube
following equation.
banks at the various reference pressure zones times the
condenser tube length. .+ The Reynolds number is next co&$uted-for the main
tube bundle entrance area at pressure zone 1 and for the
flow area at pressure zone 2, from the following relationwhere
ship.
.P,= total pressure, in. Hg
P, = specified condenser pressw&static), in. Hg
p = steam density, pcf
V = steam velocity in pressure zone (pressure zone
1, Fig. 25), fps
where
484
MARINE ENGINEERING
where
AP,,
I
= mean total pressure loss around tube bundle.

3
APla\=
APu
APa-2 =
=
AP,* =
AP,
and where
in. Hg
A = & ( P - D~)L,
pressure loss at zone 1, flow path L1, (generP
ally zero), in. Hg. Pressure at location 0
,
in pressure zone 1 is to be taken aa P. where
from equation (28).
A = entrhnce area to tube bundle, sq f t
prewure loss from zone 1to zone 2, flow path
L = perimeter of tube bundle, f t
L2, in. Hg
P = tube pitch (for variable pitch use equivalent
pressure loss from zone 2 to zone 3, flow path
value), f t
L,,in. Hg
Do = tube diameter, f t
pressure loss from zone 3 to Zone 4, flow path
Lt ,
condenser tube length, ft
Lr, in. Hn
With this flow area the steam velocity entering the
entrance loss, zone 1 to flow path L2, in. Hg,
periphery of the tube bank is computed 'as
equation (29)
exit loss, from end of flow path La to zone 3,
in. Hg, equation (29), except the coefficient becomes 0.25 (approx.)
/
where
V = steam velocity, fps

W = steam condensed in tube bundle, lb/hr
REYNOLDS NUMBER: R.=

Fig. 26
p =
Friction factor for steam distribution losses
p = steam density, pcf

Vl = steam velocity, ft/hr
p = steam viscosity, lb/hr-ft
D, = equivalent diameter of flow area (i.e., the ratio
of flow area to wetted perimeter multiplied by
41, ft
Using the mean of the two Reynolds numbers for zones 1
and 2, refer .to Fig. 26 and determine the friction factor,
f, on the basis of a roughness equal to that for smooth
tubes.
The pressure loss due to friction from pressure zone 1
to pressure zone 2 can be calculated using the Fanning
equation as follows (the entrance loss from equation (29)
must be added to the associated A P , in this example
AP9-1) :
p =
=
density of steam, pcf

conversion constant, psf to in. Hg
0.01414
This procedure is repeated to determine the frictional

pressure loss from pressure zone 2 to pressure zone 3,
again taking into account the reducing mass flow along
La. It is repeated along L4 to the centerline of the tube
bundle where the terminal flow and velocity is assumed
to be zero. In this case the flow area is calculated as the
distance from the tubes to the maximum hotwell level
(assutning no other obstructions) times the condenser
tube length.
An exit loss due to the change in flow direction from
. the main steam lane to the underside of the tube bank
must be added. For this purpose, equation (29) may be
used with a coefficient of 0.25 instead of 0.05. Such losses,
which are entrance and exit losses, are added to the friction losses calculated at the various zones of the main
steam distribution lane; i.e., at pressure zone 1-2 (flow
L2) and pressure zone 3 4 (flow path Ld) which are
path
where
illustrated by Fig. 25.
The process for computing the mean total pressure loss
APa-l = pressure loss from zone 1 to zone 2, in. Hg
around the tube bundle involves averaging the losses for
f = friction factor from Fig. 26
selected incremental flow distances. This may be done
L = flow length from zone 1 to zone 2, ft
V = average velocity between zone 1 and zone 2, fps by graphic integration, by algebraic averaging, or by
D, = average equivalent diameter (i.e., the ratio of other convenient methods. An acceptable result may be
flow area to wetted perimeter multiplied by obtained by using the following equation, which is based
on a three-pressure-zone analysis with flow directions
4) between zone 1 and zone 2, ft
and distances as shown in Fig. 25.
The preceding example illustrates the principles used.

The specific treatment of flow and geometry in the example should not be considered to be limiting. Many simplifying assumptions were made and improved accuracy
is possible by the application of more rigorous techniques.
It is recommended that after a condenser is selected
through the procedures described, a more rigorous check
of APdm be made by applying the principles to the complete tube bundles and making an allowance for stratified
flow a t the pressure measurement zone, pressure zone 1.
b. Determination of Pressure Loqs in Tube Banks.
For the calculation of the pressure loss through tube
banks, the actual bank is replaced by an equivalent
rectangular one having the same perimeter and number
of tubes. The equivalent number of rows in the depth of
such a tube bank may be computed from the equation
steam density at the mean static pressure

around the tube bank, pcf
VI, the steam velocity in ft/hr, is used in calculating

the Reynolds number. The )Reynolds number may be
calculated from equation (30) modified as'
where Do = outside tube diameter (ft), and all other

terms are as described for equation (30) at the temperature corresponding to the mean pressure at the tube bank
entrance.
The friction factor is determined by entering Fig. 27
with an adjusted Reynolds number equal to one half of
the value calculated from equation (36).
The tube bank pressure loss equation, modified for a
uniformly decreasing mass flow, is [9]:
where
where
N o = equivalent number of tube rows

N = total number of tubes in tube bundle being considered
= tube pitch (for a variable pitch use an equivalent
.L
= perimeter of tube bundle, ft
value), ft
The next step is to calculate the velocity through the

minimum flow area between the outer tubes. The flow
nrea may be calculated from the equation
AP, = pressure loss through tube bank, in. Hg

f' = dimensionless fgsion factor (Fig. 27) .
N, = equivalent number of tube rows - ,
p = mean density of steam at tube bank entrance,
pcf
V = entering steam velocity between tubes, fps
The mean effective pressure loss through the tube bank
is used to determine the mean condensing pressure in
the tube bank and its corresponding temperature, which
486
MAIN AND* AUXILIARY CONDENSERS
MARINE ENGINEERING
487
determined by first determining the hourly heat or duty terms of total resistance or in terms of overall heat transper square foot of condensing surface (Btu transferred fer. It is more meaningful if the fouling resistance exper hour square foot). _The mean temperature of the pected in service is excluded. It is expressed as
condensate film is equal to the product of the unit
hourly heat and the sum of the following resistances from
Fig. 2 7 Friction factor for steam
penetration (tube bank) louer
is used to calculate the basic heat transfer. The mean transfer coefficient as related to the fluid flow characterpressure loss in the tube bank, with units of in. Hg, is istics, the procedure delineated in Section 4.3 may be
used to calculate P,,, the mean total pressure correspondcomputed from
ing to the average tube representing the tube bundle
design conditions based on P,, the mean condenser total
pressure. The temperature corresponding t o P, is the
In order to calculate the pressure in the tube bank re- condensing temperature used in determining the heat
lated to AP, the following procedure is suggested. All transfer necessary in,the tube bundle to meet the conheat transfer calculations in this procedure are based on denser performance requirements.
Using the temperature corresponding to P,, to detertotal pressure and, therefore, the mean condensing presmine
Om, the heat transfer coefficient can be calculated
sure, P,,, in the tube bank representative of the conusing
equation
(10) of Section 3, modified as follows:
denser as a unit is referred to the design condenser pressure plus its velocity pressure, i.e., P,. P, is calculated
as follows:
P,
= Pt
- APhn - AP,
(39)
where
the mean total pressure corresponding to the
average tube representing the tube bundle
design conditions calculated with P, as the
reference, in. Hg
mean condenser total pressure (see equation
28)) in. Hg
mean distribution pressure loss (see equation
32)) in. Hg
mean penetration pressure loss (see equation
no\
.- n g
JUJ, 111.
TT-
4.4 Performance Prediction and Evaluation. Outlined in the preceding aragraphs are two elements of a
procedure which may Fle followed to determine if a selected condenser design geometry is adequate to meet the
condenser performance requirements. The first consists
of an investigation of the heat transfer relationship as
discussed in Section 4.2; and the second procedure involves an analyk of the fluid flow and ressure loss relationships as described in Section 4 . 1 A method of
combining these two procedures in order to evaluate the
performance of a condenser from its design geometry is
outlined as follows:
a. Heat Transfer Coefficientas Related to Characteristics of Fluid Flow. In order to determine the heat
In this instance, U, = heat transfer for the tube bundle

related to pressure loss considerations, i.e., the mean
bundle pressure, P,.
All other terms are as geherally
defined for equation (10).
The value of U,, as computed from equation (40) may
not include a cleanliness factor, except as the value of S,
the condensing surface, reflects any cleanliness factor
used in the determination of condenser size.
b. Heat Transfer CoeflBcientas Computed by Rational
Equations. The procedure for computing the heat
transfer coefficient by rational means is delineated in
Section 4.2. First the conductances for condensing and
convection heat transfer are determined and converted
to resistances. To these resistances, add the resistance
due to conduction heat transfer; namely, that due to
tube wall resistance, inside clean-tube resistance, and
outside clean-tube resistance. If a cleanliness factor was
included with equation ( a ) , the resistance due to fouling,
calculated from this cleanliness factor, must be included
here.
Convert these resistances to UrJthe rational heat transfer coefficient representing the tube bundle performance,
using equation (26). Note that in calculating U, the
physical properties of the two fluids, condensing steam
and heating water, must be evaluated at their correct
temperatures, see equations (20) and (25).
The mean temperature of the condensate film may be
oquaiion (26),(&
.- -
+ r, + r, + r i), ,added to the
mean bulk temperature of the cooling water. Using

t,his temperature to cdculate h, from equation (20)) caluulate U, from equation (26).
c. Performance Evaluation. By comparing the
values of U, the heat transfer coefficient related to presaure loss, and Ur, the rational heat transfer coefficient,
tbe adequacy of the condenser design can be determined.
To meet specified performance requirements, the following relationship must exist:
The greater the difference, the greater will be the design
~narginor excess performance characteristics of the condenser. U, represents the heat transfer needed to meet
porformance requirements, U, represents the heat transfor attainable. Should the relationship shown in equalion (41) be the reverse, the condenser will not meet its
performance requirements and other condenser configmaIions should be investigated. Up, can be significantly
ahanged by modifications in the condenser design geometlry; Ur is only slightly affected by the condenser de~ i g ngeometry. If a correction cannot be accomplished
by changing the tube bundle design, the condenser shell
would normally be the controlling factor; in such an
instance, it should be made larger.
In some respects it is more convenient and more underntandable to use resistances rather than conductances for
making the comparison of performance. In this case,
The PF should be greater than unity, and it is considered

good practice to design for a performance factor of not
less than 1.05.
The predicted operating pressure for the condenser
based on its d'esign geometry and on rational heat transfer can be determined using the previously calculated
mean tube bundle pressure, PmJ
as the base. Using equation (39)) cialculate a new value for P,(Udm and AP,, as
previously determined are assumed to remain constant).
Using equation (28) determine P,, the static pressure
the condenser will produce in the pressure-measurement
zone as defined in the H.E.I. Standards. As a check, P,
will be less than the H.E.I. specified condenser pressure,
provided Ur > Up, as required by equation (41).
The methods and procedures outlined represent a
reasonably accurate method for evaluathg condenser
design geometry and performance. Accuracy can be improved by a more rigorous treatment of the fluid flow
chaxacteristics. The degree of accuracy improvement
necessary depends on the circumstances of a particular
case.
While the descriptions presented have been related to
the normal geometry of the larger main condensers having two separate and distinc$kube bundles, the method
is also applicable to single-bundle condensers such as
those generally used for auxiliary condensers. The principles can also be adapted to condensens having more
than two separate tube bundles or to any shell-and-tube
apparatus which condenses a vapor on the shell side.
References
where
1 Courtesy, Foster Wheeler Corporation.

2
Courtesy, Worthington Corporation.
R r = -1= overall resistance frdm rational equa3
Courtesy,
Heat Exchange Institute.
tions, hr-sq ft-deg F/Btu
ur
4 Courtesy, American Society of Mechanical Engi1
overall resistance from fluid flow char- neer,
R ~m = -u,,
=
acteristics, hr-sq ft-deg F/Btu
5 J. E. Fowler and R. E Brandon, "Steam Flow DisIf fouling resistance is introduced (it must be contribution at the Exhaust of Large 'steam Turbines,"
lridered to be the same for both the resistance calculated ASME paper 54SA-62.
by rational means and by fluid flow characteristics) equa6 J. P.&bald and W. D. Nobles, "Control of Tube
tion (42) becomes
Vibration in Steam Condensers," Proceedings of the
American Power Cmference, ~llinbis1nstitute7of ~ e c h (43) nology, Chicago, Illinois, 1962.
t~ndmay also be written as
7 -A. P. ~ i l b u r n "Problems
,
in Design and Research
on Condensers of ~ a ~ o u i k T a nVapo3
d
MixtgesJJJThe
'
Rdm = (R,
ry) - (Rr rf)
(44) Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 1951.
8 "Standards for Steam Surface Condensers," Heat
where Rdm= design margin as a resistance, hr-sq ft-deg
lp/Btu, and must be positive if the condenser is to meet Exchange Institute, New York.
9 W. H. McAdams, Heat Transmission, McGrawi t ~required
l
performance.
The performance factor PF may be expressed either in Hill Book Co., New York, 1954.
HEAT EXCHANGERS
489
CHAPTER X I V
Charles D. Rose
Philip Liu
I Heat Exchangers
Section 1
1.1 General. Heat exchangers are used throughout

the marine power plant to transfer heat from one fluid
(liquid or gas) to another fluid. The most widely used
type of exchanger in marine service is the "shell-andtube" type. As shown by Fig. 1, the shell-and-tube
heat exchanger consists of six basic elements: the bonnet,
tube sheet, shell, tubes, baffles or support plates, and tie
rods. The bonnet or channel is often referred to in the
marine industry as the "head" or "waterbox" of the
exchanger. Due to stringent space limitations imposed
on marine heat exchangers and for ease of maintenance
and cleaning, head inlet and outlet connections are
arranged to permit access to the tubes and tube sheets
without dismantling the attached piping. Only the
smaller heat exchangers (under 100 lb) would have
straightaway connections as depicted in Fig. 1.
Figure 1 illustrates a "single-pass" fixed tube sheet
exchanger. "Single-pass" is a term indicating that the
tube-side fluid flows in one direction only. A "two-pass"
or "four-pass" exchanger would have the tube-side fluid
inlet and outlet connections a t the same end. The
fixed tube sheet construction depicted in Fig. 1 (tube
sheets welded to the shell) must often incorporate an
expansion joint in the shell to compensate for differential
expansion between the shell and tubes as a result of the
relative temperatures of the fluids involved. The various
means of providing for differential expansion are
covered in Section 1.2.
I n addition to fixed tube sheet designs, heat exchangers
employing floating tube sheet and "U"tube designs are
commonly used. Figure 2 illustrates the floating tube
sheet construction which is employed in main lube oil
coolers and electronic equipment coolers. In this design,
one tube sheet is free to "float" against packing rings
(usually made of neoprene). The packing rings are
held in place between the head and shell flanges by a
packing retainer ring. Details of this construction are
described in Section 3.1 of this chapter.
Zinc protectors, such as those shown adjacent to the
division plate in the head of the heat exchanger in Fig. 2,
are used in saltwater-cooled heat exchangers to protect
headers, tube sheets, and tubes from galvanic corrosion
by electrolytic action. When dissimilar metals that are
connected together are immersed in an electrolyte, a
simple galvanic cell is formed and an electric current
BONNET
TUBE SHEET
BAFFLE OR
SUPPORT PLATE
TIEROD
TUB~SIDE
NOZZLE
Fig. 1
Typical single-pass conventional exchanger (flxed tube sheet)
flows from one metal to the other through the electrolyte

which completes the circuit between the two dissimilar
metals. The metal (anode) from which the current
flows will tend to suffer rapid corrosion, often termed
galvanic or electrolytic corrosion, and the metal (cathode)
to which the current flows will tend to be protected from
galvanic corrosion. The direction in which the current
flows depends on the composition of the metals or alloys
exposed to the electrolyte and also on the hardness of the
metal, the cleanliness of the metal surfaces, and other
factors. Thus, if a single metal is immersed in an
electrolyte and one part of the metal surface is harder
than another part, or cleaner than another part, there
will be a flow of current from one part to the other and
galvanic corrosion will take place. If several different
metals or alloys are involved, current will flow in varying
proportions between the surfaces exposed to the electrolyte.
If clean metallic zinc is properly arranged within a
heat exchanger waterbox, a current will tend to flow from
the zinc to the adjacent metal surfaces exposed to the
seawater which constitutes the electrolyte of the galvanic
cell. The zinc protector plates are corroded as the
current is generated; and the current flowing through
the seawater to the metal surfaces of the heat exchanger
tubes, tube sheets, and waterbox tends to protect these
parts from galvanic corrosion. The elechc circuit is
completed through the metal parts of the heat exchanger.
Gaskets between the waterbox and manhole covers, to
which zinc protectors are frequently attached, and
Fig. 2
Typical heat exchanger with floating tube sheet, disassembled
between the tube sheets and the water chests do not

interrupt the flow of current, as the circuit is completed
through the metallic bolts and collar studs which secure
the joints. The Navy requires that the exposed surface
of sincs (exclusive of edges) be a t lea& one square foot
for each 1000 square feet of heat transfer surface. For
now construction, the amount of zinc surface is based on
rtn equation which is given in Military Specification
MIL-A-19521.
All zinc protectors should be thoroughly scaled once
every 4 to 6 weeks to assure that active metallic zinc
nurface, as opposed to corrosion scale adhering to the
metal, is exposed to the seawater. Zinc surfaces which
aflord proper protection are quickly detefiorated.
In the design of the waterbox and application of zinc
modes, care must be exercised that the zincs do not
interfere with, or add turbulence to, the fluid flow within
the waterbox.
As illustrated in Fig. 1, the shell of the heat exchanger
is usually cylindrical with flanges attached to each end.
The tube sheets are either welded or bolted to the shell
flange, and the heads are bolted to the tube sheets.
The most critical joint in the exchanger, and that most
likely to develop a leak, is the tube to tube sheet joint.
SERRATIONS
Fig.
Expanded tube-to-tube-sheet joint with inlet end bell
Expanding the tube into the tube sheet with a "tube

expander" is the most commonly em~loyedpractice; a
typical expanded tube is &wn by Fig. 3. Care must
be taken to follow the manufacturer's instructions as to
limits of tube wall reduction and dial settings on the
electrically or electronically controlled automatic tube
expander when repairing a leaking tube to tube sheet
joint.
Seawater flowing into heat exchanger tubes a t high
velocities tends t9 remove the thin protective film of
MARINE ENGINEERING
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Table 1
T*
Fluid
ITEM
side
Velocity, fps
LWBICA~G
OIL COOLER
Low-paEssmr~1
F ~ HEATER
D
HIGH-PEEBSUBE
FEEDHEATEB
Seawater
Feed
0-7
4-7
2-8
Typical Featuror
TANKCLEANING
SYBTEM
--HEATER
DRAINCOOLER
5/811 OD
Tube Material
H a d Material
per inch
90/10 CuNi
Bronze
90/10 CuNi
Steel
70/30 CuNi
Steel
90/10 CuNi
Steel
Tube Sheet
90/10 CuNi
Steel
Forged Steel
Bronze--Composition G
SluU Side
Fluid
Velocity, f s
Number 6 P
Pas=
Type of b d e
Flow
Cbnslrvdion
5/8" OD
x 0.049"
Steam
Condensing
6 (baaed)
Oil
2-3
10-16 (baaed)
Expanded
m d e d
Expanded or
welded
Thermal
Ekpansion
Gasket
Floating
tube sheet
Full Face
Expausion joint
U-Tubes
corrosion products adhering to the base metal of the tube

wall. This protective a m is replaced a t the expense of
further corrosion of the tube wall. As continued removal
and replacement of the protective film of corrosion
proceeds, the tube wall is gradually thinned and the tube
to tube sheet joint is weakened and ultimately fails or
the tube wall just beyond the tube sheet is perforated.
This type of erosion is generally termed impingement
erosion, inlet end attack, air erosion, or bubble attack.
The occurrence and rapidity of the attack are governed
by the water velocity (for recoinmendations see Table 1))
the amount of air entrained, and the design of the waterbox as it affect8 the velocity, ,direction, and turbulence
of the fluid flow approaching the tubes.
The inlet ends of the tubes are normally ground flush
with the face of the tube sheets, and no gaps should be
left between the edges of tubes and the radius of the holes
on the inlet sections as gaps here tend to promote
impingement erosion. The outlet ends of tubes may
Collar Bolts
Bare
600
2.7 gpm seawater

per sq ft
190F
110F rise in
200
180 lb drains per
hr/sq ft
100F
200F drop in d r u i ~ ~ ~
extend Ne in. beyond the face of the tube sheet.

Where s considerable temperature differential exists
withim a heat exchanger, a packed-tube design may be
employed. Packed tubes, such as shown by Fig. 4 and
Fig. 8(c), allow considerable differential tube expansion
since each tube is free to move independent of the
others. The combined low-pressure feed heater/drain
cooler/gland-exhaust condenser (which is described in
Section 3.5) is a typical marine exchanger normally
employing packed tube ends.
Marine heat exchangers are designed in accordance
with the Standards of the Tubulas Exchanger Manufacturers Association [I]' and the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers [2] in addition to compliance with
marine regulatory body wde requirements such as
Lloyd's [3], U.S. Coast Guard [4], and the American
Bureau of Shipping [5]. Many additional standard
1
Condensing
CuNi
{ lrrt~dsteam
!rb~dst~sing
fi rlr H (baffled)
Full Face
Ring (shell aide)

Solid co per ring
(tube d e )
Stud Bolts
Bsre
10F
1 0 0 9 rise in feed
i'i (bafled)
Steam
U-Tubes
Ring or flexible
800
3 0 0 lb feed per
hr per sq f t
Heater dr-ains
Segmental
Counterflow, last pwa
...
Tube Joint
Bolting
Collar bolts
Surfaca
Finned
Therm41 PerfOnna?ca
Heat T r a d e r
Coefficients
~tu/hr-fd
40
0.3 to 0.4 gpm L.O.
Surfaca
Requirement
per sq ft
Terminal
Temperature
Diffknce
(or LMTD)
18F
Temoerature
20F d r o ~in L.0.
Steam
Condensing
6 (baaed)
Segmental
Segmental
counterflow
ELECTBONICB
EQUIPMENT
COOLER
Saltwater
0-7
1-4
3/4" OD x 0.049"
1
R ~ 2 ~ 5/8"
7lowODfin-19x 0.049"
fins
x 0.049"
w1 Marine Heat Exchangers
8;;h l t a
Steam
steam'
Condensing
Condensing
(bayonet tube)
90/10 CuNi
Steel
Steel or
Cast Steel
90/10 CuNi
BronzeSteel
Composition G
or steel
Fresh Water
Chilled Water
or Seawater
Boiler Makeup
Water
:;"
34
5/8" OD
X 0.049
(bayonet tube)
BWG
,.
Steel
90/10 CuNY
Cast Steel
Bronze 4
Water
1/4" OD
X 0.035"
4-7
2
5/8" OD
XO.049"
BWG
90/10 CuNl
90/10 CUNI
Steel
90/10 CuNi or
Bronm
Composition G
...
90/10 CuNi
Steam
Condensing
...
Open Shell
Lubricating Oil
2-3
1 (baf8ed)
Fuel Oil
1-3
1 (baffled)
Fresh Water
3-5
1 (baffled)
Seawater
1-8
None
None
Boiling
Segmental
Counterflow
Segmental
Counterflow '
Segmental
Counterflow
None
,
Counterflow
Expanded
Expanded
Floating head
or U-Tube ,
Full Face
Bayonet
Expanded
Expanded
(buter)
Ferrules (inner)
Bayonet
...
Stud Bolts
Bare
Stud Bolts
Finned
10-20
60
6-8 gph 75 gph
1 (baffled)
Welded or
brazed
...
U-Tubes
Ring
Full Face
Ring
Stud Bolts
Finned
Stud Bolts
Bare
Stud Bolts
Bare
Stud Bolts
Bare
45
7-12 gph
per sq ft
400
150 h per
Sq t
500
0.25 m
boXr water
per sq ft
150 hper
sq%
100F
100-150F
20F
5F drop in
fresh water
400F
400F drop in
sample temp.
200F
80F rise in
water temp.
Ring
, ,=
6-10 111 team
&r Irr/sq ft
8%
nonucr~~tlansable
%-50 lb steam
per hr/sq ft
80F
Boiling a t
100 pa aba
P Y = #?sq
120F
250F
50F
500
Heads are designed so that it will not be necessary

to disassemble piping to gain access to the inside of the
heads The
and tubes.
tube bundle is usually of the removable type
for easy cleaning and maintenance.
I n the design of cooling water spaces and connections, a smooth flow path must be provided to minimize
erosion-corrosion attack. Sharp comers and projecting
edges are avoided.
Internal fittings are arranged to result in a
minimum of interference with the water flow and a
minimum of turbulend?
Y
' Rg. 4
Packed tube
Cooling water velocities a t the design point must
not exceed those specified or recommended by the
material supplier.
requirements have been incorporated in specifications for
Heat exchangers having tubes of length exceeding
marine heat exchangers due to stringent space limitations 4 f t are designed so that the o r d e ~ n glength of tubes
and reliability requirements. The following points are will be in multiples of 6 in. The ordering length of
tubes is determined by addbg M in. to the face-to-face
emphasized in the design of marine heat exchangers:
MARINE ENGINEERING
HEAT EXCHANGERS
(g) Head integral with shell, no shell side
(a) Flat face ring shell flange with full

face unconfined gaskets on both shell
and head side.
(d) Welded shell tube sheet joint with

semiconfined gasket on head side.
gasket.
support plates or between a tube ahget and a support

plate does not exceed 36 in. Holes for tubes in bases
and support plates, baffle clearances, and tie rod
standards are usually required to be in accordance with
the latest standards of the Tubular llxchanger Manufacturers Association [I].
In order to diffuse the entering stream and reduce
erosion of tube ends, for single-pass coolers the waterbox
depth measured normal to ihe-tube sheet should be not
less than one-half the equivalent diameter of the tube
sheet area exposed to the flow of the cooling water into
the tubes. For cylindrical two-pass coolers, the waterbox head depth ~houldbe not less than 35 percent of the
inside shell diameter.
All heat exchangers must be provided with
tuiequate foundation supports. When required by the
oonditions of service, provision is made in the design of
the supports to provide for expansion or contraction of
the shell. Heat exchanger supports are usually independent of any att,ached piping. Supports must be given
special consideration when designing for high-impact
shock conditions [6].
Is the design of marine heat exchangers, consideration must be mven to the varvin~deerees of inclination
encountered in service. In n a v z prLtice, heaters and
ooolers are designed to perform satisfactorily under
oonditions of 5 degrees trim, 10 degrees pitch, 15 degrees
list, and 45 degrees roll (in commercial practice a 30degree roll is the design criterion). The conditions for
permanent list and roll or for trim and pitch are not
bonsidered additive.
Adequate air vents must be provided on heat
exchanger waterboxes to avoid the collection of air in the
upper region of the waterbox, as air pockets can restrict
the tube-side flow and render a portion of the heat
transfer surface ineffective. Such air pockets can also
result in overheating and expansion of the dry tubes and
oause failures of the tube joints at the tube sheets.
In feedwater heaters and condfnsers, wet steam at
a high velocity must not be permitted to impinge on the
tubes, otherwise the surface of the tubes will be rapidly
eroded. ~ a f h e sor distribution pipes must be incorporated as necessary to preveht the direct iinpingement
of wet steam on the tubes.
n ,
00000
000000
0000000
000000
Seg,,n*l
(e) Double packed floating tube sheet

with retaining ring and packing rings
on both hell and head side.
(h) Double floating packed tube sheet

with retaining ring and packing rings
on both the shell and head sides.
(c) Ring shell flange with tongue and

groove joint and fully confined flat
ring gasket on both the shell and
head side.
If] Outside-packed removable tube

bundle with semiconfined gasket on
head side.
Fig. 5
(I) Ring joint flange, double tube sheet

design with confined O-ring gaskets.
Shell, tube sheet, and heod ioint design
distance between the outside faces of the tube sheets.

The minimum tube sheet thickness is usually
specified to be not less than 31 in.
When external fins (low fins) are applied to tubes,
one end of the tube is usually gradually enlarged to the
outside diameter of the fins to enable the removal and
insertion of individual tubes.
Holes in the tube sheet at the inlet end of the tubes
are flared to allow for belling the ends of the tubes.
Holes in the tube sheets are provided with at least one
groove. The edges of the holes are rounded, usually on a
He-in. radius, on the inner face of each tube sheet and

on the outer faces of the tube sheets at the discharge ends
of the tubes.
The inlet ends of the tubes are expanded and belled
and the ends are finished flush with the face of the tube
sheet. In no case should the ends of tubes be below the
face of the tube sheets. Discharge ends of tubes can
protrude up to He in. beyond the face of the tube sheet.
a
A number of the baffles are increased in thickness
(usually H in.) to act as tube support plates and are
located so that the maximum tube length between
1.2 Shell, Tube Shed, and Head (Channel) Joints.
The design of the means for attaching the head (channel),

tube sheet, and shell are governed primarily by the
operating pressures and operating 'temperatures to be
ttccommodated. Figure 5(a), ' which employs gaskets,
depicts the least costly means. Gaskets (which are
usually compressed asbestos) aiqepositively positioned,
thereby insuring alignment. This design could incorporate studded tube sheets (shown) or collar studs to
permit removal of the head without disturbing the shellside pressure joint. In naval applications, the joint
shown in Fig. 5(a) may be used with up to 150 psig and
375 F.
Figure 5(b) illustrates the joint that is the most widely
used in shell, tube sheet, and head joint attachments.
BaMe
(dl Triple Se~nental
(bl Single W m n t e l
(b) Flat face ring hell flange with ring

type unconfined geskets on both shell
and head side.
,
l"
'(el D i x 81 Doughnut
(c) Double Segmental

fig. 6
Fbw baffler
The design normally incorporates studded tube sheets

(shown) or collar studs. The recommended gasket
material L coinpressed asbestos, and the usual a plications will accommodate liquids and vapors to 3 psig
and 450 F.
The design indicated in Fig. 5(c) is widely used for
high-pressure fuel oil and steam service. The gasket
grooves completely confine and positively align pass
partitions, and afford excellent protection against gasket
blowouts and failures. The usual applications permit '
liquids and vapors to 1000 psig and 750 F with a proper
gasket material and design (normally compressed
.asbestos, jacketed asbestos, or spiral-wound gaskets).
Figure 5(d) depicts a joint that is used primarily when
no leakage is permitted o p h e shell &de, as in cases where
the shell-side medium is either hazardous er Comsive.
The semi-confined gasket allows for protection from
blowing out and provides a more positive positioning of
the gasket. The usual applications permit liquids and
vapors to 600 psig and 500 F with proper gasket materials
(normally compressed asbestos, jacketed asbestos, or
spiral-wound gaskets).
f i e design indicated in Fig. 5(e) is an excellent means
494
HEAT EXCHANGMS
MARINE ENGINEERING
(4Square tube pitch

Fig. 7 ' Tube pitch
(a) Triangular tube pitch
Id) Floating head with backing device
{b) Bayonlrt Tube

Fig 8
(d) Rotated square tube pitch
(b) Rotated Triangular tube pitch
ggmpatible fluids; should a tube joint fail, the leak can be

detected immediately, avoiding contamination of the
guids. The usual applications permit liquid and vapor
prassures up to 1000 psig and 400 3
'.
1.3 Spseifle Construction Detuils. I n shell-andCube heat exchangers, baffles are generally used to guide
flow and increase the velocity of the fluid flowing on the
rrhell side of the heat exchanger. The most commonly
uaed baffles are of the segmental type or its variations, as
Illustrated by Fig. 6.
Segmental baffles are formed by cutting out thin
metal plates to an outside diameter slightly less than the
b i d e diameter of the shell. A segment is cut out of the
baffle to form a segmental opening, the size of which
may vary from approximately 15 to 45 percent of the
nhell cross-sectional area (with single segmental, double
regmental, disk, and doughnut ba&) or higher than
46 percent of the shell area (with triple segmental
baffles). The tubes must be supported at intervals
dong their length to minimize tube vibrations excited
by the fluid flowing across the tube or by pulsations of the
flow rate. The maximum permissible unsupported tube
longth will depend on the tube material and tube
diameter. For nonpulsating flow, the maximum unsupported tube length is 60 to 80 times the tube
diameter. For pulsating flow, the unsupported length is
uonsiderably less, and welding or brazing is used in lieu
of spacers and nuts to secure the tube support plates.
When designing for high shock, the tube support spacing
$
of providing for shell or tube thermal expansion. When

the packing on one side becomes deteriorated and
eventually develops a leak, the leak is readily detectable
through the vent and drain holes in the retaining ring
and the packing can be replaced. The studded retainer
ring permits repacking the tube side with full p r e m
maintained on the shell side. The usual applications
permit liquids axid vapors to 300 psig and 300 F (the
temperature is limited by the packing material).
The design indicated in Fig. 5 0 is an alternative
means of providing for shell or tube t h e d expansion.
On the she11 side, liquids and vapors at pressures up to
500 paig can be accommodated but the temperature is
limited (usually to about 300 F) by the type of packing.
On the tube side, the pressure may reach 600 psig at
temp&rattwesof 500 F with proper gaaket materials.
Figure 5(g) describes a joint which is relatively
inexpensive and is used when it ia desirable to eliminate
the shell-rside gasket. This design employs only one
gaaketed joipt at each head end for servicing the tubes.

There are no limits on pressure or temperature except
for gasket considerations.
The design indicated in Fig. 5th) is recommended
where contamination of one fluid medium by the other
cannot be tolerated and provides for excellent thermal
ex~ansionof either the shell or tubes. The studded
r e k n e r ring permits repacking the tube side with full
pressure maintained on the shell side. The double tube
sheet type of construction is often specified by the Navy
in cases where the greatest assurance against mixing of
the two fluids is desired. Liquids and vapors to 300 psig
and 300 F (with due consideration to packing material)
can be accommodated with this design.
The joint described by Fig. 5(23 is excellent for vacuum
and very-high-pressure service, and the temperature iR
limited only by the O-ring gasket material. The design
requires precise machining of the O-ring grooves. Tho
double tube sheet design-is excellent for use with non-
T h m o l expomlon provisions
is made small to minimize thd%esponseof the tubes to

shock loadings.
There is considerable latitude in selecting the pitch for
tubes. The four most common tube patterns, as viewed
from the tube sheet end,, am shown in Kg. 7. The
triangular pitch and rotated triangular pitch are the
most compact forms, and the triangular pattern is the
one most commonly used for marine heat exchangers.
Square pitch and rotated-square pitch pattern have
see-through lanes which facilitate manual or mechanical
cleaning of the outside of the tubes. The square pitch
is common in submerged-tube boilers where passage for
fluid circulation is important. It is a h applied in
s e ~ c e whme
s
minimum pressure drop is a paramount
design criterion. Tube patterns other than' the four
illuatrated in Fig. 7 could be used to dtisfy specific
design co%iderations as to pressure drop or turbulence,
but they would be more costly to manufacture.
Tube center-to-center distances are normally 6.25
times the tube diameter, or greater, and uniform over the
tube field.
.*@ Since the shell and tubes operate at&fFerenbtemperatures, it is n q s a r y to provide meam to accommodate
the diflerence in their thermal expansion, as h i
stresses could otherwise be developed within the heat
exchanger. The various types of construction which
have been used to accommodate thermal expansion are
illustrated in Fig.5(e), Cf), and (h) and Fig. 8; each has
its own area of application.
496
MARINE ENGINEERING
HEAT EXCHANGERS
expansions present no difficulties with this type of design.

When the tubes are firmly fastened to the tube sheets
and the tube sheets are fastened to the shell (i.e., fixed
tube sheet designs), shell expansion joints are used to
lessen the stresses caused by the difference in thermal
expansion between the shell and tubes. The shell
expansion joints illustrated in Fig. 9 are adequate only
for small differential thermal expansions (say 0.06 in.
for a 5-ft tube). For large thermal expansions, expansion
joints of the bellows type are normally used.
To provide for thermal expansion when the shell of a
heat exchanger operates at an elevated temperature,
(a) Shell expansion joint using flanged
only one "foot" or "leg" of the shell is anchored to the
and flued heads
foundation and the other is designed to permit free axial
movement sg that the axial expansion of the shell is not
resisted. Freedom for axial movement may be provided
by either a sliding foot (slotted holes with ferrules) or a
slender leg (in the case of heavy heat exchangers) which
provides little resistance to lateral force.
1.4 Design Data Requirements. In order to specifically direct attention to the items which govern the
design of a heat exchanger and which must be furnished
to the design engineer (or assumed by him), those
items which should be included in a specification for a
marine heat exchanger are listed below.
Substance to be heated (and cooled)
(b) Split pipe shell expamion joint
Quantity of substance to be heated (and cooled)
within a given period of time
Fig. 9 Shell expansion iainh
Initial temperature of the substance heated (and
cooled)
Final temp rature desired for the substance heated
The simple U-tube illustrated by Fig. 8(a) is the most (and cooled)
economical and commonly used means to separate the
When the heating and cooling media are other than
thermal expansion in the tubes from that of the shell. water or commonly known substances, the following
I t is widely used in small condensers and instantaneous should be specified :
heaters.
(a) Viscosity
The bayonet tube, illustrated in Fig. 8(b), is suitable
(b) Specific gravity
for use with a tight, cross-flow baffle spacing. Bayonet
' (c)
Specific heat
tubes are used in viscous oil heaters.
(d) Thermal conductivity
Packed-tube joints, Figs. 4 and 8(c), permit some axial
Working pressure of the heated (and cooled)
movement of the tube. Packed-tube joints are used in substance
rectangular (box type) low-pressure feed heaters and in
Allowable pressure drop through the shell and tube
smaller straight-tube condensers.
sides of the heat exchanger
In cases where a large differential thermal expansion
Desired construction materials
can be expected, a floating head arrangement may be
Typical features of a variety of marine heat exchangers
employed. As can be seen from Fig. 8(d), large thermal are listed in Table 1.
T9
t = temperature of cold fluid

A, = tube outside surface area
2~ = rio
rdio rw rdo ro
r, = resistance across the fluid film on the inside of
the tube
rdh = resistance of the deposit or scale on the tube
inside wall
r, = resistance of tube wall metal
rdo = resistance of the deposit or scale on the tube
outside wall
ro = resistance of the fluid film on the outside of the
tube
+ + + +
1i
I
Section 2
Heat Transfer in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers
Q =
Ao(T - t)
Zr
where
(1)
I1
I
= heat transferred
T = temperaturk of hot fluid
SCALEPR DIRT
Fig. 10 Heat transfer through a tube
2.1 Heat Transfer Relationships. The fundamental

theory dealing with heat transfer was discussed in
Chapter 2, and a discussion of heat transfer by condensation is given in Chapter 13. The application of
this theory to the transfer of heat through the walls of a
tube leads to the equation
TUBE ?ALL
These quantities are illustrated by Fig. 10, and the

oorresponding temperature gradients across a tube are
ahown in Fig. 11. I t may be noted that "new clean-tube
oxide film resistances" have not been included on the
inside and outside of the tubes as they are not of sufficient
magnitude to warrant consideration in the design of
viscous fluid or water-to-water heat exchangers.
The film resistances in equation (1) are further defined
as
1
1
1 ri0 = =(2)
hiAi/Ao
hi,
tube-side film coefficient
1
1
+
To=-- (3)
h. shell-side film coefficient
A, and A; are the tube outside and inside surface areas
respectively. The terms hi and ho are called specific
conductances or heat transfer film coefficients and are
generally a function of flow velocities and fluid properties.
The scale resistance or fouling resistance terms, rdo
u,nd rdo,do not lend themselves to analytical assessment
and little is known regarding them. The resistance of
the tube wall metal is readily analyzed and it can be
quantified without difficulty.
The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, which is
defined as the reciprocal of Zr, is a convenient means of
axpressing the resistance to heat transfer through tubes.
The overall heat transfer coefficient can be stated as
Fig. 11
Temperature gradients auou'tubes
location within the exchanger. Consequently, the heat

flow rate, Q, also varies from location to location. To
obtain the total heat transferred per unit time for a heat
exchanger, it is convenient to base calculations on the
average temperature difference across the tube over the
entire tube length. Such a temperature difference is
defined as the log mean temperature difference (LMTD)
and is expressed mathematically aa
LMTD =
-1
1
.A0
(T - t)dA
(5)
By combining equation (5) with equation (1) and noting

that Zr is equal to the reciprocal of U: the heat transfer
through a tube is determined to be
Equation (6) is the basic analytical tool employed to

establish the thermal design of a heat exchanger. The
factors to be considered in assessing this equation are
briefly discussed in the following.
With known terminal temperature differences between
the shell and tube streams, the mean temperature
difference between the shell 'and tube flows can be
derived [7] if the following aasumptions are made:
The overall heat transfer coefficient is constant
along the entire flow path.
The flow rate and.pxific heaj of both
the shell
and tube streams are constant.
The heat transfer surface is uniformly distributed
along the flow paths.
The temperature of either fluid is constant over
1
any
cross
section of its path (i.e., there is complete
U =
(4)
(I/&)
rdo rw
rdio
(Jlhio)
mixing and no stratification).
There is no internal leakage or bypassing of fluid
In the case of shell-and-tube heat exchangers, the
temperature difference (T - t) varies from location to around the tube bundle.
+ + + +
498-
MARINE ENGINEERING
499
HEAT EXCHANGERS
for C allows a considerable m a r k (as com~aredwith a

value of 0.33) to allow for flowleakages asLs-would
occur
tube-side film coefficient
between cross baffles and the shell, and should only be
tube inside diameter
used as an average value.
thermal conductivity of fluid on tube side
The term "ideal tube bank" came from a report [lo]
0.027
published as s result of a research program on shell-andtube-side mass velocity
tube heat exchange? conducted at the University of
tube-side fluid viscosity at bulk temperature
Delaware. The research /program was supported by
tube-side fluid viscosity at tube wall temperature various heat exchanger manufacturers and lasted more
Prandtl number = CJ/K
than 12 years,, An "ideal tube bank" came to mean a
specific heat
rectangular hube field with straight-through flow and no
Figure 13 is a nomograph of the film coefficient inside wall effects or bypassing. Theresults from these tests
tube walls for turbulent water flow inside No. 18 BWG can be presented in the form of equation (13) if the contubes as determined from equation (12). A means of stants C and m are replaced by functions of the tube
oorrecting for other tube dimensions is indicated in pitch, P, the tube diameter, do, and the Reynolds
number, (doG/Z), in the lower Reynolds number range.
Fig. 13.
The relationship used to assess the shell-side film That is
C = b(1.33d0/P)"
(14)
ooefficient is similar in form to that used on the tube
where
aide and is as follows:
where
(c) T w singbshell and double-tube pass exchangers in series
Q) Ona shall pass and multiple of twa

tube passer
RQ. 12 Flow arrongeaenh Light flow Pnes mpreaent lube-side flow and heavy itow lines represent shd-ride flow
There is no transfer of heat between the heat

exchanger and its surroundings.
For a single-pass counterflow heat exchanger such as
illustrated by Fig. 12(a), the LMTD is
Single-shell heat exchangers with even numbers of

tube passes may be arranged in series. With identical
heat exchangers arranged in series, as shown by Fig.
12(e), the LMTD is computed as
LMTD =
where
where
T1= shell-8ide inlet temperature

T2 = shell-side outlet temperature
1 = tube-side inlet temperature
ta = tube-side outlet temperature
For the special case that
then equation (7)reduces to

LMTD = TI- B, or TI- C
(9)
For one-shell and multipl& of two-tube-pass heat
exchangers as shown in Fig. 12(b), the.EMTD becomes
LMTD =
where
X
Y
Y+X
- T s ) ~+ fh - t~)']"'
= TI T2 - (Is + 51)
= [(Ti
Values for b and m are as follows:
where
lia
m = number of identical single-shell heat exchangers
with an even number of tube passes in series

The tube-side film coefficient, hi, may be computed
from the Sieder and Tate equation [$I. This equation
waa published in 1936 and remains in widespread use; it
has the following form:
ho = shell-side film coefficient

do = tube outside diameter
C, m = constants
Reynolds Number
b
I
0-10
1.4
0.333
10-100
1.36
0.343
100-1000
0.593
0.533
The remaining terms are as defined for equation (12).

In the higher Reynolds number range (Re > 1000),
There are some variations in the technique8 used in C and m are taken as constants having the values of 0.32
applying equation (13); the variations primarily deal and 0.612, respectively. * ,*
with the quantification of C and m. For calculations
In a commercial shell-and-tube heat exchanger, there
regarding the flow of a gas normal to the tube bank (i.e., is a gap between the tube bundle and shell. A portion
a cross-flow heat exchanger), Colburn recommended in of the fluid in the shell will therefore bypass the tube
1033 that equation (13) be applied as follows:
bundle, and not be cooled or heated. Also, there is
flow
leakage between cross-flow baffles and the shell.
m = 0.6
It
is
essential that these non-ideal conditions be
Z and Zware assumed equal
accounted
for, especially in any effort to reduce uncerG = mass velocity of fluid through the minimum flow
tainties
of
flow pressure drop prediction. Tinker [ll)
cross-sectional area of the @be tank
and
Bell
[lo]
each proposed simplified methods to
C -- 0.33 for staggered tube pattern (triangular or
correlate
these
complex flow phenomena to geometry
rotated square pitch)
factors.
Their
basic approach is to divide the shell
C = 0.26 for in-line tube pattern (square pitch)
flow area into three categories, namely, cross-flow area
When making computations for the flow of a fluid (the flow area between tubes in the direction normal to
through a circular baffled heat exchanger; Donahue the tube axis); leakage area (the flow area between the
recommends that 'equation (13) be applied with the tube and tube holes in the cross-flow baffles and the area
following assumptions [9]:
betweed the b d e outside diameter and the shell inside
diameter); and bypass area (the flow area between the
m = 0.6
tube bundle and shell). Bell's is an overall approach;
G = (G,G,)lln
with known relative values of bypass and leakage area
G, = mass velocity normal to the tube bundle
to that of cross-flow, he, obtained empirically correction
Gw = mass velocity through cross baWe window (i.e.,
factors to be applied tofdeal tubecbank heat transfer
baffle cut out area, Fig. 6[a])
coefficient and pressure drop values. Tinker assigned
The geometrical mean value of the mass velocity is used flow resistance constants to each flow area and calculated
in recognition of the fact that the direction of fluid flow an effective cross-flow rate to be used in the ideal tube
hank cross-flow heat transfer and pressure drop correlais not normal to the tubes in the baffle window.
On the basis of test data with segmental baffled heat tions. Tinker's is a more useful approach in that refineexchangers, Donhue further recommends that C be ment and generalizations are easier with his method.
I t may be seen that computations for the shell-side
given the value of 0.22 as an average value. This value
MARINE ENGINEERING
NOTE: Nomograph is based on 518" O.D.

#18 BWG t u k For tubes of other
O.D., Q end I.D., di, COW
ths hio read a follows:
fig. 13
Rlm mo(ficierd for water inside hbw
HEAT EXCHANGERS
NOTE: This nomograph is valid for plain

tuber having a 114" O.D. on e
11132"- A pitch or a 3/8"O.D. on
a 17/32" A pitch.
MARINE ENGINEERING
NOTE: This nomograph Is valld for
518" O.D. plain tubes on a
13/16" A pitch
HEAT EXCHANGERS
NOTE: This nomograph is valid for 518" O.D. t u k

with a triangular a d rotated-rquare pitch.
. For other tube diameters, multiply chart
reedings by
do, in.
Multiplier
Fig. 15 Etfective flow area In wgmmtal b d e d flow
Fig. 16 Fltn coefficient for water in segmental b d b d flow over plain tubes
504
MARINE ENGINEERING
HEAT EXCHANGERS
II
film coefficient are tedious and time consuming, and a

particularly troublesome aspect of the calculation is the
assessment of the effective flow area for segmental
baffled flow. To simplify calculations, Figs. 14 and 15,
which are based on references [ l l ] and [12], were prepared
to provide an approximation of the effective flow area.
Figures 14 and 15 cover the tube sizes and pitches normally used with marine heat exchangers. It should be
noted, however, that manufacturing tolerances on the
shell, tubes, and baffles vary and their variation can
appreciably affect the value of the effective flow area,
especially in the case of small heat exchangers. Therefore, these nomographs, which are based on a particular
set of tolerances nominally followed by heat exchanger
manufacturers, are of value primarily as an indication
of the influence of the various factors which enter into
the design of shell-and-tube heat exchangers. .For
instance, it may be seen from Fig. 14 that small b d e
spacings (small in relation to the shell diameter) are
progressively less effective in creating small effective
flow areas (or high velocities). These nomographs are
particularly useful as devices for checking a design and
narrowing down some of the parameters (shell size,
tube size, b d e spacing, etc.) in the course of designing
a heat exchanger.
Figure 16 is a nomograph which relates the shell-side
film coefficient to the water temperature and mass
velocity. Figure 16 is based on the data presented in
reference [lo].
Two means have been commonly employed to allow
for the additional thermal resistance when scale or
deposit begins to accumulate on the tube wall. The most
ri&rous means is to assign values to the tube inside and
outside fouling resistances, rdio and rh, as a function of
fluid type, temperature, velocity, etc., and compute the
required heat transfer surface accordingly. I n applications with mild rates of fouling, however, the fouling
resistances are difficult to separate and evaluate meaningfully, and furthermore, they are small. Consequently,
the "clean factor" concept has found general acceptance
in conventional steam power plant and marine heat
exchanger applications. The clean factor is a factor
less than unity by which the clean overall heat transfer
coefficient, U, is multiplied to allow for fouling.
I n order to illustrate the procedure employed when
performing heat transfer calculations for a shell-and-tube
heat exchanger, consider such a heat exchanger with the
following characteristics:
Shell size = 6.075 in. I D
Tube size = % in. OD 20 BWG
(plain tube)
Tube material = Admiralty metal
Number of tube passes = 2
Number of tubes = 36 U-tubes
Tube length = 44 in.
Tube pitch = 1 x 2 in.
Cross baffle spacing = 2% in.
Effective heat transfer surface = 24 sq f t
With 50 gpm of fresh water at 78 F entering the shell side

of the heat exchanger, the outlet temperatures and heat
exchanged when the fresh water is cooled by 37 gpm of
chilled water at 50 F entering the tube side will be
computed.
First, it is established that the tube inside and outside
diameters are 0.305 in. and 0.375 in. respectively. The
water velocity through the tubes is computed to be 4.5
fps, and from Fig. 13, the uncorrected film coefficient
inside the tubes is found to be 750 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F.
Correcting for the tube size. results.in a film coefficient
hi, of 820 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F.
With the stated values for the b d e spacing and shell
ID, the effective flow area is determined to be 6.1 sq in.
from Fig. 14. The shell flow rate was given as 50 gpm
which then corresponds to a mass flow rate, G, of 164
lb/sec-sq ft. Entering Fig. 16 with this value for G and
a water temperature of 78 F gives a shell-side film coefficient, h,, of 1735 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F.
The tube metal resistance, i.,, is readily calculated by
employing the following equation for heat conduction
acrom a cylindrical wall:
I, =
NOTE: Nomograph is valid for turbulent

flow with a specific pmity of
unity within 518" O.D. #18 BWG
tuk
"
A, log. (doldi)
27rLK
where L is the tube length, K is the metal thermal conductivity, and A, is the tube outside area. For a
smooth tube, A, is equal to 7r dJ, and the tube metal
resistance reduces to
I, =
do log. (do/&)
2K
Since K = 70 Btu/hr-ft-deg F for Admiralty metal,

equation (16) gives an r, value of 0.0000461 hr-sq ft-deg
F/Btu.
Based on experience, a clean factor of 0.9 is considered
appropriate for this service; therefore, the scale resistances, r& and rdi,, are considered to be zero. This being
the case. substitution of the com~uted values into
equation'(4) gives an overall heat transfer coefficient,
U, of
+ 0 + 0.0000461 + 0 + &
1735
= 544 Btu/hr-sq
ft-deg F
When the clean factor of 0.9 is applied, there results

U
(0.9)(544)
490 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F
and this is used as the design value. It may be noted

that the effect of the term corresponding to the thermal
conductivity of the tube wall material is small when
compared to the effect of the film resistance; for this
reason the thermal conductivity of the tube wall is often
neglected.
I n order to compute the quantity of heat transferred,
equations (6) and (10) are used in conjunction with the
following heat balance relationship :
ma. 17 R.roun drop idde tub-
MARINE ENGINEERING
HEAT EXCHANGERS
E = exp
(2:)
The two specific heats are unity in this case, therefore

all terms can be evaluated. Tzis found to be 69.8 F
and t a is 61 F. With these values known, the heat
transferred is computed as:
2.2 Pressure Drop. The film coefficients (and consequently the heat transfer rate) increase with an increase
of flow velocities, as noted from the previous discussion;
but on the other hand, the flow pressure drops due to
friction are proportional to the velocities raised to a
power between one and two. Consequently, a design
tradeoff must be made which entails striking a compromise between high film coefficients and high pressure
drops. The design of a heat exchanger becomes a matter
of balancing the saving of heat transfer surface with the
cost of pumping power to the exchangers. As a result,
a major portion of the design work is expended in
evaluating flow pressure drops for various operating
conditions and exchanger configurations.
In practice, the system designer very often must specify
the allowed pressure drops for heat exchangers without
an accurate knowledge of their impact on the design of
the heat exchangers. There are three courses of action
which are frequently taken when it is necessary to specify
the pressure drops permitted with heat exchangers:
Allow a flat 10 psi pressure drop per stream
per heat exchanger. This rule-of-thumb approach is
popular in some areas of the industry. The engineer
has preferred to stay within the 10 psi limit since higher
Fig. 18 Tube diameter and specific gravity correction faclora for tube
pressure drop
pressure drops with higher velocities may approach the
erosion/corrosion limit of the metal and furthermore the
resultant high heat transfer coefficient may be excessively
sensitive to scaling. The 10 psi maximum allowable
pressure
drop is also high enough to keep the thermal
where
designer from "tail-chasing " (i.e., the lower the velocity,
W. = shell-side flow rate, lb/hr
the lower the heat transfer coefficient; the lower the heat
W t = tube-side flow rate, lb/hr
transfer coefficient, the larger the heat exchanger; the
C , = shell-side fluid specific heat, Btu/lb-deg F
larger the heat exchanger, the larger the pressure drop,
C p t = tube-side fluid specific heat, Btu/lbdeg F
which requires lowering the velocity, etc.).
Specify alternative pressure drop limitations.
and the fluid temperatures are defined as before' With the wide application of the computer to heat
Equations (6), (lo), and (17) can be combined to express
the two water outlet temperatures in terms of known exchanger design, this approach does not incur an excessive engineering load in identifying alternatives, and
values. The resulting expressions, arranged in the order
selecting the optimum alternative can be advantageous.
of the computational procedure, are as follows:
Use design charts to obtain an approximate
drop
assessment of t i e heat exchanger size and
involved before establishing the design criteria.
Fig. 19 Equlwbnt number of tube rows f w bdffled-fiow prenun drop calculation
MARHE ENGINEERING
HEAT EXCHANGERS
509
4
NOTE:
This nomograph is valid for 518"

Wolverine tubes type SIT on a 13118"
A pitch.
5
/
8,
7
'\
fig. 20
Pressure drop in segmental baffled flow of water w e r plain tuber
In order to illustrate the use of design charts to obtain

approximate, but quick, estimates of the pressure drop
through heat exchangers, the example problem in Section
2.1 will be continued. Entering Fig. 17 with a water
velocity of 4.5 fps and temperature of 50 F gives a
pressure drop within the tubes of 0.085 psi/ft. Since
there are two tube passes, the total tube length is twice
44 in. or 7.34 ft, and the total uncorrected pressure drop
is 0.624 psi. The inside diameter of the tubes is actually
0.305 in. and the specific gravity of the fresh water is
unity; therefore, the corresponding correction factors to
be applied to the pressure drop taken from Fig. 17 are
read from Fig. 18 aa ad = 1.95 hnd a. = 1. Applying
these to the uncorrected pressure drop of 0.624 psi gives
a corrected pressure drop of 1.22 psi.
In order to calculate the baffled-flow pressure drop on
the shell side, the number of baffles must be established.
The number of tube baffles can be estimated as
tube length -1 = 44
-1 = 18
2.25
baffle spacing
I n addition, the number of tube rows which the flow
crosses between each pair of baffles and the baffle cut-out
area (baffle window) must be established before the
calculations can proceed. It is convenient to introduce
the term N,, which is defined as the equivalent number
NB =
of tube rows that the flow crosses between each pair of

baffles, as the ensuing calculations are greatly simplified.
The equivalent number of tubes citn be determined if
details regarding the baffle window height, baffle spacing,
tube spacing, and shell are known; but such is seldom
the caae in preliminary design work. For estimation
purposes, Fig. 19 has been prepared oh the basis of a
commonly used heat exchanger configuration to give
guidance in determining the equivalent number of tube
rows crossed between baffles. Entering Fig. 19 with a
shell I D of 6.075 in., a baffle spacing of 2.25 in., and a
triangular tube pitch of 17dZ in. gives an equivalent
number of tube rows of 11.5. Consequently, the
equivalent total number of tube rows is computed as
NR = (NB
+ 1)N. = 21.9 rows
The pressure drop per row of tubes can be evaluated

from Fig. 20. A line is drawn between a water temper*
ture of 78 F and a mass velocity of 164 lb/sec-sq ft
(line 1)) and the interception with the reference line is
noted. Next, line 2 is drawn from the reference line
intercept and the second mass velocity curve, and the
product of the fluid specific gravity and pressure drop
per tube row of 0.024 psi/row is obtained. Since the
fluid specific gravity is unity, the shell-side baffled-flow
pressure drop is (0.024) (21.9) = 5.26 psi.
Fig. 21
Meciive flow area for segmental baffle flew
MARINE ENGINEERING
HUT EXCHANGERS
51 1
that the resistance to heat transfer increases rapidly

initially, but the rate of increase subsequently drops to a
very sm* value. The tests h indicated that the
fouling characteristics of finned tubes are similar to those
of plain tubes, and both types of tubes have comparable
percentages of reduction in performance. At the end of
the four-week test period, ,the fouling resistances for
both fin-tube and plain-tube bundles were below the
value of 0.005. During the tests, both the finned and
plain tubes were cleaned by a kerosene-water-detergent
emulsion and the heat transfer rate waa restored to that
initially achieved.
In order to illustrate the princjples involved in the
e,pplication of finned-tube heat exchangers, consider
such a unit with the following characteristics:
Shell imide diameter, Di = 23.265 in.
-- Tube size = %-in. low fin
Tube material = aluminum
Number of tube passes = 2
Number of tubes, N = 652
Tube length, L = 96 in.
in.
Tube pitch =
B&e spacing = 9 1 % ~in.
Tube length between tube sheets, L, = 89% in.
h
=
,'
B~UIM~Z-F
%
fig. 23
A check will be made to determine the suitability of this
Rdo
Fin resistance of low-fin tubes
unit for the following service:

Shell Side
NOTE: Multiply ho mad above by (2/z1,-~)-14
when,
Z = viscosiw at average tempenturn, centipoi~er
& 5 vMcosiw at tube wall temperature, centipdnes
fie. 22
Rlm coeffidenf ftw oil in segmental baffled tlow wer low-tln tubes
2.3 Design of Fin-Tube Heat Exchangers. Another

form of the'basic heat transfer relationship given as
equation (1) can be written as
where Ra, and Ro are the scale resistance on the inside

and outside of the tubes respectively, Rwis the resistance
of the tube, and the remaining symbols are as previously
defined. If the shell-side film coefficient, ho, is small (as
is the case with gases and oils which have low thermal
conductivities) in comparison with the tube-side film
coefficient, hc the shell-side resistance, (h,A,)-1 will
control or "bottleneck" the heat flow. A means of
counteracting this circumstance is to increase the tube
outside surface area, A,, to the extent that hoAo= hiAi,

in which case the heat flow would no longer be choked
by the shell-side heat resistance.
The heat transfer surface on the outside of the tubes
can be effectivelyincreased by providing fins on the tube
outside surface. A type of finned tube frequently used
in shell-and-tube heat exchangers is the so-called
"low-fin" tubes which have a ratio of finned surface to
tube outside surface in the range of 3 to 4. In applications where the tube outside film coefficient is as small
as 50 percent of the tube inside film coefficient, the choice
of low-fin tubes will permit a more economical, compact,
and light unit than a similar design employing bare tubes.
Regarding the fouling of finned tubes, tests [13] were
conducted with 160 F, No. 5 fuel oil flowing through the
shell side of a heat exchanger. The test results showed
Fluid. ..................
Flow rate, W, lb/hr.. ....
Specific gravity at
average temperature. . .
Thermal conductivity,
Btu/hr-fMeg F .......
Viscosity: 2,centipoises
at 210 F.. ............
at 167 F.. ............
Specific heat, C,
Btu/lb-deg F. .........
Inlet temperature, F. ....
Outlet temperature, F . ...
oil
123,400
0.84
0.0665
106
280
Tube Side
water
66,500
pute the tube-side film coefficient. The tube inside

diameter is 0.402 in., the average fluid temperature is
158 F, and the tube-side ve10lcit"~
is computed as 1.03 fps.
A value for h, of 435 Btu/hr-sq ftaeg F is taken from
Fig. 13 for Yrin. OD 18 BWG plain tubes which have an
outside/inside area ratio of 1.186. Low-fin tubes have
an inside/outside ratio of 0.26; and therefore the correction for low-fin tubes is made as follows:
hio =
( L ~ )
Ai
plain tube
(4)
Ao
0.527
O''
finned tube
= 141 ~tu/hr-sqft-deg F
To compute the shell-side film coefficient, the effective

flow area must be known; this is determined to be
146 sq. in. from Fig. 21 by entering with the stated values
The quantity of heat to be transferred is computed as for the shell I D and the baffle spacing. The effective
W,C,(T1,- Tt) = 1,720,000 Btu/hr, and the LMTD is flow area, in conjunction with the shell flow rate, gives
determined to be 47.3 F from equation (10).
an effective mass velocity of 33.8 lb/sec-sq ft. The
Low-fin tubes having an outside diameter of % in. shell-side film coefficient can be determined from Fig. 22
have a finned surface area of 0.405 sq ft per linear foot; by drawing a line (line 1) between the viscosity and mass
therefore, the total finned surface, A,, is 0.405 NL, = velocity scales and noting the intercept on the reference
1970 sq ft.
line. Next, a line is drawn from the thermal conducI t is now possible to compute the required overall heat tivity scale through the ina&cepf poia on the rehrence
transfer coefficient from the expression
line, and the intercept with the h. scale is read as 22.5
Btu/hr-sq fMeg F. This value must be corrected, howU = Ao(LMTD) = 18.45 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F
ever, to account for the variation in viscosity at the tube
wall. Since the temperature of the oil at the tube wall
If in this service the unit will provide an overall heat is not known at this point in the calculation, it is necestransfer coefficient of this magnitude, it would be sary to assume a temperature and then confirm the
considered satisfactory. The h t step in obtaining an assumption to be satisfactory when it is subsequently
estimate of the heat transfer rate for the unit is to com- established. With an assumed tube wall temperature
11/
II
512
The assumed tube wall temperature upon which the

calculation was baaed must now be checked. The
calculated tube average wall temperature is
1, =
Tmg-
(LMTD) = 168.7 F
This is reasonably close to the assumed temperature of

167 F ; therefore, the viscosity correction factor of 0.873
is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes.
The calculated clean overall heat transfer coefficient gf
17.2 is somewhat smaller than the required overall heat
transfer coefficient value of 18.45; consequently, no
allowance for fouling during service is provided. In an
actual design, the heat exchanger design should be
modified to improve the unit's heat transfer characteristics. This could be accomplished by decreasing the
baffle spacing (so as to increase the flow velocity and
increaae the heat transfer coefficient) if the associated
increase in pressure drop can be accommodated; or an
alternative solution would be to increase the amount of
heat transfer surface.
Tests which have been conducted to corroborate the
calculation procedure outlined in the foregoing have
shown the method to be valid. Measured heat transfer
coefficients have been slightly greater than those
calculated, which is a desired characteristic for the
difference to possess.
The fundamental relationship for computing the pressure drop on the shell side of a finned-tube heat exchanger
has the form
this line, use

Fig. 25 for
turbulent
flow
.2J
ffg. 24
5 13
HEAT EXCHANGERS
MARINE ENGINEERING
Pressure drop In wgmontal baffled Aow wer low-fln tuber
of 167 F, the corresponding viscosity is 280 centipoises. 19.7 (aasurning that the shell-side fouling resistance, R*,
This, in conjunction with the average oil temperature of is zero) the resistance of aluminum h,
rti., is seen to be
210 F and viscosity of 106 centipoises, gives a viscosity 0.00013 hr-sq ftdeg F/Btu. As may have been anticicorrection factor of 0.873 and a corrected shell-side hlm pated, the resistance of low-fin tubes is quite small for
their usual applications.
coefficientof 19.7 Btu/hr-sq ftdeg F.
The thermal resistance, r., of the annular ring portion
Another factor, in addition to those involved with the
analysis of plain tubes, is the thermal resistance of the of the fin tube wall is not included in the fin resistance
fins themselves. When computing 'the heat transfer taken from Fig. 23. However, it is readily computed
coefficients of finned tubes, an allowance must be made from equation (15), and is found to be 0.00012 hr-sq ftfor the fins because, aa part of the tube walls, they offer deg F/Btu.
The estimated overall heat transfer coefficient can now
some resistance.
An estimate of fin resistance may be made from Fig. be evaluated aa
23, which presents the fin resistance of low-fin tubes of
1
diierent ,materials in common use. The fin efficiency,
=
1 = 17.2 Btu/hr-sq ftdeg F
upon which the resistances shown were baaed, was taken
h,
rti.
r,
from reference [14]. With a shell-side film coefficient of
+ + +
NOTE:
1.000
nomograph is
for E/S" low-fin tuber
on a 13/16" A pitch and
Reynolds numben greater
than 1800.
800
600
400
300
a2
/
,'
I''
0.0003
where sg is the specific gravity of the shell-side fluid, and

the other terms are aa previously defined. The viscosity
term is known aa it was evaluated in connection with the
determination of the shell-side a m coefficient. The
number of baffles is given aa 8 and the fluid specific
gravity is 0.84. With the shell and t@e data previously
given, the equivalent number of tube rows crossed per .
b a e d space is found to be 27 from Fig. 19. Figure 19
is applicable to both low-fin and plain-tube configurcc Fig. 25 Pressure drop in segmental baffled flow wer low-fln tuber (turbu1e.d
tions. Note also that the effective flow a r e a evaluated
flow range)
from Figs. 14, 15, and 21 are used for both beat transfer
and pressure drop calculations; this is a result of the
approach taken in correlating the test data.
velocity pcale, and the intersection with reference line B
Only the (AP X sg) term remains to be determined. is noted and defined aa reference point 2. Finally,
A value for this term, can be obtained from Fig. 24 or line 4 is drawn through reference point 1 (line 2 and
Fig. 25. Entering Fig. 24 with the previously established viscosity scale) and reference point 2 (line 3 and reference
viscosity of 106 centipoises and mass velocity of 33.8 line B), and at the intersection with the sg X A P scale,
lb/sec-sq ft, line 1 is drawn between the viscosity scale the value 0.02 psi/row of;Abes ia read.
and the left-hand mass velocity scale. At the point line
With all terms in equation (19) evaluated, the shell1 crosses reference line A, line 2 is drawn along and in side pressure drop is found to be 6.64 psi.
between the inclined solid guidelines which are provided
The tube-side pressure drop is calculated the same aa
to ensure that line 2 has the proper slope as it intersects with plain tubes. With an average water temperature
the viscosity scale; note the intersection with the of 102.5 F and a water velocity of 2.55 fps, the pressure
viscosity scale and define it aa reference point 1 (it haa drop per foot of tube length is 0.026 psi/ft, from
nothing to do with viscosity). Next, line 3 is drawn Fig. 17. The tube diameter correction factor, a d , is 1.4
between the viscosity scale and the right-hand mass and the specific gravity correction factor, a,, is unity.
514
HEAT EXCHANGERS
MARINE ENGINEERING
Therefore, with an 8-ft tube length and two passes, the

tube-side pressure drop becomes
The method employed to formulate the nomograph
for rrssessing the heat transfer and pressure drop within
heat exchangers is bersically that of Tinker [ll], Devore
[12], and Donahue 191. Details of the derivations and

assumptions involved with the method have not been
reviewed as they are not of primary interest to the
~racticine:engineer. The Drocess of mine: through the
procedure ouiined will, hoGever, convey an appreciation
of the oonsiderations involved in the hydrodynamic
and thermal design of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
- -
P.T. WNN-NEAR
& FAR SIDES
515
P.T. VENT-NEAR SIDE
PLUGGED
/
OIL W N N .
PIPE TAP (P.1.)
Section 3
Heat Exchanger Applications
3.1 Lubricating-Oil Coolers. In addition to serving
as a lubricant between moving mechanical parts,
lubricating oils generally also accomplish a second
objective of removing the frictional heat generated.
Therefore, some means must be provided for removing
the heat absorbed by the lubricating oil. With small
systems, the natural heat transfer by radiation and
convection may be adequate; but with larger systems,
particularly those employing forced circulation, lubricating-oil coolers are required.
The main lube-oil coolers (i.e., those in the lube-oil
system serving the main turbines, reduction gears, and
main thrust bearing) are generally the largest used
aboard ship. A shell and straight-tube exchanger with a
removable tube bundle and a double-packed floating
tube sheet type of construction (such as illustrated by
Fig. 26) is the design most commonly used for main
lube-oil coolers. Oil flows in a single pass via transverse
bafaing in the shell, and seawater is the normal coolant
flowing in one or more passes through the tubes.
The floating tube sheet is centered between the shell
flange and waterbox flange. A gland ring retains the
packing. Separate packing rings are provided for the
shell (lube oil) side and the coolant side. The gland ring
is grooved around the inside, and leak-off holes are
provided so that leakage past the packing rings on either
side will be relieved to the outside and attract the
operator's attention.
The stationary tube sheet, baffles, and support plates
are assembled and held in proper relative position by tie
rods and spacer sleeves. Tie rods are threaded into but
not through the stationary tube sheet. The waterbox
and stationary tube sheet are secured by collar bolts or
by stud bolts driven into tapped holes in the tube sheet
so that the tube-sheet to shell-flange joint will not be
broken when the waterbox is removed.
The packing retainer ring is usually "scalloped" so
that there is a stud hole for every second stud in the
shell flange st the floating tube sheet end of the cooler.
This enables the gland ring to double as a test ring and
allows the shell to be hydrostatically tested without the
waterbox in place.
In some of the more demanding applications, such as
submarine heat exchangers cooled by seawater, there are
special requirements for bolting as well as for materials,
and such requirements must be considered in the cooler

design. Limitations are also provided for maximum
fluid velocities and pressure drop, and shock resistance
requirements may also be specified for military applications [6].
In the late 1950's, it was determined that the performance, in terms of fouling properties and service life, of
low-fin tubing is approximately equal to that of bare
tubes, and a gradual change has taken place such that
%-in. and %-in. low-fin 90/10 CuNi tubing has become
the preferred tubing in lieu of the previous %-in. and
%-in. bare tubes. With low-fin tubes, the greater
amount of heat transfer surface within a given shell size
outweighs the disadvantage of the somewhat lower heat
transfer rates of finned tubes, and the net result is a
smaller, more compact, and more economical unit for a
given performance requirement as compared with bare
tubes.
Lubricating-oil coolers are also used aboard ship for
auxiliaries such as main feed pumps and air compressors.
These units are similar in design to main lubricating-oil
coolers but are smaller, having a shell diameter of 6 to
10 inches.
The thermal design of oil coolers is treated in detail in
Section 2.
3.2 Fuel-Oil Heaters and Lubricating-Oil Purifler
Heaters. The residual fuel oils usually burned aboard
ship are so viscous at atmospheric temperatures that they
must be heated before they can be pumped from the
storage tanks (the properties of fuel oils are discussed in
detail in Chapter 23). The more viscous fuels may
require heating to 120 F or more before they can be
pumped; and when supplied to the burners, the fuel oil
must be at an even higher temperature in order to attain
a fuel viscosity sufficiently low for proper fuel atomizrlr
tion in the burners. Therefore, two stages of fuel-oil
heating are provided; the primary heaters are installed
in the fuel-oil tanks, and the secondary heaters are
installed between the service pumps and the burners.
The primary oil heaters are installed in the tanks in
either of two forms: as steam-supplied pipe grids or
coils or as open-ended tank-suction heaters. The latter
alternative has become increasingly popular due to (a)
lower initial cost, (b) lower maintenance costs, and (c)
lower steam consumption (only the oil to be pumped is
\
SFE DETAIL "A"
LEGEND,
1. Shell
2. Water Channel
3. Channel Cover
4. Return Channel
5. Fixed Tube Sheet
6. Flpeting Tube Sheet
7. Tubes
8. Baffle Assembly
9. Retainer Ring
10. Packing
11. Shell Flange Gasket
12. Channel Gasket
13. W r r Gasket
14. Zinc Amdo# (wha~Imludd)
SHELL FLANGE
GI
DETAl L "A"
Detail of Floating Tube Sheet End
Section at pecking retaining r i ~ g w e p h o l e .Mixing of
the shell and tube side fluids thru the packing is
impossible with this detail. Any seepage from either
side, rwulting from loosening of the bda, d r i p out
thru the copper-lined packing ring weep-holes, thus
putting the m t i n g personnel on notice. The nuts on
both sides may be made up to tighten packing without
hutdown or interruption of operation.
fig. 26
mg. 27
Typical main lube-ail c o o k
Typicol tank rudon fuel-oil heator
MARINE ENGINEERING
heated as opposed to heating the entire tank). A

typical tank-suction fuel-oil heater is shown in fig. 27.
hi horizontal U-tube heat exchanger has an outer
shell flange that is bolted directly to the tank. The oil
is drawn in through the open end of the shell and across
the tube bundle. As the heating medium (condensing
steam) circulates through the tubes, the portion of oil in
the heater shell in contact with the tubes rises in
temperature with a corresponding decrease in viscosity.
The entire process is continuous with the oil flow being
HEAT EXCHANGERS
CLEANING FLUID INLET
MOUNTING BOLTS
RELIEF VALVE CONN.
from those surfaces.

Steam is delivered to the steam chamber, and from
there enters a series of small tubes, cdled "inner" tubes,
through which it travels until it is dpcharged into the
annulus between the inner and outer tubes at the far end
of the outer or oil-heating tubes [see Fig. 8(b)l. Thus
steam (free of condensate) is in contact with the heating
surface at that part of the surface where the highest oil
temperature is desired.
The space between the inner and outer tubes is small
so that the volume of steam flowing in the annular space
generates a velocity of flow sufficient to continuously
sweep the condensate from the surface as it forms, thus
reducing water-film losses and preserving high transfer
rates on the steam side.
CLEANING FLUID OUTLET
PRESSURE GAGE CONN.
serves aa a shell. The Navy haa set forth specific

design criteria for all three of the foregoing designs, and
further describes an "evaporator" type of fuel42
heater which uses an intermediate fluid to transfer heat
from a primheating coil to the bayonet oil-heating
elerpents; this precludes any possibility of contaminating
the condensate with fuel oil in the event of a leaky tube
or tube sheet joint [15].
Steel construction throughout is standard practice.
A minimum of two heaters is normally provided, sized
and so arranged that either heater can provide full boiler
requirements at overload with the other heater serving
as a standby. Heaters are fitted with a relief valve
which usually discharges to the settling tanks via a
check valve. The automatic temperature control valve
is normally installed in the steam supply line with the
sensing element located in the oil outlet flow line
immediately adjacent to the heater. The steam flow
valve is usually installed immediately adjacent to the
steam inlet connection to the heater. Adequate steam
traps are necessary in the condensate lines from the
heater since flooding of the heater will have an advem
effect on its performance.
Sectionalized heaters or banks of heaters are commonEy
used in order to provide the flexibility of using all or a portion of the heating surface over a wide range of
heating capacity (from minimum port steaming conditions to 120-percent ovedoad). With such an arrangement, individual heaters or sections of a heater can be
cut in or out as the demand fluctuates and thereby
maintain a steam supply suflicient to ensure adequate
control of the oil outlet temperature. Such a control of
the amount of heat transfer surface in service avoids
cyclical heater operation wheh the heating requirements
are very small as compared with the effective heating
517
I
SECONDARY
The design requirements for lubricating-oil purifier

heaters are much like those for fuel-oil heaters in that the
oil n~ustbe heated to a prescribed twperature range
(normally 100 to 160 F) in order to attain a sufficiently
low oil viscosity for effectivepurification. Lubricatingoil purifier heaters are generally of the tubular type and
are similar to those used as fuel-oil heaters.
3-3 Boiler Feedwater and Desuperheater Leakage

Test Sample Coolers. Daily tests of the condition of the
fig. 28
Bayonet-tube fuel-oil heater
boiler water and feedwater are necessary to ensure

continued efficient operation and protection of highPressure steam generators. These tests are necessary to :
Maintain the specified boiler water chemistry
through chemical treatment to ensure that the correct
proportions of the essential chemicals are present.
Check the effectivenessof the blowdown procedure
by
the concentration of the soluble and
suspended solids in the boiler water.
Determine the amount of dissolved oxygen in the
boiler water and feedwater to guard against excessive
The collection and cooling of water samples is the
first
in the test procedure. The coolers required
mi. 29
Boiler water sample coder
are relatively s m d heat exchangers due to the small

quantity of sample requifd for testhg. One of the
common arrangements is a cooler system consisting of
primary and secondary coolers connected in series. The
coolers have a cylindrical cast bronze shell that contains
a helical mil wound around a core positioned in the c a t
shell; such a cooler is shown in Fig. 29. The sample
p=es through the coil and cooling water flowa across the
outer surfaces of the coil. The boder water sample
cooler coil is usudy made, of 90/10 or 70/30 CuNi and
MARINE ENGINEERING
HEAT EXCHANGERS
66
519
Fig. 30 Saltwater heater and drain cooler
the cooler and valves are designed to the boiler working

cooler uses seawater at 85 F as
pressme. The
a
and reduces the sample temperature to
cooler uses chilled
approximately 140 F; the
50 F fresh water as the coolant to reduce the temperature
of the sample to that desired for testing. The maximum
temperature for oxygen determination is 70 F; in Navy
practice100 F is considered the maximum temperature
euitable for pH, hardness, and chloride determination.
The coils far desuperheater leakage test sample coolers
can be madeof copper or a similar material since they
me designed for a'rnoderate pressure and are normally
cooled with fresh water.
3.4
Tank
Cleaning System
Heaters
and
Drain
Coolerr. When a different grade of oil is to be carried

in a tanker (e.g., gasoline vice crude oil), it is necessary
to wash the cargo oil tanks before receiving the different
grade. The tank cleaning systems use hot seawater
supplied from heat exchangers. Cargo vessels utilize a
smaller system than tankers for tank cleamgThe heat, exchangers usually consist of a seawater
heater rwlddrain cooler connected in series SO that the
seawater flows first through the drain cooler and then
through the heater. Steam is used as the heating
medium in the heater, and the resulting condensate is
cooled in the drain cooler. The seawater is heated to a
temperature of 180 to 200 F.
As illustrated in Fig.30, the exchangers are typically
of the horizontal shell-and-tube type; the heater (above
the d r h cooler) is of the U-tube type, and the drain
cooler has a fixed tube nest and a shell expan~onjoint.
The tube nest in the coolers is usually fitted with transverse baffles to create a flow path for the drains perpendicular to the run of the tubes. Depending upon design
conditions and installation requirements, the tubes may

be arranged for single- or m ~ l t i - ~ a flow
s s of the seawater.
Zinc anodes are provided in the water heads to minimize
galvanic corrosion on other parts of the heat exchanger
(galvanic corrosion is discussed in section 1.1).
Occasionally the heater and drain cooler are combined
preclude the
in a single shell, but the arrangement
possibility of the condensate rising above its normal
level and submerging the tubes in the heating section,
which would reduce the effectiveness of the unit. In
some cases, only a heater is installed and the drains are
discharged through a steam trap to the deaerating feed
heater or a suitable vessel or receiver.
Where a separate or combined heater and cooler is
installed, a liquid level control is employed to ensure
submergence of the drain cooling tubes. Relief valves
are provided on both the shell and tube sides of the saltwater heater.
For naval applications, there are a number of special
design requirements (such as construction materials and
shock requirements) which must also be considered [16I.
3.5 LOW-PressureFeedwater Heaters. h he classification (i.e., low pressure ar high ~ressure)of feedwater
heaters depends upon their location relative to the boiler
feedwater pump; low-pressure heaters are located on
the suction side of the main feed pump, whereas highpressure heaters are located on the discharge side. Feedwater heating is accomplished in a number of steps or
stages and the heaters are usually referred to as the first
stage, second stage, third stage, fourth stage, etc.
Multiple stages of feed heating are essential to the
efficiency of a steam turbine power ~ l a n t ,as may be
t
balance estabnoted from Chapter 2. The ~ l a n heat
lishes the number of heating stages, feed flow through
I
each
point and a k l i a r exhaust
~
pressures, furnished
with the glsnd-exhauster fan and
and the temperature of the feedwater entering each drain r e d a t oa rpackage
mounted on the unit.
Due to the
of
Since the heat transfer coefficient of condensing steam combined
heattemperature
exchangers,difference
the outletbetween
ends ofsections
the tubes
is
of velocity, and feed pressures are usually

quite high, the feed is generally in the tubes with the
in the
For a given steam Pressure, the heat
is dependent upon the feed velocity through the
tubes.
of to 7 fps result in a reasonable
pressure
and satisfacto~heat h n s f e r conditions.
The heater
should avoid the Occurrence
of dead spaces, and drain cooling sections should hold
'lose baffle-to-shrOud tolerances so as to avoid excessive
bypasing
beat transfer surface which would result in
insdequate drain caoling. Both the shell and water
sides should be self-venting.
The
pre-e
CQntr0l.i the constlTl~ti0ndetails
feedwater
heaters with design
pressures UP to
PS~Fare considered low-pressure
heaters. It is common practice to combine Several lowpressure heaters
one shell to save space, C O S ~of
equipment, piping, and installation costs. Figure 31
depicts a ty~lcalcombined low-pra4sure feed h e a t e d r a i n
cOO1er/dand-exhaust condenser. similar heaters combing two Stages of h e a t h with the drain cooler are
sometimes used. The
heater is normally
me u s u d y secured in the tube sheet by

of
alternate rings of metalic and fibre packing (see 1,-ig.
8 ( ~ ) and
) are therefore free to expand independently.
3.6
Dim.Montact
Dwerating Feedwabr ~
Since marine boilem are operated at high temperatures

and pressures, there is a hazard of
attack due
to the presence of dissolved oxygen or carban diofide in
the feedwater. It is ~ t u a l l y
impossible to prevent the
entry of air into the feed system, particularly during
plant st&tup; therefore it is necessary to provide
deaerating equipment for the removal of air and co~osive
gases from the boiler feedwater. Although &aeration
can be largely acomplbhed in the condenser, ucondenser
deaeration' is not suffci$n&during @ant stertup; and
without further &aeration there
be no-provision
for the removal of air introduced later in the system,
particularly a t the condensate pumps.
Flash &aeration, whereby saturated water at 10 to 15
psig is introduced into a surge tank at atmospheric
pressure, is simple and economical. H
~ the ~
resulting flashing of steam will not ensure the low
dissolved oxygen content (i.e., 0.005 cc per liter) reqUired
HEAT EXCHANGERS
MARINE ENGINEERING
VENTED STEAM
CONTAINING OXYGEN
REMOVED FROM WATER
WATER SUPPLY
WATER SPRAY
VENT CONDENSING
WATER SPRAY NOZZLE
PRIMARY HEATING
AND DEAERATION CHAMBER
SPRING LOADED
ATOMIZING VALVE
Fig. 32
Direct-contactfeed heater
of the feedwater unless suflicient agitation is positively

provided. There is also a loss of steam through flash
deaeration. For example, a deaerator operating at 15
psig flashing down to atmospheric pressure loses about
4 percent as flashed steam. The flashed steam should
not be condensed and returned to the feed cycle since it
will normally have re-entrained a portion of the undesirable dissolved gases. Therefore, standard marine
deaerators are more sophisticated in design than those
of the flash type.
The practical considerations involved in the removal
of dissolved oxygen from boiler feedwater may be
briefly summarized as:
1 Heating the water to the boiling temperature for the
pressure under which the process is conducted (satura
tion conditions). From the chemical relationship termed
"Henry's Law," it is known that when a partial pressure
of a liquid is equal to the total pressure above the liquid
(boiling conditions), the solubility of any gases in the

liquid is zero.
2 Providing a design that ensures thorough agitation
and scrubbing of the feedwater by the steam. Complete
agitation of the feedwater and contact with the scrubbing
steam ensures that equilibrium will be reached and that
the zero potential solubility condition (Henry's Law)
will be attained.
3 Continuously venting from the system a mixture
of gases and steam. Through the use of adequate
venting, the partial pressure of the noncondensable gases
in the system will be kept low and the saturation boiling
point of the liquid will be maintained.
The heater immediately preceding the suction side of
the boiler feed pump is usually the "direct contact" or
deaerating feed heater (generally known as a "DFT"
for deaerating feed tank). A typical direct-contact
feed heater is illustrated in Fig. 32. Condensate and
makeup are sprayed into the steam-filled primary

heating and deaeration chamber through a series of
spray nozzles and a vent-condensing spray nozzle. The
spray nozzles provide an even distribution of water over
the entire heating area. The steam flow, which- is
essentially counter-current to the water flow, heats the
water close to the saturation temperature such that the
solubility of the gases is zero, and approximately 95
percent of the oxygen content is thereby released.
Water and condensate collect in the conical water
collector and flow to the atomizing valve, where highvelocity steam strikes the mixture, atomizes it into a
fine mist, and raises the temperature the last few degrees
to its saturation point. The mixture strikes a deflecting
baffle which separates the water and steam. The hot
gas-free water drops to the storage compartment.
The complete atomization and heating of the feedwater by the steam jet ensures that the dissolved gases
will be released. After the atomization process, the
steam and released gases flow through the primary
heating/deaerating chamber where a large portion of the
steam is condensed as it heats the incoming water. A
small portion of the steam and all of the gases pass
through the integral vent condenser which condenses the
majority of the remaining steam. The small amount of
steam vapor that is mixed with the released gases is then
discharged to the atmosphere or to the gland leak-off
condenser.
The deaerator conditions feedwater such that its
dissolved oxygen content is less than 0.005 cc per liter.
In addition, it substantially reduces the carbon dioxide
content of the feedwater.
Since the feedwater is at saturation temperature and
above atmospheric pressure, the arrangement of the
deaerator is of great importance as there is a strong
possibility of the feedwater flashing into steam at the
pump suction. There are two means of ensuring an
adequate suction head at the main feed pump. One is
to position the deaerator high in the maqhinery space; or
an alternative is to provide a booster pump between the
deaerator and feed pump which will maintain an adequate
suction head on the feed pump. Damage control
considerations dictate that the booster pump arrangement be used in naval ships. The booster pump must
be designed to handle condensate at saturation temperature, and it is important that the booster pump suction
line be short with little or no turns and adequately
vented so that pump cavitation and suction line flashing
will not occur. The alternative of locating the deaerator
high in the machinery space is the preferred arrangement with merchant ships as a pump is eliminated and
damage control is not a design criterion.
Proper performance of a deaerator requires correct
sizing of components and control of the rate of flow to the
storage tank portion of the deaerator. The first major
consideration is the boiler steam output. This determines the size of the deaerator and affects the storage
tank, the makeup valve, the transfer pump, and the
number of water spray nozzles in the unit. The other
52 1
major factor is the temperature of the water delivered

to the spray nozzle; this temperature determines the
size of the steam-regulating valve which admits steam to
the deaerator. This valve is sized as closely as possible
to furnish the quantity of steam required to maintain
the deaerator a t the operating temperature, plus about
10 percent additional capacity/of steam over that required
to heat the inlet water at the design conditions as a
safety margin to handle surges of incoming feedwater.
However, sincpc the steam capacity is considerably
affected by the pipe size of the regulator and the incoming steam pressure, it is difficult to provide a valve that
exactly matches the desired capacity. Proper deaera
tion requires that the temperature.of the incoming water
be raised to the saturation point; therefore, the volume
of the inlet water must be controlled in relation to its
temperature to stay within the heating capacity of the
steam supplied by the steam-regulating valve. An
excessive flow of cool water will, of course, quickly
condense the steam in the deaerator, making it difficult
to maintain the desired pressure. This emphasizes the
necessity to provide an adequate safety mapgin in sizing
the steam-regulating valve so that its capacity and
response rate are capable of handling surges of cool water.
The storage tank is usually selected to retain about
five minutes of storage. If high-pressure (high-temperature) returns are available, they may be returned directly
to the deaerator storage tank. Here they will flash and
provide a certain amount of steam for preheating the
water introduced into the dyapator. If these returns
exceed 25-30 percent of the total capacity of the
deaerator, more steam will be available than is needed
and some other means must be employed to use the
returns.
Deaerating feed heaters are normally equipped with
two spring-loaded relief valves: one to prevent a high
pressure from accidentally building up within the tank;
and the second, known as a vacuum breaker, to prevent a
high vacuum from developing in the tank by allowing
atmospheric air to enter the tank in the event that the
pressure in the tank drops below a prescribed value.
The shell and majority of the internals are normally
of welded-steel construction; however, the 'steam baffles,
spray nozzles, atomizing valve, and vent condenser are
generally manufactured from nonferrous alloys or stainless steel. ,
3.7 High-Pressure Feedwater Heaters. A high-pressure feedwater heater may consist of one, two, or three
sections (a three-section heater contains desuperheating,
condensing, and condensate cooling sections). All
sections are normally integrkkd in oneshell fpr conipactness and simplicity of piping. In addition to the marine
regulatory body design requirements [3, 4, 51, the code
requirements of the Feed Water Heater Manufacturer's
Association [18] are often applied. The construction
features of a typical high-pressure feedwater heater are
shown in Fig. 33.
The tubes are usually N-in.-OD tubes, arranged on
a 1x6-in. triangular pitch. The tubes in the condensing
1
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
~
II
522
MARINE ENGINEERING
I
(a) HORIZONTAL INSTALLATION
1. CHANNEL
2. CHANNEL COVER
3. STATlONdWY TUBE SHEET
4. TUBES
6. TUBE SUPPORT
6.SHELL SKkRT
7. PARTmKlN PLATE
IL PARTITLON COVER
S. TRANSVERSE BAFFLES
10. tMPINGEMENl PLATES
11. DESUPERHEATIMG ZONE
12 SUBGOOLING ZONE
13. SHELL
14. HEATER SUPPORTS
15. FEEDWATER INLET
16. FEEDWATER OUTLET
17. DRIP INLET
la STEAM lNLET
r a CONOENSATEOWLET
20. WELL RELIEF VALVE CONNEmlm
21- TtlEE
VALVE CONNEmlON
- SIDE
-.- - -RELIEF
.- a.LIWLD LEVEL CONTROL CONwmlONS
% *G
GLASS CONNECTIONS
24. OPERATING AIR VENT Q)NNEmIONS
- - - --
(M VERTICAL INSCALLATIOM
Fig.
33 Typical fedwafer haatam
section &t supported by plates spaaed at intepvak n d

exmetkg 48 in. to avoid tubs vibration Beetions me
cut out of the support plates to pmvide passages for
steam flow and drainage.
If the steam which enters the shell side of the feedwater heater is hi&ly superheated (e.g., a superheat of
100 deg F or above), the tube amface in contact with the
superheated steam will have a wall temperhigher
than the saturated steam temperature; this lneans that
the tube wall will not be wetted by condensate and
thst the transfer of heat will be low d e s s special preeauticr11~are made. It is found economical
sometimes
essential to ban a desuperheatbg section to mntml the
desugerhesting of the steam.
The desuperhestiing section is h t e d at the feedwater
exit end so that the leaving feedwater can be heated to
the highest possible temperature. By arranging tho
Row this way, the feedwater temperature may eve11

exceed the &teamsaturation temperature in the desuperheating section. The desuperheating section consists of
a shroud wrapped around a group of the tubes so as to
confine the inlet steam. Cmss baffles are provided with
the shroud to decrease the dry-vapor thermal resistance.
Other design features incorporated in the desuperheating section are means to shield the other regions of
the unit from the high-temperature steam and means to
prevent distortion due to unequal temperature distribution.
The eonde~mate-coolingsection is Located at the feedwater inlet end of the beater so that the condensate (or
drains) from the condensing section can be subcooled to
approach the feedwater inlet temperature. The cotl-
523
HEAT EXCHANGERS
densate cooling section also consists of a shroud enclosing

a portion of the tubes and cross-baffle plates. When
designing the condensate cooling section of the unit, the
possibility of condensate reheating must be considered.
Condensate reheating is caused because the steam
condensate inside the shroud, while being cooled by the
feedwater inside the tubes, is dso heated by the steam
condensing on the outside of the shroud. This reheating
of the condensate is a matter of great importance at the
drain outlet end of the heater where the temperature
difference between the condensate and feedwater is often
as low as 10 degrees, while the difference between the
condensate and steam outside the shroud can be as high
as 100 degrees. Several means can be taken to avoid
excessive reheating of the steam condensate. One
would be to increase theratio of the condensate cooling
tube surface area to the shroud area; another would be
to insulate the shrouds.
The attitude of the feedwater heater as it will be
arranged aboard ship must be established before the
thermal design of the feedwater heater can commence
because the various alternative arrangements impose
different restrictions on the thermal design of the unit.
When the unit is installed in a vertical position with
the feedwater entrance and exit channel (or waterbox)
on the top, as in Fig. 33(b), the bottom region of the shell
can be used as a steam condensate collector. The
shrouded condensate cooling section extends the full
length to the top of the shell in this instance, and the
height 'of the unit is relatively short.
A vertical arrangement with the feedwater entrance
and exit channel at the bottom [the inverse of that shown
in Fig. 33(b)] is normally selected for long units that are
designed for outdoor land installations; however, a lack
of space usually precludes its application in marine
plants. With this type of arrangement, the unit is
designed such that the steam eondensate exitcl at the
feed inlet end in order to take advantage of the colder
feed temperature for cooling. To accpmpliish this, it is
necessary to flood a portion of the tubes with steam
oondensate, which results in poor ueilization of part of
the heat transfer surface.
When it is possible to do so, high-pressure feedwater
heaters should be arranged horizontally aa illustrated by
Fig. 33(a). Compared with a vertical position, a
horizontal arrangement affords the following advantages:
There is less restriction on length. A heater of
longer length normally results in a smaller shell diameter
and a more economical unit.
The ieheat problem is less severe in the steam
condensate-cooling section because this section need
not be exposed to the steam and a short condensateoooling section can be used to achieve the proper
proportion of the tube surface to shroud surface.
w
A higher condensing heat transfer coacient is
achieved on a horizontal tube bundle than on a tube
bundle that is vertical. Tbis fact is not reflected in
most design analyses; however, it should be considered
(a) Torrgueand-Growe
Flange Joint
fig.
lbl Sheer-block d a r e
34 Tubedde cfoums
by the designer so aa to provide the most effective

utilization of heat transfer surface.
Of major importance in the design of high-pressum
feed heaters is the adequacy of the c l o m s for the
pressures and temperatures involved. A breakable
joint should be provided for the shell-side c l ~ soethat
the shell can be removed from the tube bundle for
inspection and cleaning purposes. Under the usual
operating conditions, a bolted flange joint ifil suitable for
this purpose. However, under conditions which would
involve temperature distortion or when there is an
infrequent requirement for removal of the shell, a welded
joint provides positive sealing lihd is economical to fabricate. A back-up ring is provided to protect the tubes
when a flame cut is made to open the welded joint.
The feedwater that enters the channel and the tube
side of the unit is under a relatively high pressure which
imposes a severe requirement on the tube-side closure
and seal design. The bolta of a flanged joint are
required to take the hydrostatic load (whieh depends on
the closure diameter and fluid pressure) and at the same
time maintain a pressme on the gesket s d c i e n t ts
ensure a seal. This often results in huge bolts which
require enormous torques to tighten, e q e d l y so when
the larger shell diamet~?rsme involved with pressures
over 1200 pig. Nevertheleae, bolted-flanged joints can
be properly applied in the design of heaters with diameters as 1-e
as 20 inches and for pnxmes of less than
lux, psig.
Flat metal or metal-jacketed gaskets are frequently
used with bolted tube-ride closures. The force required
to adequately compress the gasket is a mbt~dltiat
percentage of the h
y load ag~the end .clow~e
~
and may even exceed it. The force required toobtain an
adequate gasket seat can be reduced by narrowing the
width of the gasket and at the same time confining the
gasket to an enclosed space to prevent the gasket from
deflecting freely. An example of this design feature is
illustrated by the tongue-and-groove hnged joint in
Fig. %(a).
A shear-block closure design that is used in some of the
MARINE ENGINEERING
larger and higher-pressure feed heaters is depicted by

F i p . 34(b) and 35. The hydrostatic load is resisted by
the shear ring, and the pressure on the gasket is maintained by the hydrostatic load. Figure 35 shows the
method by which the tube-side operating pressure is
used to seat and seal the solid copper ring gasket.
With the larger high-pressure heaters, a point is
reached where a simple bolted-flange closure must give
way to a more elaborate high-pressure closure; experience
indicates that when the product of the operating pressure
(in psi) and the shell I D (in inches) exceeds 25,000, a
bolted-flange joint is no longer economical. In actual
design practice, the availability of a standard flange for
the size and pressure intended often decides the question
as to the specific closure design. The economic advantage of a ready-made versus a custom-made item will
often influence the selection of the specific closure.
3.8 Gland Leak-Off Cqndensers. I n order to avoid
an ingress of air into the steam system at the points
where the steam turbine shaft penetrates the turbine
casing, and similar locations, a gland-sealing steam
system maintains a pure steam atmosphere at a pressure
slightly above atmospheric just outside the turbine
shaft-casing interface; this ensures that atmospheric air
will not enter the turbine.
The gland leak-off system consists of a fan which
removes an air and steam mixture from the turbine gland
leak-off pockets, and a condenser through which the
mixture is drawn in order to condense the steam so as to
recover the water and reduce the quantity of gas which
the fan must handle.
The gland leak-off condenser may be either furnished
as a separate heat exchanger or combined as a section
HEAT EXCHANGERS
of the low-pressure feed heater (see Section 3.5). When

it is a separate exchanger, it is of the U-tube design and
is arranged to receive low-pressure steam in the shell,
and cooling water is passed through the tubes to effect
the necessary condensing of the steam.
The fan which forms a part of the gland leak-off
system is designed to handle the leakage air plus the
uncondensed steam vapor. The gland leak-off exhauster
(which is the common name for this fan) is usually
mounted on top of or immediately above the condenser
(or condenser section of the first-stage heater).
The Navy has set forth specific design and material
requirements for this condenser and similar condensers
for other shipboard applications [17].
3.9 Unflred Steam Generators. Unfired steam generators (which are also referred to as contaminated water
evaporators or steam service evaporators) supply lowpressure steam at a pressure of 50 to 150 psig to a
system that is independent of the main steam system.
The independent system provides steam for services
which could possibly contaminate the main system in the
event of a system malfunction. Some of the "contaminated" services include the fuel-oil suction and
service heaters, cargo-tank heating coils, galley and
heating systems, and steam-driven deck machinery.
The contaminated evaporator tube nest drains are
normally piped to the deaerating feed heater via a trap.
Figure 36 depicts a typical contaminated steam system.
Contaminated evaporators operate on bleed steam
from the high-pressure turbine, auxiliary steam, or in
some cases, high-pressure steam (up to 500 psig). The
bleed steam is a variable-pressure source which depends
on the percentage of full power being developed. The
requirements of the contaminated system also vary
greatly. Operational requirements, as depicted on a
normal-power plant heat balance, may be only a small
percentage of the maximum performance requirements.
PRESSURE REDUCING
(TYPICALLY 600 TO 150 PSIG)
SAFETY VALVE
FROM DESUPERHEATER'
,
'
STEAM LINE
TO
D.C HTR.
ORIFICE
*ONE OF MANY POSSIBLE

FEED CONTROL ARRANGEMENTS
FLOWS TYPICAL FOR
NORMAL OPERATION
1
CONTAMINATED DRAIN TANK

Fig. 36 Typical contaminated steam system
The maximum performance requirements must be taken

as the design conditions with checks niade to ensure that
the design is satisfactory for other operating arrange-
LOW PRESSURE
STEAM OUTLET
SPLIT RETAINING RING
I N N E R COVER
POSITIONINGR I N G
(J SHEAR-BLOCK
TYPE CHANNEL COVER
Two sets of design conditions are generally set up:

one for bleed-steam operation and one for auxiliarysteam operation. Both conditions must be considered
to determine the effectson the evaporator design as well
as the safety valves and orifices.
The evaporator bundle is normally of the U-tube type
as shown by Fig. 37. When the tube bundle becomes
very large, straight tubes should be used, incorporating
the outside-packed head type of construction illustrated
by Fig. 38. Tubes are usually %-in. OD on a lxs-in.
square pitch, except in the case of a low temperature
difference when a closer pitch may be used (N in.).
H-in.-OD tubes, when used, are placed on a 1%-in.
BLOWWW
Fig. 37 Typical contaminated water evapaata
(b) CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF SHEAR-BLOCK TYPE CLOSURE
Fiq. 35 shear-block closure
water gage glass, steam supply r e d a t i n g valve, ther-
The overall clean-tube heat transfer coefficients that
526
HEAT EXCHANGERS
MARINE ENGINEERING
are used to determine the evaporator bundle size are as
(T,*,, - t , ~ ) ... . . . . . . .
Overall heat transfer
coefficient .............
<50
deg F
I100
deg F
>laO
deg F
550
520
500
OVERFLOW
A steam flow orifice is usually installed in the steam

supply line to limit the amount of heating steam entering
the evaporator and reduce the steam supply pressure (a
high heating steam pressure is not always beneficial due
to the critical heat flux or the vapor blanketing phenomenon iri boiling). The orifice size is determined from the
Fig. 38
105f[P.(Pl - P2)I1/'
if P2
Outside-packed head construction used on large tube bundler
> 0.58P1
a drain to the bilge. A probe for oil detection and an

associated alarm are also normally provided.
The filter section is packed with a loose filtering
medium, usually loofa sponges, arranged for easy access
and replacement of filter material.
A, = orifice area, sq in.
The storage section is provided with a gage glass,
P1 = upstream pressure, psi
thermometer, removable cover, cooling coil, a drain and
P2 = downstream pressure, psi
overflow to the bilge, and a vent.
W#,,= steam flow rate, lb/hr
3.1 1 Hot-Water Heaters. Hot-water heaters are
The safety valve should be sized for the maximum used to provide water at controlled temperatures for
showers, lavatories, and galley services. Hot-water
steam flow entering the generator, i.e.
heaters are generally steam heated and can be classified
into
two types: storage heaters and instantaneous heaters.
W = 105.3 Ao[P4(Pa - Pr)]1'2
A storage type of heater has the advantage that the water
can be heated and stored during nonpeak periods of hot
if P4 0.58Pa
W = 51.45 AZa,
water demand, thus reducing the peak heating-steam
requirement. Also a less sophisticated temperature
control device is required for a heating rate that is
Pa =
Pressure of
line
(Assume independent of the rate of hot water withdrawal. The
if P2
< 0.58P1
<
P,
= set pressure of shell safety valve
however, the heat loss is rarely a deciding factor. Space

The other major item in the contaminated system, and weight are usually a t a premium aboard ship, in
namely the drain inspection tank, is covered in Section which case an instantaneous hot water heater, which
heats the water as fast as the rate of withdrawal, should
3.10 Contaminated Dmin Inspection Tank. The be considered since a large storage tank is not required.
Figure @(a) illustrates the storage type of hot-water
contaminated drain inspection tank is used in the
heater
and its accessories. The notable features of this
contaminated-steam drain collecting system to act as the
receiver for contaminated drains from fuel oil, lube oil, heater system are the pump which circulates the water
and oil-tank heating systems. This system is kept from the tank to the heating element, and the thermal
bulb [labelled "remote bulb" in Fig. 40(a)] located at the
isolated from the clean-steam drain system.
Normally one drain inspection tank is furnished per outlet of the heating element. It can be seen from this
system; the tank consists of a welded-steel (at least % in. arrangement that the heat input to the system is
thick) fabrication that issuitably stiffened and galvanized independent of the rate of hot water withdrawal. Tho
after assembly and is fitted with a cooling coil to prevent flow circulation rate, together with the thermal bulb and
h h i n g of hot drains. The tank, as illustrated by Fig. the temperature of the water to be circulated (i.e.,
39, is sized to accommodate all heating drains a t peak temperature of the water at the lower part of the tank,
load conditions and is usually divided into three sections which may or may not mix with the inlet cold water),
will dictate the heat input rate through the action of the
(i.e., storage, filter, and inspection sections).
The inspection section is fitted with an inspection port control valve. The control valve regulates the amount
with a light set a t the waterline. It is also fitted with a of steam admitted as well as the steam pressure. If tho
scum drain, test connection, removable cover, vent, and water circulation rate is sufficiently larger than the peak
Fig. 39
Contaminated drain impadion tank
hot water withdrawal rate, then the storage tank is not flow friction inside the heating tubes, and therefore is
necessary and the storage type of heater becomes an flow rate sensitive. Consequently, the thermal bulb,
instantaneous heater.
which ac$uates the steam control valve, senses the
The most complex aspect of a hot-water heating system combined effect of the hot-water outlet temperature, the
lies in the scheme of temperature control. Figure cold-water inlet temperature, and the hot-water with@(b) illustrates the principles involved in controlling the drawal rate; as a result the time lag of the steam controltemperature of a typical instantaneous hot-water heater. valve action is minimized. The shrouds around the
The flow bypass gate, bypasses a small portion of the thermal bulb point out w t h e r crit&al aspect .of the
inlet cold water, and the bypassed cold water is directed design; namely, that the flow around the sensing element
to flow over the thermal bulb (or temperature-sensing should be guided to produce an accurate signal that gives
element) located in the water outlet channel. The a prompt indication of an incipient temperature change.
amount of cold water bypassed depends not only upon
The permissible variation in the hot-water outlet
the adjustment of the bypass opening but also on the temperature should not be over-specified. A hot-water
pressure difference between the inlet and outlet sections outlet temperature variation of 10 deg F will result in a
of the waterbox. The pressure difference between the hot-water heater system of less expense and complexity
inlet and outlet sections of the waterbox is created by than would be the case if a 5 deg F variation were
528
HEAT EXCHANGERS
MARINE ENGINEERING
VENTS
INLET
la) Stomp Type of Hot-Water Heater
NULUS BETWEEN TUBES
HEATING STEAM
Fig. 41
FLOW
BY-PASS GATE
COLD WATER
INLET
fig. 40
Hot water heaten
specified. However, there is a tendency for hot-water

heater procurement specifications to stipulate an outlet
temperature control of plus or minus 5 deg F at varied
flow rates [IS].
3.12 Fail-safe Heat Exchangers. Some heat exchanger applications require a design that precludes the
entry of one fluid into the other in the event of a tube or
tube sheet leak. For example, the contamination of
condensate systems by seawater or fuel oil must be,
prevented. Electronic equipment coolers and hydraulic
system oil coolers are also areas where "fail safe" heat
exchangers are used.
The "evaporator" type of fuel-oil heater whereby an
intermediate fluid is used to transfer heat from a primary
heating coil to the oil-heating elements can be used in
lieu of conventional oil heaters and thereby preclude the
contamination of primary steam condensate with oil. An
evaporator section with a primary heating coil mounted
on its cover is bolted to the heater in place of a steam

chest cover. Navy applications consider such arrangements since the general lack of "contaminated" systems
on Navy ships increases the necessity to take adequate
precaution to prevent oil contamination [15].
Double-tube-sheet and double-tube, double-tubesheet exchangers are often specified for Navy applications where a "fail safe" feature is desired [6]. Figure
41 is a cutaway view of a double-tube, double-tubesheet heat exchanger as provided for hydraulic-oil
cooling aboard submarines. Any leak that develops at
the tube-to-tube-sheet joint or as a result of a tube
rupture will flow to the void between the double tubesheets and out the drain. Alarm devices may also be
incorporated to automatically warn of leakage into this
void space. Similar designs with only the double-tubesheet feature are used on seawater-fresh water coolers to
reduce the risk of saltwater contamination.
Double-tube double-tube-sheet heat exchanger
References
1 'Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers
Association, " Tubular ExchangerManufacturers Association.
'lASME
Boiler and Pre8sure
Division I, Section VIII, American Society of M e c h c
Engineers.
3 Rules and Regulations for the Construction and
ClasSiJication of Steel Ships, Lloyd's Re'gister of Shipping.
4 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46-Shipping,
Chapter I-Coast Guard, Department of Transportation,
Subchapter F-Marine Engineering, published by Office
of the Federal Register.
5 Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels,
6 ucoolers, ~ l ~ i d~ ,~ d ~ ~ t~~~~l
~ i a shipboard
l ,
Lubricating Oil, Hydraulic Oil, and Fresh Water,"
Military Specification MIEC-15730.
7 R. A. Bowman, A. C. Mueller, and W. M. Nagle,
"Mean Temperature Difference, in Design," Trans.
ASME, May 1940.
8 E. N. Sieder and G. E. Tate, "Heat Transfer and
Pressure Drop of Liquids in Tubes," Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 28, 1936.
9 Daniel A. Donahue, "Heat Exchangers," A
Special Petroleum Processing Report, March 1956.
10 Kenneth J. Bell, " ~ i n i i l ~ e ~ofothe

r t Cooperative
Research Program on Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers,"
University of Delaware En+eeriog Bulletin No. 5,
January 1963.
11 Townsend Tinker, ''Shell Side Characteristics of
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers-A Simplified Rating
system for Commercial Heat Exchangers,,, Trans.
ASME, 1958.
12
Devore, Try T~~~simplified Method for
Exchangers,,,
May
Rating
1961.
13 D. L. Katz, J. G. Knudsen, G. Balekjian and
8. S. Grover, "Fouling of Heat Exchangers," Petroleum
ReJiner, 1954.
14 H. H. Keller and E. V. Somers, "Heat Transfer
from an $Annular Fin of Constant Thickness," Tram.
ASME, 1959.
15 "Heaters, Fluid, Fuel Oil, Naval Shipboard,"
Military Specification M1L-H-16313.
16 "Heater, Fluid, Seawater; Shipboard Use, " Military Specification ~1~-B?T6423. "
17 "Condensers, Steam, Surface, Naval Shipboard,"
Military Specification MIL-C-15430.
18 "Standard of Feedwater Heater Manufacturers
Association, Inc., " Feedwater Heater Manufacturers
Association.
DISTILLING PLANTS
CHAPTER XV
BACK PRESSURE VALVE SET TO

MAINTAIN VAPOR PRESSURE
I N EVAPORATOR SHELL
( Distilling Plants
VAPOR T ~ M A I NOR
/ AUXILIARY CONDENSER
CIRCULATING
WATER OUTLET
Section 1
Distilling Plant Designs
1.1 Introduction. Distilling plants are used aboard
ship to produce high-purity distilled water from seawater. They are also used to produce distilled water
from raw freshwater supplies of insufficient or doubtful
purity. The capacity of marine evaporating plants
varies from a few thousand gallons per day (24 hours) up
to 100,000 gallons per day or more, depending upon the
size and purpose of the ship.
Distilled water is required to furnish high-purity makeup water for the boilers and potable water for drinking,
cooking, dishwashing, ablutionary, hospital, and laundering purposes. Additional capacity is often incorporated to enable the application of freshwater sanitary systems.
The standard Navy specifications and U. S. Maritime
Administration specifications require a distillate purity
of less than 0.065 equivalent parts per million of chlorides. This is equal to of a grain of sea salt per gallon,
or aboub 4.3-ppm total dissolved solids. Most marine
distilling plants can produce distillate substantially below these limits. The specifications for nuclear-powered
naval ships require a distillate purity of one half that of
the normal specifications, or % grain of sea salt per gallon. Tests on marine distilling plants demonstrate that
the units are capable of producing water containing less
than x-ppm total dissolved solids with purity determinations made by means of the sodium tracer method
and a flame spectrometer.
When operating in normal seawater of 35,000-ppm
solids (a definition of "normal" seawater is given in
"The Oceans" by Sverdrup [I ]I), a distilling plant should
be capable of operating for a period of a t least 90 days a t
rated capacity without shutdown for cleaning. Depending on the specific design, this can be accomplished with
or without chemical feed treatment. Such extended
operating periods without shutdown for cleaning is a
requirement of both the standard Navy specifications
and U. S. Maritime specifications for $hipboard distilling
plants. "Normal" seawater is found in most areas of
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
1.2 Early Distilling Plant Designs. As shown by Fig.
1, the single-effect distilling plants designed before
World War I1 consisted essentially of an evaporator to
Numbem in brackets desigmte References at end of chapter.
evaporate the raw water by means of steam-heated tubes

or coils, a condenser (called a distilling condenser or
more simply a distiller) to condense the vapor, and the
necessary interconnecting piping, valves, etc.
Multiple-effect plants were generally used for the
larger capacities so as to reduce to reasonable proportions
the amount of operating steam required. In multipleeffect plants, the vapor from the first evaporator (firsteffect evaporator) is condensed in the coils of a second
evaporator (second-eff ect evaporator), thereby serving
as the heating medium, etc., with the vapor from the last
effect only being condensed in the distiller.
Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the two types of submergedtube evaporators commonly used in the early distilling
plants. The horizontal-tube evaporator shown by Fig.
2 required conservative design criteria in order to attain
a level of performance considered acceptable in its day.
Below brine temperatures of 130 F the fouling of tube
surfaces was minimal, and for brine temperatures up to
about 180 F the scale formati011 was not considered excessive provided the temperature gradient across the
heating tubes was maintained below 50 F. At higher
temperatures, scale formed rapidly such that vapor
temperatures above 250 F were not considered practicable from an operator's viewpoint.
"Cold shocking" or thermally cracking the scale formation from heating tubes by suddenly changing the
temperature of the tube metal was a technique used to
minimize the extent of marlual tube cleaning required.
Cold shocking greatly improved the heat-transfer rates of
the tubes, especially for the so-called self-scaling tube
designs which were in the form of helical coils or bowed
tubes with restrained ends such that the tubes were distorted by a temperature change. However, the coldshocking process was only partially effective. Scattered
patches of scale were left on the tubes and they sometimes built up to a considerable thickness before cracking
off. The heat-transfer rates obtained after cold shocking were considerably less than for tubes that had been
thoroughly cleaned.
The high maintenance associated with submergedtube evaporators was recognized and, insofar as practicable, design provisions were made to facilitate their care
and cleaning. The vertical-coil evaporator in Fig. 3 includes such features as a track for ready removal of the
coil assembly, removable heating coils, and heating tubes
SAFETY VALVE
EVAPORATOR
PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE TO

MAINTAIN STEAM PRESSURE I N
EVAPORATOR COILS
SHELL VAPOR, PRESSURE GAGE
DISTILLER
COIL STEAM PRESSURE GAGE
GAGE GLASS TO INDICATE

WATER LEVEL I N SHELL
LINOMETER POT FOR

BRINE SAMPLING
FF
ELL
CIRCULATINQ
WATER INLET
DISTILLATE
OUTLET
STEAM TRAP 6 $ H
RV.PACS
PET COCK FOR AIR VENT, TO BE

KEPT OPEN WIDE ENOUGH TO
PREVENT AIR BINDING IN COILS
Fig. 1
Early single-effect submerged-tube distilling plant arrangement

1
in the shape of a helical coil. However, despite the

efforts to improve the design of submerged-tube evapom
tors, they continued to be characterized by high operating costs, high space requirements, high maintenance
costs, complex piping systems, and low performance
under continued service conditions.
The state-of-the-art of distilling
design has, however, changed considerably since World War 11. Since
World War 11, a variety of distilling plant designs has
been developed from which the most appropriate system
for a given marine power plant can be selected. I n lieu
of the previously predominant distilling plant8 that employed submerged-tube evaporators, the distilling plant
dwigns considered for marine use emerged as :
Plants employing flash evaporators
Planta employing thin-film evaporatora
Plants employing the vapor compression cycle
Plants employing basket-type evaporators
Plants employing a membrane process
1.3
Flash Evaporator Designs
a. Marine E'lash Evaporators. Since the initial appliaation of flesh evaporation to marine distilling plants, a
vast majority of all steam-driven ships, commercial and
naval, have been equipped with flash-type distilling
plants for the supply of makeup feed and potable water
" s-
[2]. Flash evaporators became widely accepted for

application in marine distilling plants because their low
operating temperatures result in virtually scale-free performance with normal seawater. Chemical treatment of
feedwater is not required in connection with low-temperature flash evaporators as they will operate three
months or more without feed treatment and without
cleaning. In addition to being smaller and lighter for a
given capacity, the flash-type evaporator is also more
simple to operate-an advantage from an automation
standpoint.
The flash type of evaporator produces distilled water
by dischqrging heated seawater into a chamber that is
maintained a t a pressure lower than the vapor pressure
of the entering heated seawater, and subsequently condensing the water vapor thereby produced.
Figure 4 is a simplified diagram that illustrates the
basic internal constructiop-sf a two-shge flash-type distilling plant. The majority of the marine unit's are of
this multistage type with integral horizontal condenser
tube bundlea. The heated aeawater is introduced and
released via "spray pipes" in each stage to achieve the
most effective flashing of a portion of the brine into
vapor. The development and application of the "spray
pipe" design for flash evaporators enabled substantial
reductions in the size and weight of the flash plant [3].
MARINE ENGINEERING
DISTILLING PLANTS
, SEA WATER FEED
HEA~ER
533
"t"
PORT END ELEVATION

AND SECTION " B E
BLOW CONNECTION
Fig. 2
Early horizontal straight-tube evaporator

DISCHARGE
Fig. 4
/VAPOR OUTLET CONNECTION
TOP COIL MANIFOLD
GAGE
CONNECTION
TRACK FOR REMOVING

COlL ASSEMBLY
li]
Multistage flash evaporator process
&OW OFF CONNECTION
HALF END VIEW
Fig. 3
Early vedical-coil type evaporator
HALF SECTION "AA"
Feedwater leaving the spray pipe is directed downward

in curtains of water by a spray cap located above the
spray pipe. The first separation between the flashing
vapors and the brine occurs at this point. The downward velocity of the feedwater direots all but the fine
droplets to the lower section of the flash chambers.
The small droplets that are entrained in the flashing
vapor are removed in the demisters located in the upper
portion of the distilling plant, after which the vapors pass
to the stage condenser. It is most important that the
design incorporate a positive seal aroynd the demisters
to preclude the passage of any salt-laden vapors around
the separators.
Since the vapor pressure of the heated feedwater entering the first-stage spray pipes is higher than the firststage chamber pressure, a portion of the feedwater
flashes into vapor, thereby removing heat from the feedwater, until the temperature of the feedwater reaches
the saturation temperature corresponding to the chamber
pressure. I n other words, the heated feedwater is evaporated by a pressure reduction instead of a temperature
elevation. After an equilibrium condition is reached in
the first stage, the remaining brine is introduced into a
second stage that is maintained at a lower pressure than
the first, and the process is repeated. The distillation
process can operate from a positive pressure in the first
stage to a high vacuum in the last stage, with a stage-tostage pressure differential being the key to repeated
flashing.
Figure 4 shows that the entering seawater feed is used
as the condenser coolant, thereby reducing the quantity
of heat which must be added in the seawater heater.

This feature is shown in more detail by Fig. 5, which is a
flow diagram for an 8000 gpd,"two-stage, flash distilling
plant.
As indicated by Fig. 5, the initial vacuum in the stages
is normally cre'ated by a high-pressure steam-driven air
ejector vacuum system, but vacuum pumps are sometimes used where high-pressure steam is not available.
The stage condenser bundles are internally baffled to
direct the flow of noncondensible gases to vent connections leading to subsequent stages or to the air ejector.
The air ejector normally provided is of the two-stage noncondensing type. It is suitably sized for the efficient
removal of air and noncondensible vaDors from the d i e
tiller condensers. Air ejectors are covered in more detail
in Section 2.6 of this chapter.
The feedwater heater and separate or "built-in" air
ejector coydenser are of the multipass shell-and-tube type
with removable flanged waterboxes. The seawater
flows through the tubes. The water velocity through
the heat exchanger tubes should not exceed 6 fps at rated
capacity. The condensers and saltwater heater may be
provided with means for ci@mdic protgction in a manner
similar to that described in Chapter 14 in mnhection
with other heat exchangers in seawater service.
The saltwater heater is usually designed to maintain
the temperature of the feedwater entering the first stage
of the evaporator between 165 F and 175 F. The steam
condensate temperature from the saltwater heater does
not exceed 200 F under normal operating conditions.
A shell-and-tube distillate cooler is installed when the
MARINE ENGINEERING
536
MARINE EN
evaporator is to provide potable water. The distillate

cooler is designed to provide a distillate temperature
leaving the distilling plant of 95 F or less with an initial
seawater temperature of 85 F. Occasionally, this cooler
is incorporated as an integral part of the last-stage condenser bundle.
Shown in Fig. 6 is a feature frequently provided for
distilling plants that must operate in polluted harbors.
When in polluted harbors, it is desirable to use water
from shore as makeup to the distilling plant. To reduce
the amount of shore water that is required to operate the
distilling plant, the feedwater is recirculated through the
saltwater heater. Temperature levels are maintained in
the distilling plant by circulating harbor water through
the stage condensers and then overboard. Thus, the
polluted harbor water is not put into the evaporator
heater and the flash chambers; this is an important
feature in some harbors that are highly polluted and contain debris and mud which can seriously impair normal
plant operation by clogging and fouling high-temperature
tube surfaces.
Pressure gages are supplied on marine flash plant
packages in the steam supply line, evaporator shell,
evaporator inlet, high-pressure steam to air ejectors, lowpressure steam to orifice, and at each pump discharge.
Thermometers are provided on the saltwater heater
shell, steam line to the saltwater heater, feed inlet and
outlet lines of the saltwater heater, distillate outlet line
from the distillate cooler, and on the evaporator shell
(one per stage). A positive-displacement type flowmeter is also installed in the distillate discharge line to
provide an accurate recording of plant production.
Horizontal close-coupled centrifugal pumps with
motors are normally provided for distillate, brine, and
condensate services and require special design considerations due to the low net positive suction head usually involved.
The salinity equipment provided includes salinity cells
installed on the saltwater heater condensate outlet, after
condenser condensate outlet, first-stage distillate outlet,
and final distillate outlet.
The marine distilling plant incorporates a solenoidoperated, three-way dump valve that is located in the
distillate discharge line. The valve discharges the distillate to the bilge if the salinity of the distillate exceeds
0.25 grains of sea salt per gallon (or at any other specified
preset control point). The solenoid is energized by the
salinity-indicating system and operates whenever the
salinity system is energized, regardless of the position of
the cell selector switch on the salinity panel. The valve
also diverts the flow of distillate to the bilge upon interruption of electric current to the salinity indicator. A
higli-salinity alarm is usually installed to indicate the
occurrence of a salinity level in excess of a preset
value.
All interconnecting piping between packaged components (including valves and fittings) is usually provided
by the manufacturer of the plant. Orifice plate and
desuperheater nozzles for installation in the steam supply
DISTILLING PLANTS
line are normally furnished separately for installation by

the shipbuilder or owner.
The following items are also common to a packaged
flash evaporator such as illustrated by Fig. 7:
Feedwater pump and motor with pressure gage
at pump discharge usually separately mounted from the
distilling plant package.
Optional condensate return system:
1. A drain regulator is used when the condensate is
returned to the condenser by vacuum drag.
2. A condensate pump with drain regulator which
is required when discharging to more than one
system.
Controls for unattended and automatic operation:
1. Steam pressure-reducing valve which is required
when the steam supply pressure is subject to
fluctuation.
2. Seawater temperature-sensing switch and timer
for dumping the distillate to the bilge in case the
seawater temperature leaving the heater falls
below 165 F. The timer will not permit the distillate to be returned to the storage tanks until
the unit is thoroughly flushed out; adequate
flushing normally requires at least 15 minutes.
3. High brine level alarm to be located in the last
evaporator flash chamber.
4. Desuperheater failure alarm switch.
5. Automatic temperature control valve maintaining the saltwater heater outlet temperature at
170 F.
Instrument panel.
Control panel.
b. Brine Recirculation Systems. The "long-tube"
type of flash evaporator, which is illustrated by Figs.
8 and 9, is a design normally applied to large-capacity
evaporators (over 100,000 gpd) and is therefore commonly used for large-scale "land" desalination plants.
The design of the long-tube type of flash distilling plant
is similar to that of the marine flash evaporator except
that the condenser tubes traverse uninterruptedly
through several stages and over the full length of a multistage evaporator vessel. Marine flash distilling plants
have individual cross-tube condenser bundles for each
stage.
A "brine recirculation" system, such as shown by
Fig. 8, is designed to operate at temperatures up to 250 F.
The brine recirculation feature permits operation at
higher evaporator temperatures and, at the same time,
reduces the amount of feedwater chemical treatment
required as compared with that which would be required
for "once-through" operation at the same temperature.
In a brine recirculation system, filtered raw seawater
is pumped through the tubes of the last few evaporator
stages and is discharged. The raw cool seawater flowing
through the tubes removes heat from the last stages;
therefore, this region is termed the heat rejection section
of the plant.
The major portion of the seawater coolant is discharged baclc to the ocean; however, part of it is re-
Fig. 7
photograph of flash evaporator

1 -" sz
b,
tained as makeup water. As indicated b i Fig. 8, the

makeup water is chemically treated (with sulfuric acid)
for scale control, then deaerated to remove the noncondensible gases for corrosion control purposes. Chemical
treatment is necessary to retard the formation of scale on
the heat-transfer surfaces and to perm$ long-run operation of the plant without the necessity of shutting down
for cleaning. The deaerated and chemjcally treated
makeup water is mixed with the recirculated brine and is
introduced into the last heat regenerative stage. The
brine mixture is then pumped through the tubes of the
heat regeneration stages and the brine heater by the recirculation pump.
In order to maintain a material balance in the system,
a portion of the recirculated brine from the last stage is
discharged to the ocean. The blowdown flow rate is
controlled by the brine level in the last stage. The brine
density is controlled by the ratio of seawater to blowdown flow rates.
As the brine flows through the condenser tubes of the
heat regeneration section, it is heated progressively in
each stage by the vapors which condense on the outer
tube surfaces. The brine then passes through the tubes
of the brine heater for final heating to its terminal temperature. Low-pressure steam is used to heat the recirculating brine flowing through the tubes of the brine
heater. On many large land-based plants, &&-pressure

steam is used to drive the feed and/or brine pumps, and
the turbine exhaust steam is used in the brine heater.
The condensate formed from the heating steam is discharged from the heater by the condensate pump.
The heated brine is returned to the shell side of the
first stage for flashing. The recirculating brine flows
successively from the first to the last stage, flashing in
each stage. Distillate is formed on the stage condenser
tubes by condensing the flashed vapors. The distillate
collects in a distillate trough which is common to all the
stages and flows from the first stage to the last stage.
The distilbte is pumped from the last stage into the distillate storage system.
c. Once-Through Systems. The operating principle
of once-through systems is the same as that for recirculating systems except that once-through systems are designed to operate at tempe&ures up Do 195 F. ;
In order to achieve long-run uninterrupted operation of
the plant, it is necessary to retard the formation of scale
deposits; this is accomplished by continuously injecting
a measured amount of polyphosphate feed treatment
compound into the feedwater. Anti-foam compound
can also be introduced when needed because of pollutants
which cause excessive foaming in the evaporator
chambers.
DISTILLING PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
SEAWATER CHEMICAL
IN
TREATMENT
SEAWATER
OUT
H.P.
STEAM VENT
t.
H.P.
STEAM
STEAM
SEAWATER
IN
L.P.
CHEMICAL
TREATMENT
H.P.
STEAM VENT
H.P.
L.P.
STEAM STEAM
1
VACUUM
SYSTEM
TURBINE
(IF USED)
FEE0
HEATE R
STAGES
RECIRCULATE
Rg. 8
>
BRINE
BLOWDOWN
CONDENSATE
Flow diagram of a long-tube tlash evaporator, brine reci~ulationsystem
As indicated by Fig. 9, treated seawater is pumped

through all of the condensing tubes, from the last stage to
the first, enroute to the feedwater heater. As the feedwater flows through the condenser tubes, it is heated
progressively in each stage by the vapors which condense
on the tube outer surfaces. The feedwater then passes
through the tubes of the feedwater heater where it is
heated to its terminal temperature.
The heated feedwater is discharged to the shell side of
the evaporator first stage for flashing. The remaining
brine flows successively from the first to the last stage, reflashing in each stage, and is pumped from the last stage
back to the ocean.
1.4 Thin-Film Evapora?ors. Section 2 of Chapter 14
discusses details relative to the transfer of heat from one
fluid to another through tube walls, and Fig. 11 of
Chapter 14 illustrates the resistance to heat transfer encountered when transferring heat through a tube wall.
By analyzing the temperature gradients involved with
the transfer of heat through tube walls, it becomes
apparent that if thin films can be created and maintained
on the tube walls, a relatively higher overall heat-transfer
coefficient can be maintained. Doubleflute tubes have
been employed in several marine evaporator designs as a
means of maintaining thin liquid films. The configuration of the so-called "thin-film" tube design employed is
shown in Pig. 10. The arrangement of the double-flute
tubes in the evaporator is such that the tube orientation
is vertical, with steam condensing on the outside and a
falling film of feedwater evaporating on the inside, as
indicated by Fig. 11.
The operating principle of the double-flute tube is such
EVAPORATOR
DISTILLATE
( 1
FEED
HEATER
that the condensate which forms has surface tension

forces acting to drain it from the crests into the grooves.
This feature results in the major portions of each crest
on the evaporating and condensing side having a very
thin film of liquid to greatly reduce the resistance to the
heat flow through the crest area. The liquids in the
grooves are channeled off by gravity, and the heat flow
through this area is somewhat less. Seawater is introduced on the inner surface of the tubes by a spray nozzle;
and the falling film of brine on the evaporating side tends
to collect in the grooves by surface tension. A secondary
but important function is performed by the flutes in
organizing and controlling the falling film to assure uniform distribution of the brine down the length of the
tube.
Two-effect thin-film evaporators, such as illustrated
by Fig. 11, have been installed on a number of ahips.
Such t h i n - h evaporators offer the advantages of good
heat-transfer characteristics, easy tube removal (provided by O-ring joints), and low probability of distillate
contamination due to brine carry-over (only a small
quantity of brine is maintained in the evaporator). However, chemical feedwater treatment is required with
these evaporators, and experience has shown that the
feedwater chemistry must be diligently maintained in
order to avoid a rapid accumulation of scale on the thinfilm heat-transfer surfaces.
The "spray-film" evaporator is a popular form of the
thin-film type of marine evaporators. The spray-film
evaporator is especially adaptable for application in an
"in-cycle" or "condensate-cooled'' distilling plant SYStern. Spray-film evaporators, employing condensate
DlSTl LLATE
BRINE
CONDENSATE
Fig. 9
Flow diagram of a long-tube tlash evaporator, once-through system
from the main propulsiori plant condenser as the coolant

in the distilling plant condenser, have been installed
aboard ship. With such an arrangement, the condensate-cooled distillirig plant accomplishes a secondary
objective of functioning as a low-pressure feedwater
heater in addition to its primary objective of producing
potable and high-purity makeup feedwater from seawater. The combination results in a higher overall cycle
efficiency [4]. A typical flow diagram of a condensatecooled spray-film evaporator is shown in Fig. 12.
The heating bundle of a spray-film evaporator consists of a horizontal tube bundle with the heating medium
on the inside of the tubes. The heating mediumcan be
bleed steam from steam turbines or steam produced from
waste heat from diesel engines or gas turbines. The brine
level is maintained in a hotwell below the evaporator
tube bundle and a brine pump provides the necessary
pressure to recirculate the brine to the spray nozzle
header. Recirculated brine from the spray nozzles is
"rained" over the top of the heating surface where it
flows from tube to tube in thin films, resulting in relatively high "thin-film" heat-transfer rates. An a u t e
matic chemical feedwater treatment system is provided
to retard the formation of scale on the heating surfaces.
The vapor generated at the tube surface counterflows
through the curtain of recirculated brine and fine liquid
droplets are thereby removed from the vapor. Removal
of the liquid droplets in this manner, coupled with the
secondary entrainment separation in the demister column,
enables the production of distillate having a very high
purity.
A steam-motivated air ejector or mechanical vacuum
HORIZONTAL CROSS SECTION
EVAPORATION SlDE
WALL
THIN FILM REGION
--
THIN FILM REGION
'CONDENSATE
HEAT FLOW
CONDENSING SlDE
Fig. 10
Double-tlute thin-tllm heat-transfer surface
pump can be used to maintain a low shell pressure in the

evaporator. The air ejector after-condenser can be a
separate heat exchanger or it can be incorporated within
the evaporator heating bundle, thereby utilizing the heat
content of the air ejector steam without necessitating a
separate after-condenser heat-exchanger assembly.
Since a spray-film evzqm-ator opeates at relatively
higher shell pressures arid lower feed rates than a marine
once-through type flash evaporator, the vacuum equip
ment handles a lower volume of entrained air and corrosive gases and at a lesser vacuum level. As a result, the
application of vacuum pumps in lieu of air ejectors becomes more attractive.
To ensure conformance with the regulations of the
U. S. Public Health Service [5], the shell temperature
SEA WATER FEED
SECOND EFFECT HEADER \
54 1
DISI'ILLING PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
540
/FIRST
DISTILLATE
COOLER
EFFECT HEADER
ORING TUBE JOINT
BOILER FEEDWATER c3
INLET
135.000 LBIHR 910F
270 GPM 150 PSlG
LEGEND
w
STRAINER
I* SALINITY CELL
LP STEAM SUPPLY
SECOND EFFECT
VAPOROUTLET
NONPOTABLE DIST.
TO WASTE
SECOND EFFECT
MESH SEPARATOR
FIRST EFFECT
ESH SEPARATOR
GATE VALVE
GLOBEVALVE
NEEDLE VALVE
CHECK
RELIEFVALVE
VALVE
DISTILLATE
TO STORAGE
WW LWHR 14 GPM
fp
GAUGEGLASS
THERMOMETER
PRESSURE GAUGE
TEMP. SWITCH
PSlA 4 5INLET
PF
BLEED
26.5 STEAM
SECOND EFFECT
VAPOR CHEST
81264 BTUILB 7330 LBIHR

EXHAUST STEAM INLET
DESUPERHEATER WATER
547 LBIHR 8 91F 150 PSlG
CONDENSATE TO
1ST STG. HTR.
FIRST EFFECT
DOUBLE-FLUTE
SECOND EFFECT
DOUBLE-FLUTE
TUBE NEST
ORlNG TUBE JOINT
DISTILLATE PUMP.
SECOND EFFECT
BRINE SUMP
CH
SECOND'EFFECT
BRINE DRAIN
Fig. 1 1
EJECTORCONO.
OUTLET 250 LB/H
BRINE PUMP
160 GPM 35 P.S.I.
SECOND-EFFECT FIRST~FFECT
FIRST~FFECT
DISTILLATE DRAlN BRINE DRAIN STEAM CHEST DRAIN
Two-effect marine thin-tllm evaporator schematic

SEAWATER INLET 41 GPM O(
850F 20850 LBIHR
40 PSlG PRESSURE
Fig. 12
must be maintained at a minimum temperature of 165 F

so as to pasteurize the vapor and distillate. A temperature switch is provided to sense the shell temperature
and actuate the distillate dump valve, diverting the distillate to waste should the shell temperature fall below the
165 F minimum. Where lower operating temperatures
are desirable or necessary due to a low-temperature heating medium (such as engine jacket water), a separate distillate sterilizer must be incorporated.
As indicated by Fig. 12, a blowdown cooler cools the
hot blowdown while simultaneously preheating the incoming makeup feedwater. The brine concentration in
the evaporator sump is maintained at the proper density
by setting a continuous blowdown rate. A rotometer is
provided to indicate the blowdown rate.
A shell-and-tube type distillate cooler is used to reduce
the temperature of the distilled water produced. Seawater is normally used as a coolant in the distillate cooler
in order to reduce the temperature to a "potable" water
temperature. Blowdown and distillate coolers have
sometimes been combined into one plate-type heat exchanger utilizing a 3-fluid flow pattern, i.e., hot brine, hot
distillate, and cold makeup feed.
Condensate-cooled distilling units are often used in
conjunction with a combined firstr and second-stage feedwater heater/gland exhaust condenser in a manner similar
to that discussed in Section 3.5 of Chapter 14. The resulting packaged spray-film evaporator feedheater is
illustrated in Fig. 13, which is a photograph of a unit
ready for installation aboard ship.
The advantages of compactness and increased operat-
ing economy of the packaged feedwater heater/condensate-cooled distilling plant are of significant importance from the viewpoints of machinery space arrangements and overall cycle efficiencies.
1.5 Basket Evaporators. Evaporators of the basket
type are specifically designed to employ "cold shocking"
as a means of preventing an accumulation of scale on the
evaporator heating surfaces; also, the deeply corrugated
basket provides a large amount of heatrtransfer surface
in a given area as may be noted from the evaporator
sectional view in Fig. 14.
The diagram of a double-effect basket-type distilling
plant illustrated by Fig. 14 shows that the cycle is commenced by supplying steam to the basket-type heating
section of the first effect. The latent heat of the steam is
transferred through the basket wall to the seawater and
the condensate formed is returned to the boiler.
A circulation baffle or "skirt" is located a fixed distance around the basket on the seawater side. As a
result of the skirt, violent boiling action takes place
between the skirt and the basket. The heavy foaming
characteristic of the boiling seawater inside the skirt
produces high velocities and a low static head, thereby
reducing the pressure in the region of boiling. In addition, the high velocity over the basket surface has a scrubbing effect which tends to retard rapid scale formation.
After leaving the evaporator section, the vapor passes
through a cyclone separator and a "snail" where particles of brine entrained with the vapor are removed.
From the snail the vapor passes through the feedwater
heater and into the basket of the second effect. The
BRINE BLOWDOWN
TO WASTE
27 GPM 120F
.-.-
16
.- Pel(:
DISCHARGE
PRESSURE
73800 LBMR
Condensate-cooled spray-tllm evaporator tlow diagram
latent heat is given up by the vapor and the condensate

produced is discharged to the flash tank on the distiller
condenser.
The vapor produced from the seawater in the second
effect passes through separators, similar to those in the
first effect,and then goes to the distiller condenser where
its latent heat is transferred to the seawater in the condenser tubes. After absorbing heat in the condenser, the
majority of the seawater coolant is discharged overboard; however, a small quantity (equal to about three
times the distillate produced) passes through the tubes
near the top of the condenser where further heating takes
quantity of seawater, now called feedwater,
place. T h i ~
is discharged from the condenser to the feedwater heater
where the feedwater is heated to within several degrees of
the evaporating temperature in the first effect; finally
the feedwater enters the bottom of the firstrstage
shell.
The excess feedwater (about twice the evaporation
rate) maintains the required level of seawater in the
shell. The entrained excess,feed is carried up with the
vapor produced, but it js removed from the vapor in the
separator and falls into a brine gutter in the bottom of
the separator section. The brine collected is discharged
to become feedwater for the second effect. The quantity
of brine carried off from the first effect by entrainment is
sufficient to feed the second effect and to maintain the
correct brine density in the first effect.
I-
The distillate collected in the flash tanlc of the distiller

condenser is pumped through the distillate cooler after
which it is either discharged to a distillate storage tank
or dumped to waste.
Returning to the design of the basket itself, the basket
is made in sections of 0.043 to 0.050 in. moilel sheet that
are given a corrugated configuration in a press. The
sections are then welded to form the basltet shape shown
in Fig. 14. On the seawater side, the basltet surface is
highly polished; this is done to minimize the tendency
for scale to firmly adhere to it.
In order to control the accumulation of scale on the
basket surface, it is necessary to execute a cold-shocking
procedure every 75 to 100 hours of continuous operation.
To do this, the brine is drained from the unit and steam
at about 15'psigis admitted to the basket heating section.
The flat sides of the corrugations expand, and the 250 F
steam dries the scale. Next, the steam line is secured
and cold seawater is allowed to cascade down over the
basket. As the steam insidsthe b a s k t condenses, the
pressure inside quickly drops from 15 psig to-approximately 28 in. Hg vacuum, causing the flat sides of the
basket to contract. The scale is consequently cracked
off the basket and drops to the bottom of the shell where
it is removed through the cleanout door. Repeating this
process several times removes the majority of the scale
from the heating surface. In addition, at infrequent
intervals, cleaning with a solvent is recommended so as to
MARINE ENGINEERING
543
DISTILLING PLANTS
SECOND EFFECT
AIR OFFTAKE
TO EJECTOR OR
VACUUM WMP
HEATING SECT10
CIRCULATING
WMP
LEGEND
EQUALIZEA
STEAM
SKIRT
IST EFFECT VAPOR
CORRUGATED
BASKETTYPE
HEATING SECTION
ZND EFFECT VAPOR

SEAWATER
CONDEWSATE
Fig. 13
Spray-fllm evaporator
dissolve any accumulation of scale on the basket, heat

exchangers, separators, and pipes.
1.6 Vapor-Compression Distilling Plants. Vaporcompression distilling plants are designed for service
where low-pressure steam or diesel engine waste heat are
not available in sufficient quantity to operate an evaporator. The major advantage of a vapor-compression
evaporator is its high thermal efficiency and that it
operates on a self-contained thermodynamic cycle that is
dependent only upon a source of power to provide the
input energy required. The power supply may be in the
form of electrical energy to operate the electric boiler,
motor drive for the vapor compressor, and motor-driven
pumps; or the compressor can be driven by a diesel
engne or gas turbine. When the compressor is driven
by a diesel or gas turbine, the exhadst gases can be utilized
as auxiliary boiler heat. Special arrangements can also
be made to use steam heating coils for the boiler if a
small amount of steam is available for this purpose.
Most offshore drilling rigs are equipped with vaporcompression plants as are some gas turbine ships and
submarines.
The evaporator in a vapor-compression distillation
plant can be any of a variety of designs. Possible types
of evaporators include the spray film, submerged tube,

basket, or vertical type of tube bundle with seawater in
the tubes. Figure 15, which is a diagram of a vaporcompression distilling plant that employs a spray-film
evaporator, illustrates the principles involved with a
vapor-compression distilling plant. Feedwater is
pumped through a solenoid valve, control valve, flowmeter, heat exchanger, vent condenser tube bundle, and
then into the spray pipe manifold from which it is sprayed
over the tube bundle in the evaporator shell. Some of
the sprayed brine striking the hot tube bundle evaporates
into steam vapors which are drawn through the demisters
into the vapor compressor. The brine that is not
vaporized collects in the bottom of the evaporator shell
and flows into the evaporator sump. The recirculation
pump takes suction from the evaporator sump and returns the majority of the brine to the spray pipe manifold. Incoming feedwater is used as cooling water for
the recirculation pump mechanical seal and is then combined with the recirculating brine.
The recirculation pump also pumps a portion of the
recirculating brine through the evaporator sump liquid
level control to the blowdown side of the heat exchangers,
and then to discharge. For seawater use, the blowdown
EVAPORATOR
SHELL
SECTIONAL VIEW
OF EVAPORATOR
Fig. 14
Double-effect basket-type distilling plant
flow rate is normally set at twice the total distillate flow

for best operation.
The boiler section integral with the evaporator provides the small quantity of starting and makeup heat
required for the operation of the distiller. If the boiler
is steam heated, low-pressure steam is piped into a small
U-tube bundle to provide the necessary heat. A lowpressure (15 psig) steam supply free of contaminants is
required to maintain a compressor suction pressure of 0.5
psig and is usually regulated by a diaphragm-type control valve.
If the boiler is electrically heated, three electric immersion heaters are generally used with two of them being
manually controlled and the third one operated automatically. All three heaters are put in service during
start-up to get the plant up to normal operating temperatures as quickly as possible. During normal operation,
the manual heaters are used as required, along with the
automatic heater, to maintain a compressor suction
pressure of about 0.5 psig. The automatic heater is controlled by an evaporator shell pressure switch.
A'fter start-up, some of the distillate is used as boiler
makeup water. A float-operated control valve in the
distillate circuit regulates the correct amount of makeup
water into the boiler.
The vapors produced from the brine on the shell side

of the evaporator are drawn through demisters into the
vapor compressor. Vapor compressors of a centrifugal
design, that operate at a relatively high speed and low
noise level, are most suitable; however, many plants
have been equipped with a single-stage, positive-displacement, three-lobe rotary-type compressor. The
compressor normally operates with a 2 to 4 psi differential
pressure between the suction and discharge; the maximum allorvable differential pressure is about 5 psi.
During the compression process, the steam vapor increases in' pressure and temperature after which, in a
spray film evaporator, it is discharged into the tube side
of the evaporator tube bundle. The latent heat of the
steam vapor is transferred through the walls of the tubes
to the brine being sprayed, over the tube bundle.= This
transfer of heat condenses'tffe steam vzpor inta distillate
which flows out of the tubes into the bottom of the steam
chest,
A spray pipe assembly is the standard means whereby
recirculating water is sprayed over the evaporator tube
bundle. A steam chest and vent condenser are bolted to
the evaporator tube bundle. The steam chest channels
the flow of steam vapors from the compressor jnto the
tube bundle and the flow of distillate from the tube
DISTILLATE
S W A Y CONTROL
VALVE ,
PRESSURE
RELIEF
I
bundle. Incoming feedwater flows through the tubes of

the vent condenser, where it gains additional heat from
the vapors condensing in the vent condenser section.
The vent condenser is vented to the atmosphere to dis*
charge noncondensible gases from the steam chest.
The distillate pump takes suction from the steam chest
and pumps the majority of the distillate through the heat
exchanger, the flowmeter, and then to the discharge
connection. A small portion of the distillate enters the
boiler t h r o u b the boiler water level control valve as
makeup water. Another small portion enters the compressor suction duct and serves as compressor desuperheating and sealing water.
A spray-film vapor-compression distilling plant is
furnished by the manufacturer as a package complete
with all interconnecting piping, electric wiring, automatic controls, and insulation; such a unit is shown by
Fie. 16.
Over a period of time, scale-forming elements in the
feedwater gradually accumulate on the evaporator tubes
and lower the rate of heat transferred from the compressed steam to the recirculated water (scale control is
discussed in Section 2.5). Normally the amount of steam
compressed is constant. Therefore the compressor differential pressure rises (causing an increase in the temperature difference) to counteract the effects of the scale accumulation. 'As the compressor differential pressure rises,
there will be a slight decrease in distillate production;
therefore, an acid cleaning system must be provided and
used when the rated distillate capacity can no longer be
maintained or when the com~ressordifferential Dressure
exceeds 4.5 psi. When the lpressure differentiil across
the compressor reaches 5 psi, the unit is operating at its
minimum rated capacity and the evaporator tubes must
be cleaned to raise the distillate o u t ~ u t lower
.
the electrical energy input, and prevent overloading the compressor motor.
When it is desirable to use a diesel engine instead of an
electric motor to drive the com~ressoka conventional
four-cycle, in-line, medium-speed, industrial-type engine
is best suited for continuous operation. The engine
directly drives the compressor and both water pumps via
V-belts. Engine jacket water can be used as a heat
source to the boiler thereby providing a means of returning the heat in the jacket water to the system. The
boiler section can also use the engine exhaust gas as a
heat source; by doing so, maximum use is made of the
engine waste heat.
Detailed material and design requirements for distilling
plants of the vapor-compression type for Navy applications are contained in reference [6]. The plant installed
on some submarines operates on the principle described
in the foregoing, but the plant is completely electrically
operated and incorporates a vertical-tube bundle as illustrated by Fig. 17.
Referring to the plant shown by Fig. 17, the entering
seawater is preheated (for arctic operation or cold feed
due to deep submergence) in an assembly that consists
of two cylindrical shells, each containing an electric
EVAPORATOR
DESUPERHEATER
DISTILLATE OUT
FEEDWATER
SOLENOID
VALVE
1
2
Fig. 15
---
FEEDWATER IN
-.
BLOWDOWN OUT
Vapor-compression distilling plant with spray-fllm evaporator
Fig. 1 6
Spray-fllm vapor-compression distilling plant
545
DISTILLING PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
immersion heater. The temperature control unit automatically energizes one or both of the heaters when the
incoming seawater temperature is below 55 F and turns
off the heaters when the temperature is above 65 F.
A rectangular shell-and-double-tube heat exchanger, or
one of similar features, is located in the line between the
feedwater preheater and the yent condenser. The shelland-double-tube heat exchanger is vertically divided into
two sections of equal size, a distillate side and a brine
side. Inner anc)'outer tubesheets are bolted to each end
cover plate. Larger, straight outer heat-transfer tubes
are roller-expanded into the inner tubesheets and smaller
straight tubes, inserted through the outer tubes, are
roller-expanded into the outer tubesheets. Incoming
feedwater flows in the annular space between the inner
and outer tubes while the distillate and brine, discharge
from the evaporator, flow through the inner tubes in
their respective sides of the heat exchanger. The feedwater flow is counter to both the distillate and brine
flows, providing good heat transfer between the flows.
The unit serves to further heat the feedwater and simultaneously cool the distillate and brine.
The feedwater leaving the heat exchanger next passes
through the tubes of the vent condenser, where it gains
additional heat as the hot noncondensible gases vented
from the evaporator section are cooled.
The hot feedwater leaving the vent condenser is discharged into the large circulation tube located in the
center of the evaporating section and collects in
the brine recirculation sectioq. .- The temperature of the
brine in the recirculation section is raised to the boiling
point by heat coming from the boiler section.
The boiler section is located on the floor of the evaporator. Its source of heat is three electric immersion
heaters. During operation the electric heaters keep the
distillate at the boiling point, which in turn further heats
the brine in the brine recirculation section located above
the boiler section. Since the feedwater is preheated
when it enters the evaporator, comparatively litt~e
heat is
required from the immersion heaters to keep the brine at
the boiling point.
A brine overflow tube, located in the center circulation
tube, runs through the feed section to a sidewall connection. Two distillate drain tubes from the evaporator
section to the boiler section also run through the feed
section, astdoes a steam vent tube from the boiIer section
to the evaporator section.
When the brine boils in the recirculation section, it
passes into the evaporator section tube bundle where
more heat from the compressed vapor is applied. This
action "o'f the ly-irie, and
heating increases the boil*
about two thirds of the brine is vaporized at a pressure
of about 1 psig in the tubes. The brine not vaporized
flows into the brine overflow and is piped out of the
evaporator into the heat exchanger. Steam vapors from
the boiling brine in the evaporator section tubes rise into
the vapor section and are drawn into the suction side of
the compressor through the baffle arrangement and demisters. The baffle arrangement and demisters remove
*
MARINE ENGINEERING
DISTILI.ING PLANTS
entrainments from the vapor and allow relatively ('clean"

vapor to flow to the compressor suction.
The vapor compressor, which is the "heart" of the
plant, is a centrifugal, liquid sealing ring type that is
directly driven by a constant-speed a-c motor. The
unit is mounted in the evaporator top cover plate and
extends down into the vapor section. It operates at a
suction pressure of about one psig at 215 F and a discharge pressure between 1.5 and 3 psig in the saturation
temperature range of 217 to 222 F. When in operation,
the compressor reqqres a continuous flow (about 0.25
gpm) of distilled water for sealing purposes. The seal
water is necessary to provide proper suction and compression and to maintain the vapor discharge temperature within predetermined limits. The distillate discharge line, downstream from the heat exchanger, is
tapped to provide the seal water.
The compressor raises the temperature and pressure
of the vapors and discharges the vapors into the evaporator section where a number of heat-transfer tubes are
arranged in a pattern surrounding vertical baffle plates.
The baffle plate arrangement directs the flow of vapors
around the tubes and directs the noncondensable gases to
a vent tube. A system of perforations in the vent tube
collects the gases which are passed through an external
vent condenser to the atmosphere.
In the shell side of the evaporator section the vapors
condense on the tube outer surfaces to form distillate
which collects in the bottom of the evaporator section
(on the lower tubesheet) and flows through the distillate
return tubes into the boiler section. The excess distillate
flows out through the outlet pipe into the distillate pump
and is pumped through the heat exchanger and into the
ship's storage tanks or to waste, depending on its purity.
1.7 Membrane Processes
a. Reverse Osmosis. Of the various membrane processes used in desalting, reverse osmosis has the most
promise for shipboard applications. Developments in
reverse osmosis have made membrane dpsalting processes
widely accepted, and they are considered for seawater
desalination.
To understand reverse osmosis, it is necessary to review the basic phenomenon of osmosis. Osmosis depends on the existence of a membrane that is selective in
the sense that certain components of a solution (ordinarily the solvent) can pass through the membrane,
while one or more of the other components cannot do so.
Such a selective device is called a "semipermeable membrane"; it is usually, though not always, in the physical
form suggested by the word "membrane." As illustrated by Fig. 18, if a semipermeable membrane separates
a solution from a pure solvent, or two solutions of different concentrations, the tendency to equalize concentrations will result in a flow of solvent from the less concentrated phase-that is, the phrtse richer in s o l v e n t t o
t h e other; it is this flow of solvent that is termed
"osmosis." I f an attempt is made to impede the flow by
exerting pressure on the more saline solution (assuming
for simplicity that the other phase is pure solvent), the
547
rate of flow will be decreased. As the pressure is increased, a point will be found at which the flow is brought
to a complete stop, the tendency to flow being in equilibrium with the opposing pressure. This equilibrium pressure (actually, the equilibrium-pressure difference
between the solvent and solution phases) is called the
'(osmotic pressure"; the osyotic pressure is a property
of the solution and cannot depend in any way on the
membrane, so long as the latter has the necessary property of semipemeability. A further increase of the
pressure on the solution causes reversal of the Ssmotic
flow, and pure solvent passes from the solution, through
the membrane, into the solvent phase; this phenomenon
is the basis of the reverse-osmosis method of desalination.
Most osmotic membranes have little mechanical
strength and must be supported if they are to withstand
large pressure differences. The development of supporting media to provide the necessary strength without
seriously impeding flow is essential to the practical
application of reverse osmosis.
The most common semipermeable membrane used in
reverse osmosis plants is cellulose acetate, the acetate
ester derivative of cellulose. This is a chemical modification of cellulose in which some of the hydroxyl groups are
replaced by acetate groups. Water selectively dissolves
into the membrane and is transpoi-ted through the membrane by pressure-motivated diffusion. This is called
"solution-diffusion." The membrane will reject trivalent ions better than divalent ions and divalent ions
better than monovalent ions,. ,,Dissolved gases tend to
pass through the membrane with very low rejections.
Membranes have been produced and tested in such
various forms and configurations as flat membranes
(called plate and frame membranes), spiral or rolled
membranes, and the tubular concept. The tubular
membrane concept has emerged as one of the most
popular due to its moderate space utilization, ideal pressure containment, light weight, ease of cleaning and servicing, and ease of membrane replacement.
'J'he application of reverse osmosis to shipboard desalting of seawater poses a somewhat different set of circumstances than those encountered on fixed-base installations. The variation of feedwater temperature from 28
to 85 F presents system design complications, because
the osmotic membrane is sensitive to the water viscosity
variation that occurs with temperature change. Permeation of solvent through a cellulose acetate membrane
varies approximately 1.56 percent per degree F from a
standard design temperature of 77 F. This change in
rate of product water is partially offset by the change in
average brine concentratio* As the membrane permeation rate is increased, with a constant feed rate, the
salinity of the brine being circulated is also increased.
The average brine concentration is defined as the initial
brine concentration plus the effluent or waste brine concentration divided by two. For every 1000-ppm salinity
change of the average brine in the unit, permeation
through the membrane will vary 1.8 percent due to the
change in osmotic pressure of the brine.
MARINE ENGINEERING
DISTILLING PLANTS
""U
When fluids of different concentrations in a venoel are separated
by e membrane, the dilute solution
will flow thmugh the membrane into
the concentrated solution.
"""U
1ST STAGE
Q
MEMBRANE BANKS
2ND STAGE
)
MEMBRANEBANK
FRESH
WATER
F!!l
OSMOTIC PRESSURE
The level of the dilute solution dmpr
end the level of the concentrated
solution rims until an "equilibrium"
is reached The pressure difference
between these two levels is the
"osmotic pressure."
BRACKISH
WATER
POTABLE
WATER
WATER
MEMBRANE
SEA
WATER
Fig. 2 0
REVERSE OSMOSIS
of the ounatic
I f a pressure in expressure is applied to the concentrated
solution, the flow is reversed from the
concentrated solution to the diluted
solution. This is "reverse osmosis."
FRESH
WATER
Fig. 18
Fig. 1 9
I
MEMBRANE
Osmosis, osmotic pressure, and revene osmosis
80,000-gpd barge-mounted reverse-osmosis desalination plant
Seawater desalination by revene osmosis
The first large reverse-osmosis plant to go to sea was

an 80,000-gpd plant supplied to the U. S. Navy in 1969;
it is depicted in Fig. 19. The plant is of the two-stage
design employing a tubular cellulose acetate membrane.
The membrane is "cast" inside a porous composition
paper tube which is housed in a linearly grooved plastic
support tube. The support tube is contained in the
"tube-sheets" by means of an "O-ring" seal not unlike a
shell-and-tube heat exchanger.
Seawater desalination by reverse osmosis to produce
potable water that meets the requirements of the U. S.
Public Health Service [5] has been dome in two stages as
indicated by Fig. 20. The initial feedwater containing.
approximately 35,000 ppm of total dissolved solids
(tds) is reduced to about 3500-ppm tds in the firstrstage
permeate and thence from 3500-ppm to 350-ppm tds in
the second-stage permeate. Research to develop a
"single-pass" membrane and laboratory tests on cellulose
diacetate, cellulose triacetate and cellulose acetate
butyrate show promise that the "ideal" membrane to
produce potable water (under 500-ppm tds) from seawater in one pass will be developed. Reverse osmosis
will then challenge the evaporative processes for the lead
in seawater desalination for potable use. Additional
"polishing," such as the addition of a polishing demineralizer in the permeate stream, would be necessary to produce boiler makeup quality water (under 1-ppm tds).
b. Electrodialysis. Whereas other forms of desalination schemes entail the removal of the vastly greater bulk
of water from the salts, in the electrodialysis process the
salts are removed from the water. As illustrctted by
Fig. 21, with the electrodialysis (ED) process, an electrical field is imposed on the water by positive (anode)
SALINE WATER IN
WNC
IATED BRINE WASTE
FRESH PRODUCT WATER
Fig. 21
Schematic diagram of the electrodialysis process
and negative (cathode) electrodes. This field forces the

positive ions to move toward the cathode and the negative ions toward the anode. An ED desalting "cell" is
formed by two smooth, rigid plastic membranes with a
spacer between, which guides the water flow. One membrane carries a permanent electrical charge that is positive and the alternate membrane has a negative charge.
Just as magnets of like charge repel each other, the positively charged membrane W*els positi3 ions, yet ljermits
negative ions to pass through it. The membranes and
electrodes are so arranged to permit ions to leave an ED
cell but none to return. Therefore, water in one c a m
partment of an ED cell is desalted while the adjacent
"brine" compartment is made more salty. Electrodialysis plants have successfully refined brackish waters
of up to 2500-ppm total dissolved solids to produce potable water in shoreside installations [7] but have not been
MARINE ENGINEERING
550
proven to be economically feasible for converting highly

brackish or seawater (feedwaters in excess of 5000-ppm
tds) to potable levels. The cost of operation of ED
plants is in direct proportion to the amount of salt removed. Since the salts actually pass through the membrane, the problems of fouling or "polarization" can be
much more severe than encountered in reverse-osmosis
systems. The use of cation-neutral membranes in ED
systems lessens the danger of fouling.
The operation of electrodialysis plants at temperatures
DISTILLING PLANTS
up to 180 F has been considered. At such temperatures,

the electrical resistance to the flow of current through a
solution is considerably decreased, resulting in lower
power requirements. A lower power consumption could
place ED systems in an acceptable cost range for processing the more brackish waters, and seawater, for marine
applications.
Other membrane processes such as ultrafltration and
piezodialysis show little promise of being able to economicauy convert the more saline waters to a potable level.
Section 2
Distilling Plant Design Considerations
2.1 Heat Transfer in Distilling Plants. The fundamental theory of heat transfer in heat exchangers and the
application of this theory are discussed in Chapters 2
apd 14. The basic analytical relationship employed in
the design of heat-transfer equipment is
UA(LMTD)
where
quantity of heat transferred, Btu/hr
heatrtrmsfer coefficient, Btu/hr=
sq ftrdeg F
= heatrtransfer area, sq f t
A
LMTD = logarithmetic
mean temperature
deg F
=
The main consideration in the thermal design of an

evaporator is that fluids in the evaporator undergo a
change in phase. In a flash evaporator, beat is transferred to the seawater in tubes by condensing a vapor on
the outside of the tubes. In a submerged-tube or sprayfilm evaporator, the heat i s trwsfemed from the condensing steam inside the tubes to the boiling seawater
on the outside of the tubes.
AB in the design of heat exchangers (see Chapter 14),
the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, is given by
1
U=
(2)
(I/&)
9.a
rw rdt~ (l/h@)
where
+ + + +
h,
=;
reciprocal
shelhide film coefficient
resistance of deposit or scale on tube outside

wall
r, = resistance of tube wall metal
rdto = resistance of deposit or scale on tube inside wall
- = reciprocal of tube-side flp coefficient
r*
values of heatrtransfer coefficients encountered in service

are presented in references [8] and [9].
The overall heattransfer rate of a submerged-tube or
thin-film evaporat~rdepends upon the vapor pressure of
the liquid being evaporated, the temperature difference
between the condensing saturated steam and the vapor
(which fixes the steam pressure for a given vapor pressure), the disposition of the heating tubes in the shell, and
the character of the liquid being evaporated as well as
the cleanliness of the heatrtransfer surfaces. Heatr
transferrates increase with increasing vapor and steam
temperatures, with the temperature difference remaining
unchanged, except that for seawater evaporation at temperatures exceeding about 200 F and for some classes of
raw fresh water at the higher temperatures (particularly
for high-temperature differences), scale forms so rapidly
as to offset the advantage that would otherwise be
gained.
Under laboratory conditions with a single acid-cleaned
tube re-evaporating distilled water, the temperature difference has a pronounced effect on the heattransfer rate.
Rates varying from about 1300 Btu/hr-sq ftdeg F a t a 20
deg F temperature difference up to over 3000 Btu/hr-sq
ftrdeg F at a 100 deg F temperature difference have been
observed with the vapor at atmospheric pressure; the
heatrtransfer rate falls off with further increases of the
temperature difference. However, for scale-producing
feeds, the scale resistance is such a large part of the total
resistance to heat flow that the effect of temperature
difference
on continuous service rates is small.
.Since t,he scale resistance is generally such a large
~ercentakeof the total resistance to heat flow for disiilling
it is convenient to group all of the other
together and express equation (2) in
the folbwing form:
1
1
-+r
Ue
us-
ho
All of the resistances listed in the foregoing are consistently based on the same area; by convention, the tube
outside area L usually taken as the base. Typical
where
U,
clean-tube overall heatrtransfer coefficient; i.e.,

sum of film resistance on tube inside and
outside surfaces and resistance of tube wall,
Btu/hr-sq ftrdeg F
r = fouling resistance; i.e., resistance of tube depo&itsor scale, hr-sq ftrdeg F/Btu
Figure 22 is a plot of the clean-tube overall heatr
transfer coefficient, U,, versus tube velocity that can be
used in the design of a saltwater heater or condenser for
a flash evaporator. The correction factor which must be
applied to the coefficient read from Fig. 22 to compensate
for inlet water temperatures of other than 70 F is given in
Fig. 23; and correction factors for the tube material and
gage are given in Table 1. Typical values of the fouling
factor are given in Table 2. For a stage condenser in a
flash evaporator, the fouling factor, r, will typically vary
from 0.0005 to 0.001 hr-sq ftrdeg F/Btu. In the saltr
water heater where elevated temperatures are encountered, the fouling factor ail1 normally vary from 0.001 to
0.0015 hr-sq ftrdeg F/Btu; see Table 2.
A comparison of overall heat-transfer coefficients and
temperature differencestypical of flash, submerged-tube,
and spray-film distilling plants is shown in Table 3.
Heatrtransfer data for a submerged-tube evaporator
are usually expressed as a relationship between the heat
flux, &/A = UAT, and the temperature difference, AT,
=
55 1
because in a boiling evaporator the heatrtransfer coefficient is also a function of the driving force or temperature
difference. Most available data are based on experience
and therefore include allowances for fouling. Figure 24
is a curve showing typical values for submerged-tuhe
evaporators.
I n the case of a condenser such as encountered in a
flash evaporator, the ternperdure difference between the
fluids varies from location to location within the condenser in a manner similar to the temperature distribution in a heat qx'changer. There is a difference, however,
in that the heat transfer for the condensing fluid takes
place at a constant temperature and only the temperature
of the liquid varies. For a condenser, the logarithmic
mean temperature difference (illustrated by Fig. 25) can
be expressed as:
where
Table 1 Heat-Transfer Rate Tube Material and Gage

Correction Factor
TUBE
MATERIAL^
Admiralty metal
Arsenical copper
Aluminum
Aluminum b r w
Muntz metal
Aluminum bronze
90-10 copper-nickel
70-30 copper-nickel
Type 304 stainless steel
-TUBE WALLGAQE17
16
15
Bwg
Bwg
Bwg
0.97
0.97
0.97
0.93
0.93
0.87
0.87
0.80
0.56
0.93
0.93
0.93
0.89
0.89
0.84
0.84
0.76
0.54
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.84
0.84
0.79
0.79
0.71
0.51
VELOCITY, FEET PER SECOND
Fig. 22
Condenser clean-tube heat-transfer rate
Rg. 23 Hwt-transfer rate inlet

temperature correction factor
(3)
TEMPERATURE OF INLET WATER. DEGREES F
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 2
DISTILLING PLANTS
Seawater
Brackish water
Cooling tower and artificial spray pond:
treated makeup
untreated
City or well water (such aa Great Lakes)
Great Lakes
River water :
mnlmum
Mississippi
Delawa~e,Schuylka
East Rlver and New York Bay
Chicago Sanitary Canal
Muddy or silty
Hard (over 15 grainslgal)
~ n g i n ejacket Distilled
Treated boiler feedwater
Bbiler blowdown
0.003
0.003
0.001
0.0005
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.001
0.0005
0.0005
0.002
0.004
0.005
0.001
0.0005
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.005
0.001
0.0005
0.001
0.002
the heating medium of 240-400 F. If the heating

* Resistances are based on a temperature ofcooling
medium is known to scale, these res~stances
IS
medium temperature is over 400 F and the

should be modified accordingly.
Table 3 Heat-Transfer Coefficients and Temperature

Differences Typical of Feedwater Heaters in Various
Types of Distilling Plants
450300
300-650
500-800
5-50
15-45
10-30
T,
= vapor temperature
1, = cold liquid temperature
k = hot liquid temperature
In a flash evaporator there are a number of temperature losses which must be taken into account in the
design of the equipment. These losses are associated
with the brine equilibrium temperature deviation, the
boiling point rise, the demister pressure loss, and the
condenser pressure loss. The effect of these losses on
the LMTD is shown in Fig. 25. The losses are defined
as follows:
Brine Eauilibrium Temperature Deviation (DEV).
The amount of superheat remaining in the brine as a
result of incomplete flashing.
Boiling Point Rise (BPR). The elevation of the saturation temperature of the liquid above that of pure
water caused by the concentration of salts in the
brine.
Demister Pressure Loss (DEM). The equivalent
~A
20
25
30
40
35
46
55
50
TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE, OF
Flash
Submer ed tube
spray fifm
553
Fouling Resistances Typical of Various Types of Water, r,

hr-sq ft-deg F/Btv
saturation temperature loss associated with the pressure

loss through the demister.
Condenser Pressure Loss (COND). The weighted
saturation temperature loss associated with the pressure
loss through the condenser.
I n marine applications, the losses associated with the
brine equilibrium temperature deviation and the condenser pressure loss are usually small and c m be neglected; however, they are usually significant factors in
higher capacity and economy plants. Figure 26 is a
curve of boiling point rise versus temperature. Since
the demister pressure loss is normally less than 0.5 deg F,
it is common to allow 1.5 deg F for the combined demister
l n n ~and
*"---- - boiling point rise loss in the design of oncethrough marine-flash evaporato~. Because the operating brine concentration is higher in submerged-tube and
spray-film evaporators, a value of 2 deg F is usually
allowed for the combined loss for such units.
I n order to illustrate the principles involved in the
determination of the size of a condenser and saltwater
heater for a distilling plant, consider the two-stage,
8000-gpd, flash evaporator illustrated by Fig. 5. The
condenser temperature differences are computed as
follows:
STAGE1 STAGE
2
F.
Brine temperature, deg . : . . . . . . . . . . .

D e m t e r and boiling ~ nrlse
t loss, deg F
vapor temperature,
F . . . . . . . . . .. . .
Condenser inlet temperature, deg F . . . . .
Condenser outlet temperature, deg F . . . .
Inlet temperature difference, deg F . . . . .
Outlet temperaturqdifference,deg F. . . .
Fig. 24
Heat flux vs. temperature difference for submerged-tube evaporators
Since the temperature differences are the same in both

stages, the two tube bundles will be made to the same
design. The LMTD in the two condensers will be
LMTD = 33 - 8.25 = 17.85"F

33
In 8.25
The condenser tubes selected are %-in. o.D., 18-BWG
(0.049-in. wall), 90-10 Cu-Ni tubes, and the tube design
velocity is 5.5 fps. From Fig. 22 the heat-transfer rate
for a % in. tube with a 5.5-fps tube velocity is 633
Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F. Applying an inlet temperature
correction factor of 1.06 (since the condenser for the
two stages will be the same, the correction factor read
from Fig. 23 is based on the lower inlet temperature of
86 F) and a material correction factor of 0.90 (read from
Table 1) gives a corrected clean-tube, overall heattransfer coefficient of 604 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F. With a
fouling resistance of 0.000675, the overall heat-transfer
coefficient is computed from equation (3) as
1
1
604
+ 0.000675
FEED, T i ----c
TI,
+ +
----+
-------+
---- ----DEV.
Tb'
#
Tv
Tv
-----,--,CONbAp
429 Btu/hr-sq ft-deg F
With a tube I.?. of 0.527 in., the number of tubes

required to pass 60,000 lb/hr of feedwater having a
density of 64.1 lb/cu ft at a velocity of 5.5 fps is
fl
Fig. 25
Temperature losses in distilling plants
DISTILLING PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
Consequently, the required tube length is

tube length =
0.5
60
100
150
200
TEMPERATURE OF
260
350
300
NOTE:
THE NORMAL SEA WATER CONCENTRATION
USED IN THIS CHART HAS 34.483 G
SOLIDS PER 1000 G SEA WATER.
Fig. 26
Boiling p i n t rke vs. temperature
The tubes selected are %-in., 18-BWG, 90-10 Cu-Ni

tubes and the design tube velocity is 6 fps. Reading a
clean-tube heat-transfer coefficient of 660 Btu/hr-sq ftr
deg F from Fig. 22 and applying an inlet temperature
correction factor of 1.1 from Fig. 23, and s tube material
correction factor of 0.9 from Table 1 gives a corrected
For a feedwater flow of 60,000 lb/hr and specific heat
clean-tube heat-transfer coefficient of 653 Btu/hr-sq ftr
of 0.96 Btu/lb-deg F, the temperature difference of
deg F. With a fouling resistance of 0.0015, the gverall
24.75 deg F corresponds to a heat transfer of 1,426,000
Btu/hr in each of the two condensers. This being the heatrtransfer coefficient becomes
case, the tube area required is
1
= 330 Btu/hr-sq ftrdeg F
U =
1
0.0015
653
No. of tubes required =
The number of 0.652 in. I.D. tubes required to pass

60,000 lb/hr of feedwater having a density of 64.1 lb/cu
ft without exceeding a 6-fps velocity is
and the required tube length is

tube length =
nm.
No. tubes required =
Using a 6-pass (3 U-bend) design, the required bundle

length is determined to be 36.8/6 = 6.13 ft.
The &e of the saltwater heater is established in a
similar manner. The temperature of the condensing
heating steam is 198 F and the saltwater inlet and outlet
temperatures are 138 F and 170 F respectively; therefore the LMTD is
LMTD
'60 - 28
6 0
= -=
In
28
42'F
(3600) (64.1) (6)
5 (0.6W2
No. tubes used = 19

The feedwater is heated from 135.5 F to 138 F in the
air ejector after condenser. Since the feedwater has a
specific heat of 0.96 Btu/lb, the heat transferred to-the
feedwater in the saltwater heater is
Q = (60,000) (0.96) (170-138)
and the heating surface required is
1,843,000 Btu/hr
?rDn
With a &pass design, the bundle length becomes 35.6/6 =

5.93 ft.
2.2 Heat Sources. The thermodynamic design of a
distillation unit is strongly dependent upon the heat
energy source to elevate the temperature of the incoming
seawater feed to that required for efficient vaporization.
This energy can be supplied as steam, electricity, or
waste heat in the form of exhaust gases or hot water.
A distillation unit cab use either, or any combination,
of these energy sources. The selection of the optimum
heat source is dependent upon the total plant heat
balance, desired evaporator efficiency,availabIe energy,
and mode of operation contemplated.
Many ships are powered by steam turbines and, therefore, steam is a heat source commonly used in shipboard
distillation units. Low-pressure turbine extraction steam
and auxiliary exhaust steam are the normal sources of
heating steam for distilling plant operation.
To permit the most efficient and flexible operation, it
is standard practice to design the distiller to operate
with either steam that has been bled from the main
turbine or steam that has been exhausted from any of
the various auxiliary turbines. When operating at sea,
bleed steam permits the most economical operation as
the majority of the heat remaining in this steam is
otherwise rejected to the main condenser, contributing
very little additional energy to the cycle before being
condensed (see Section 3.4 of Chapter 18 for further
discussion regarding bleed steam). Ror in-port operation auxiliary exhaust steam is supplied to the distiller.
The use of this reliitively low-cost steam permits continued economical operation of the distilling plant.
The pressure of bleed steam is dependent on the
turbine design and the specific extraction point. Distilling plant designs are normally predicated on steam
being supplied at a pressure of 9 to 11 psia. Auxiliary
exhaust steam is usually furnished at a pressure of 15
psig and reduced to 5 psig by a pressure-regulating
valve; a pressure of 5 psig is usually provided at the
inlet to the critical-pressure orifice.
High-pressure air ejector steam, where employed, is
also used to preheat the seawater feed. Heat in the air
ejector steam is reclaimed in the air ejector aftercondenser using distilling plant feedwater as the coolant.
The air ejector motive steam pressure is dependent on
the air ejector design and can range anywhere from 75
to 150 psig; pressures in the 135- to 150-psig range are
most common.
Diesel or gas turbine driven ships often employ waste
555
heat as a heat source for~distillingplant operation. The

waste heat may be in the form of diesel engine jacket
cooling water or it may be in the form of heat recovered
from the turbine or engihe exhaust gases. Submergedtube and thin-film distilling units have been used when
hot water is the heat source because these units operate
with a lower shell temperajure and can use water at a
lower temperature as a heat source than can distilling
plants of the flash type. Distilling plants for this
application are~commonlydesigned to use jacket water
with an inlet temperature to the distiller of 165 to 170 F.
With a flash evaporator, the hot-water inlet temperature to the heater must be at least 190 F to obtain an
adequate temperature differential to pennit an efficient
saltwater heater design. A supply of diesel jacket water
above 180 F is not normally available; however, water
at such temperatures is obtainable on ships driven by
gas turbines by installing heat exchangers to recover
heat from the exhaust gases. See Chapter 2 for further
discussion on this subject.
Electric power is often used to operate the efficient
vapor-compression type of distilling plants; however,
due to considerations of economy, electric power is not
normally used with distilling plants of other designs
except as a supplemental or emergency heat supply.
For flash, submerged-tube, or basket designs, the direct
use of electrical power for feedwater heating is not
practicable.
For some applications, it is advantageous to use a
combination of heat sources to operate the distillation
unit. Figure 27 illustrates a typical flow diagram for a
unit using all three common heat sources; this design
has been applied in a number of diesel-powered naval
ships. For the unit shown in Fig. 27, the primary heat
source is diesel propulsion engine waste heat in the form
of engine jacket water. This primary heat source is used
when the ship is at sea operating with sufficient engjne
power to provide the necessary waste heat.
When the ship is operating at reduced power, the
engine waste heat is augmented by heat furnished from
either the steam heater or electric heater. When operating in this condition, the jacket water is directed through
these heaters, thereby increasing the feedwater temperature. The steam heater is a shell-and-tube heat exchanger and the electric heater uses immersion heating
elements:
When the ship is in pee, all heat required to make
rated capacity is supplied by the steam heater and
electric heater. The steam heater is often sized to
provide sufficient heat to produce
rated capacity and
the electric heater is sizedefi produce"'% rated cipacity.
Aside from the increased reliability and operational
flexibility provided by this combined heat source arrangement, an additional advantage is that the steam heater
and electric heater are used to warm the diesel engine
prior to starbup.
2.3 Distilling Plant Economy. The generally accepted
meaning of the term "distilling plant efficiency" is the
pounds of distilled water produced per 1000 Btu of
MARINE ENGINEERING
tions for ships constructed under the puwiew of the U. S.

Maritime Administration are similar [ l l ] and 90-10
copper-nickel is also required for the flash chambers, with
the provision that steel evaporator chambers, suitably
protected against corrosion by means of a protective
coating, will be considered. Protective coating materials
provide definite savings in initial cost but the protection
they provide steel surfaces in a marine distilling plant is
sometimes iinsatisfactory.
It is significant that pradt,ide in the use of nonferrous
materials for distilling plants in ships built abroad followed that of the United States. Prior to 1950, distilling
plants built in England and Germany used cast iron as
the material for the shells. If the shells were thick
enough, they were generally satisfactory, but the units
were much heavier than when more corrosion-resistant
materials such as copper-hickel, monel, and titanium
were used.
Not only is it important to use nonferrous inaterial in
the areas in contact with the brine, it is equally important
that the condenser baffles and distillate troughs and vent
sections be of nonferrous materials. These come in
contact with the vapolg which are laden with oxygen and
carbon dioxide released from the heated brine and also
are subject to corrosion.
Due to rising costs and long lead times experienced in
obtaining copper-nickel tubing, the use of titanium tubes
in marine evaporators may become more common.
See Section 5.6 of Chapter 22 for additional details
relative to the materials of construction for marine
distilling'plants and heat exchangers.
R
P
CONDENSATEOUT
D dirtlllats
V vapor
Jw
FDW feed-
w-
Fig. 27
Flow diagram of an evaporator having three heat sources
heat supplied. For multistage plants, fitted with such

features as evaporators which are heated by vapor
produced in an earlier stage, the overall economy of the
plant may be estimated best by first preparing an
approximate heat balance flow sheet. Such flow sheets
are approximate, but the balance a plant will assume in
sewice can be predicted with fairly good accuracy.
There are several factors which complicate a precise
prediction of the manner in which a plant will perform in
sewice. A "clean" plant is capable of producing excessive quantities of vapor to such an extent that carry-over
will result, thereby contaminating the distillate; jn such
an event the steam or feed supply must be throttled or
other means used to control the output. Tube surfaces
of different units foul to a different degree; therefore,
fouling cannot be predicted with exactness. Additionally,
the circulating water temperature varies with the season
and locality. All of these factors affect the balance and
economy of a distilling plant.
The overall economy of a distilling plant, as distinguished from the so-called efficiency, may be expressed in
terms of the pounds of distillate produced per pound of
additional fuel required for the distilling plant, over and
above the fuel otherwise required to fulfill the ship's
power requirements. Establishment of the distilling
plant overall economy entails an assessment of the
amount of fuel used to produce the steam required for
the saltwater heater, the electrical power required for
the various pumps in the, plant, the useful work that
could have been performed by the heating steam had it
been used for other purposes, and the heat returned to
the boiler feed system from the distilling plant (a very
important consideration for distilling plants which have
557
DISTILLING PLANTS
condensers that use the main propulsion plant condensate

as the coolant).
Since the overall economy of a distilling plant depends
upon the ship's power plant, and the interrelationships
between the two, it is not possible to accurately state the
economy of a distilling plant independently of the power
plant. However, the following gives an approximate
idea of the overall economy characteristic of four types
of distilling plants:
Single-stage submerged-tube plants operating on
boiler steam at reduced pressure, 13 pounds of distillate
per pound of additional fuel.
Two-stage flash plants operatipg on bleed steam, 50
pounds of distillate per pound of additional fuel.
Three-stage flash plants operating on bleed steam,
75 pounds of distillate per pound of additional fuel.
Spray-film vapor-compression plants with electric
motor drive and electric heaters, 200 pounds of distillate
per pound of additional fuel.
Based op flash distilling plants operated with exhaust
or bleed steam, the weight of additional fuel required,
together with the operating weight of the distilling
plant, is bpt a small fraction of the weight of the distilled
water produced during an average ship voyage. For a
given ship, investigations may show t h a t a worthwhile
savings in tonnage can be effected by using distilled
water rather than tank water; and that, all things considered, the cost of distilled water is lower.
2.4 Materials of Construction. The U. S. Navy has
standardized on 90-10 copper-nickel as the material used
for tubes, tubesheets, waterboxes, evaporator shells, and
piping for marine distilling plants [lo]. The specifica-
2.5
Scale Control and Acid Cleaning
a. Scale Control. High-temperature, land-based

evaporators-have a much inore serious scale control
problem than do marine plants which operate at a low
temperature and normally under vacuum. Nevertheless,
the formation of scale is a major consideration in the design of marine distilling plants.
One source of scale is the bicarbonate in seawater
which decomposes when the seawater is heated and then
reacts with the magnesium and calcium in the seawater
to produce magnesium hydroxide and calcium carbonate
scales as shown in the following reactions:
3
2 bicarbonate ions
water
+ carbon dioxide gas +

carbonate ion
carbonate 'ion
+ water = carbon dioxide gas +

2 hydroxide ions
+ calcium ion = calcium carbonate scale

20H- + Mg++ + Mg(0H)Z
2 hydroxide ions + magnesium ion =
carbonate ion
magnesium hydroxide scale
When an acid or acidic salt is added to a seawater

supply, it will neutralize what is commonly termed the
alkalinity of the seawater. The alkalinity is the sum of
the hydroxide, carbonate, and bicarbonate ions in the
seawater, although usually only bicarbonate ions are
present in significant ,quantity. The hydrogen ions produced in the seawater by tfie added acids or acidic salts
act to destroy or neutralize the bicarbonates by the
following reaction :
~
bicarbonate ions
+ H+
3
COz
+ hydrogen ion
+ Hz0
carbon dioxide gas
+ water
Therefore, by treating the seawater with acid and converting the bicarbonates to form carbon dioxide and
water, it is possible to eliminate the source of carbonate
ions and prevent the formation of magnesium hydroxide
and calcium carbonate scales. Such treatment is common practice in the operation of land-based multistage
desalters.
During the acidification of normal seawater, for scale
control purposes, approximately 100 ppm of carbon
dioxide is formed through bicarbonate alkalinity breakdown. This."carbonated brine" is acidic and corrosive
to fermus materials of construction. The carbon dioxide
can be removed by scrubbing the seawater with air or
steam.
Calcium sulfate scales are ~grobablythe worst of the
common scales which may bk encountered when seawater
is heated and evaporated to form concentrated brine.
Calcium sulfate scales are not readilv soluble in acid
solutions; consequently, they must often be removed
by mechanical methods.
The mechanism of calcium sulfate scale forination is
simply precipitation caused by the concentration of
calcium and sulfate ions beyond the solubility of calcium
sulfate. Two crystal forms of calcium sulfate are involved, the anhydrite and hemihydrate. The anhydrite
is the most insoluble form; therefore, its solubility is
first exceeded uDon concentration of a feedwater containing calcium and sulfate ions. Solutions supersaturated with respect to the anhydrite are stable for long
periods of time. Supersaturation with respect to the
hemihydrate is not as stable as that for the anhydrite,
so that scaling does not usually take place until the concentration of calcium sulfate hemihydrate is exceeded.
The solubility of both the anhydrite and hemihydrate
decreases with increasing temperature.
The most common w & w f preverrting calcium sulfate
scaling in marine seawater evaporators is toMm&ntaina
blowdown rate sufficiently high that the brine concentration will not be saturated or supersaturated with respect
to calcium sulfate hemihydrate. With proper distilling
plant operation, calcium solubility limits are avoided
and no calcium sulfate scales will be formed.
Both thin-film and submerged-tube low-temperature
marine distilling plants incorporate a chemical feed treatr
ment system. This feed treatment system basically
MARINE ENGINEERING
DISTILLING PLANTS
consists of a chemical mixing tank and a proportioning

pump. A small amount of plyphosphate is automatically added to the feed stream so as to chemically
react with scale-forming ions to produce a soft sludgetype scale that is more readily washed from the tube
surfaces than the calcium carbonate and magnesium
hydroxide scales which would otherwise be formed.
b. Acid Cleaning, During the operation of a marine
seawater distilling plant, scale will form on the heating
supfaces of the evaporator as reviewed in the foregoing.
This scale is usually 80-90 percent calcium carbonate.
The remainder is a mixture of calcium sulfate, magnesium
hydroxide, metal oxides, silica, and miscellaneous deposits. However, when seawater feed is improperly
treated with polyphosphates, other deposits such as
phosphate sludges may be formed in large quantities.
If fresh feedwater is used, silicates or calcium sulfate may
be present. The rate of buildup and the composition of
the deposits depend on such factors as the operating
temperatures, the brine density, and flow rates. Feed
treatment and cold shocking reduce the buildup of
scale, but do not prevent or remove deposits entirely.
The symptoms of scale formation are:
(a) Consistently rising temperatures in the evaporator stages (decrease in vacuum).
(b) Heating steam pressure to the feedwater heater,
or heating tube bundle, is required to be above the design
value t o produce the specified temperature at the feedwater heater outlet.
Sealed heat-transfer tubes can be cleaned chemically

by circulating a diluted acid solution through, or over
the tubes. Hydrochloric (muriatic) or sulfamic acid are
the chemical reagents commonly recommended. Hydrochloric acid should be used only if sulfamic acid is not
available, and then only by qualified personnel experienced in its use. Chemicals used for acid cleaning are
samewhat haaardous; they are hazardous in the sense
that most acids are dangemus. I t is essential that the
operator understand the potential danger involved with
the use of acids. If proper precautions are taken, persome1 injury and equipment damage can be avoided and
acid cleaning of the evaporator can be accomplished in
a minimum of down time.
Sulfamic acid hasbecome the chemical mast commonly
carried on board ship. No extra precautions are necessary in storing or handling dry sulfamic acid; however,
since the acid dust will irritate the nose, eyes, and skin,
careless handling which may result in its dispersion
should be avoided. Sulfamic acid is only mildly corrosive to metals and there is no fire hazard involved in its
use. lulfamic acid is considerably less objectionable in
all respects than dilute hydrochloric acid.
The maximum acid concentration should not be numerically lesa than pH 2.0. A reference for the correlation of pH values with various acidic and basic solutions
is given by Table 4.
When one pound of sulfamic acid powder with color
indicator is dissolved in one gallon of water, the solution

will turn a light red color, indicating sufficient acid concentration to dissolve scale. If the solution is heated to
approximately 120-140 F, the color will change to a deep
red. As the solution is circulated through the evaporator
components and comes in contact with scale deposits, a
chemical reaction takes place between the scale and acid
which dissolves the scale and reduces the concentration
of the acid. The by-product of the chemical reaction is
the liberation of large quantities of carbon dioxide gas
which must be vented to atmosphere at some point in
the cleaning circuit.
As the acid is circulated and the chemical reaction
takes place, scale is dissolved, consuming acid in the
process, and the solution will gradually change in color
to orange or yellow, indicating that most of the initial
charge has been dissipated. At this time a recharge of
sulfamic acid will be required to increase the acid
strength and change the color back t o red.
Beriodic recharging or makeup of fresh solution will
be required until the acid solution remains red for to
of an hour after the last acid charge. When this color
condition occurs, the operator can be assured that all
sohble scale in the cleaning circuit has been dissolved
since the acid strength is no longer being dissipated by
contact with scale. The acid should then be completely
drained from the plant and the entire cleaning circuit
flushed with large quantities of fresh seawater.
2.6 Distilling Plant Vacuum Equipmenf. Proper venting of the distilling plant condenser is most important
to prevent the buildup of noncondensible gases. Air is
liberated in the evaporator from the entering feedwater
which is saturated with air. Carbon dioxide may also
be released through a breakdown of bicarbonates in the
seawater. Since a low-pressure marine evaporator o p
erates under a vacuum, small quantities of air also leak
into the unit through the gasketed joints. If the condenser is not properly designed, these gases collect in
low-pressure pockets and render these areas ineffective,
thereby reducing the performance of the unit. Figures
28 and 29 @howthe vent baffling and shrouding in a
typical condenser and saltwater heater.
Three different types of systems have been used to
establish and maintain the low pressure required in the
evaporation chamber; these are: steam-motivated air
ejectors, mechanical vacuum pumps, and water-motivated air eductors. Of the three, steam-motivated air
ejectors have been most common; however, mechanical
vacuum pumps and water eductors are suitable for limited
applications.
The service conditions of a vacuum system vary
depending on the design of the distilling plant. On a
submerged-tube or spray-film distiIler, the shell temperature and vacuum are maintained at a predetermined
value regardless of the seawater feed temperature, and
the vacuum systems for these distillers operate at one
suction condition. I n a flash evaporator, the shell temperature varies widely as the seawater feed temperature
Table 4
pH
Value
INCREASING
ACIDITY
0
1.0
2.0
T@;l
Purple
Red
2.5
3.0
4.0
4.5
Pink
Orange
5.0
6.0
Gold
Yellow
NEUTRAL
7.0
White
INCREASING
ALKALINITY
8.0
9.0
10.0
Correlation of pH with Various Acidic and Basic %lutions
Strepgth
Very strong
pH of
Industnd Chemicals
Sulfuric acid 4.9% (1.ON)
Hydrochloric acid 0.37% (LON)
13.0
14.0
Dark
Brown
Black
lO,oOo,aa,
1,000,000
Fairly strong
Too weak to
dissolve
sde
Mild
Neutral
100,000
Orange juice
Beer
A&;
acid 0.87 (0.1N)
10,000
1,000
100
American cheese
M i
ib
i
- .
Distilled water at
77
- .F
Egg white
10
Borax
Fairly strong
1w
Milk of Magnesia
'
Ammonia 1.7% (1.0N)
12.0
Lodalue
arithmic
to
Pure Water
Lemon juice
Will dissdve
average
scale
Mild
Grass
Green
Dark
Green
pH of
Household Items
Caustic soda 0.4% (1.ON)

Very strong
1,000
10,000
100,000
1,000,000
10,000,000
Caustic soda 4.0% {l.ON)

NOTE: The color assumed by the indicator (e.g. litmus or pH paper) varies depending on the type and r a w of indicator used.
changes throughout the range of 28 F to 85 F. The

vacuum system must, therefore, be designed to provide
proper operation at the suction conditions encountered
with inlet seawater feed temperatures in this range.
In a two-stage flash evaporator, the temperature in the
second-stage evaporation chamber will be approximately
114 F at a seawater temperature of 85 F; however,
a t a seawater temperature of 28 F,?the second-stage
temperature will drop to 70 F. The specific volume
of steam is 238 cu ft/lb a t 114 F, but at 70 P the specific
volume is 869 cu ft/lb. Consequently, the 28 F seawater
feedwater condition controls the design of a flash evaporator vacuum system. The vacuum system must be
capable of extracting large volumes per pound of steam
and noncondensibles removed a t the lower seawater feed
temperature.
The highly corrosive nature of the noncondensibles
released in a distilling plant vaporization chamber must
also be considered in the design of a vacuum system.
In addition to air inleakage and seawater deaeration
loads, the distilling plant vacuum system must also
remove the COz which results from the breakdown of
carbonates in the seawater when it is heated to 170 F
as well as NH;I and HpS, which are also introduced by
polluted seawaters.
a. Steam-Motivated Air Ejectors. Air ejector systems used with most marine evaporators are of the twostage noncondensing type, but singlestage systems can
be used on submerged-tube and spray-Mm units where

higher shell pressures are maintained.
The elementary operating principle of air ejectors may
be understood by reference to Fig. 30. High-pressure
motive steam is led to the unit and passes through the
nozzle where its pressure is dissipated in accelerating
the steam to a high velocity as it passes from the nozzle
throat through t$e expanding section of the norele. The
high-velocity jet of steam issuing from the nozzle entrains
the saturated air mixture entering the ejector element.
f i c t i o n between the steam jet and the low-pressure air
causes the latter to move with the steam into the converging section of the diffuser tube where the steam and
air mix. The divergent section at the downstream end
of the difluser tube serves to decrease the velocity of
the moving gas and increase its pressure, thus converting
the kinetic energy to pressure energy. I n this way the
air and noncondensible gases removed from the vacuum
system are compressed, which is the object of,the air
ejector element. Por a d a o n a l dis<&ion regarding air
ejectors, see Chapter 12.
The elementary air ejector element shown in Fig. 30
comprises a single-stage ejector which is the type used for
low-pressure type distilling plants. In the case of multistage lash plants, two-stage ejectom are generally e m
ployed in order that a high vacuum may be economically
obtained. In this case a second air ejector element is
placed in aeries with the primary air ejector element.
DISTILLINGPLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
SHELL
VENT
OUTLET
Fig. 28
Typical candenser vent baffle
Fig. 31
VENT
OUTLET
'\
STEAM
INLET
STEAM
MAIN STEAM INLET
DISCHARGE TO INTER OR AFTER CONDENSER

Fig. 29
Liquid-ring vacuum pump
Typical saltwater heater and air elector baffler
Fig. 30
Elementary air elector element
The first-stage air ejector compresses the steam and air complication involved and the fact that two-stage ejectors
to an intermediate pressure, and the second-stage element are capable of evacuating to a sufficient vacuum for all
provides the h a 1 compression to atmospheric pressure normal installations.
The air ejector motivating steam is coridensed in an
or slightly above to dispose finally of the air and nonafter-condenser
which uses the entering feedwater as the
condensible gases. A single-stage ejector unit is not
cooling
medium;
such an arrangement is typically
suitable for operation at a vacuum higher than about
27 inches of mercury, and thus all high-vacuum ejector illustrated by Fig. 5. This reclaiming of the heat in the
installations are provided with two- or three-stage ejector air ejector motivating steam increases the overall distiller
elements in series. Three-stage ejectors are not nor- efficiency. The air ejector after-condenser is often conmally employed in naval practice because of the extra structed as an integral part of the evaporator saltwater
heater or part of the heating bundle in the submergedtube or spray-film type of distilling plants. This arrangement simplifies the construction of the units and reduces
maintenance requirements by avoiding the necessity of
an additional heat exchanger. Since noncondensibles in
the after-condenser section are highly corrosive, the
material in the after-condenser portion of a tube bundle
should be nonferrous. The material commonly selected
for this service has been 90-10 or 70-30 Cu-Ni.
The air ejector steam chest is usually made of steel;
the nozzle is stainless steel, and a stainless steel strainer
is provided. The air chamber and the diffuser must be
of bronze or copper-nickel construction to resist the
corrosive vapors exhausted by the system.
b. Mechanical Vacuum Pump. Mechanical vacuum
pumps have been used on submerged-tube and sprayfilm distilling units, which have less severe vacuum system requirements as compared with flash units. Submerged-tube and spray-film units normally operate with
shell temperatures in excess of 125 F, and a single-stage
vacuum pump can be employed.
I n most cases, a liquid-ring pump using fresh water
to form the liquid ring has been used to minimize the
corrosion of pump parts. A typical liquid-ring vacuum
pump is illustrated by Fig. 31, and is discussed further in
Section 4.8 of Chapter 12. The fresh water is cooled by
seawater in a heat exchanger which is built into the
vacuum pump seal water tank.
If a vacuum pump were used with a flash distilling
plant, a two-stage pump would normally be required in
order to provide satisfactory operation with low seawater
temperatures. The greater complexity of the two-stage

system coupled with large,component sizes and high
costs involved in maintaining the pump under severe
corrosive conditions has limited the use of mechanical
vacuum pumps to instances where motive steam is not
available to operate an air ejector.
c. Water-Motivated Air Eductors. A water-motivated air eductor has also been used for the submergedtube and spray-film designs which have shell temperatures above 125 F. In these distilling plant designs, more
water is required for cooling than is actually used as feed
to the unit. This water is normally directed overboard
after passing through the condenser bundles; however,
the excess cooling water can be used as motivating water
for an air eductor, permitting operation of the eductor
without havihg to provide an additional supply of
motivating water.
I n cases where an eductor can fulfill the vacuum requirements, its use permits a compact installation since
some steam piping is deleted and an after-condenser is
not required.
Very few water-motivated eductofs have been used
with flash-type evaporat'dT since it 'is difficult for an
eductor to satisfy the stringent vacuum requirements of
flash plants.
2.7 Distilling Plant Automation. The Maritime Administration Standard Specification for Cargo Ship Construction [ l l ] requires that each desalination unit be
capable of unattended, automatic operation after being
put on the line locally. Most marine distilling plants can
be readily automated to such an extent with a few simple
DISTILLING PLANTS
.
,
controls. Since the steam supply is normally from a lowpressure extraction paint, or alternatively, fram a higher
pressure source reduced to 5 psig and then controlled
through a fked critical-pressure orisce in the steam
supply line to the distilling plant, no autumatic control
is normally required for the steam supply.
It is necessary to maintain the brine temperature
leaving the saltwater heater of a flash plant at a specified
temperature, usually 170 F; this is done by means of an
automatic temperature control valve. No control of the
brine flow leaving the brine overboard pump is required
since a11 of the water entering the unit is pumped averboard. The only control required on the distillate is that
of conductivity; a 3-way valve automatically diverts the
distillate to the bilge in the event that the conductivity
is not within the specified control limits; the dump valve
can be provided with an automatic reset. Provisions
must also -be made to stop the feedwater flow in the
event of a brine pump failure to prevent accidental
flooding of the evaporator.
To insure that the water pmduced will meet the requirements of the U. S. Public Health Service [5], an
arrangement or control in the circuit must be incorporated to inaure that all of the distillate is heated to at
least 165 F; otherwise a distillate sterilizer must be
incorporated. In a submerged-tube evaporator or thinfilm double-effect unit, it is necessary to add a sterilizer
to the unit since in these types the normal operating
temperature throughout the system is below 165 F.
The steam supply to this sterilizer must incorporate an
automatic regulating valve.
Figure 5 shows those controls necessary for a flash
plant to meet the unattended automatic operation
requirement after being put on the line locally.
Fully automatic operation requires that the plant be
equipped with automatic control devices to initiate all
starting sequences upon activation of one pushbutton.
The complexity of such a system is so much greater than
a system in which each of the various starting and
stopping sequences is initiated by an on/off pushbutton
or switch that distilling plant automation is normally
restricted to systems with manual starbup provisions.
The practicability of completely automating the
start-up of a distilling plant is questionable due to the
variables encountered in vacuum and temperature conditions coupled with the necessary timing of the sequences
dependent upon these variables. The following sequence, requiring various controls and additional features, is necessary to accomplish automatic starting of a
typical two-stage flash plant by a single on/off pushbutton or switch:
1. The feed pump is started, the brine pump is
started, an air-operated bypass valve opens in the inlet
feed line to the first stage. Correct operation of the feed
pump is proven by a 20-second time-delay pressure
awitch; if the pump pressure does not build up, the
plant is secured. A high-level switch proves the operation of the brine pump; if the pump does not remove
the brine from the second stage, the high-level switch will
secure the plant. A float switch with a one-minute

delay proves the opening of the bypass valve; if a level
does not build up in the first stage, the plant will be
secured.
2. The steam valve to the air ejector opens after a
three-minute delay; the delay is obtained by the use of
a timer. If the air ejector malfunctions and the vacuum
is not reduced to the operating level in 35 minutes, a
vacuum pressure switch and timer arrangement will trip
the plant.
3. When the vacuum pressure switch indicates that
the second stage has reached the operating vacuum conditions, the steam pressure-reducing valve opens to allow
20-percent steam flow. Also activated at this time is a
timer which continues to open the steam valve, allowing
35 minutes for full steam flow to be reached. Opening
of the steam valve is proven by a temperature switch and
timer in the inlet to the first stage; if the feedwater
temperature does not reach 120 F in ten minutes, the
plant will be tripped. A solenoid valve in the "start-up"
desuperheating water supply line is also opened by the
vacuum pressure switch in the second stage.
4. The condensate pump is started by an electric float
switch in the feedwater heater hotwell. Starting this
pump secures the start-up desuperheater water supply
solenoid. Proof of the operation of this pump is determined by a pressure switch in the feedwater heater. If
the pump does not operate correctly, the level in the
heater will rise and the pressure in the heater will
increase. The pressure switch will trip the plant if the
heater pressure reaches 3 psig.
5. The distillate pump is started by a float switch
located in the condenser trough above the normal operating level. Proof of the operation of this pump is obtained
by the use of a low-vacuum trip in the second stage. If
the condensate level in the condenser becomes excessively
high, the air ejector suction line will be covered, the
vacuum will decrease, and the plant will trip,
6. Additional items also required include:
Pump back-pressure control vaIves are required on
the brine, distillate, and condensate lines.
Steam traps are required in all steam Iines; these
traps should discharge to a drain main in order to
prevent water hammer,
A panel is required at the local automatic start
station to indicate the progress of the start-up
procedure. If the plant trips during startrup, this
is necessary to determine the component, switch,
or relay which caused the trip.
Simply automating the opening of the steam supply
valve and air ejector steam supply valve can resdt in
possible compromises to reliable and extended operation.
These services should be put on the Iine slowly with the
caution required by sound engineering practice when
admitting steam to a plant. Therefore, additional control and timing devices to "bleed" warm-up steam prior
to opening the valves are required. These two valves,
once opened during an attentive starting sequence, need
not be touched or regulated to insure proper plant performance.

The automatic timing of the stdrbup sequences is
necessarily based on starting with a cold plant plus safety
margins and, therefore, the timing of successive, sequences is set for a much longer time than normally
required to manually start the plant under normal conditions. Consequently, it would be common for the
operator to override the automatic start in many
instances to decrease the time required to get the plant
on the line.
The advantages offered by a completely automatic
start-up system may not be justifiable when considering
the initial expense, complexity, and maintenance of
the automation system itself. The maintenance of the
complex automation system will usually require more
man-houm than those required to manually open the
necessary valves in proper sequence for start-up. Most
distilling plants have been designed to operate automatically after a manual start-up.
Reterences
Art Conference," Sacramento, California, June 18, 1968.

3 Gordon F. Leitner, "Marine Distilling Plants
Current Practice for Specifications," presented to the
Northern California Section of SNAME, January 13,
1966.
4 Charles D. Rose and Lee J. Hartenstein, "Condensate Cooled Evaps," Marine Engineering/Log, May
1968.
J
5 "Handbook on Sanitation of Vessel Construction,"
U. S. Public pealth Service, Department of Health,
Education arjd Welfm.
6 "Distillation Unit, Water, Thermocompression,"
Military Specification MIL-b-16196.
7 Richard M. Ahlgren, "Electrodialysis as a Chemical Unit ~ ~ e ~ a t i opresented
n)'
to Americaq Institute of
Chemical Engineera, St. Paul, Minnesota, February 20,
1962.
8 D. Q. Kern, Process Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1950.
9 W. H. McAdams. Heat Tramission. McGrawBill
Co., 1954.Unit@,Water; Steam, or Flashed
10Book
"Distillation
1 H. U. Sverdrup, M. W. Johnson, and R. H. Flem- Vapor Operated, or Fresh Water Heated, Low Pressure,
ing, The Oceans-Their Physics, Chemistry, and General Naval Shipboard," Military Specification MILD-18641.
Bwbgy, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1942.
11 "Standard Specification for Cargo Ship Construc2 F. A. Loebel, "The Flash Desalting Process," tion," Office of Ship Construction, Maritime Adminispresented at "A Seawater Conference--State of the tration, U. S. ~ e ~ k t m eofn tcommerce.
,!
HULL 'MACHINERY
CHAPTER X V I
Irving W. Smith
Archer M. Nickerson, Jr.
I Hull Machinery
Section 1
General Design Considerations
.1.1 Scope. Broadly defined, "hull machinery" (or
"deck machinery") includes all power-driven equipment
located outside the machinery spaces that is not associated with the main propulsion plant. Included as hull
machinery are such items as steering gears, anchor
windlasses, all types of winches (including cargo, topping,
vang, mooring, accommodation ladder, and boat
winches), cranes, capstans, elevators, dumbwaiters, conveyors, escalators, bow thrusters, and active fin stabilizers. Very few of these equipments require any design
techniques beyond those of standard machine design
practices, which are adjusted to make the equipments
suitable for the marine environment and to cope with the
oftentimes unique situations encountered on shipboard;
therefore, this chapter concentrates on the design considerations peculiar to marine equipment.
Close cooperation is required between the marine engineer and the naval architect in the design of hull machinery. As a consequence,this chapter has been written
to complement the Society's publications Principles of
Naval Architecture and Ship Design and Construction,
which emphasize the naval architect's role in the design
of hull machinery.
1.2 Types of Drive. There are, for most practical
purposes, only three types of drives for hull machinery:
steam, electric, and electrohydraulic. However, one
occasionally encounters a diesel engine drive, as for a bow
thruster, or a manual drive, as for schooner guy, vang, or
accommodation ladder winches. Frequently a manually
operated item may also be arranged to be driven by a
portable power unit such as an air or electric drill. Because of the emphasis on crew reduction and quicker turnaround for ships, manually driven hull machinery has
largely disappeared from the scene.
Steam-driven units are seldom installed except on some
tankers or in the vicinity of cargoes that are of a hazardous nature. Steam-driven units offer the advantage of
minimum fire hazards because they do not spark as does
electrical equipment. Although steam-driven equipment
is generally very rugged, simple, and easy to maintain,
the difficulties encountered in keeping steam mains
properly insulated and the problems associated with
maintaining an adequate steam flow in cold weather tend
to outweigh the advantages of ruggedness and simplicity (see Subsection 2.2 d). Then, too, the reliability
of electric motors and controls, the desire for remote con-
564
trol of many hull machinery components, and the increased technical ability of ships' engineers have all
pointed the development of hull machinery drives away
from steam and toward electric or electrohydraulic
powering.
With the advent of electrically driven engine room
auxiliaries, direct current was the almost universal choice
because it was easier to obtain multiple speeds for pumps,
fans, and particularly for such items of hull machinery as
cargo winches, capstans, and anchor windlasses. Variable or multiple speeds were obtained by using either
rheostats or power resistors. The power not used to drive
the equipment was converted into heat in either the rheostat or resistors, and it was necessary to provide extra
ventilation to dissipate this heat. Shortly after World
War 11,economic studies indicated that very appreciable
savings could be realized by changing from two-wire,
240-volt, direct-current ships' systems to three-phase,
450-volt, alternating-current systems.
The methods of obtaining variable or multiple speeds
for the several categories of hull machinery will be dealt
with as the equipments are described. For the moment
it is sufficient to say that these speeds may be obtained in
any of several ways either electrically, mechanically, or
hydraulically.
1.3 Mechanical Details. One of the obvious points
to be considered in the design of hull machinery is that it
is necessary to design for the pitch, roll, trim, and list of
the ship. All machinery should be designed for the following conditions:
A pitch of
deg (bow up to bow down)
A permanent trim of deg by either the bow or
stern
A roll of 30 deg (each side)
A permanent liet of 15 deg to either side
However, no two of these conditions are considered to
occur simultaneously. Additionally, it should be noted
that in the case of equipment which is not used a t sea
under storm conditions (e.g., cargo, topping, vang, and
accommodation ladder winches) the design conditions
listed only apply when the equipment is in the stowed
condition.
Every effort should be made to mount the driving and
driven equipment on a common bedplate in order that
alignment may be more easily maintained. In some few
instances this is impossible, as in the cases of capstans

and windlasses where the driving and driven assekblies
are frequently mounted on different decks. When such
two-deck arrangements are employed, provisions must be
made to accommodate the deck deflections and small
amounts of lateral displacement between the two assemblies. Where a shaft connects the two assemblies, flexibility is usually provided by a slip or flexible coupling;
if the connection between the two assemblies is hvdraulic
piping, the relative movement between assembli~scan be
accommodated by designing flexibility into the piping
arrangement (i.e., by looping or offsetting the piping,
taking care to avoid high regions which would trap air).
Motors or gear boxes located in the weather should be
provided with watertight housings, while those located
below deck or out of the weather may be provided with
dripproof protected housings.
Bearings may be, in general, of either the sleeve or antifriction type. If of the sleeve type, the bearings should
be of a good grade of bearing bronze. Where bearings
will be subject to impact loading, as on the wildcat shaft
of the windlass, they should be bronze rather than antifriction because of the possibility of "brinelling" occurring. Antifriction bearings should be used in any location where positive alignment, minimum lost motion, or
freedom from wear is essential for proper operation.
Some locations that fall into these categories are: motor
bearings, steering gear differential control assemblies,
worm and worm wheel shafts, and tension-sensing assemblies as on constant-tension mooring winches.
Reduction gears should be totally enclosed and provided with an oil bath lubrication and with means for
filling, draining, and measuring the lubricant level.
Properly gasketed inspection and maintenance openings
should be provided in all gear enclosures. It is suggested
that the interior of gear cases be sand blasted and thoroughly cleaned before final assembly.
The design and manufacture of gearing for hull machinery should be in accordance with recognized standards such as those of the American Gem Manufacturers
Association. No compromise for strength should be
allowed when designing the gearing, but it is considered
acceptable practice to make some adjustments in the calculations for durability (wear) because most hull machinery operates on an intermittent basis. The wear rating of gearing for hull machinery can be increased because
of its intermittent usage. The range of wear load service
factors which may be considered, that is, the factors by
which the nominal gear working loads can be reduced to
arrive at the design wear loads, are given in Table 1.
Spur, helical, and herringbone gearing should be of
steel, should have machine-cut teeth, and may be heat
treated to increase their ratings. Worms should be made
of steel and be integral with their shafts, and worm wheels
should be made of bronze. When a worm wheel is large,
say over 8 in. in pitch diameter, it may be made with a
bronze rim bolted to a steel hub. In order to obtain a
high degree of mechanical efficiency, worm reductions
should be of an overhauling type. There are, however,
Table 1
565
Wear Load Service Factor for Gears
,
Fadm
Capstans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.35-0.5
Crane machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . 7 -1.0
Steering gear drives.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.0
Winches, cargo.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.7
constant-tension mooring.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.0
other.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35-1.0
Windlasses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . # . . . ..,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.35-0.5
-Equipmend
instances whereX'anonoverhauling feature is more important than' the efficiency considerations involved.
Additionally, it is good practice to avoid the use of worms
on overhung shafts because of the misalignment which
can result from the worm shaft deflecting.
Brake linings should be of an incombustible material
that is not adversely affected by either heat or moisture.
Woven linings are usually manufactured using a resinous
binder. I t is suggested that the linings be baked in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations to
remove any excess amount of binder before the linings
are installed. (There is additional discussion regarding
lining materials and their installation in Section 2.2,
which is devoted to the anchor windlass.)
Where flexible couplings are used, as between motors
and pumps, they should be of the all-metal type and
preferably of the all-steel type.
All fasteners exposed to the weather up to and including % in. diameter should be of nonferrous material
or of stainless steel. Iiarger fasteners may be cadmium ,
plated or galvanized steel. Breathers and drain check
valves should be of a nonferrous material or of stainless
steel. Dowels and taper pins should be of stainless steel.
Aluminum should not be used for watertight enclosures.
The rope-contact surface of capstan, gypsy, and windlass heads should be hardened to a depth of a t least 4f6
in. to a minimum of 300 BHN to provide an abrasionresistant surface.
The main rams for steering gears are hydraulic cylinder
rods but, because they are invariably located below deck
and out of the weather, they need no surface protection
other than that provided by the hydraulic oil that
adheres to them as they move in and out of the cylinders.
All other cylinder rods, including those located in cargo
holds where dust may be present, should be plated. The
outer layef of plating should be of chromium because of
its fine finish. However, chromium plating frequently
contains cracks, invisible to the eye, which will allow seawater or moisture to penetrate and start corrosion. The
corrosion spreads under the@er of chqomium and separates the plating from the steel rod. The rusted surface
then is free to abrade the packing in the cylinder as the
rod moves in and out. This can be avoided by fir& providing a plating of nickel on the rod. The nickel plating
provides a completely impervious coating but is rough
and would, in itself, tend to wear out the packing and
cause leaks. Therefore, a layer of chromium must be
added over the layer of nickel. Each coating should be
566
HULL MACHINERY
MARINE ENGINEERING
0.0005 to 0.001 in. thick. It is advisable to provide

wipers on the rods to prevent dirt from being drawn into
the packing. In some locations it may be advisable to
provide boots on the rods to further protect against an
accumulation of dirt on the working portion of the rod.
If boots are installed, they should be of a clear plastic material so that any leakage of oil into the boot may be obsemed. Wherever possible, the arrangement of the rod
and cylinder should be such that the rod is withdrawn
into the cylinder when the equipment is secured so aa to
protect the rod from surface deterioration due to being
exposed to the weather for extended periods.
Foundations for hull machinery are usually made of
inverted angles that are welded to the deck. Each item
of hull machinery is usually provided with a base that has
a true, machined mounting surface. In order to ensure
that the base of the equipment is not distorted when it is
fastened to the foundation, it has been conventional
practice to insert steel shims, chocks, or liners between
the foundation angle and the base of the equipment.
However, steel liners have two major disadvantages:
(1) The space between steel liners is subjected to corrosive
action and is almost impossible to maintain since the
liners are not continuous and are only about % in. thick,
and (2) The labor involved in fitting the liners is considerable since they must be inserted, checked for surface con- .
tact, removed, filed or ground down, and reinserted,
usually several times before an acceptable installation is
obtained.
As an alternative to steel liners, a chocking system
using a poured epoxy resin may be used. Spacers (which
may be nothing more than small pieces of $.i-in.-thick
steel) are placed on the foundation angles. The unit of
hull machinery is lowered onto these spacers, and f o u n h
tion bolts are inserted but the nuts are run up only
"finger tight." Three sides of each foundation mating
surface are then provided with temporary dams and the
space between the equipment base and the foundation is
poured full of the liquid epoxy material. After about 48
hours (or such time as is required by the particular mixture being used) the temporary dams are removed and
the foundation bolts properly tightened. No attempt is
made to remove the spacers. The equipment is then
properly seated and the epoxy between the equipment
base and the foundation provides a degree of corrosion
protection. This system has proven satisfactory and is
accepted by the regulatory bodies. Considerable care
must be taken in pouring the liquid epoxy, and only certain mixtures and methods of application are permitted
by the regulatory bodies.
Stress analyses should be made during the design of all
hull machinery. These should include calculations for
gearing, bearings, shafting, structural components, foundation bolts, etc. For merchant ships the normal-duty
stresses should not exceed 40 percent of the yield point of
the material and maximum stresses should not exceed 75
percent of the yield point; however, other design criteria regarding stresses may be required by the approval
authority.
SUPPLY
TO OTHER
LOADS
3-POSITION VALVE
ACCUMULATOR
5-POSITION VALVE
- -
ACCUMULATOR
FILTER
I.
--
CHECK
VALVE
VALVE
+I
I
CHECK
VALVE
Fig. 1
DELIVERY,
PRESSURE
COMPENSATED
Constant-flow hydraulic system
STRAINER
I
Where automatic or oil-bath lubrication is not furnished, pressure gun grease lubrication should be supplied. Great care must be exercised in fabricating and
installing both lubricating and hydraulic oil piping. In
addition, all systems should be cleaned after installation
by a method such as that described in reference L11.l
Where it is possible for the manufacturer to do so, he
should completely assemble, clean, and charge the equipment with oil to protect the equipment until it is placed
in service. Equipments such as steering gears, winches,
and hatch covers have been successfully handled in this
manner.
When hydraulic equipment is used, the bedplates for
the pumping units should be provided with an oil-retaining rim so that leakage will be confined to a limited area.
1.4 Hydraulic Details. The hydraulic systems used
aboard ships vary widely in variety and complexity;
however, most shipboard hydraulic systems bear a degree of similarity with either the constant-flow, constantpressure, or demand systems shown by Figs. 1, 2, and 3,
respectively.
The major components of a constant-flow hydraulic
system are the fixed-delivery pump, unloading valve, and
accumulator. When the pump is started, fluid is delivered to the accumulator, which is usually of the pneumatic type, until the accumulator pressure equals that
of the unloading valve setting. If there is no demand on
the system, the unloading valve then opens to bypass the
pump discharge back to the tank, and the pump runs continuously. At the same time, the check valve holds the
fluid pressure in the system so that the energy stored in
1
COMMAND
FEEDBACK
SIGNALS
RELIEF VALVE
Fig. 3
CHECK
VALVE
Demand hydraulic system
Fig. 2
~onstant/preuurehydraulic system
the accumulator is immediately available upon load demand.

When a throttle or control valve to an attached hydraulic actuator is opened, the accumulator immediately
provides fluid to this load and the discharge causes a drop
in system pressure. I n turn, the unloading valve closes
and the pump discharge is returned to the active system.
Upon a decrease in the load demand, the system pressure
again rises to actuate the unloading valve upon recharging the accumulator, and the load cycle is complete.
The sump tank is replenished by returns from the exhaust lines of the attached loads.
Constant-pressure hydraulic systems, as shown in Fig.
2, generally use one or more variable-delivery pressurecompensated pumps which supply hydraulic fluid, a t a
substantially constant pressure to either a system of
multiple loads or to a single load such as a hydraulic elevator hoist. The constant+pTessure hydraulic system
pump takes suction from a sump tank and discharges
directly into the main supply piping. When the pumping
capacity exceeds the load requirements, the system pressure increases to a predetermined value, at which point
the pressure compensator acts to take the pump off
stroke, thus stopping the flow of hydraulic fluid. A relief
valve is provided to protect against overpressurization in
the event that the pressure compensator fails to properly
reduce the stroke of the pump. When the system demands cause the system pressure to drop to a preset
value, the pressure compensator acts to put the pump on
stroke, thus restoring the flow of the hydraulic fluid to
recharge the accumulator and maintain the system operating pressure. The fluid flow to the individual loads
may be controlled by a variety of types of valves, in addition to tlie three-position valve shown for simplicity in
Fig.
The
2. demand hydraulic system, as shown in Fig. 3, is
a closed-loop system particularly adapted to meet the
precise demands of varyi,n~,laadssuch as steering gears
and automatic weapons handling equipment. - The variable and reversible delivery main pump does not take
suction from a sump tank, as a loop of oil is maintained
between the main pump and the load. The closed loop
eliminates a significant amount of pressure drop which
would exist if the load control were achieved by a servo
valve located in the main hydraulic piping. A servo
pump and a replenishing pump, driven by the same shaft
MARINE ENGINEERING
as the main pump, provide actuating fluid to stroke the

main pump and to provide makeup fluid to the closed
loop, respectively. Control of the main pump is accomplished by command and feedback signals. The
command and feedback signals may be composed of a
combination of mechanical, electrical, or hydraulic devices.
I n one type of hydraulic steering system (see Fig. 11))
a rudder-position command signal originates at an electric servo located in the wheelhouse while a mechanical
feedback signal, which relates the position of the rudder
to the helm position, is originated from the steering
gear. The input servo command signal is converted to a
mechanical command signal at the steering gear control
differential. The feedback is the other input to this differential which then measures the "error" between the
helm and rudder positions. The "error" is translated
into the form of mechanical motion to a rotary servo or
other appropriate device which controls the flow of pressurized fluid to stroke the main pump. The response is
one of direction as well as magnitude, so that the error is
corrected in either the right or left rudder direction. The
rate of rudder motion is dependent on the magnitude of
the error or differential within the limit of the available
pump stroke. For small differentials, as when holding s,
course, the pump stroke is moderate and the rudder response is slow. When going hard over in an emergency,
the wheel will be well ahead of the rudder, the pump will
be forced on maximum stroke, and the rudder rate will be
at its maximum.
The same principle is advantageous in' hoistingmachinery drives in which a motor runs continuously in
one direction to drive the variable-stroke pump, and the
hydraulic actuator (motor or ram) is started, stopped,
reversed, and driven at infinitely variable speeds within
the system capacity by simply varying the pump stroke.
Accumulators have a variety of applications in shipboard hydraulic systems. Fundamentally, accumulators
are storers of energy. For shipboard use, they are usually pneumatic; that is, the hydraulic fluid is stored in a
tank containing gas under pressure. The stored energy
is then measured by the energy required to compress the ,
gas. This is recovered by allowing the fluid to flow into
the hydraulic system under accumulator pressure. The
pressure/volume characteristics are determined by the
fluid/gas volume ratio and the initial charge (i.e. pressure) of the gas. The air and fluid may be in direct contact in the accumulator tank or they may be separated
by a piston, sack, or diaphragm. If the hydraulic
fluid is inflammable, the charge may be of nitrogen gas
rather than air in order to minimize the possibility of an
explosion.
In typical applications accumulators are used to minimize the pumping capacity that is required in systems
which have large oil flow demands followed by significantly lower demands or idle periods. Hydraulic elevators are a typical application of this type. A relatively
small pump is used to charge an accumulator, and the
elevator can be raised using the oil in the accumulator;
then while the elevator is idle, the pump can recharge the
accumulator. A further advantage may be obtained in
the recovery of energy by allowing the exhaust fluid from
a descending elevator to charge an accumulator at a
lower pressure. The pump then merely maintains the
Dressure differential between the two accumulators.
A second purpose of an accumulator is in applications
where an instantaneous source of hydraulic oil must be
provided in response to intermittent demands. In this
case the alternatives are to either provide a continuously
running pump or to provide a pump that is normally idle
along with an accumulator. Central hydraulic systems
for hatch cover operation contain accumulators for this
purpose. Since it is not desirable to drive the pumps continuously, the accumulators are provided to store the
energy for a sudden demand such as closing the covers
quickly in the event of a shower. Hydraulic systems
which operate valves contain accumulators for this same
purpose; here the pump charges the accumulator and is
normally idle because the accumulator contains sufficient
oil to make several valve operations.
Another purpose of accumulators is to provide a source
of emergency power in the event of a power failure. For
example, hydraulic elevators may have accumulators
which permit a cycle to be completed in the event of a
power failure.
I n systems which must be held under pressure indefinitely, accumulators may also be used to make up
small increments of possible leakage, thereby eliminating
the need of frequent short pumping cycles.
Central hydraulic systems are advantageous on some
ships, especially large tankers where safety regulations
limit the installation of electrically powered equipment
and steam is undesirable because of the long steam and
condensate lines involved. Hydraulic pumping stations
serving two or more equipments have been used in a
variety of applications aboard ships. Most difficulties
experienced with such systems have been due to deficiencies associated with system basic engineering, system
cleanliness, or system venting. The basic engineering of
centralized hydraulic systems is of major importance to
ensure that the system elements are compatible and are
capable of functioning so as to meet all requirements.
Cleaning as well as venting the system also starts in the
design stage. Not only must access for flushing be provided during the design stage, but also the design must be
checked to ensure that the flushing velocities will be
sufficient to clean the system. Additionally, pockets
and voids, which would tend to collect foreign matter,
must be avoided.
Three possible arrangements of centralized hydraulic
systems which may be considered for merchant ships are
as follows:
1. The bower anchor windlass and forward mooring
equipment on one system, and the aft mooring equipment
on another system.
2. All of the cargo, topping, and vang winches between a pair of hatches on a common system. Adj*
cent hatch covers could also be served by these systems.
HULL MACHINERY
3. All hull machinery (except the steering gear) on a

single system.
In the first two cases, the pumping units would be
located close to the driven equipment so that the mains
would be comparatively short. In the third case, "the
mains would be long but the pumping units would be
located in the engine room where they could be serviced
readily. The steering gear should be left out of this system since its average demand would be only a small percentage of the installed capacity of the central system
and it would be uneconomical to run the large central
system pumps continuously at sea. Furthermore, incorporating the steering gear into the central hydraulic
system could degrade the availability of the steering gear
in that an accident which ruptured a hydraulic line amidships could incapacitate the steering gear.
Great care must be taken in sizing the pumps and
mains for any of these central systems in order that there
be adequate capacity for the maximum simultaneous
loads. In the engine room system three or four pumps
may be provided to handle the maximum load. These
pumps could be cut in or out either manually or automatically as the loads vary.
Most hull machinery hydraulic systems are either exposed to the weather or are installed in unheated parts of
the ship. For these reasons, during the design stages consideration must be given to the ambient temperatures to
be encountered and the viscosity characteristics of the oil
selected. If it is not possible to warm up the system prior
to actual operation, heating of the oil in the sump by
steam or electric heaters may be desirable.
Hydraulic piping that will be exposed to the weather
should be of a corrosion-resistant material, such as stainless steel, except in the largest sizes used in ship-wide
central hydraulic systems. If steel piping is used, its
wall thickness should include an allowance for corrosion.
Hydraulic systems for steering gears, windlasses,
uinches, cranes, etc., should be provided with gage connections fitted with shutoff valves so that system performance may be checked during initial testing and regular overhaul periods. The gages should be valved off and
should have gage snubbers in the line so that the gages
will not be damaged by system pressure pulsations.
Hydraulic sumps, or reservoirs, should generally be
large enough to contain 110 percent of the volume of oil
in the system so that the system may be drained to the
sump for servicing or maintenance. Even when a system
cannot be drained+tothe sump, because the units served
are below the sump, it is good practice to provide a sump
large enough to contain all of the oil in the system; that
is, after .the entire system, including all variable-displacement units, has been filled, the pump suction should
still be flooded to the operating level.
Pumps taking suction from a sump tank should be
fitted uith a suction strainer, and the pump discharge
should be through a full-flow filter. The filter should be
equipped with an indicator that will show the cleanliness
of the filtering element.
569
1.S Electrical Details. The characteristics of electrical equipment are discussed in Chapter 17. Particular
reference is made to Section 4.3 of Chapter 17 because
that section reviews the electrical characteristics of motors which are an important consideration in motor selection.
Electrical equipment should be either watertight or
dripproof protected as dictdted by its location, in or out
of the weather. Motors should have natural ventilation
in most instanqe~and may have bearings that are either
grease lubricated or permanently lubricated and sealed;
the latter is becoming the more common. In the case of
grease-lubricated bearings, the bearing housings should
be arranged such that the grease will not be forced into
the windings. Watertight motors should be equipped
with an automatic drainage fitting. Where a brake or
gear is to be mounted directly on the motor shaft, the
shaft should be tapered and fitted with a key and lock
nut.
Electric brakes of the spring set, solenoid released,
shoe type have proven to provide more satisfactory service than those of the disk type. Nevertheless, where disk
brakes are properly designed and applied, they can provide entirely satisfactory service. Brakes should be of
sufficient capacity to stop and hold the load under any
condition of operation or testing. Brakes are commonly
designed to support 200 percent of the normal operating
load, and tests should be performed (particularly for
cargo gear) to confirm this capability. Watertight
brakes are frequently fitted with an external hand release
so that, in the event of a poiher failure, the load may be
safely lowered without the necessity of removing the
brake cover. A hand release also avoids the hazards associated with the alternative of backing the springs off.
Direct-current brakes are preferable to alternating-current brakes even though they require the addition of a
rectifier to provide the direct current. The direct-current units have a better response when they set, and
alternating-current brakes have a tendency to "chatter"
when setting.
The enclosures for watertight shoe brakes should be of
%in.-thick stainless steel or of x-in.-thick mild steel
that is treated both on the inside and outside with an
inorganic zinc coating, and the hardware should be corrosion resistant. The slight extra cost for these designs
will ensure that the enclosure will last for the life of the
ship. The watertight enclosure should be fitted with an
automatic drainage fitting.
Where possible, control panels should be arranged so
that they may be serviced from the front. This will allow
panels to be mounted back&+back or against a bulkhead.
Where the panels are to be mounted in the weather, the
enclosures should be of stainless steel with corrosionresistant hardware.
Limit switches are a constant source of trouble, particularly when they are exposed to the weather. Their
reliability is further impaired if they am subject to being
coated with paint when the equipment is painted.
Great care should be taken in their selection to ensure
'
MARINE ENGINEERING
that they are of rugged construction. Shafts in limit

switches should be of bronze, monel, or stainless steel.
Master switches for variable- or multiple-speed equipments should be of the cam type with vertical handles
having integral knobs. They should be permanently
marked to indicate operating directions and, if the control is of the multiple-speed type, there should be detents
so that the operator can sense the speed points. The
enclosures should be of either ductile iron or bronze and
should be raised to a convenient working height. Many
owners prefer that even cam-type master switches be of
the "spring return to OFF" type to guard against the
possibility of the operator leaving his position with the
equipment running. If this type of switch is provided,
the detents must be very slight so that there will be no
chance of the handle "hanging up" on one of the running
points.
All hull machinery control equipment must incorporate
undervoltage protection due to regulatory body requirements. If the master switch is not of the "spring return
to OFF" type, the control circuitry should be arranged
HULL MACHINERY
so that it is necessary to return the master switch to the

OFF position to reset the undervoltage relay. If the
controller overload relay is of the manual reset type at
the controller, no extra undervoltage control relay need
be provided. If the controller overload relay is of the
automatic reset type or if an automatic reset temperature-sensing element is built into the motor, undervoltage protection should be provided by an undervoltage
relay which will not reset until the master switch is returned to the OFF position.
Heaters should be provided for all watertight motors
and brakes and, where space permits, in watertight master switches; heaters should also be provided for all
motor controllers. The heaters should be connected to
an electric circuit that is continuously energized and
independent of the power feeders. One method of providing heating for alternating-current motors is to provide reduced voltage in one of the three phases. All
heater circuits should be p a n g e d so that they will be
interrupted when the main power circuit for the motor is
energized.
HAND
PUMP
DIFFERENTIAL
ASSEMBLY
TRICKWHEEL
/
Fig. 4
Rapson-slide type steering gear
Section 2
Hul Machinery Installations
2.1
Steering Gear
a. Introduction. Steering gear arrangements in great

variety have been used to control the position of ships'
rudders. The various types of steering gears which have
been used are described in detail and illustrated thoroughly in references [2], [3], and [4]. As may be noted
from a review of the early steering gear designs, the advent of the Hele-Shaw and Vickers variable-stroke pumps
made possible the design of hydraulic steering gears of a
torque capacity adequate for the largest vessels. These
forerunners of many commercial vumvs of similar vrinciple are driven co~tinuously,while in operation, in one
direction of rotation. The pump discharge is varied in
rate and direction by controlling the stroke of the pump
pistons (see Chapter 12 for discussion regarding variablestroke hydraulic pumps). Right and left rudder motion
or the holding of rudder position is accomplished very
smoothly by the use of these pumps. These characteristics have made the electrohydraulic steering gear,
driven by electric motors and variable-stroke pumps, the
favored selection for installation on oceangoing vessels.
To simply state that a steering gear is of the electrohydraulic type is not definitive because there are several
types of electrohydraulic steering gears which offer advantages in particular applications. A common type of
electrohydraulic steering gear is the Rapson-slide type.
This type is well suited for very high rudder torque ratings in that the Rapson-slide arrangement provides an
increasing mechanical advantage at larger rudder angles
(see Section 2.1 c); however, its use is not confined to
high-torque applications. Rapson-slide steering gears

may be of either the single ram group type (as is common
for low-torque applications) or the double ram graup type
as il]us$rated by Figs. 4 and 5. The steering gears in
Figs. 4 and 5 ayp f p t h e r classified as being of a "unitized"
construction. A uqitized construction is one in which the
entire steering gear is assembled as a unit at the manufacturer's plant and is installed as a unit by the shipbuilder (as opposed to constructi~lgthe ram groups and
power plants as separate entities, each of which must be
vrovided a foundation by the shipbuilder and each of
khich must be connected togethe; by the shipbuilder).
A unitized construction is not only economical in terms of
shipboard installation costs, but it alsq reduces opportunities for foreign matter to be introduced into the hy:
draulic system because the unitized gear is completely
assembled by the manufacturer and shipped full of oil to
ensure preservation.
A link type of steering gear, typically illustrated by
Fig. 6, also employs a ram group; hoyever, the principle
of operation is considerably different, as discussed in Section 2.1 c. Link-type steering gears generally have a decreasing, rat,her than increasing, mechanical advantage
at larger rudder angles; however, there are two cases for
which a link type of steering gear is ideally suited. One
is a case where there is insufficient space around the rudder stock to permit the installation of rams (by comparing Figs. 4 and 6 it will be seen that the space required in
way of rudder stock is considerably different for the two
types). Another situation well suited for a link-type
Fig. 5
Four-cylinder, unitized, Rapson-slide steering gear
steering gear is a twin-rudder ship that can be arranged

such that one link-type steering gear can serve two rudders, as shown by Fig. 6.
Yet another type of electrohydraulic steering gear is
the rotary vane type which is illustrated by Figs. 7 and 8.
Rotary vane steering gears have no rams; with these
units the rudder torque is developed by the differential
pressure that acts across the vanes which can be seen in
Fig. 8. Rotary vane steering gears are not suitable for
the higher torque ratings, but for rudder torque ratings
of about 15,000,000 in.-lb and less they offer the advantages of low space requirements, low installation costs,
and a low weight.
b. Rudder Torque Rating. One of the more nebulous aspects of the ship design process is the establishment of the maximum rudder torque for which the steer-
ing gear should be designed. 8hip specifications rarely

stipulate the maximum design rudder torque; instead,
the specifications usually state that the steering gear shall
be capablh of moving the rudder a t a prescribed rate when
the ship is proceeding at maximum speed. With the ship
specifications written in this manner, the shipbuilder has
the responsibility of establishing the maximum design
.,+rudder torque.
Some of the analytical procedures which have been
employed to estimate the maximum design rudder torque
are discussed in detail in references [5] and [6]. It may
be noted, however, that there can be a considerable difference between the rudder torque values predicted by
the various procedures. The situation becomes further
clouded when attempts are made to correlate analytical
predictions with test results.
572
---
HULL MACHINERY
MARINE ENGINEERING
HAND PUMP
(FILL AND DRUN)
k O F LINKS
.-1
HYDRAWIC PIPING
NOT SHOWN
-L
&
-
.-,
ELECTRIC M O T O R
CHANGE OVER
/VALVE CONTROL
HYDRAULIC PUMPSTROKE CONTROL LINKAGE
Fig. 9
Link motion diagram
DIFFERENTIAL CONTROL
'ILLER (RUDDER HARDOVER
-+a
TILLER (RUDDER AMIDSHIP)
Fig. 6
'RAM
CYLINDER
Link type hydraulic steering gear for a twin-rudder ship
Fig. 7 Vane type steering gear with dual power units
In many cases the data resulting from steering gear

tests consist of only the time required to complete a
maneuver and the maximum pressure that was observed
during the mafieuver, with both bits of data observed and
manually recorded by a data taker. The value of such
data is s&erely limited because the rate of rudder movement during the maneuver is not known with certainty
(e.g., the power limiter may have reduced the pump
stroke during part of the maneuver); and the "maximum pressure" recorded could be an "average" maximum pressure, the maximum pressure sustained for a
"significant" period of time, or the peak pressure ob-
Fig. 8
Vane type steering gear with cover removed
served. Additionally, with ram-type steering gears the

rudder angle at which the pressure occurred must be
known in order to relate the pressure to a torque value.
When the data are taken manually, the rudder angle is
generally not known, but the maximum pressure is often

assumed to have occurred at the maximum rudder angle.
In view of the above, it should not be surprising that the
"maximum" rudder torques reported from sea trials of
sister ships have varied as much as 50 percent.
More sophisticated test instrumentation has been used
to continuously record the rudder angle, ram pressure,
ship's heading, etc., as a means of defining the test conditions. While this procedure gives definitive rudder rate
data, problems are nevertheless encountered in establishing the "maximum" rudder torque observed due to
the errlttic characteristics of the data. For example,
spikes in the recorded pressure data may reach extraordinarily high values and be of such a short duration
that the relief valves do not lift. The maximum pressure
observed should not be taken to be the peak value, but
some lesser value, e.g., the maximum value sustained for
a 0.2-sec time period.
The most reliable method of estimating the maximum
rudder torque required for a given ship is to first select a
similar ship for which trial data are available. Next,
using one or more computational procedures, such as described in references [fi] and [6], estimate the rudder
torque required for the similar ship and then compare the
estimate with the trial results. If there is a significant
disparity between the calculated torque and the torque
established by the trial results, as is usually the case, determine a correction factor that can be applied to the
estimated torque to male it agree with the trial results.
After the correction factor has been established, use the
same computational procedure and apply the established
correction factor to estimate the rudder torque required
for the ship in question. Even after completing this procedure, the proper maximum design rudder torque can
seldom be stated with certainty; however, in the final
analysis, a single design value must be selected.
c. Ram Group. Hydraulic steering gears employing
rams are generally of either the Rapson-slide type, shown
by Fig. 4, or the link type, shown by Fig. 6, with the
former being the more common. A force diagram for a
link arrangement is shown by Fig. 9. As can be seen,
when the rudder is hard over, the effective crosshead arm
(i.e., the torque arm) is very nearly equal to the crosshead
radius multiplied by the cosine of the hardover angle with
Fig. 1 0
Rapson-slide force diagram

~ :-
the link arrangement. The torque arm therefore is

usually least when the torque to be developed is a t its
maximum; as a result, the forces required with this arrangement are relatively large. The torque developed by
a single-ram link arrangement is
FR cos a
(1)
where
Q = torque developed, in.-lb

F = ram force, lb
R = crosshead radius, in.
a = rudder angle, deg
As may be seen from Fig. 10, an increasing mechanical

advantage is obtained at larger rudder angles with the
Rapson-slide type of mechanism. The torque developed
by a single-ram Rapson-slide arrangement is
where the terms are as defined for equation (1) and shown
by Fig. 10. For the same ram force and crosshead radius,
the torque which can be developed by a Rapson-slide
arrangement is greater than the capability of a link arrangement by a factor of cosa a. At a rudder angle of 35
deg, this factor is 55 percent. In view of the mechanical
HULL MACHINERY
MARINE ENGINEERING
advantage offered by a Rapson-slide arrangement, it may

appear that a link arrangement need not be considered;
however, such is not the case as discussed in the foregoing.
Ordinarily, ram groups of the link type are provided
with two links for each ram, one above and the other
below the ram; likewise, Rapson-slide mechanisms are
usually built with crosshead arms above and below the
ram.
One or more tie rods should be provided betwecn the
two cylinders of each ram group. The tie rods are usually shouldered at the cylinder bosses in which they are
mounted, and set up with double nuts. Being of exact
length, they aid in aligning the cylinders both while the
steering gear is in the course of fabrication and installation and while in service. The tie rods are not necessary
for the transmittal and distribution of axial loads but
they are convenient guides for bushings or shoes carried
in extensions of, or bracketed from, the rams in order to
prevent rotation of the rams about their longitudinal
axes.
Bronze bushings are usually installed in the cylinders
to provide a suitable bearing surface for the ram; the
bushings are made to form the inner ends of the stuffing
boxes. With the link type of construction the bushings
carry little load other than the weight of the ram itself;
the lateral load introduced by the link is slight, even at
the maximum obliquity. However, with a Rapson-slide
mechanism, the ram is subjected to a considerable lateral
force, and since the forces are usually the largest at a
hard-over rudder angle, when the crosshead is near one
cylinder or the other, one of the bushings will carry by
far the greater part of the load. When a ram is made of
high-strength steel, which permits high stresses with no
improvement in the modulus of elasticity, it is conceivable that the deflection of the ram may be great enough
to cause binding in the cylinder bushings. Consequently,
the bushings for Rapson-slide mechanisms should be
given careful study.
Since the maximum axial load on a ram is limited by
the hydraulic pressure, which is only a small fraction of
the permissive stress in the ram metal, column or even
strut strength calculations are unnecessary. However,
ram bending calculations can be important for Rapsonslide designs when, as is sometimes done for weight reduction, the rams are bored out from both ends or when
the gear is designed for an abnormally large rudder movement (e.g,, Great Lakes ships which are commonly designed for a 45-deg to 45-deg rudder movement); in such
cases flexural stress may also become a critical consideration.
,
Carefully designed ram groups have a crosshead radius
(or with a Ra~son-slidemechanism, the distance from the
ram stroke, with the ram diameter being correspondingly

increased.
The maximum design hydraulic pressures for steering
gears generally fall in the range of 1500 to 2500 p i with
naval ships in the upper end of the range and conserva-.
tively designed merchant ships occupying the lower end
of the range.
~ e r c h a i tship specifications commonly require that
the steering gear be capable of moving the rudder from
hard over (35 deg rudder) on one side to within 5 deg of
the hard-over position (30 deg) on the opposite side within
28 sec when proceeding ahead a t the maximum rated
propeller rpm. The timing cycle is normally terminated
5 deg before the hard-ovcr rudder position in order to
avoid timing the rudder movement as the follow-up
mechanism is reducing the pump stroke. For merchant
ships, the rudder rate when going astern is commonly not
specified, although it has been stipulated to be one half
of the value specified for ahead steering.
The rudder rate specified for naval ships varies from
one ship to the next. Generally, it ranges upward from
29 deg per sec for ahead steering, with no rate specified
for astern steering.
In order to avoid having astern considerations control
the capacity of steering gears for naval ships, it is common practice to conduct special astern steering tests for
the purpose of establishing the maximum astern speed a t
which the rudder can be moved without exceeding the
ahead rating. A sign warning that there is a hazard of
overloading the steering gear at astern speeds greater
than that established is then made and installed in the
helmsman's view.
Table 2 illustrates the considerations which enter into
the preliminary design of a steering gear and gives a procedure for computing the approximate characteristics of
a steering gear. If only an approximation of the maximum motor horsepower requirements is desired, the following expression may be used for a steering gear of the
Rapson-slide type:
proximately three times the ram diameter. It is convenient to use this ratio for preliminary design purposes bearing in mind that arrangement considerations may necessitate shortening the crosshead radius, and therefore the
to the maximum pressure observed during the timing

cycle commonly occurs at the 30 deg position before
reaching hard over, and with the exception of Q , all other
terms in equations (3) and (4) are considered to have con-
H =
&(tan 4
torque at maximum pressure during timing cycle,

in.-lb
a = Ndder angle at
=
and all other terms are as defined in Table 2.

The corresponding relationship for a link-type steering
gear is
H =
Type of Linkage
Rapson
Number of rams.. . . . . . . . . .
Maximum permissible operating pressure, psi. . . . . . .
hlaximum rudder angle, deg .
Rudder augle at end of timing cycle, deg. . . . . . . . . . .
Rudder torqne at 0, in.-lb.. .
~Iaximumdesign torque
ahead, in.-lb. . . . . . . . . . . .
Rudder angle at Q1, deg. . . .
Maximum design torqne
astern, in.-Ib.. . . . . . . . . . .
Rudder an le at Q2, deg. . . .
am-to-rujder efficiency. . .
Approximate crosshead
radiu~,~
in.. . . . . .. . . . . . . .
Approximate ram diameter
= R1/3, in.. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crosshead radius used, in.. . .
Ram diameter used. in.. . . . .
Maximum ram pressure
aheadlbpsi.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
blaximum ram pressure
a ~ t e r npsi..
,~ .. . .. . . . . . . .. .
Ram stroke during timing
cycleldin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oil volume during cycle =
a
DeZS, cu in.. . . . . . . . . .
Duration of timing cycle
ahead,*sec.. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oil flow requirements,
0.2597V!t1 gpm.. . . . . . . . .
Pump effimency.. . . . . . . . . .
Maximum ram pressure
ahead during timing cycle,f
psi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum motor horsepower
requirements =
paC/liY4e,rhp. . . . . . . . . .
Motor horsepower used? hp .
1700
Link
1700
35
35
27
27
D'
R
D
PI
pa
S
V
124
0.85
183
0.85
pa
1075
940
H
HI
91.5
75
100
118.1
Nofes for Table 2

-
tan 0) cos2 a
66OOEte
where
&
Table 2 Preliminary Design Calculations

for an Eledrohydraulic Steering Gear
&(sin 4
sin 0)
6600Ete cos a
QI and 4 as well as Qa p.nd cue are used in the above equations and
the largest value of R' is used.
9 1 = 4Q1 cose cul/rZREDefor Rapson
p1 = ~ Q I / ~ Z R E
cos
Dul~ for link
Cheeks should also be made to ensure that higher pressures do not
occur at smaller rudder torque values.
" See note b using Qe and cua vice Q1 and ul
d S = R (tan + tan 0) for Rapson
S = R (sin +
sin 0) for link
a Duration of the ahead timing cycle is 28 ~econdsminus one
second for stroking the pump.
I The maximum ram pressure during the ahead timing cycle
often occurs at the 30 deg position before reaching hard over; however, the ram pressures at other angles should be checked, using an
equation of the form given in note b, to ensure that none are larger.
0 A similar calciilation may be required to confirm that the
astern horsepower requirements are not a controlling consideration.
h The amount of motor overload permitted for merchant ships is
typically 25 percent during ahead steering and 50 percent during
astern steering [7]; naval ships me permitted ta be averloaded 50
percent during both ahead and astern operations [8].
++
575
stant values in many cases. As a result, equations (3)

and (4) can each be reduced to a constant times Q.
d. Steering Gear Power Units. Steering gear power
plants are required by the regulatory bodies to be installed in duplicate, with each power plant having the
capability of moving the rudder a t the specified rate
under all conditions of ,full-speed maneuvering. Thus, a
completely redundant power/plant is installed.
Each power plant consists essentially of an electric
motor driving a"wariab1e-stroke pump. Motors for the
steering gear , pumps are generally of the 440-volt,
3-phase, 60-cycles per second, squirrel-cage induction
type and are dripproof protected. When the steering
gear is powered by continuously operated, reversibleflow, variable-delivery pumps, the motor should be rated
for continuous duty a t 15 percent of rated load, followed
by full load for oiie hour. Since the motor is required to
start while under load, a class C motor is used (see Section 4.3 of Chapter 17).
As a means of reducing the motor horsepower rating
required, horsepou7erlimiters are often provided. Horsepower limiters (secondary stroke-control devices) operate
on the principle of reducing the stroke of the main hydraulic pump in the event that the hydraulic pressure
exceeds a preset value (that pressure corresponding t o
the motor rating plus the allowable overload). Since the
power required to drive a pump is proportional to the
product of the discharge flow and pressure, the rating of
the installed motor horsepower can be minimized by reducing the pump flow during the_periods of peak pressure
requirements. Horsepower liinlters are usually designed
such that the stroke of the hydraulic pump is decreased
with increasing hydraulic pressures so that the motor
horsepower required is nominally held constant a t the
preset value. When the horsepower limiter acts to reduce
the pump stroke, the rudder rate is also reduced; however, if sufficiently high rudder rates can be attained during other regions of the timing cycle, where the torque is
lower, and the overall average rate during the timing
cycle exceeds the minimum rate specified, the horsepower
rating of the driving motor may be reduced.
Usually, the replenishing and servo pumps are driven
by the same motors that drive the main pumpa. If, however, these auxiliary pumps are separately driven, their
motors should be rated for continuous duty. If separate
motors are provided for these pumps, each should be
interlocked with its main pump motor so that the main
pump cannot be started without first starting the auxiliary pumps. Steering gear motor controllers should be
provided with under-voltage protection.
It is customary to shift o y r from onsgower unit to the
other a t regular intervals, in order that both power units
may operate approximately equal lengths of time. Main
pump selector valves in the hydraulic piping are used to
effect the shift hydraulically. For manual control, these
may include two common stop valves for each pump, or
dual 4-way or &way plug or piston-type valves.
Transfer valves for dual power unit systems are usually arranged in one of the following modes:
576
MARINE ENGINEERING
The control system may be of the "non-follow-up" type,

"on and off" type, or the "full follow-up" type. I n the
first, the helmsman applies left or right rudder to hold a
course. As long as a wheel, lever, or pushbutton is held
to energize the steering gear for rudder response in one
direction, the rudder moves in that direction until the
steering gear is deenergized automatically in the hardover position. Of course, the rudder may be moved in
small increments, left or right, by holding the control off
neutral for small intervals of time. The helmsman's experience and judgement are important factors in minimizing steering gear activity and oversteering. With the
second type, the rudder returns automatically to amidships upon the helmsman's release or centering of the control. The full follow-up system, the third type of control,
Another system includes automatic transfer valves
senses any difference between helm and rudder angles and
which can be controlled in the steering gear room or from
the direction of the difference; it moves the rudder autothe remote steering stations. These valves are operated
matically in the proper direction to eliminate this difby main pump servo pressure and are controlled by soleference and holds the rudder at the angle signalled by the
noid-operated pilot valves which are connected elechelm until a difference is reestablished by moving the
trically in the main pump motor control circuits in such a
helm or by drifting of the rudder due to hydrodynamic
manner that the pump driven by the first motor started
forces. "Feedback" and "differential" as well as "followis connected automatically into the hydraulic circuit and
up" are terms often used in describing this control since
becomes the active pump for the operation of the steering
gear. If the second pump motor is then started, this the correction is derived from "feedback" of the rudder
motion; the control senses or in some cases measures,
pump is bypassed hydraulically. By stopping the first
within limits, the difference or differential between the
motor, the second pump becomes the active pump autohelm
and rudder angles. Representative types of followmatically. This system ensures maximum safety when a
up control systems are described and illustrated in refervessel is under way in restricted waters in that with both
ences [2], [3], and [4].
units operating, the idling bypassed pump becomes the
Remote control systems in common use include
active pump automatically upon electrical or servo presmechanical,
hydraulic, and electrical types. Shafts, wire
sure failure of the other unit.
rope,
sprockets
and chain, push-pull flexible control
Valves may also be included in a four-cylinder ram
cables, and their combinations are used to transfer mogroup piping system which cut out and bypass any two
oppositely acting cylinders, thereby providing for two- tion proportional to that of the helm from remote steering
stations to the local control input at the steering gear.
cylinder "emergency" operation.
These mechanical means are simple and reliable for use
When a hand "fill-and-drain" pump is specified, it is
in smaller vessels.
usual to stipulate that it be possible to use this pump as a
"rudder positioning" device. Such a pump is convenient , The hydraulic type, represented by the hydraulic
if a ship is docked and no power is available to operate t,elemotor, came into common use as a remote control dethe steering gear, or to provide rudder trim to aid in tow- vice with the earliest applications of power steering. I n
ing a dead ship. The fill-and-drain pump should not be older designs, the motion of the steering wheel displaced
considered as an "emergency steering" pump unless the a piston or rams to force fluid to and from a receiving unit
system has been designed to suit an emergency steering consisting of a cylinder and double-acting piston assemrequirement such as that outlined in the Rules of the bly in the steering gear compartment [2, 3, 41.
The principal types of electrical remote controls inAmerican Bureau of Shipping [9]. Also, suitable check
*
valves should be included i n the fill-and-drain pump p i p
ing to prevent the pump from being overhauled and
1. Self-synchronous a-c "rotary transformers" with a
driven as a hydraulic motor.
transmitter driven through step-up gearing by the
The hydraulic systems are protected by suitable relief
steering wheel and receiver providing proportional
valves. When hydraulic braking is stipulated, a seconinput motion to the local control.
dary set of rehef valves of the cross-blow type may be in2. Balanced-bridge circuitry in which turning the
stalled between the selector valves and the ram cylinders.
wheel moves a potentiometer to unbalance the elece. Steering Gear Controls. Steering gear control
trical system. Unbalancing the electrical system
systems usually provide the capability of controlling the
starts an intermediate powered servo which prosteering gear remotely from a steering console located in
vides input to the local control and moves a followthe pilot house and locally from the steering gear space by
up potentiometer which rebalances the circuit and
means of a trickwheel. A schematic diagram of a control
deenergizes the servo when the helm and relative
system typical of naval ships is shown by Fig. 11.
servo angular positions coincide.
( a ) Both pumps de-energized; rams blocked.

(b) Pump A energized and "on the line" with the
ram group; pump B blocked to the ram, and
bypassing if energized.
(c) Pump B energized and "on the line" with the
ram group; pump A blocked to the ram, and
bypassing if energized.
I1 ( a ) Both pumps de-energized; rams blocked.
(b) One pump energized and "on the line" with
the ram group; opposite pump de-energized.
(c) Both pumps energked and "on the line" with
the ram group, thereby driving the rudder at
almost double the rate specified for singlepump operation.
HULL MACHINERY
LEGEND
- - --- MECHANICAL
ELECTRICAL
z8""
HELM
RUDDER ANGLE
lNDlcATO~60
c3
HELM ANGLE
PILOT HOUSE
HYDRAULIC MAIN
SYSTEM PRESSURE
HYDRAULIC
CON1ROL PRESSURE
DISCONNECT
SWITCHES
Fig. 1 1 Schematic diagram

of the controls for an electrohydraulic steering gear
578
The powered servo is usually an electrohydraulic

unit which is essentially a miniature steering gear
and is designed for application to any type of
steering gear as one link in a chain of servomechanisms from the steering wheel to the rudder. It is
also used as an automatic pilot when the input is
taken from a suitable compass. Arrangements for
this purpose are proprietary and include other control features providing for adjustments to suit the
response of the vessel, the sea state, and the course
followed.
It is completely feasible to omit the power unit
as a separate servo if the balanced bridge circuit is
used to control the main steering gear directly.
Using the electrohydraulic steering gear as an example, the usual mechanical control differential is
omitted. The power unit is used to put the main
pump(s) on stroke, when the bridge is unbalanced,
in the hydraulic flow direction for right or left rudder depending on the polarization and resulting
, flow direction of electrical current through the
bridge circuit. The balancing potentiometer is
then moved in direct proportion to the motion of
the rudder. The rudder is held at the selected new
angle, as the pump stroke is returned to neutral
when the circuit becomes balanced. The first Of
such arrangements is discussed in reference [lo].
Steering gear power units which are designed for naval
ships in accordance with reference [8] are required to contain features which limit the speed of the hydraulic pump
and electric motor in the event that electrical power is
interrupted and t.he rudder takes charge of the hydraulic
ram group, thereby driving the hydraulic pump and electric motor. The method of limiting the overspeed of the
electric motor may be either an arrangement of springloaded valves operated by servo pressure, or a brake on
the electrie motor. The method usually employed is to
incorporate a hydraulic lock feature in the blocking
valve and associated solenoid valves which operate the
bloeking valve, as shown in Fig. 11. As may be seen
from Fig. 11, in the event of an interruption of electrical
power, the bloeking valve is shifted so as to place a hydraulic lock on the ram group and isolate the ram group
from the pump. It should be recognized that other valve
arrangements may be used to provide the same feature.
During sea trials of naval ships, steering gear power
failure tests are conducted with the ship proceeding at full
speed in the ahead direction and at the maximum astern
speed permitted for unrestricted rudder operation. The
power supply is interrupted at a series of rudder angles
and during the circumstances in which a power failure
would have the most adverse effects. Before sea trials, it
is good practice to ascertain the closing time of the blocking valve by interrupting the electrical power when
operating the steering gear power units with the ship at
the dock. The anticipated motor overspeed during
power failure tests at sea can then be calculated by using
the measured closing time of the blocking valve and the
579
HULL MACHINERY
MARINE ENGINEERING
rudder design torque values. Experience has shown that

a maximum closing time of approximately 0.25 sec for
the blocking valve will normally assure that the speed of
the electric motor will be limited to 150 percent of the
normal operating speed.
The detailed specifications for a vessel usually include
very complete descriptions of the steering gear and its
control syetems. These may follow arrangements on
similar ships which have given satisfactory service, or
they may reflect the owners' or naval architects' preferences. I t is desirable to consult steering gear manufacturers early in the design stage of a vessel in order to
facilitate the selection and arrangement of the steering
gear.
2.2
Anchor Windlass
a. Introduction. The ship specifications usually require that a windlass be capable of hoisting the anchor
at an average speed of not less than 5 or 6 fathoms per
minute (30 or 36 feet per minute, respectively) from a
depth of 30, 60, or more fathoms. The required chain
pull thus is dependent not only on the weight of the
anchor but also on the weight of the chain to the specified
depth, from which total the water buoyancy may be
deducted.
Even though the windlass may be constructed as a
sophisticated machine (some windlasses are fitted with
ingenious mechanisms), it must be built to perform the
crudest task on shipboard. The anchor chain is heaved
in through a hawsepipe in which the friction loss runs
from 35 to 40 percent in good designs and sometimes exceeds 55 percent; the chain is operated by a wildcat
which is hardly comparable in efficiency to the sprockets
used in refined chain drives. The wildcat is usually made
with five whelps (comparable to a 5-tooth sprocket),
causing the chain to move with a jerkiness which is aggravated by its tendency to turn over or "slap" in the
hawsepipe and to slip on the wildcat. Windlasses therefore require more ruggedness of construction than any
other machine on board ship.
The Rules of the Classification Societies [91 contain
tables of required equipment consisting of anchors, chain
cable, towlines, and hawsers. These items are identified
by, and sized in accordance with, an "equipment number" or "equipment tonnage" included in the tables.
The number or tonnage figure is calculated by substituting in' empirical formulas certain dimensional and displacement measurements of the vessel for which the
equipment is desired. This has become a standard mode
of equipment selection for oceangoing merchant vessels.
The basic dimensions and scantlings of an anchor windlass depend on the anchor weight and chain size. These
follow, therefore, from the equipment selection to suit a
given case.
The size of the vessel, the nature of the service, and
the desired anchor handling and stowage arrangements
are also contributive in the choice of the anchor windlass. In many cases, the windlass is used only in emergencies. However, in some cases the windlass may be
440V
POWER
CONTROLLER
II
H A N DLE
I
I
LEGEND
,=
1
ELECTRICAL
MECHANICAL
----
HYDRAULIC
Fig. 12
Schematic diagram ef a horizontal electrohydraulic windlass
used regularly (e.g., some operators set an anchor in a

"flying moor," approaching a dock, far enough offshore
to warp the bow into the stream when preparing to get
under way, thereby reducing or eliminating the need of
a tugboat). Also, it is usual to install capstans or warping heads, driven by the windlass power plant off the
windlass gear train; therefore, the windlass may be used
for normal warping duty.
As with the other items of hull machinery, anchor
windlasses are available from specialty manufacturers
who can provide machinery to suit a variety of requirements. Their recommendations are very helpful in the
shi~
design stage.
6. wrndlass Types. There are two fundamental configurations of anchor windlasses which have evolved from
the "winding log" and capstan of earlier times, namely
the horizontal arrangement and the vertical arrangement.
The horizontal windlass is a specialized winch which is
powered by a steam or internal combustion engine or an
electric motor. The prime mover is connected either
directly or indirectly (through a hydraulic transmission)
to a train of gearing which drives one or more chain
Fig. 13
Horizontal-shaft, double-Wrjt windlassdriven by a d-+ electric

motor
sprockets, called "wildcats," through sliding-block "locking heads" or comparable jaw clutches. Figure 12 is a
schematic diagram of a horizontal electrohydraulic windlass. A photograph of a horizontal windlass that is
driven directly by a d-c motor is shown by Fig. 13. In its
HULL MACHINERY
MARINE ENGINEERING
COMBINATION MOORING WINCH P/S

ANCHOR WINDLASS P/S
Fig. 15
I
MAIN DECK
Fig. 14
Forecastle of a cargo ship with combination mooring winch/anchor windlass units
simplest form, the entire machine is self-contained on a

common bedplate. Each wildcat is provided with a
brake of the band type to restrain the chain when the
anchor is let go under a controlled drop, for veering chain
to the desired scope, and for holding the chain while the
chain stoppers are being attached. One or more warping
heads are usually keyed to overhangs of intermediate
shafting. The gear train through which the warping
head is driven usually affords a line pull in the order of
one quarter of the available wildcat chain pull, at four
times the normal chain speed.
The self-contained, horizontal type of windlass is the
least expensive in terms of installed cost. However, it
requires more maintenance than does the vertical type
because, aside from the protection provided by tarpaulins, etc., the windlass machinery is completely exposed to the weather and to the spray and waves which
break over the bow during storm conditions.
With the continuing increase in the size of vessels and
with more general adoption of wire rope mooring lines,
which are stowed on the drums of mooring winches, a
useful combination is that of a horizontal mooring winch
with a clutched drum driving a chain wildcat through an
auxiliary gear reduction and sliding pinion or jaw clutch.
A forecastle arrangement employing combination mooring winch/anchor windlass units is shown in Fig. 14.
In the preliminary design stage of a vessel, it is good
practice to develop the anchor handling arrangement to
the extent that the chain leads are confirmed to be satisfactory. In the case of ships with large bulbous bows,
the anchors must be located farther aft so that the

anchors will not hit the bulb when they are dropped.
This usually requires that two separate windlasses be provided with each set at an angle to the s h i ~centerline in
order to obtain proper lead; to the ha\;sepipes. For
further discussion relative to windlass deck arrangements
see reference [ l l 1.
A vertical windlass consists essentially of a wildcat
mounted on a vertical shaft which is carried in a rugged
set of main bearings in a casting or weldment which is
bolted or welded to the deck, as typically illustrated by
Figs. 15 and 16. The strengthening of the deck and supporting ship structure in way of this assembly is ubually
made adequate to sustain all anticipated loads due to the
chain pull, independently of the main shaft extension to
the deck below. The wildcat is brought as close to the
deck as possible in order to minimize bending moments
due to the chain pull. The chain wraps approximately
180 degrees around the wildcat. and then enters a chain
deckpiie leading to the chain locker.
The shafts from vertical wildcats and associated capstans are extended to one or more dkcks below where
they are coupled to main and intermediate shafts, respectively, of transmission gearing. The gears are usually
completely enclosed, in American practice. The shaft
couplings are of a type allowing limited relative vertical
motions between the decks.
The wildcat locking head may be above the weather
deck. In the simplest arrangement, a loose block key
may be used. In these cases the brake drum will be
I
I
,
I
Schematic diagram of an electrically driven vertical windlass
above deck also. Chain troughs are then desirable between the inboard bolster of the hawsepipes and wildcats, if the span of chain is of appreciable length. The
span may be divided by a common tongue-type chain
stopper, which is also helpful as a guide to minimize vertical vibration of the span and slapping of the chain on
the deck when the windlass is in use.
A preferred design locates the brake drum and locking
head below the weather deck where they are protected
from the weather. This arrangement also permits the
wildcat to be located as closely as possible to the weather
deck.
For handling warping lines, a capstan head may be
keyed to the main shaft, above the wildcat. However,
unless there is a speed change in the gearing of about 4 to
1, the rate of hauling light line will be unsatisfactorily
slow. A preferred arrangement is one in which a capstan
is located adjacent to the wildcat and is driven from the
windlass gear train by a separate shaft revolving about 4
times as fast as the wildcat; the equipment for such an
arrangement is illustrated by Fig. 16. As a simplification, the capstan head is keyed fast and is allowed to
rotate or idle when the windlass is used to h a d chain.
The vertical windlass affords extreme flexibility in the
development of anchor handling and mooring arrangements, from the simplest single unit to as many independent systems as there are anchors installed. Some
arrangements feature one power unit driving a single
variable-stroke pump. The hydraulic system includes
selector valves enabling the single pump to drive either
of two hydraulic motors serving two wildcat/capstan
systems. For utmost reliability, two power plants are
installed and electrical, mechanical, and hydraulic cross
connections or their combinations, depending on the basic
features of the system, are included in order that both
anchors p a y be recovered despite a derangement in one
system; see Fig. 16.
UNIT
'
Fig. 16
Vertical electmhydraulic windlass
c. Special Design Considerations. The practice

recommended for the design and testing of anchor windlasses is outlined in refere&% [12]. There are, however,
some detailed design considerations which warrant special
emphasis as they can have a large impact on the performance of a windlass.
The links of stud l i d anchor chains are almost invariably made with an inside length equal to four times the
nominal chain size (i.e., four times "the wire diameter").
Since 10 links will wrap around a &whelp wildcat, the
wildcat circumference in inches = 10 X 4 X the nominal
582
HULL MACHINERY
MARINE EClGlNEERlNG
chain size. From this the mean pitch radius of the wildcat is readily found. Detailed information regarding the
design of wildcats is given by one of the Navy Department's standard plans [13]. Wildcats should be made of
a reasonably hard grade of cast steel.
The fitting of wildcats and chains is important. Usually, the final dimensions of a chain are attained as a result of stretching in a proof test [9]. A new chain may
be within the minus allowance of the tolerance on length
(measured over six links in American practice) in order
to allow for stretching and wear in service. However,
such a chain will not run properly on a wildcat made to
fit the nominal chain size. The "pitch diameter" of the
wildcat is a function of the depth of the pockets between
the whelps, in which alternate links lie substantially flat.
If the links must be hauled off by the chain stripper when
hoisting anchor, or if when paying out under power the
links ride higher and higher on succeedingwhelps until one
crashes over the top of a whelp, the pitch diameter
should be reduced by chipping the pockets deeper. With
a proper fit, but one sprocket tooth or set of whelps holds
a t any one time. This subject is discussed in detail in
references [14] and [15] and a recommended procedure is
given for checking the wildcat and the chain with which
it is to run. The number of links in a full circumference
is twice the number of whelps (10 links for a 5-sided wildcat, for example). To check the fit of a chain on a wildcat, a length of chain containing one link less than that
which will fit in a full circumference is lashed snugly
around the circumference of the wildcat (a longer length
of chain may be used if the standing part is hauled aside).
The gap for the missing link is then measured. If the
length is excessive, the pockets must be chipped deeper.
Measured between the outside of the link ends, the gap
should not exceed 2 chain sizes in length. Calipered inside the ends, the measured length should not exceed 4
chain sizes.
The chain deck pipe, which leads to the chain locker,
for a horizontal windlass should be located well under the
wildcat. The vertical centerline of the deck pipe should
project upward through the axis of the wildcat, or, preferably, slightly forward of the axis. The chain pipe lip
must be flared to assure that the chain will be hauled into
the locker by gravity. This will aid in arresting the rising
of chain from the locker and will minimize "jumping" of
links over the wildcat, due to kinetic energy, if the brake
is applied suddenly when an anchor is being dropped.
Chain stoppers are normally furnished by windlass and
chain manufacturers. The common tongue type is
favored in American merchant practice as a means of
securing the chain when riding at anchor. Pelican hooks,
modified turnbuckles or "devils' claws," and turnbuckles
on lengths of chain passed through the anchor shackles at
the inboard ends of hawsepipes are used as stowing stoppers. These should align as closely as possible with the
run of chain. The wildcat brake should not be used to
hold the anchor in the stowed position, because if the
brake should slip, the anchor will back out and pound in
a seaway.
The pelican hook is often used on naval vessels as a

riding and stowing stopper. It is best suited for use with
a vertical windlass, i.e., with the chain close to the deck.
On a large horizontal windlass the chain may rise 5 feet
or more from the inboard bolster of the hawsepipe to the
wildcat tangent point. The pelican hooks in sizes large
enough for application with such a windlass are very
heavy and difficult to manage. Their height above deck
also creates a hazard to the operator who must release
them with a maul. For a detailed discussion of anchor,
mooring, and towing arrangements see reference [I11.
The wildcat band brake design and the selection and
treatment of brake lining material are critical in windlasses which must be subjected to the free drop tests required by the regulatory bodies. The Maritime Administration stipulates a single drop from 45 to 60 fathoms,
'(under control of the brake" [7]. These tests should be
conducted in a clear depth of a t least 65 fathoms and
preferably no greater. The falling anchor is permitted to
be under the control of the brake to the extent that an
operator senses his chances of arresting the run of chain
and can do so by applying very little additional braking
effort. No mishaps have been reported from Maritime
Administration drop tests.
The specifications for naval windlasses require that the
hand brake performance be demonstrated during four
successive average drops of 15 fathoms each, stopping
with 15, 30,45, and 60 fathoms of chain out, respectively
[161.
Anchor windlass brake tests must be conducted with
the utmost respect for the magnitudes of the masses,
velocities, and forces involved. These tests can be extremely hazardous, especially in the event of a runaway.
Test observers should stand well clear of the windlass
with only those responsible for operating the brake and
recording data allowed to be near.
A satisfactory anchor windlass brake must. stop the
anchor and chain within a period of about two secorids
after the brake is set. Due to the short time available
for the brake to absorb most of the kinetic energy possessed by the anchor and chain, the surface of the brake
lining usually reaches a high temperature. Elevated temperatures can result in a degradation of the brake lining
frictional characteristics such that the brake is no longer
capable of arresting the continuing run of the anchor and
chain. Lf the situation should get out of control, the
problems compound; that is, as the anchor continues to
run after the brake is set, the quantity of energy that the
brake must absorb increases and more heat is generated.
For this reason, it is essential that the brake promptly
arrest the anchor and chain after being set.
Anchor windlass brakes are usually of the lined band
type. For maximum effectiveness, these brakes should
wrap around the drum as near 360 degrees as possible.
The features of a typical band type of brake are shown
by Fig. 17; auxiliary power-assist mechanisms for setting
the brake have also been used to advantage on very large
windlasses. If molded linings are used, they are best
secured to the band in a manner permitting lateral ex-
Table 3
-1-
POWER SCREW
Anchor Windlass Brake Calculations
Size of anchor chain, in.. . . . . . . . . .

Outside length of one link, in.. . . . .
Pitch of link = G - 2C, in.. . . . . .
Number whelps on wildcat.. . . . . .
Wildcat pitch diameter = 2ap/rl ip.
Brake drum diameter, in.. . . . . . . . .
Brake band width. in.. . . . . . . . . . . .
Brake band thickneps, anchor end,
~ n .. .. . . . . . . . . . ,,. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Brake band thickness, slack end, in.
Handwheel diameter, in.. . . . . . . . . .
Screw diameter. in.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lead of screw, in.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Screw efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bell crank ratio. . . . . . . . . . C . . . .
Gear ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gear efficienc
. . . . . . .. .
Uechanical a & & k k e ' = a ~ ~ ~11,.
~
Fat.hom of
-- chain ol;t,.
...~
> - fat,h..
- ~. . ~ .~.
Weight of chain, lb. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weight of anchor, lb. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tot,d weight = WI Wa,Ib. . . . .
Hawsepipe efficiencyn.. . ... . . . . . . .
Buoyancy factor.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Static load at wildcat = e3bWa,lb. .
Angle of brake wrap around drum,
deg. . . . . . . . . . . .I . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Angle of wrap = lr61/180, red. . . . .
Brake lining coeff. of frictionb.. . . .
Ratio factor = e w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Assumed velocity of fall, fps. . . . . .
Specified stopping distance, ft. . . . .
Deceleration force = e3W3V1/2h lb
Force at wildcat = f i
W4, fb!. .
Force at brake drum = Fsd/D, lb. .
Slack end r l l ->/(K - 1), lb. . .
Anchor en pull - F3
Fa, l b . . . ?
Handwheel effort = F4/2Lfelest lb. .
Anchor end band stress = Fs/wtl,
ps1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Slack end band stress = F4/wts, psi.
Mean band stress = (81 S2)/2,
ps1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Band modulus of elasticit , psi . . .
Band stretch = ~ 3 ~ a / 2 l i n . .. .
Handwheel turns to set braked =
yBG1/L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maximum
2Fs/wD, brake
psi.. . .band
. . . . .pressurea
. . . . . . .. =
..
~-
~~
:'.
~ ~ - - -
Symbol
C
G
a
d
D
w
ts
Fig. 17 Schematic of a band type of anchor windlass brake
1)
pansion as the binder breaks down and swells with heat.

Molded linings are most effective under the conditions of
the drop test if deeply scarified or if vented with lateral
grooves about 3i6 in. wide by %6 in. deep, pitched about
23 in. around the circumference.
A new brake should be "run in" by operating the
windlass under power with the chain held clear of the
wildcat. The band should be examined periodically and
the operation continued until the area of the brake lining
in contact with the drum surface is at least 75 percent of
the total area of the brake lining. The drum and lining
surfaces should be free of exudation; if need be, they
should be cleaned with a solvent. Care should be taken
that overheating does not occur during the run-in operation. These precautions should be accomplished at the
shipyard rather than at the windlass manufacturer's
plait. The new linings will then be in the best condition
possible, arid preservatives and rust preventive media
will be eliminated as prospective reasons for a reduction
of the band lining coefficient of friction.
The design of an anchor windlass brake is heavily influenced b y t h e experience gained with previous designs,
as may be noted from the typical anchor windlass brake
calculations shown by Table 3. The brake lining coefficient of friction used in the design calculations is
generally somewhat less than the value suggested by the
brake lining manufacturer and may a t first appear to be
unreasonably low. However, the lining coefficient of friction suggested by the manufacturer is usually based on
ideal laboratory conditions which hardly simulate anchor
windlass brake service.
Special instrumentation was provided during the sea
trials for the aircraft carrier USS America (CVA 66) in
order to confirm that the design criteria employed in the
design of the-anchor windlass brake were adequate. Before the sea trial, every reasonable precaution was taken
+
+
1.0
0.5
H
20
2.0
do
L
0.25
0.165
2
1
GI
e1
0.92
M
503
f- - . 60
19,840
W Z 12,693
Wa 32,533
0.80
0.87
W4 22,600
tl
Type of Ship
C4
CVA 66
2jis
4%
1498
28.5
19.0
9%
5
31
60.48
48
90
2 X 10
10
1.0
0.75
26
2.5
0.5
0.238
2.76
6
0.903
2705
60
80,000
60,000
140,000
0.80
0.87
97,440
"7
Notes for Table 3
An optimistically high hawsepipe efficiency should be used in

this calculation.
b. In general the brake lining coefficient of friction quoted by
manufactur6rs should not be used, as that is the value ?btained?n
a laboratory. Anchor windlass tests show that a coeffiaent of fr!ction of 0.225 and 0.30 can be expected with molded and woven lmings, respectively.
c The braking force required at the handwheel should be approximately 100 lb or less.
-.
d Efforts to red~uce the ha&wheel effort by inaxeasing the
mechanical advant.age may result in an excessive amount of elasticity in the system.
The maximum pressure on the brake lining should be as recommended by the manufacturer and proven by experience.
f In order to prompt1 initiate braking action, a hydraulic-assist
mechanism was installeion the CVA 66. The mechanism wae des i r e d s~uchthat the brake was set hydraulically when the handw eel was turned about one-half turn in the direction to set the
brake. Turning the brake handwheel also set and secured the
brake mechanically as in conventional practice.
,,&+
HULL MACHINERY
MARINE ENGINEERING
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION '
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTIW
d
,/CHAIN
VELOCITY
200-
160-
EN0 PULL
ANCHOR END PULL

0
0
'1.
U)
W
100-
0
J
0
PULL
so-
TIME, SECONOS
(a) Drop to 15 fathoms

0TIME, .SECONDS
(c) 3 0 to 4 5 fathom drop

OF FRICTION
Z
b0.4-
L
L
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
CHAIN VELOCITY
20.
;
L
10.
0.2,
I*
14.
ANCHOR END PULL
SLACKENDPULL
10
TINE, SECONDS
(b) 15 to 3 0 fathom drop

Fig. 18
USS America, CVA 66, anchor windlass brake test data
to ensure that the brake lining material was properly

prepared and "run in." Figure 18 shows the results obtained during the CVA 66 tests, and the relatively low
brake lining coefficient of friction anticipated (see Table
3) is seen to be confirmed.
A chain counter is a very useful tool that may be installed on a windlass. A chain counter provides a
mechanical readout at the windlass of the number of feet
or fathoms of chain that have been payed out, and provides an electrical readout in the wheelhouse. The officer
TIME, SECOND8
(d) 4 5 to 6 0 fathom drop

Fig. 18 (continued)
586
HULL MA
MARINE EN(
on dutv then knows the amount of chain in use without

sending a man to thc forecastle to check the markings on
the chain. The indication of the amount oT chain out is
also helpful (when the depth of water is known) in paying
out enough chain to ensure that the anchor will hold.
A mechanism may also be installed to provide a means
for releasing the anchor or anchors from the wheelhouse.
To set the windlass up for this operation, the hand brake
on the wildcat is tightened, the wildcat clutch disengaged, and any devices used to secure the chain at sea,
such as the devil's claw or tongue-type stopper, are removed from the chain. A hydraulic cylinder, powered by
an accumulator, is arranged mechanically to override the
brake screw mechanism. Then. when a solenoid valve is
energized from the wheelhouse, the wildcat brake is released and the anchor will drop. Speed governing is
built into the hydraulic system to limit the rate of fall of
the anchor. This type of arrangement has been successfully used between a tug and an unmanned barge. I n
this instance the control was accomplished by a radio
signal, with the small amount of electric power required
on the barge supplied by batteries. Remote control of
the anchor would-be particularly advantageous in a long
river passage where it is customary to have at least one
man standing by at the windlass in case an emergency
drop is necessary.
d. Windlass Power Units. Since the late 1960's., verv
"
few steam-driven windlasses have been manufactured.
However, steam-driven windlasses were common before
then, particularly on tankers which carried inflammable
cargoes. Steam-driven windlasses are usually of the
horizontal type with all of the components located above
deck; such a windlass would look much like the one illustrated by Fig. 13 if a steam engine were substituted for
the electric motor. The steam engine is commonly a
horizontal reversible type with two cylinders. Steamdriven windlasses are designed to operate with a steam
pressure of about 100 psig at the throttle.
Steam-driven anchor windlasses are inherently rugged,
simple, and reliable; however, these considerations are
seldom criteria for selection as other types of windlasses
can be designed to be equally dependable. The major
advantage associated with steam-driven windlasses is
that they entail no fire hazards when used on tankers that
carry inflammable cargoes. On the other hand, the long
runs of piping from the engine room pose two problems:
one of actually getting steam to the windlass, and the
other of maintaining insulation on the pipes when they
are run above the weather deck, as is the usual arrangement. These two problems are, obviously, closely related. In cold weather, if the windlass is steam-powered,
it is usually necessary to turn the steam on well before
the windlass will be needed so that steam and not condensate gets to the unit when it is needed for anchor
handling.
The two commonly used powering systems for windlasses are direct-connected electric motors and electrohydraulic systems. Electrohydraulic systems permit
complete control over the hoisting speed and also provide
protection (by relief-valve action) against shock loadings

in the t~.ansmissionshafting and gearing in the event that
the anchor is inadvertently housed too abruptly.
When an electric motor is directly connected to the
windlass, it may be either a squirrel-cage or wound-rotor
alternating-current motor or a direct-current motor. A
d-c motor provides sufficient speed control to house the
anchors safely. If a squirrel-cage motor is used, it
should be of either the two- or three-speed type with the
slowest speed usually one quarter of the full-load speed
and slow enough to house the anchor satisfactorily.
Even if a multi-speed a-c motor is used, the anchor should
be driven through a slip-type clutch coupling so as to
limit inertial loadings in the event that the anchor is
housed too abruptly. If variable speeds are necessary or
desired, then either a wound-rotor a-c motor or a d-c
motor may be used. If a wound-rotor motor is used, it
should be separately ventilated with the ventilation air
taken from below deck so that water will not enter the
air intake. The discharge air may be directed back to a
protected space, or the air may be discharged directly on
the open deck. In the latter case, the discharge outlet
should be protected by a solenoid valve arranged so that
the solenoid will open the air duct when the blower motor
is energized. Interlocks must be provided so that the
main motor cannot be energized unless both the blower
motor and resistor fan motor are running; and additional
interlocks should be provided to shut the entire system
down in the event that the temperature of either the
main motor discharge air or the resistor bank discharge
air exceeds a predetermined safe limit,.
If the variable speed for a motor-driven windlass is to
be obtained from a d-c motor, the direct current may be
provided by the adjustable voltage output from an a-c/
d-c motor-generator set. This drive is advantageous if
the windlass is part of a combination unit, the other part
of which is a constant-tension mooring winch. Windlass
speeds and loads are controlled as described later under
Cargo Winches and Constant-Tension R'Iooring Winches.
In the electrohydraulic windlass, the pump, or A-end,
is usually located below deck and driven by an a-c motor;
and the hydraulic motor, or B-end, is mounted on the
input shaft of the windlass gear reducer. When the windlass is of the horizontal-shaft type, the B-end ismounted
in the weather. When the windlass is of the verticalshaft type, the B-end is mounted below deck out of the
weather. Some vertical-shaft windlasses, partlicularly
those on naval vessels, have two completely separate
power plants, one for each wildcat or wildcat and capstan
combination. These are then arranged so that, in the
event of a casualty to one power unit, the other unit may
be engaged (usually hydraulically) so as to operate both
vertical shafts; see Fig. 16. A more common arrangement 011 merchant ships is one with a single, doubleended, electric motor driving two pumps with each pump
discharging to a hydraulic motor.
In each of the hydraulic arrangements described above,
the hydraulic transmission would consist of a positivedisplacement, reversible-flow; variable-stroke pump
piped in a closed circuit to a fixed-stroke hydraulic motor.

The first pinion in the gear reduction should be coupled
to, rather than mounted on, the B-end output shaft.
The hydraulic circuit should include an auxiliary, positive-displacement, replenishing pump. The pumping
unit bedplate is usually built as a storage tank, and it
should be large enough to contain 110 percent of the oil
in the system so that all oil may be drained to the tank
for servicing or maintenance.
Some windlasses are provided with a horsepower-limiting device which is responsive to the pressure in the
system. The horsepower limiter should be designed so
that when the pressure reaches a predetermined value,
the pump stroke is reduced with increasing pressures so
that the electric motor horsepower remains constant.
As the pressure in the system reduces (i.e., the anchor
chain is hauled in), the horsepower limiter will return the
pump stroke to the setting called for by the operator.
Each side of the hydraulic circuit should be provided
with a relief valve of the "cross-blow" type, returning the
oil to the suction side of the pump. Alternatively, in
some cases the discharge from the relief valves may be
led to the sump tank.
Direct electric-driven windlasses should be provided
with an electric brake on the motor shaft. ,Hydraulic
windlasses may be provided with either an electric brake
or with a hydraulic brake which should be mounted on
the B-end. Electric brakes should set upon loss of electric power, and hydraulic brakes should set upon loss of
either electric power or hydraulic pressure.
Speed and directional control for direct electricrdriven
units should be effected by a master switch located aft
and at a safe distance from the windlass. The master
switch is usually equipped with a vertical handle, as described in Section 1.
Stroke control for a hydraulic windlass may be effected
either manually or by servo control. The control wheel
stand should be raised to a convenient height above the
deck and should be located aft and at a,safe distance from
the windlass. If manual control is used, the shaft should
be provided with a deck stuffing box through which it is
led to the A-end stroking mechanism. The run of control
shafting should be made with great care in order to avoid
excessive friction, lost motion, and derangement that may
be caused by deck deflection. Universal joints and slip
couplings should be used to assist in eliminating the
deleterious effects of misalignment.
The handwheel for the hydraulic stroking device is
usually arranged in a horizontal plane. An auxiliary
handwheel for the stroking device should be located
adjacent to the A-end to assist in servicing or warming
up the unit. The stroke-control mechanism should be
provided with a spring detent for the neutral position of
the A-end stroking spiadle. Limit switches should be
arranged to prevent the pump from being started if the
pump and servo control are not in the neutral position.
This is necessary to ensure that the anchor does not start
to move when the pump is energized.
Electric master switches should be provided with de-
Table 4 Power Calculations

for an Electrohydraulic Windlass
Type of Ship.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Number of ar~ehorshoisted. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anchor depth at beginning of hoist, fath.. . .
Anchor weight, lb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Anchor chain size, in.. . :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chain weight (each anchor), lb. . . . . . . . . . . .
Buoyancy factor.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weight per wildcat = b(W1 WZ),l b . . . . .
Hawsep~peefficiedcya . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pull at each wildcat = WJ/e?, lb . . . . . . . . . .
Outside length of one cham link, in.. . . . . . . .
Pitch of links = G - 2C, in.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Number of whelps on wildcat. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wildcat pitch radius = ap/?r, in.. . . . . . . . . .
Torque at each wildcat = Plr, in.-lb. . . . . . .
Electric motor speed, rpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydraulic pump speed, rpm.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydraulic motor speed, rpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gearing ratio: first reduction.. . . . . . . . . . . .
second reduction. . . . . . . . . .
third reduction.. . . . . . . . . . .
Chain hoisting speed = 2?rrNa/l2R1RzRa,fpm
Specified hoisting speed, fpm.. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydraulic ump and motor efficiency. . . . . .
Gearing efkciency: first reduction. . . . . . . . .
second reduction. . . . . .
third reduction.. . . . . . .
Efficiency of wildcat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Torque per hydraulic motor =
Tl/R1R&aezeae4eal in.-lb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydraulic pressure required,b psi. . . . . . . . . . .
Total electric motor hp requiredc = nPIS/
33,000 ele2ese4e5,hp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electric motor hp provided,d hp. . . . .. . . . . .
Capstan diameter, in.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Capstan rope diameter, in.. . . . . . . ., . . . . . . .
Gearing,
efficiency
B-end
= ezea.
to capstan:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
reduction = RlRz.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Capstan rpm = Na/R4, rpm. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
d)N4/12, fpm. . . . . . .
Rope speed = r ( D
Permissible rope pull = 33,000 ele$lz/S,, lb. .
Symbol
n
h
W1
C
WZ
b
Wa
e.
PI
P
a
r
TI
Nl
NZ
NJ
Rl
Rz
Ra
S
Sl
el
eJ
e4
e5
Tz
C4
2
30
12,693
0.87
19,673
0.60
32,788
14%
9%
5
15.5
508,200
1150
1150
1100
7.83
7.40
4.55
33.9
30
0.75
0.97
0.97
0.97
0.96
P,
2200
735
HI
HZ
D
d
102.6
100
24
2.55
e6
R4
N4
S,
F
0.94
57.9
19.0
132
17,625
Notes:
a The hawsepipe efficiency used should be the lowest anticipated.
b A check must also be made to confirm that there is sufficient
capacity to hoist one anchor and the full scope of chain at no specified speed.
In this arrangement, the electric motor has shafts on both ends,
each of which drive a windlass through a Dension 60 hydraulic
pump and motor.
d Specifications often permit the electric motor to be overloaded
25 percent at the beginning of a hoist.
tents so that the operator can sense the speed position

selected. Handwheels for controlling hydraulic windlasses should be equipped with a speed indicator, marked
''gll'
' ' ~ , '"~/4,"
'
and "Full," to each side of "Stop" for
the neutral position. atio ion of %he handwheel in a
cloc/kwise direction should start the windlass in the hoisting direction.
The procedure follotved in determining the powering
requirements of an electrohydraulic windlass with an
attached capstan is shown by Table 4; the procedure for
a direct-electric windlass is similar. Motors for direcb
connected windlasses should have a 30-minute shorttime rating; whereas, for a hydraulically driven wind-
r,
II
588
MARINE ENGINEERING
HULL MACHINERY
jU
SWIVEL FITTING FOR TOPPING LIFT
,--_
/
J(_SWIVEL
As shown by Fig. 19, the upper vang pendants, which are

secured to the boom head, are used to swing the boom.
Vang lines are required on both sides of the boom head.
Lastly, the rigging arrangement must be capable of hoisting and lowering the load. The load would be secured to
the cargo hook shown in Fig. 19 and would be hoisted
and lowered by means of the cargo hauling part that goes
to the cargo (hoist) winch drum.
There are many variations of the basic rigging arrangement shown by Fig. 19. Reference [17] contains a discussion of some of the rigging arrangements which have
been used and also relates the considerations which the
naval architect must entertain when desighing cargo
handling systems. Consequently, this chapter will concentrate on the design of the winches. Cargo winches
are discussed in this section, and topping and vang
winches are the subject of the following section.
b. Mechanical. Ratings or duties of cargo winches
have become standardized over the last 30 years. Most
cargo winches are driven by 50-hp direct-current electric
motors. Where hydraulic or steam winches have been
installed, they also have approximately the same fullload speeds as the d-c motor-driven winches, but the
light-line speeds may be different, being somewhat slower
for the hydraulic units and somewhat faster for steam
units. Cargo winches have different ratings at different
line pulls; typical ratings for a 50-hp d-c motor-driven
dlectric cargo winch are as follows:
PA0
Drum Line Pull, lb

Drum Line Speed, fpm
0
500
3720
290
7450
220
14,500
105"
19,000
70'
" "Two-speed" winch in low gear.
Separate auxiliary drum.
OBLONG SWIVEL EYE
'
SHACKLE
VANG PAD
Fig. 19
Nomenclature for cargo gear rigged for swinging or slewing
lass, the motor rating should be 30 minutes at 15 percent

load followed by 30 minutes at full load. If a separate
replenishing pump is provided, it should be rated for
continuous duty. The main pump motor should be interlocked in such a way that it will not start until the replenishing pump is running. A start-stop pushbutton
arrangement should be provided on or near the weather
deck control station in addition to the buttons on the
controller cabinet. A low-surface-temperature electric
heater may be provided in the windlass sump tank to
maintain the oil temperature at about 60 F in cold
weather. This heater should be supplied from a circuit
independent of the main power feeders and arranged to

be disconnected when the main pump motor is energized.
2.3 Cargo Winches

a. General. The simple rigging arrangement shown
in Fig. 19 has the capability of performing the three basic
functions required of boom and winch cargo handling
gear. One of the three functions required is the ability to
top the boom, i.e., raise the boom head to the proper
elevation. A second function required of the rigging
arrangement is the ability to swing (or slew) the boom so
as to control the transverse location of the boom head.
Most cargo winches are provided with a double gear

reduction. The first reduction is frequently of the herringbone type while the second reduction is usually of the
spur type. In some few instances, when the winches ate
to be mounted on or adjacent to living quarters and very
quiet winches are required, they are fitted with a single
worm-gear reduction. Moat winches are of the singledrum type. If a gypsy head is desired on the winch, it is
mounted on an extension of the drum shaft and the drum
is then fitted with a mechanical brake and a clutch so
that the drum may be secured when the gypsy is used.
Occasionally a double-drum winch may be installed in
place of two single-drum winches, thus saving the cost of
the second motor and electric brake. On such a winch,
both drums must be provided with clutches that are interlocked so that only one drum can be engaged at a time, but
permitting both to be declutched at the same time. Also,
each drum must be provided with a mechanical brake.
A variation of the double-drum winch is a single-drum
winch which drives an "auxiliary" or "derrick" drum
through a third gear reduction. The shaft extension,
Fig. 2 0
50-hp, two-speed, d-c electric cargo winch without gypsy head
that might have had a gypsy head mounted on it, is fitted

with a flexible coupling through which the third-reduction pinion is driven. The auxiliary drum will thus produce a line pull that is greater than that produced by the
drum of the basic winch. Of course, the line speed on the
auxiliary drum is reduced (see the foregoing winch rating
data). Two of these winches are frequently used where
a pair of burtoning booms are mounted on a pair of king
posts and a heavy-lift boom is installed on the centerline.
The hoist lines for the burtoning booms are led to the
high-speed drums of the winches, and the hoist and topping lines for the heavy-li,ft=boomare led to the two
auxiliary drums. Again, the clutches for the two drums
must be arranged so that both can not be engaged at the
same time.
Still another type of cargo winch is the so-called "twospeed" winch such as shown by Fig. 20. In this winch,
two pairs of second-reduction gears are provided, either
of which may be clutched in to suit the load being handled. The output speeds of the alternative second reductions are usually in the ratio of about 2: 1. The output
load and speed ratios may be varied to suit the rigging
arrangement.
The mechanical band brakes provided on cargo winches
are intended to be holding devices rather than stopping
devices. In an emergency, such as that caused by a
power failure with a load suspended, the mechanical band
brakes may be used to lower the load to the deck. For
heavy-lift winches, the brake mechanism should be of the
screw compressor type. On these brakes, a shaft with a
handwheel has an acme thread which provides the force
necessary to tighten the brake in a manner similar to the
anchor windlass brake . a w n in Fig. 17. The brake
bands are usually lined with a woven brake lhing similar
to that used for the anchor windlass brake. In addition
to the clutch interlocks mentioned above, it is advisable
to interlock the brake and the drum clutch in such a way
that the clutch cannot be moved out of engagement until
the brake is set.
As a substitute for the band brakes, it is frequently
possible to use a simple locking device such as a bar or
MARiNE ENGINEERING
Fig. 21
Winch showing "double-diamond" type of spooling device
pin that can be inserted in a sleeve in the winch pedestal

and pushed through to engage a hole in the flange of the
winch drum.
Drum clutches should be of the positive-engagement
type; the most commonly used type is the jaw clutch.
If the clutch is of the dry type, the jaws should be relieved a few degrees so as t o facilitate engagement. If
the clutch is to be lubricated, then the jaw faces should
be parallel, but a few degrees of backlash should be provided to facilitate the engagement.
Brake and clutch linkages should be arranged and designed so that they will be extremely rigid in order that
they will not be bent or otherwise deranged by being
"forced." This is particularly true of clutch linkages.
On many winches, there m a y b e no reason to declutch
the drum for long periods of time. Due to disuse, it may
then be necessary to use a large force to move the clutch
and linkage, particularly when engaging the clutch. If
the clutch linkage does not have sufficient stiffness, the
position of theclutch shifter may not show the true position of the clutch jaws so that there may be only partial
engagement of the clutch jaws. Insufficient stiffness in
the clutch linkage has also been known to result in the
clutch jaws working themselves completely out of engagement with the result that the load was dropped.
(That is, even though the clutch handle was secured in
the engaged position, the clutch linkage was so flexible
that the clutch jaws separated and disengaged due t o
internal clutch forces.) All clutches should be provided
with a device that will secure the clutch handle in either
the engaged or the disengaged position.
The drums should be fitted with removable rope guards
designed to prevent a slack rope from being wound over
the flange and being wrapped around the drum shaft.
When a large amount of wire rope is to be stored on a

winch drum, i t is advisable to use a spooling device.
These devices ensure that the wire is distributed evenly
across the drum and does not pile up in one place. Such
a pileup may occur a t the center of the drum or against
either flange depending on the lead of line from the heel
block to the drum.
The most elementary form of a spooling device is a
grooved drum. The groove is a long spiral from end to
end of the druni. However, a grooved drum will only
control the storage of one layer of wire and only if the
fleet angle is very small and if the wire is kept under tension continuously.
Mechanical spooling devices may take any one of
several forms, the most popular of which consists of a
pair of rollers that are arranged with their axes a t right
angles to the line lead and parallel to the drum flanges.
The rollers are mounted on a trolley or carrier which is
moved back and forth across the width of the drum to
ensure that the wire is wound evenly across the full width.
Translation of the carrier is provided by a doublediamond threaded shaft which is rotated by gearing that
is powered from the drum shaft. A winch fitted with this
type of spooling arrangement is shown in Fig. 21. The
design of the gearing and the double-diamond must be
such that the carrier moves one wire diameter for each
turn of the drum.
Another mechanical device is that known as the LeBus
Fleet Angle Compensator, which relies on special drum
grooving and a specially mounted fair lead sheave.
There is additional information on this spooling problem
in reference [17].
Openings should be provided under the-motors to permit inspection and maintenance of the underside of the
motor and access to the studs that secure the field poles.
c. Electrical. There are a number of ways of obtaining variable or multiple speeds when a winch is driven by
an electric motor. One alternative is a single-speed
squirrel-cage motor driving the winch through a variable
&splacement hydraulic pump. Three- and four-speed
squirrel-cage motors and wound-rotor slipring motors
are also possibilities. The most popular type of drive on
cargo ships is that which uses an a-c/d-c motor-generator
set to produce adjustable-voltage direct current t o control the speed and direction of the winch. In the cases
of the hydraulic and motor-generator set drives, the
prime mover is started once during an entire cargo handling day; whereas in all other cases the prime mover
must be started each time the winch is required to haul
in or pay out rope. These frequent starts and stops will
cause voltage fluctuations in the ship's system.
The most popular system of control for cargo winches
is the modified "Ward-LeonardJ' system, which employs
an a-c/d-c motor-generator set to provide an adjustable
voltage output to vary the speed of the d-c cargo winch
motor. Usually a squirrel-cage a-c motor drives two d-c
generators, each of which supplies a controlled voltage to
one of a pair of motors driving two winches that are
arranged for burtoning cargo. The motor-generator sets
HULL MACHINERY
Fig. 2 2
Vertical motor-generator set for cargo winches with rotor removed

i
Fig. 23
Vertical motor-generator set to sene a pair of cargo winches
are located in deckhouses so that they may be of a dripproof construction. The control is usually of the solid- The lower part of the rotor in Fig. 22 is the a-c motor and
state type and provides infinitely variable speeds both the two d-c generators are above.
hoisting and lowering. The a-c motor should have a conA horigontal motor-generator set is illustrated by Fig.
tinuous rating, but the generators and the d-c motors 24. The a-c motor in the center drives two d-c generamay have a 30-minute short time duty rating. The ch- tors, each of which powers one cargo winch motor.
cuitry should provide safe lowering speeds if either a
Multi-speed squirrel-cage motors with three or four
brake failure or power failure, or both, occurs. The d-c speeds have been used very successfully for cargo winch
motors may be shunt, stabilized-shunt, or compound drives. One such three-wed motm has 4, 8; and 28
wound, and of totally enclosed, nonventilated, water- poles; another uses 4, 8, and 36 poles; and% third has
tight construction and should be provided with an auto- 2, 4, and 40 poles. I n each case, the high-speed (4 or 2
matic drainage fitting.
pole) winding can handle loads up to about 3 tons drum
Vertical motor-generator sets for cargo winches are pull a t about 300 fpm, and this is also the maximum
shown in Figs. 22 and 23. The units are force ventilated light-hook speed. The second speed (8 or 4 pole) proby a fan on the rotor. Air is drawn in through the con- vides a line pull up t o about 6 tons a t about 150 fpm.
troller door, passes through the base, and is discharged .An automatic step-back relay is provided so that if the
vertically from the top of the motor-generator enclosure. line pull on the drum exceeds the nominal 3-ton rating,
592
MARINE ENGINEERING
Fig. 24
Horizontal motor-generator set
the motor will not accelerate to the high-speed winding

even when the master switch is advanced to the highspeed position. The low-speed windings are used to land
loads and to take up on a slack line. Although only
three speeds are available, the transitions between speeds
are quite smooth, the speed changes being absorbed by
the inertia of the winch and the inherent elasticity of the
entire rigging system. The four-speed motor offers 4, 8,
16, and 32-pole arrangements, with the 16-pole connection serving principally as a cushion between the slowest
running speed and the third and full-load speeds. In
each case, acceleration from one speed to the next is provided by time delays so that the motor will attain its
speed before moving on to the next speed. An advantage
that is obtained if squirrel-cage motors are used is that
they are essentially trouble-free since there are no commutators, slip-rings, or brushes to be maintained.
The control of the hoisting speed of wound-rotor slip
ring motors is generally accomplished by inserting varying amounts of resistance in the rotor circuit. By inserting a large amount of resistance in the circuit, the starting
torque of the motor is increased and the inrush (or starting) current is reduced. The smaller inrush current is
beneficial in that there is less disruption of the ship's
electric system each time a winch is started. As successive amounts of resistance are removed from the rotor
circuit, the motor speed increases until, when all external
resistance is removed, the motor will, in effect, be a squirrel-cage motor and will run at approximately synchronous
speed. Although a rheostat could be used to provide the
external resistance, it is more usual to remove the resistance in four or five steps, thus giving either five or six
motor speeds. This method of control is essentially the.
same as that used for the control of constant-potential
direct-current motor@supplied by a direct-current generator in the engine room. Both control systems are also
similar in that the resistors produce large amounts of heat
that must be~emovedfrom the winch equipment room
by a forced-ventilation system. The control circuitry for
the winch should be arranged so that the winch motor
cannot be operated unless the ventilation fan is operating
and also so that the entire winch system will shut down
if the temperature in the equipment room rises above a
safe limit.
Special consideration must be given to the control of
speed when lowering an overhauling load with a woundrotor motor. There are two common methods of doing
this. One is by plugging or countertorque lowering, and
the other is the unbalanced-stator method. In the
countertorque method, although the master switch is
moved in the lowering direction, relays sensitive to current caused by an overhauling load actually supply torque
to the motor that opposes the load. Varying the amount
of this counter torque changes the speed of lowering.
When there is no load on the hook, the winch must be
driven to pay out line. Since there is no load to produce
current, the current-sensitive relays do not function and
the motor drives the winch to pay out l i e at the maximum motor speed.
In the unbalanced-stator method for controlling lowering speeds, unequal or unbalanced voltages are applied to
the stator. Usually, an autotransformer is connected
across one phase of the power supply. A series of taps
from the transformer lead to contactors which furnish
voltages both above and below normal. This results in
applying two rotating fields to the motor, with one field
rotating clockwise and the other counterclockwise. By
changing the amount of unbalance, the relative strengths
of the two fields change and the speeds are varied.
There are several other methods of controlling both
the hoisting and lowering speeds of wound-rotor motors,
but these usually require elaborate circuitry and additional rotating equipment [18].
d. Hydraulic. Variable-delivery hydraulic pumps
have been used to drive winches on a few cargo ships, and
are also used on tankers where they replace steam winches
which have their pipe insulation problems. These hydraulic units have been furnished in two ways: with the
complete winch including electric motor, pump, and hf"
draulic motor and brake on a common bedplate; or
alternatively, with the electric motor and pump located
in a deckhouse and connected by pipe to the hydraulic
motor and brake mounted on the winch bedplate. With
the latter arrangement, the electric motor usually drives
two pumps, each of which serves one winch of a pair
assigned to a pair of burtoning booms. With this arrangement, the capacity of the electric motor need only
be about 150 percent of the capacity of the hydraulic
motor to drive a single winch, since it is impossible to
draw full load from both winches at the same time.
Thus, the total installed electric horsepower is reduced.
Because the motors and pumps are out of the weather,
the motors can be dripproof.
593
HULL MACHINERY
a clean hydraulic system. Where the pumps are located

in the deckhouse, the piping between the units must be
fabricated and installed by the shipbuilders. Extreme
care must be used to ensure the removal of dirt and other
contaminants from the system by the use of a cleaning
procedure such as is described in reference [I]. Special
attention must also be paid to the provision of vent fittings at the high points in the hydraulic piping system
for the removal of entrapped air.
Fig. 27
Worm-geared topping or vang winch fltted with disk-type electric

brake
lowering the boom to the deck for servicing. In addition,

topping winches are used to hoist the boom to the highest
working position or, if the boom is to be stowed vertically, to the boom rest on the king post or crosstree.
b. Mechanical. Topping and vaag winches are usually
designed so that the lubrication and the fill-and-drain
2.4 Topping and Vang Winches
connections will function properly whether the winches
a. General. Topping and vang winches are used to are mounted horizontally or vertically. This allows the
move the cargo boom vertically or laterally, respectively, shipbuilder latitude in arranging the winches so as to
in order to position the boom head to handle the hook provide the best possible cargo handling arrangement.
load (see Fig. 19). They are usually of simple mechanical The winches should be capable of handling the working
and electrical arrangement, capable of positioning the and test loads without the aid of a drum ratchet and pawl
boom when it is fully loaded, and are also capable of or other securing device. The drive arrangement may be
594
of either the spur gear (double or triple reduction) type

as in Figs. 25 and 26 or of the worm-gear type as in Fig.
27. The 7.5-hp vang winch in Fig. 26 is designed such
that the motor and brake are mounted within a vang
post; only the drum is exposed to the weather.
c. Electrical. Tcpping and vang winch motors are
usually of the single-speed, reversible, squirrel-cage type,
and are equipped with brakes. The motors should be
rated for 30 minutes, short time, full-load duty.
Master switches should be of the "spring-return-toOFF" type. Frequently the master switches for the
topping and vang winches for a boom are arranged so
that they are operated by a single lever called a "joy
stick." As an example of the use of a joy stick, movement of the lever away from the operator will cause the
topping winch to pay out wire and lower the boom; and
movement of the lever to the right will cause the boom
to swing to the right. A movement of the lever in any
direction in between these two directions will both lower
the boom and swing it to the right. Providing the control
of the two winches in a single lever permits the operator
to position the boom quickly and land the, load with
great accuracy.
2.5
HULL M
MARINE EN(
1
DECK
Fig. 29
Capstans
a. General. There are three mechanical arrangements of capstans that are in general use. In one arrangement the motor, electric brake, gear reducer, and
capstan head are mounted on a common bedplate on the
weather deck. I n a second arrangement only the capstan
head is mounted in the weather with the motor, electric
brake, and gear reducer hung from the underside of the
weather deck. I n a third arrangement the capstan head
is on the weather deck with the motor, brake, and gear
reducer on the deck below, as illustrated by Fig. 28. I n
all three cases the master switch is located near the capstan head on the open deck, and the controller is located
in a protected location such as a deckhouse or the capstan
machinery space.
The first arrangement mentioned has the advantage
that the xomplete unit can be assembled by the capstan
manufacturer for bolting in place by the shipbuilder.
However, it has two disadvantages in that the motor and
brake h u s t be of watertight construction and that the
capstan head is elevated to an inconvenient height above
the weather deck.
The second arrangement has the advantage of having
the motor and brake out of the weather so that they may
be of dripproof construction. However, it introduces a
deck penetration which must be made watertight, and
the capstan head must be mounted by the shipbuilder.
Neither of these problems is particularly difficult to
handle; but the fact that the power unit is suspended
from the overhead makes it more difficult to inspect and
maintain.
The third arrangement, which is common, entails a
problem of alignment between the driving and driven
units and requires the installation of a flexible coupling
that can accommodate a small amount of misalignment
Warping winch with extended shaft
in Fig. 28 may be of either the roller type or of the sleeve

type with bronze bushings.
For merchant ships it is commonly specified that when
the capstan is handling the specified load, the stresses
should not exceed 40 per cent of the yield point of the
materials. The capstan head, main shaft, bearings, and
capstan base should be designed to withstand the breaking strength of the hawser applied tangentially a t midheight of the head without exceeding 75 percent of the
yield point of the materials.
c. Electrical. Capstan motors should be reversible
constantand are usually of the two-speed (full and
horsepower, squirrel-cage type. They should be rated
for 30 minute short-time, full-load duty on either winding. A brake should be provided on the motor shaft.
The motor and controls should provide adequate control
of overhauling loads. Stepback protection from high to
low speed should be provided so that, when retrieving a
light line on the high-speed point, the motor speed will
automatically step back to low speed if the rated horsepower is exceeded in high speed. Automatic return to
high speed should also be provided should the line pull
be reduced. Capstans are usually ,designed for line
speeds of about 30 to 35 fpm in low speed since this is
about as fast as a man can handle the line and keep it
tight around the head for friction purposes. If the motor
is full and quarter speed as suggested above, this will result in a light-line speed of from 120 to 140 fpm.
2.6 Warping Winches. A warping winch is typically
used to warp a ship alongside a pier or to move a ship
from one place to another, by means of hawsers, without
other assistance. The warping head on a warping winch
is similar to the head on a capstan, except that the warping head or heads are mounted on a horizontal shaft. I n
some instances, the heads are mounted on extensions of
the main shaft so that they may be at a considerable distance from the power unit, as in Fig. 29; if the shafts are
extended in order to spread the heads apart, these extensions are provided with outboard bearing pedestals close
to the heads. Occasionally a drum is installed, as in Fig.
30, for handling a wire rope for a stream anchor. If a
drum is installed, it is provided with a clutch and a band
brake of the screw compressor type so that the drum may
x),
n
Fig. 28
DECK
Capstan w i h machinery on deck below
and variation in the vertical distance between decks

which may be caused by either temperature changes or
deck loadings. This type of capstan offers the advantage
of having the power unit on the deck, rather than overhead, so that it is more readily serviced.
b. Mechanical. The capstan head is usually of the
smooth-barrel type (without whelps) and its configuration should approximate that given in reference [19].
The gear reducer generally consists of a worm-and-wheel
reduction and a spur, helical, or herringbone reduction.
It is preferred that the worm-and-wheel reduction (if
used) precede the other reduction in order to take advantage of the slightly higher efficiency of the worm at the
higher rubbing speed. All bearings in the reducer should
be of the ball or roller type because of the necessiby of
accurate alignment of the worm gearing.
The deck bearings for the capstan arrangement shown
Fig. 30
Electrohydraulic mooring winch
be secured when the heads are being used. The electric

motor, brake, and gear reducer are all mounted on a common bedplate.
The warping heads should be of the smooth-barrel type
(without whelps) and located a t a height that will ensure
a suitable lead of line from the bulwark chocks. The gear
reducer is usually of the double-reduction type with spur,
helical, or herringbone g e a r i n ~but occasionally a single
worm reduction is used.
A stress analysis should be made for warping winches
employing the limitations as described above for capstans; in addition, if a drum is provided, the unit should
be capable of withstanding the stall torque of the motor
without exceeding 75 percent of the yield point of the
materials.
The electrical equipment described for the capstans
would be suitable for the warping winches.
2.7
Constant-Tension Mooring Winches
a. General. A constant-tension mooring winch is a

device used to maintain a preset tension in a mooring line
after a ship has been tied up a t a pier. The mooring lines
holding the ship to the pier will maintain a constant tension even with changes in tide or ship's draft, without the
necessity of manually adjusting the lines. When constant-tension mooring winches are used, two or more are
installed forward and two or more are installed aft. As
many as ten constant-tension mooring winches may be
installed on ships such as&he largest$ankers. .
Figure 31 illustrates a pair of constant-tension mooring
winches that are rigged to lead the line from each over
the same side of the ship through univer~alchocks.
Alternatively, the lines may be taken to the other side of
the ship.
Occasionally each of two of the forward winches is combined with a wildcat to combine the windlassjconstanttension functions into a single unit. The constant-ten-
MARINE ENGINEERING
Fig. 31
Constant-tension mooring winches
sion winches are also arranged for manually hauling in

and paying out the wire rope while the ship is being tied
UP.
b. Mechanical. The essential mechanical difference
between a cargo winch and a constant-tension mooring
winch is usually the interposition of a planetary gear set
between the two usual gear reductions and the drum. In
addition, a band clutch is provided with the clutch friction surface on the outer diameter of the ring gear on
most constant-tension winches. When the band clutch
is set, the ring gear is locked and the sun gear is then able
to rotate the planetary gears, thereby rotating the spider
which is directly connected to the winch drum. The band
clutch is not primarily intended for "free spooling,"
which is a desirable capability if the mooring line has
been secured to a bollard when there is a small amount of
way on the ship. Instead, most control circuits contain
a "drift" position which energizes only the brake, thus
allowing the winch to overhaul, and thereby permits
"free spooling" without the necessity of making manual
adjustments at the winch.
All bearings should be of the ball or roller type to
minimize friction so that the tension-sensing mechanism
is adequately sensitive to changes in line tension.
A typical constant-tension winch has the ability to
maintain, within a reasonable tolerance, a tension of from
8000 to 20,000 Ib. There are usually three or four intermediate settings between these two extremes. Tension
is usually sensed by either a coil spring or a torsion bar.
If the tension sensed exceeds the preset tolerance, the
motor is energized to pay out or haul in line until the
original tension has been reestablished.
The band clutch is usually capable of holding from 125
to 150 percent of the maximum tension setting. For the
winch cited above, the band clutch would be capable of
resisting a pull of from 25,000 to 30,000 Ib. If a sudden
surge were to occur, the clutch would slip thus preventing
excessive forces from being developed within the winch.
The tension-sensing mechanism and the band clutch
and their linkages should be totally enclosed. Where
this is not possible, nonferrous or stainless steel parts

should be provided.
If a gypsy or warping head is required, it must bk arranged so that it will function with the drum declutched
and secured. If the head is to be used for warping duty,
then the head, shaft, bearings, etc., should be designed to
withstand the breaking strength of the hawser applied
tangentially at mid-length without exceeding 75 percent
of the yield point of the materials.
c. Electrical. Most constant-tension winches are
powered by an adjustable-voltage d-c drive similar to
that described under Cargo Winches. Other satisfactory drives include wound-rotor slip-ring motors and
variable-delivery reversible-flow hydraulic transmissions, both of which are also described under Cargo
Winches.
Details of motors and generators are about the same as
for cargo winches except that the motor should have a
duty rating capable of sustaining continuous cyclical
operation in a five-second total cycle. Thermal protection should be provided in the motor, and the circuitry
should be arranged so as to shut down the motor and
sound an alarm if the motor temperature exceeds allowable limits.
One master switch should be provided for each winch
at each side of the ship. Generally the two or three
switches required on each side at the bow or stern are
combined as duplex or triplex units and may be arranged for either bulkhead or pedestal mounting. The
master switch to be used at any time may be selected by
a selector switch mounted on each winch. Alternatively,
each port and starboard pair may be arranged electrically
so that if one is moved away from the OFF position, the
other switch is disconnected. Each master switch should
provide the following operating positions: fast heave,
slow heave, automatic, off, drift, medium payout, and
fast payout. When the master switch is set at the "automatic" position, the line pull will be dictated by the setting of the tension switch on the winch.
d. Variations. There are three major variations or
adaptations of the constant-tension mooring winch.
These are: (1) the winch which has a warping head and
can be used as a warping winch; (2) the winch that is
combined with a wildcat so that it can handle a bower
anchor and its chain; and (3) the winch that is designed
to handle a synthetic mooring line on the drum.
Constant-tension mooring winches are often fitted with
"gypsy" heads of small diameter for handling miscellaneous lines. These are not practical for handling mooring lines of the usual 8 to 9 in., circumference. If it is
desired that the winch be capable of warping the vessel,
using such lines, heads approximating the sizes quoted in
reference [19] should be fitted. These must be operable
separately from the drum. A secondary shaft and gear
reduction may also be required.
The second variation is the constant-tension winch
that, through an additional gear reduction, drives a wildcat that handles the bower anchor. This is an advantangeous arrangement since it is unlikely that it will be
HULL M
Fig. 33
Bow thruster
below deck, out of the weather, provided adequate fairleads are installed and a spooling device is mounted on
the storage drum.
2.8
Fig. 32
Ship with bow L ~ S t e r
necessary to handle both the mooring line from the drum

and the anchor chain at the same time. Some flexibility
is permitted in the arrangement of winch leads and chain
leads; one arrangement is such that the wildcat which
handles the starboard anchor is on the port constanttension winch and vice versa. This is illustrated by Fig.
14. The possibility of locating the wildcats and the upper
ends of the hawsepipes almost at will permits proper
chain leads while still ensuring that the lead from the
drum is adequate for all mooring requirements.
The third variation mentioned above permits the use
of a synthetic line as a constant-tension mooring line.
There is considerable advantage to be gained from this
arrangement since the line itself has much greater elas
ticity than a steel line and therefore can absorb most
minor adjustments by stretching or relaxing without the
winch being energized. A new factor is introduced, however, in that synthetic lines under tension must not be
stowed on a drum unless the drum is properly reinforced.
In at least one known case, a synthetic line was stored
overnight on a drum after being hauled in under "normal" (say 20,000 lb) line pull; the result was that the
line exerted enough compressive force on the winch drum
to crush it. In order to avoid such a situation, the winch
drum may be arranged to act as a capstan, with only
enough t u n s of line on the drum to ensure adequate friction. The line is then pulled off the drum and is wound
on a second drum for storage purposes. This second
drum may be located close to the winch or may be located
Special Thrust Devices
a. General. S~ecialthrust devices are ~rovidedon

ships primarily to ifnprove their maneuverinicapabilities
at zero, or substantially zero, ship speeds when the rudder
is relatively ineffective. Theke are three general types of
these special thrust devices. The most common type
consists of a propeller that is installed in an athwartship
tunnel; the propellers in these units may be of either the
fixed pitch or reversible pitch type. Trainable thrusters,
a second type, are commonly designed such that they can
be lowered through the bottom of the ship and trained
through 360 degrees so that thrust can be developed in
any direction; however, there are other types of trainable thrusters. One type of trainable thruster is similar
to a large outboard motor, and the active-rudder type is
designed to be incorporated into the rudder. The activerudder type consists of a small shrouded propeller that
is driven by a submersible electric motor built into the
aft edge of the rudder. In a third type of thruster, a
pump is qrranged to take suction from beneath the keel
and discharge to either side, to develop thrust port or
starboard as desired.
There is a considerable amount of literature that deals
with the subject of special thrust devices; however, the
most comprehensive treatpent of thesubject is contained
in-reference [20].
b. Tunnel Type. The tunnel type of thruster, which
is widely known as a "bow thruster" when installed a t
the bow of a ship, is illustrated by Figs. 32 and 33.
"Stern thrusters," that is, similar devices installed at the
stern of a ship, have been used but they are not common.
The principal performance features of a typical series
of bow thrusters are shown in Table 5. The performance
MARINE ENGINEERING
598
Table 5 Performance Characteristics

of Typical Reversible-Pitch Bow Thrusters
Horsepower
Dheter
RPM
150
3'-7"
4'-3C
5'-5"
6'-7'
7'-11"
9'-2"
450
420
300
500
800
1200
1800
340
290
240
210
Thrust, Ib
4,500
7,900
13,200
20,400
30,200
44,100
HULL MACHINERY
20
Thrustlhp
30
26
26
16
25.5
25
24.5
0
0
el2
.I.
cn
of any particular unit may vary from a comparable one

shown in Table 5. In general, an improvement in efficiency is obtained with a propulsor having a larger diameter and lower rpm.
Bow thrusters are often designed such that the thrust
developed is both variable and reversible. This is generally accomplished by using a constant-speed electric
motor to drive a controllable- and reversible-pitch propeller. The unit is started with the propeller set at zero
pitch; then, as the need arises, the pitch is adjusted so
as to provide the desired thrust to either port or starboard. For the smaller bow thrusters, however, a fixedpitch propeller is sometimes used with a variable- and
reversible-speed driver.
When locating the tunnel in the ship, it is desirable to
have the tunnel well forward so as to obtain the maximum turning moment from the thrust developed. The
depth of the tunnel must also be considered, particularly
"or
vessels which will operate at light draft, because the
thrust developed breaks down at shallow submergence
depths.
A test was conducted at the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard to investigate the effect of submergence depth on
the thrust developed. The bow thruster tested was
powered by a vertical 800-hp electric motor which drove
a reversible-pitch propeller through right-angle bevel
gears. The thruster tunnel diameter was 6 f t 7 in. The
ship draft was varied and the bollard pull was measured
when thrusting to port and to starboard. The wind was
steady at only a few knots, and there was ample clearance
both below the keel and to adjacent piers. Figure 34
shows the data obtained when thrusting to starboard;
values when thrusting to port were similar. I t may be
noted from Fig. 34 that when the top of the tunnel is
submerged less than about 1.5 f t , there is a marked loss
of thrust.
The design of the junction of the tunnel and hull is
another factor which "requires study. The tunnel openings definitely affect the resistance of the hull; however,
the effect is difficult to accurately quantify because it is
of a relatively small magnitude. With a well designed
tunnel arrangement, it would be reasonable to expect an
increase in the ship's resistance of about 1 percent. When
it is desirable to minimize the resistance added by the
tunnel, flow studies should be used as means of engineering the shape of the tunnel fairing and also the orientation of protective bars, if used.
Protective bars are usually mounted along the flow
lines in the area of the tunnel openings. Usually they
m
A
Fig. 34
1
0
-1
2
8UBUERGENCE OF TOP OF TUISmL, FT
Effect of tunnel submergence on thrust developed by a bow fhruster
have a slightly downward slope when going aft, as may

be seen from Figs. 32 and 33. Protective bars of several
different designs have been used. In some designs several
of the bars are bolted in place so as to be portable and
permit access to the mechanism and also to permit a removable blade to be unshipped. However, this practice
has not been uniformly satisfactory because the bars that
are bolted on have a tendency to come adrift. Consequently, a preferable design is one with the bars simply
welded in place. If access is required at a later date, the
bars are burned off and rewelded; it is often necessary to
burn off the bars to accomplish major work irrespective
of the design due to rigging problems. Access problems
are alleviated with some designs by the provision of a
propeller blade removal hatch in the tunnel immediately
above the propeller. This hatch is large enough for a
man to get through, and no access is necessary fiom the
tunnel openings. I n this case, to remove a propeller
blade, the ship is ballasted until the tunnel is out of the
water and the blade is lifted vertically up into the ship
through the hatch.
The tunnel is generally made of mild steel and is
welded into the hull. To minimize tip leakage losses, the
clearance between the blade tips and the tunnel should
preferably be no more than 0.25 in. However, in practice
it is difficult to maintain the propeller and the tunnel concentric. The diiculty involves the welding practices
during installation at the shipyard. After installation,
it is not uncommon to find the tunnel to be no longer circular, thereby requiring the blade tips to be ground off.
For seawater service all bolts, studs, nuts, and other
fastenings should be of monel. Propeller blades are usu-
ally of stainless steel or nickel aluminum bronze, with the

propeller hub of bronze and the pod struts made of steel.
The propeller is driven through a right-angle gear
drive (usually of the spiral-bevel type) that is contained
within the pod assembly. The pinion shaft or inputghaft
of the right-angle drive extends out of the pod and
through the tunnel assembly. The arrangement can be
designed such that the pinion shaft penetrates the tunnel
assembly at any angle desired; however, the shaft is
normally either vertical or horizontal. With a horizontal
arrangement, the shaft normally goes directly to the
prime mover without involving another right-angle
drive. In the case of a vertical drive, the prime mover
can be located many decks above. In a common arrangement a vertical electric motor drives the thruster
input shaft through auxiliary shafting. If the prime
mover is a type which cannot be oriented vertically (e.g.,
a diesel engine), it is then necessary to use a second rightangle gearbox. The second right-angle drive preferably
should be of the spiral-bevel type supported by oil-lubricated, heavy-duty, antifriction bearings. Flexible couplings should be provided between the prime mover and
the shafting.
The hydraulic power unit is often mounted at least 10
ft above the load waterline so as to avoid the need for a
separate gravity tank. This head pressure is necessary
to ensure that an adequate pressure is maintained on the
oil seals in the propeller hub so that seawater will not
enter the pod if the seals should leak slightly. The unit
should have a motor-driven pump mounted on a reservoir, complete with necessary piping, suction filter, pressure gages, relief valves, etc. The reservoir should have
a capacity in gallons of at least 2.5 times the capacity of
the pump in gpm and should be fitted with direct-reading
level gages or sight glasses, fill, drain, and vent connections, and access covers large enough to permit the reservoir to be cleaned.
The master control stand is located in the wheelhouse
and is sometimes made a part of the wheelhouse console.
When a reversible-pitch propeller is used, this stand
should contain a single lever that will pneumatically,
electrically, or electrohydraulically control the hydraulic
blade positioning system so as to provide stepless pitch
control from zero to maximum either to port or starboard. For fixed-pitch propeller installations, the propeller speed and direction of rotation should be controllable. Frequently, auxiliary control stands are located
on each bridge wing and are connected electrically, hydraulically, or mechanically to the master control stand.
In addition to the control stand or stands, a control and
indicating panel should be provided in the wheelhouse.
This panel should contain pushbuttons for starting and
stopping the prime mover, the hydraulic system for pitch
control, etc. It should also indicate the alignment of the
system (e.g., propeller pitch indicator) and contain lights
apd alarms for critical pressures and temperatures.
If the bow thruster is to be used only for docking, the
main motor need only have a one to two hour full-power
rating. If, however, it will be used for extended periods
Fig. 35
Thrust device that can b q IoQered and rotated 360 d&reer to

develop thrust in any direction
of time, e.g., as an assist in steering the ship at slow

speeds during a long passage, then it should be rated for
continuous full-load duty. All other motors for the unit
should be rated for continuous full-load duty.
The controller should incorporate low-voltage protection, and interlocks should be provided to ensure that the
main motor cannot be started unless the pitch control
system is in neutral, that lubricating oil and hydraulic
control pressures are available, and that the thruster
room ventilation fan is in operation (as applicable).
c. Trainable Type. The trainable type of bow
thruster is the most versatile of all since, when it is
lowered'from the bottom of the ship, it may be trained in
any direction to move the ship to port, starboard, ahead,
or astern. It is rather unusable as a docking device, however, since it extends several feet below the keel and
therefore is quite suscep5ile to d a ~ a g e .
In this arrangement t?ik propeller and drive'shaft are
usually lowered and raised as a unit, as generally indicated by Fig. 35. The mechanism which trains the propeller also moves up and down with the rest of the
machinery. The propeller is mounted in a protective
ring or Kort nozzle which is designed to improve the
thrust from the propeller. A closure plate is welded to
the bottom of the protective ring; therefore, when the
600
HULL MACHINERY
MARINE ENGINEERING
9 = the maximum design wave slope (in terms of a

wave height h and a wave length A, 9 =
sin-' ~rh/A),deg
C
FIN
SHAFT
The stabilizing moment developed by the fin stabilizers
M, = NaL
WTER LEVEL
(6)
where
M, = fin stabilizing moment, ft-lb

N = number of fins
a = lever arm between the resultant lift force and
the ship's center of gravity, ft
L = lift force per fin, lb
( a ) CROSS SECTION OF A YON-ARTICULATE0
FIN STABILIZER
(ALSO KWWN AS A SPAM TYPE
OR SINQLY ALL-MOVABLE STABILIZER)
The lift force developed by each fin can be expressed in

the conventional manner as:
Fig. 36
Active fin stabilization sketch
where
unit is retracted it must be aligned fore and aft. The
closure plate provides a nominally smooth hull.
One use for this type of thruster is for station keeping
on a survey ship when it may be necessary for the ship to
remain in position over a particular spot while bottom
sainples or cores are being taken. One such installation
has a fixed-pitch propeller driven by a constant-speed
squirrel-cage motor through an eddy-current coupling.
Varying the excitation produces a propeller speed of up
to about 95 percent of the motor speed. The difference
in speed between the motor and propeller shaft, or slip,
results in the creation of heat which must be removed
either by a ventilation system or by a seawater-cooled
heat exchanger.
Various interlocks are required for this type of unit so
as to ensure that the space ventilation fan, the eddy-current ventilating fan or cooling water pump, etc., are
operating before the unit is lowered and the main motor
is started. An additional interlock is required to ensure
that the unit is in exact fore-and-aft alignment before
being housed so that the closure will fit into the hull
opening.
d. Jet Type. In this third type of thruster, a pump
with large clearances takes suction from the bottom of
the ship near the centerline and discharges it to either a
port or starboard discharge pipe to develop lateral thrust.
The flow may be directed by a "splitter" which can proportion the flow to provide varying amounts of flow to
each side. Mechanically and electrically this is the simplest, but least efficient, of the three types described.
2.9
Active Fin Stabilizers
a. General. Active fin stabilizers are fin-type control surfaces which are usually located just above the
turn of the bilge near amidships, port and starboard. In
a seaway, the angle of attack of the fins is varied continuously by automatically controlled tilting gear so as to
produce heeling moments that reduce the ship's tendency

to roll. A compilation of the characteristics of many
active fin installations is contained in reference [21].
Active fin stabilizers require ship forward motion in
order to develop lift, which increases as the ship speed
squared. In practical terms, this speed dependency
limits the application of active fin stabilizers to ship
speeds above approximately 12 knots.
Below that
speed, the fin size tends to get too large, and other devices (e.g., anti-roll tanks) find application, as described
in references [22] and [23].
b. Simplified Calculation of Stabilizing Moment and
Number of Units. The determination of percentage of
stabilization and the design of automatic controls require
a complex analysis. However, the fin size and tiltinggear machinery characteristics and location can be determined adequately using a simplified approach. With the
simplified approach, it is assumed that a regular beam
seaway having a small surface wave slope and a wave
period approximately equal to the ship's natural period
can build up large roll angles. By designing fin stabilizers
to counteract the wave slope heeling moments, it is possible to reduce the large roll angles. Figure 36 illustrates
the concept for a ship with two symmetrical fins.
The rolling moment induced by the seaway is expressed as follows:
Mo = 2240 AGM
sin 9
CL = a nondimensional lift coefficient (Typical values

of CL would be approximately 1.1 for nonarticulated fins, and 1.4 for flapped fins. Figure 37 defines the two types of fin surfaces.
Section 8 of reference [5] thoroughly discusses
the procedure for computing CL.)
p = water mass density, lb-seca/ft4
A = area of one fin, sq ft
V = water speed used-in fin design, fps (using VK as
the ship speed in knots, V = 1.69 VK)
(5)
R
where
Mg = roll-induced moment, ft-lb

A = ship displacement, tons
GM
= metacentric height (the distance between the
ship's center of gravity, G, and the ship's

metacenter, M), f t
k
FIN
LFLAP
t b ) CROSS SECTION OF A FUPPIO

FIN STABILIZER
(ALSO KNOWN AS AN hRTICULATE0
OR DOUBLY n u - MOVIBU
(CT~BILIZER)
If the stabilizing moment computed from equation (6)

Fig. 37 Common types of fin stabilizen
is equal to or greater than the induced rolling moment
calculated from equation (5), an effective stabilization
system is considered to be achieved. The key to this
simplified method is the somewhat arbitrary selection of
the seaway wave slope capacity 9 and the associated ship
9 = 5 deg
speed VK. Experience has shown that stabilizers should
CL = 1.2
be designed for wave slopes of about 4 or 5 deg. Lower
a = 56 percent of B
values are reasonable for very large ships, and higher
values for small ships, since small ships are more likely The values of CL can later be refined (e.g., Fig. 31 of
reference [24] indicates that the CL for a flapped fin
to be subjected to roll excitation in a given seaway.
varies
between 1.6 and 1.3 from speeds of 5 to 25 knots,
The lowest ship speed, VK, at which a significant roll
reduction is desired, is usually taken to be approximately and Sectjon 8 of reference [5] gives data for nonarticu50 percent to 80 percent of full-power speed. This im- lated control surfaces as a function of aspect ratio,
plicitly recognizes that ships in a heavy seaway are sweep, and taper ratio.) The usual practice is to try N
= 2 and N = 4, and then make a final decision as to the
generally operated well below full power.
number
of fins. Next, combinations of nonarticulated
I n order to obtain a first approximation of the fin area
versus articulated and nq;stsetractabb versus retractable
required, the following expression may be used:
fins are investigated in order to establish the preferred
arrangement. Some of the considerations involved are
discussed below.
c. Location and Type of Units. The simplest mawhere B is the ship's beam in feet and all other terms are chinery and most compact arrqgement are obtained
as previously defined. Equation (8) can be derived by with nonretractable units. On the other hand, the smallcombining equations (5), (6), and (7) with the tentative est fin area is obtained with high-aspect-ratio fins (e.g.,
assumptions that
fins with an outreach of at least twice the fore-and-aft
MARINE ENGINEERING
HULL MACHINERY
tially the control system measures the instantaneous heel coypling) ; or (2) accepting only limited roll angle
residual ship roll motion, assumes a simplified equation stabilization in order to reduce high-frequency roll anguof roll, and orders fin angles at the proper phase relation- lar acceleration.
ship to achieve fih lift and corrective righting moments.
Most automatic fin controls are not designed to correct
Robb [26] provides an introduction to the theory, Lewis steady heel from ship's loading or wind, but rather to
[27] presents more advanced theory, and Bell [28], stabilize around the mean heeled angle. This is done to
Chadwick 1221, and Conolly [25] provide specialized de- conserve the limited fin stabilizing moments for correctsign procedures. Thus, one set of simplified control ing the oscillatory roll variations.
equations is given in reference [22] as:
Another feature in many designs is the automatic
angle or fin lift-limiter. This is a consequence of having
4 21,-4 4 = 7' - 7
fins which develop full rated lift several knots below fullShip:
W2
W
power ship speed. At the higher ship speeds, the lift and
4
4 (10) torque, which are proportional to the ship's speed
Control:
a = K14 K2 - K3 squared, might be excessive and not really needed. Lift
W
u2
is limited to safe values by a fin angle limiter which is
Fin:
7 = K,U2a
(11) either in the fin lift control circuit, if such is installed, or
in the fin angle servo circuit, using as input the ship spied
where the symbols have the following physical signifi- deduced from the main propulsion shaft rpm.
cance :
Fig. 38
Nonretractable articulated fin unit, port side, looking forward
length) that are located in the ship a t positions of maximum beam and located at angles which slope downward
going outboard such that the fins have maximum leverage. The solution for the least fin area practically always involves fins projecting beyond the hull block dimensions, thus requiring retractability or a compromise
design with low-aspect-ratio fins. Additional considerations to be entertained when developingthe arrangements
are: (1) in the rigged-out position, the fins should be a t
least a few feet below the design heeled waterlines (so as
to minimize cavitation), and not immediately upstream
of important sea chests (such as for main condensers);
and (2) the fin tilting gear should be in a compartment
suitable for routine maintenance (e.g., an auxiliary machinery space), and preferably not adjoining prime sleeping quarters. Clearly these contain built-in codicts, and
require judgement of the naval architect and marine
engineer to reconcile.
I n commercial practice, the compromises generally result in one or two retractable, articulated fins per side.
The retractable feature permits locating the fins in the
ship at positions of maximum beam, where there is favorable leverage. The articulated (doubly all-movable) fins
require about 30 percent less planform area than nonarticulated fins and are therefore easier to retract.
On destroyer escorts, the U. S. Navy has used nonretractable units, some with articulated and some with
nonarticulated fins. In this application, the hull form
sections are much more rounded than cargo ship hulls,
and also sonar domes extend several feet below the keel.
Each fin axis is thus sloped well downward going outboard, and the fins do not protrude beyond the maximum
beam or the sonar dome navigational draft. In this type,
illustrated by Fig. 38, the tilting gear, fin, and hull insert
plate can be readily furnished as one unit with a factorysealed hydraulic system. The fin unit shown is installed
with the fin sloped 55 deg downward going outboard, and
it has a span of 8 ft and chord of 4 f t (main body 36 in.,
tail flap 12 in.). Each unit has a total weight of 19,000

lb. The hydraulic tilting gear has a capacity of 226,000
in.-lb and is powered by a 20-hp motor.
d. Fin Tilting Gear. The fin shafts of virtually all
successful installations are tilted by hydraulic power,
which is well suited to the requirements for rapid reversal.
The tilting gear is generally similar to an electrohydraulic
steering gear, such as described earlier in this chapter.
Both Rapson-slide and vane-type rotary actuator installations are used; they are actuated by variable-delivery
pumps whose flow direction is ordered by the amplified
automatic control signal. Some of the significant differences from steering gear practice are: (1) There is
usually only one power unit per fin shaft, since stabilization is not as critical a function as steering, and even if
one unit fails there is another on the other side of the
ship; (2) Whereas steering gears are not required to perform high-speed hard-over to hard-over rudder maneuvers for extended periods, the tilting gear may be heavily
loaded for many hours of continuous operation, hence
requiring appropriate motor ratings and system coolers;
(3) Where retractable fins are used, the stowing and
rigging mechanisms, interlocks, and indicators have to be
provided; (4) Fin angular rates are about ten times
greater than rudder rates (in Appendix 111 of reference
[25], the minimum time for "hard-over to hard-over" fin
angles is derived as 0.22 times the natural period of roll) ;
(5) the rapid reversal of fin angles requires added torque
to overcome the mass inertia of the mechanism (some
allusions to this calculation are contained in Appendix B
of reference [21] and in the author's closure of reference
[241).
e. Automatic Controls for Fin Stabilizers. Unlike
the situation for rudders, human control of fin angles is
ineffective. This is because the roll response of a ship in
a seaway is at such a high frequency that the fin angles
must be varied continuously and rapidly. Automatic
controls have proved to be reliable and efficient. Essen-
603
roll angle of ship

natural frequency of roll
Ts = a damping ratio, involving GM,appendages,
and hull form
7 = effective wave slope
7' = 7
2f , =
~ disturbing moment
7 = stabilizing moment of fins, expressed in
terms of equivalent wave slope
U = ship speed
Kl9K2,K3 = constants of the particular system
a = fin angle of attack
=
w =
i-
Usually a computer study is made to assure the desired

stabilizer performance throughout the spectrum of sea
conditions. Some coefficients can be calculated; others
are estimated based on specific model tests or specialized
hydrodynamic literature, such as reference [27].
In a computer study, the gains and sensitivities can be
varied to suit the particular installation. Almost all successful controls use the ship roll velocity as the principal
input, plus some roll angle. A case can be made for roll
acceleration input and sway input in some applications.
Many of the servo designs order fin angle, and measure
the actual fin angle to get the closed-loop feedback. In
some designs, e.g., reference [24], fin lift is used rather
than fin angle. In typical shipboard designs 4 is measured by a gyro or athwartship accelerometer device, B, is
measured by a rate gyro or by differentiating the roll
angle, and 4 is measured by angular accelerometers.
Some studies have been made of feedahead devices utilizing pressure taps port ancl starboard to get wave slope
inputs. These devices have not been practical because
the real seaway is not the simple wave shown in Fig. 36.
Instead, the wave form is the sum of very many waves of
varying height, period, and direction, as described in
reference [27].
In most cases, the automatic controls are designed simply to reduce the roll angle. Several variations, however,
may be considered, such as: (1) stabilizing to the apparent vertical (for improved passenger comfort in sway-
References
1 ('Cleaning and Protecting Integral Piping for Oil

Hydraulic Power Transmission Equipment ," Military
Standard MIL-STD-419.
2 John Flodin, "Hull Machinery" in Marine Engineering, vol. 11,edited by Herbert Lee Seward, SNAME,
1944.
3 Frank C. Messaros, "Steering Gear and Deck
Machinery" in Modern Marine Engineer's Manual, vol.
11,edited by Alan Osborne, Cornell Maritime Press, New
York, 1943.
4 A. M. Nickerson, ~ r . , ' a n dV. A. Olson, "Steering
Gears and Their Selection," Tram. SNAME, 1952.
5 Philip Mandel, "Ship Maneuvering and Control"
in Principles of Naval Architecture, edited by John P.
Comstock, SNAME, 1967.
6 Karl E. Schoenherr, "A Program for the Investigation of the Rudder-Torque Problem," Marine Technology, SNAME, July 1965.
7 "Standard Specification for Cargo Ship Construction," Maritime Administration.
8 "Steering Gears, Electro-Hydraulic, Marine,"
Military Specification MIL-S-17803.
9 Rules for the ClassiJication and Construction of
Steel Vessels, American Bureau of Shipping, New York.
10 R. M. Luke and F. P. West, Jr., "An Integrated
Steering System," New England Section, SNAME, 1960.
11 William H. Hunley, "Anchor, Mooring and Towing Arrangements; Steering" in Ship Design and Construction, edited by A. M. DIArcangelo,SNAME, 1969.
12 "Guide to the Design and Testing of Anchor
Windlasses for Merchant C%ips," Technical and Research
Bulletin No. 3-15, SNAME, 1964.
13 "Dimensions of Wildcats," Navy Department
Drawing 52601-860304.
14 Catalog, Baldt Corporation, Chester, Pa.
15 A. M. Nickerson, Jr., and C. H. Russell, "Anchor
Handling and the Anchor Windlass," SNAME, New
England Section, 1957.
16 "Windlasses, Anchor, Electric-Hydraulic, Verti-
MARINE ENGINEERING
cal and Navy Type, Naval Shipboard," Militajr Specification MIL-W-19623.

17 D. F. MacNaught, "Cargo Handling" in Ship
Dasigrl and Construction, edited by A. M. D'Arcangelo,
SNAME, 1969.
18 P. B. Harwood, Control of Electric Motors, John
Wlley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1952.
1g "Capstans and Gypsy Heads," Navy Department
Drawing 82601-860303.
20 S. Hawkins, "The Use of Maneuvering Propulsion
Devices," Robert Taggart, lnc., Report RT-8518, prepared under contract MA-3293 for the Office of Research
and Development, Maritime Administration, January 21,
1965.
21 Hector T. McVey, "Anti-Roll Fin Stabilizers,"
Philadelphia Section, SNAME, 1959.
22 J. H. Chadwick, Jr., "On the Stabilization of
Roll," Trans. SNAME, 1955.
23 A. J. Giddings and R. Wermter, ('A Survey of

Ship Motion Stabilization," 5th Symposium on Naval
Hydrodynamics, Office of Naval Research, ACR-112,
1964.
24 J. E. Flipse, "Stabilizer Performance on the
SS Mariposa and SS Monterey," Trans. SNAME,
1957.
25 J. E. Conolly, "Rolling and Its Stabilisation by
Active Fins," Quarterly Trans. Institution of Naval
Architects, London, vol. 111, no. 1, January 1969.
26 A. M. Robb, Theory of Naval Architecture, Jlondon, 1952.
27 E. V. Lewis, "The Motion of Ships in Waves" in
Principles of Naval Architecture, edited by John P. Comstock, SNAME, 1967.
28 J. Bell, "Ship Stabilization Controls and Computation," Trans. Institution of Naval Architects, London, vol. 99, 1957.
Burr
I Electric Plants
Section 1
Introduction
1.1 Nature and Scope of Electric Plants. A- complete

shipboard electric plant is similar to the electric power
generating, distribution, and utilization system of a
self-contained shore-based industrial installation. Electric power is required for motors driving propulsion
plant auxiliaries and deck machinery, interior and
exterior illumination, navigation lights, ventilation and
air conditioning, stores and cargo refrigeration, electric
heating, galley equipment, drinking water and sanitary
systems, and casualty control machinery such as fire and
bilge pumps. Power must also be supplied for interior
communication systems, announcing and alarm systems,
radio communication, radar, and other electronic aids to
navigation.
For passenger vessels, the electric power requirements
extend to hotel and recreation loads, theater and dance
floor lighting, restaurant and swimming pool equipment,
motion picture projection, public address systems, and
stewards call systems. For passenger and prew safety,
the electric installation includes automatic fire detecting
and alarm systems, power-operated watertight doors, and
electrically released, spring-closed fire screen doors.
Electric power is vital to all shipboard operations and
to the safety and comfort of the passengers and crew.
For this reason, shipboard electric plants must contain
equipment necessary to maintain continuity'of service,
since a vessel at sea is isolated from external sources of
electrical energy. Therefore, standby ship service
generating capacity, usually equal to the rating of one of
the ship service generators, is provided. In addition, one
or more sources of emergency power, designed to automatically assume load upon loss of ship service power,
are required to supply those loads that are necessary for
the
of the passengers and crew; the
source of power should also have additional capacity
adequate to supply those loads vital to getting the
pmpulsion plant and
generators back in
service. Quick-starting diesel generators are usually
provided for emergency power; however, storage batteries
or gas turbine driven generators are satisfactory for this
service. Emergency
- - storage batteries combined with
d-c/a-c motor generator sets are required on passenger
vessels to provide temporary emergency power to certain
vital loads until the emergency generator can start and
assume the entire emergency load.
To avoid prolonged shutdown at sea, adequate spare

parts should be stowed aboard ship to replace vital parh
which are subject to wear and breakdown. It follows
that adequate detail drawings and manuals containing
instructions for operation, repair, and adjustment also
should be placed aboard ship.
For greater dependability at sea, electric equipment
necessary for the operation of the vessel is required to
have certain marine features such as dependable operation during rolling and pitching of the vessel, mechanical
parts resistant to shipboard vibration, and windings and
hardware resistant to moisture and corrosion.
A shipboard electric plant includes: generating equipment; switchgear for control of the generators and
distribution of power; and distribution panels, transformers, motor generators, and bus transfer equipment
as necessary to provide the proper type of power to
electrical loads.
1.2 Rules and Regulations. Merchant marine electrical installations must comply with a number of laws
promulgated by the United States Government. The
following is a listing of such rules and regulations.
1 United States Coast Guard, Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 46-Shipping.
2 United States Coast Guard-Rules of the Road,
International-Inland.
3 United States Department of Health, Education
and Welfare-Standards of Sanitation and Ratproofing for the Construction of Vessels.
4 Federal Communication Commission Rules and
Regulations.
I
It should be noted that the requirements of the

Intemationd Conference of Safety of Life at seaof 1960
are incorporated in item above.
addition
to the rules and reguhtions imposed by
law,
11
compliance with other rulesfG usually required by

the specifications for building particular ships. The
most generally included in ship,s specifications am
as follows:
1 American Bureau of Shipping Rules for Building
and Classing Steel Vessels, Lloyd's Register of
Shipping Rules and Regulations for the Construction and Classing of Steel Vessels, or similar
I
I
11
606
MARINE ENGINEERING
classification society rules depending 'on which

society's rules are selected as a prerequisite for
marine insurance coverage.
2 IEEE Standard No. 45-Recommended Practice
for Electric Installations on Shipboard, published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
3 Suez Canal Authority Rules of Navigation.
4 Illuminating Engineering Society-Marine Lighting.
5 Marine-Type Electric Lighting Fixtures UL 595
published by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
1.3 Alternating-Current Electric Plants. Alternatingcurrent plants are the standard for most marine installations. Selection of a-c plants as standard over d-c
plants -provides many significant advantages, e.g.,
savings realized in first cost, weight, and space requirements, reduction in maintenance effort, better availability of equipment, and increased reliability. Many
of these advantages are realized through the use of
squirrel cage motors in lieu of d-c motors having commutators and associated brush rigging.
A frequency of 60 cps is recognized as the standard for
a-c plants.
Alternating-current plants may be any one of the
following types:
120 volt, 3 phase, 3 wire
230 volt, 3 phase, 3 wire
450 volt, 3 phase, 3 (or 4) wire
The 120-volt, 3-phase, 3-wire a-c generating plant
with 115-volt, 3-phase light and power distribution is
suitable for only small vessels having few motor-driven
auxiliaries.
The 230-volt, 3-phase, 3-wire acc generating plant
with 220-volt, 3-phase power distribution and 115-volt,
3-phase lighting distribution through transformers is
acceptable to the regulatory agencies. As an alternative,
a 120/20%volt, 3-phase, 4-wire system may be used for
both power and lighting on small ships without the
necessity of using transformers. However, these plants
are seldom selected since there are no advantages to be
obtained when' compared with the standard 450-volt,
3-phase, 3-wire plant.
The 450-volt, 3-phase, &wire a-c generating plant with
440-volt, 3-phase power distribution and 115-volt,
3-phase lighting distribution through transformers is the
standard for most marine installations. However, the
450-volt, 3-phase, 4-wire, a c generating plant provides
advantages and should be considered for' vessels having
extensive 208- or 220-volt container refrigeration
requirements.
On vessels with'a-c electric propulsion machinery, the
high-voltage main propulsion generator may be used to
power large motors driving cargo handling machinery
when the vessel is in port. Cargo pumps on electrically
propelled tankers are typical high-voltage large-motor
applications.
Usually, 2500 kw is considered the maximum feasible
capacity for 450-volt, 3-phase shipboard generators.
Larger capacity generators a t this voltage will not

generally be used because of generator design limitations.
As the demand for electric power aboard ships increases,
particularly for nuclear propulsion plants and vessels
with unusually large cargo handling power requirements,
generators having a capacity larger than 2500 kw will be
required. To provide this increased capacity, it is
feasible to install prime generating plants designed for
2400- or 4160-volt, 3-phase output. In this type of
installation, large motors would be powered from the
high-voltage system with normal ship service loads of
450 volts supplied from the high-voltage system through
transformers.
1.4 Direct-Current Electric Plants. Direckurrent
plants are economically feasible on relatively small
vessels and on those intermediate-size vessels on which a
preponderance of deck machinery requiring d-c wide
speed range motors and controls is installed. Directcurrent generating plants may be of either of the following types:
120 volt, 2 wire
240/120 volt, 3 wire
The 120-volt, 2-wire d-c generating plant with 115volt light and power distribution is suitable for small
vessels having few motor-driven auxiliaries. The generators are usually rated a t 75 kw or less.
The 240/120-volt, 3-wire d-c generating plant is the
most usual arrangement used on d-c vessels. This
arrangement provides for 230-volt, 2-wire distribution to
power loads and 230/115-volt, 3-wire distribution to
lighting panels. The neutral of this 3-wire dual voltage
system should be solidly grounded. Lighting fixtures,
appliances, bracket fans, etc., supplied from lighting
panels are connected between positive and neutral lines
and neutral and negative lines in as nearly as practicable
equal loads.
1.5 Drawings. The following is a listing of the
types of electrical system drawings usually prepared by
the shipbuilder. For a detailed listing of plans required
for a specific ship, reference may be made to the detailed
specifications for building a similar ship.
1 One-line diagram for power distribution system.
2 Isometric wiring diagrams for power system
feeders and mains.
3 Isometric wiring diagrams for lighting system
feeders.
4 Elementary and isometric w i h g diagrams for
interior communication and electronic systems.
5 Deck arrangement plans for power, lighting,
interior communication, and electronic systems.
6 Power system list of feeders and mains.
7 Lighting system list of feeders and mains.
8 List of motors and controllers.
9 Wireway locations and details.
10 Electric load analysis of generating plant.
11 Fault-current analysis and voltage dip calculations.
12 Application and coordiaation of protective devices.
13 Switchboard schematic and instrumentation.
ELECTRIC PLANTS
Generating Plants
I
1:
.,
2.1 Load Analysis. To determine the correct aggregate rating for a generating plant, it is necessary to
establish the probable peak loads under the various
operating conditions of the ship. This is accomplished
by the preparation of an "Electric Load Analysis," an
example of which is shown in Table 1.
This analysis is a detailed tabulation of the total
connected load and the operating loads at sea, during
maneuvering and a t port. Operating loads are determined by applying a service factor to the expected connected load for each application for each operating
condition. The service factor assigned to each application is a combined load factor and diversity factor representing the percent of its own possible maximum that is
contributed to the load on the generator plant over a
%-hour period. Ocoasional loads such as fire pumps,
anchor windlass, capstan, and boat winches are assumed
to have a zero factor under all operating conditions.
2.2 Aggregate Generating Capacity. The aggregate
generating capacity, exclusive of any, emergency and
propulsion generating equipment, will always be greater
than the peak load determined by the load analysis.
Ship generating plants must consist of at least two ship's
service generating sets so rated that, with one set not
in operation, the remaining set or sets can carry the
necessary sea load under normal operating conditions
without exceeding the normal rating. The probability
of installing additional electrical loads a t some future
time should also be considered when determining the
aggregate generating capacity.
2.3 Number and Rating. After determination of
the peak load, the next step is the selection of the most
desirable number and individual rating of the generating
sets. The factors to be considered are: (a) the first cost,
(b) operating cost, (c) size and weight, and (d) desirability of using generators of a standard size.
Figure 1 (for turbine-driven generators) and Fig. 2
(for diesel-driven generators) show the variation of
factors (a), (b), and (c) plotted against generator rating.
No precise mathematical evaluation of the optimum
number and rating of generator sets is possible; therefore the final selection must be based on experience,
consideration of data delineated by Figs. 1 and 2, and
available standard generator ratings.
For peak loads up to about 2200 kw, two generators
are usually provided, each capable of carrying the total
sea load. There is a trend with steamships to fit one
turbine-driven and one diesel-driven generator usually
of equal capacity. This permits the full sea load to be
handled in the event of a boiler failure. Suitable arrangemerits can be made for parallel operation of the turbogenerator and the diesel generator; such an arrangement
does not preclude the fitting of an emergency generator.
For loads greater than 2200 kw, three or more generators are usually installed with the total number of
generators selected providing maximum flexibility, reliability, and continuity of service for the electrical distribution system.
2.4 Location and Installation. On most vessels the
ship service generators are located in the main engine
room. This reduces the number of watch standers and
provides the most economical piping arrangement since
piping for generator sets and associated auxiliaries and
for propelling machinery are comporlent parts of the
same piping systems. On large vessels with two or
more engine rooms, there is usually ope ship. service
generating plant complete with auxiliaries and switchboard in each of the engine rooms.
In general, ship service generators and associated
switchboards are normally arranged so that the generators
are in view of the switchboard attendant and so that the
run of electric cables from each generator to the switchboard is as short as possible.
Emergency generator sets must be located ~ b o v ethe
freeboard deck, aft of the collision bulkhead, and outside
the machinery casing to satisfy regulatory body requirements.
All generating sets should be installed with the shaft
fore-and-aft so that rolling of the vessel will not cause
undue loads on the bearings due to gyroscopic effects,or
cause oil to spill from the bearing bousings.
2.5 Generator Set Characteristics. The considerations governing the choice of a d-c or a-c electric plant
and the selection of a distribution system and the
voltage a t which it is to operate are discussed in Section
1. These basic features having bee^ determined and the
number and rating of generating sets determined, the
characteristics to be specified by the ship design engineers
in the request for bids from manufacturers aye discussed
in the following.
The prime mover for ship service generators may be
either a steam turbine, gas turbine, diesel engine, or a
combination thereof, Emergency generators are usually
diesel driven. A discussion of the different types of
turbines and engines may be found in Chapters 5, 6, and
7. The generating set is selected after an evaluation of
bids has been made, taking into consideration the price,
weight, dimensions, fuel consumption, reputation of
engine and generator builders, and the quantity of similar
sets already in service. Important factors in the
selection are simplicity, rdiability, and maintainability.
a. Steam Turbine Prime Movers. Turbine-generator sets designed especially for installation, operation,
and servicing on shipboard are available. They are
designed for single or parallel operation for long periods
without shutdown for maintenance or repair. Marine
generator turbines are horizontal, multistage, and of the
axial-flow impulse type.
Each marine turbine generator set should be compact
and complete with turbine, speed reduction gear,
,
-"
I,
I
1
1
I1
11
li
I,
B
1
I
II
1
I
610
ELECTRIC PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
STEAM RATE AT FULL LOAD

3
0
I
23
C
I-
3
I-
ul
z . 5 9 2.0.
k.40
P
240
6
5
5.10
z3 1 0
3
2 0- 9- 0",
0
-
Fig. 1 Approximate unit cost, weight,

and deck area required and steam rate
of geared-steam turbine generator sets
h.30 z 3 0 5
k.20 :20 2
Fig. 2 Approximate unit cost, weight,

and deck area required and fuel consumption of diesel-driven generator sets
200
300
400
500
R A T E D KILOWATT OUTPUT
500
1000
1500
2000
R A T E D KILOWATT OUTPUT
NOTE: DATA IS B A S E D ON 1800 RPM, DIRECT- CONNECTED
2500
FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS: 1200 R P M , 450 VOLT, 3 P H A S E ,

60 C Y C L E A C G E N E R A T O R ; S T E A M CONDITIONS 850 PSIG 950
D E G R E E S F. T O T A L T E M P E R A T U R E . A N D 28.5 INCHES OF M E R C U R Y
'
generator, rotating exciter (if used), condenser, condenser air ejector, gage board, and a self-contained
lubricating oil system consisting of a cooler, reservoir,
strainer, attached pump, hand-operated pump, and
electric motor driven pump (when specified), all supported on a common base with provision for lowering
into place as a unit. For some units the shipbuilder
may prefer to procure or build the condenser separately
and combine it with the set a t the building yard. The
set should be complete with all attached piping and
accessories supported in place and ready for connecting
to shipboard piping. Pipe connections should be either
flanged, brazed, or welded. The design should preclude
leakage of vapor, water, and oil to the outside and
accumulation of liquid in pockets. The turbine should
be complete with the following equipment.
1 Steam governing valve assembly.
3 Oil relay type constant-speed governor or electrohydraulic load-sensing speed governor when small speed
variations and quick response are desired.
3 Speed adjusting (synchronizing) device with local
manual adjustment and electric motor or potentiometer
for remote adjustment from the switchboard when
synchronizing generators.
4 Combined trip and throttle valve held open by
lubricating oil pressure and automatically shutting off
steam to the turbine upon loss of oil pressure; also for
admitting steam gradually by hand when starting up a
set.
5 Interlock switch for energizing the generator
circuit-breaker tripping device, to disconnect the
generator from the switchboard in case the throttle,trips
closed.
6 Overspeed governor independent of the constant-
speed governor, which upon overspeed of not over 15

percent will relieve oil pressure from the throttle trip
valve to shut down the turbine.
7 Steam sealing manifold for pressurizing the
turbine shaft packing to prevent entrance of air into the
turbine, also piping and valves for drainage of steam
leakage through the packing.
8 Automatic atmospheric relief valve for exhausting
to the atmosphere in case a high exhaust back pressure
occurs in the turbine casing due to a condenser malfunction.
9 Sentinel valve for sounding an alarm before the
automatic atmospheric relief valve functions.
10 High exhaust back pressure trip device which will
relieve oil pressure from the throttle trip valve to shut
down the turbine.
11 Manually operated rotor-turning device for use
during maintenance.
12 Reduction gear, generally single reduction and
single helical, with pinion and low-speed gear shafts
supported by two bearings. The low-speed shaft is
generally flexibly coupled to the generatq shaft.
13 Steam supply strainer for protecting the turbine.
The strainer may be integral with the combined trip and
throttle valve.
Marine turbine-generator sets are provided with a
self-contained lubricating oil system. A gear-driven oil
pump supplies oil to the turbine, reduction gear, and
generator bearings, and also to the constant-speed
governor, trip throttle valve, high exhaust back pressure
trip device, and overspeed governor. The pump takes
suction from the reservoir and discharges through a
magnetic duplex-type strainer and a tube-type cooler.
Oil coolers are generally designed to use 85 F (maximum)
450 VOLT, 3 P H A S E , 60 C Y C L E A.C. GENERATORS.

S E T S A R E SELF,- C O N T A I N E D W l T H B A T T E R Y START!NG
EQUIPMENT: C U R V E S A R E FOR S E T S W l T H 2 C Y C L E ENGINES..
F U E L CONSUMPTION A N D P R I C E OF 4 CYCLE E N G I N E S W l L L BE
APPROXIMATELY T H E SAME BUT W E I G H T A N D DECK A R E A
W l L L BE S L I G H T L Y HIGHER. PRICE, WEIGHT, A N D DECK A R E A
O F LOWER S P E E D E N G I N E S W I L L B E A P P R E C I A B L Y H I G H E R
A N D FUEL CONSUMPTION W l L L BE SLIGHTLY H I G H E R .
seawater for cooling and are provided with zinc anodes exhaust from auxiliaries when the ship is a t anchor.
on the seawater side to minimize corrosion. The coolingDue to the trend toward automated vessels, additional
water pressure should be maintained lower than the oil monitoring and control devices such as those devices
pressure to avoid seawater contamination of the oil in necessary for remote start-up, operation, and shutdown
the event of a cooler tube failure. A hand-operated of the turbine-generator set may also be incorporated in
lubricating oil pump is provided for use during start-up the design of the set.
and maintenance. Generally, the lubricating system
b. Diesel Engine Prime Movers. Diesel engine
also includes an electric motor driven pump which is driven ship service generators should, like turbine
started automatically by a pressure switch upon failure generator sets, be designed for continuous operation for
of the turbinedriven pump; this pump may also be used long periods of time, singly or in parallel. They are
during start-up and shutdown operations. When spec- usually located in the engine room. Because of their
ified, the lubricating gystem contains switches for low relatively slow normal speed, diesel-generator sets are
oil pressure and high oil temperature alprms. The oil appreciably larger and heavier than turbine-generator
level in the reservoir is measured by a dipstick and a sets. Sets
--rated rqt_ 150-kw and below are available a t
visible level indicator, when specified.
S J X up
~ ~tcJ800 rpm. Above 150 kw, most sets are
Gageboards should include, as a minimum, pressure d e s i g n e n r either 900 or 1200 rpm. Also because of
gages for the inlet steam, gland sealing steam, bearing the low speed, the generator is coupled directly to the
oil, and oil pump and thermometers for oil to and from engine. The generator may be of the two-bearing type
the cooler.
with the rotor flexibly coupled to the engine crankshaft
The gageboard and control devices such as speed or may have, a front bearing only with the rear shaft end
adjustment knob, throttle trip valve handwheel, hand oil coupled rigidly to, and supported by, the diesel engine
pump handle, gland seal steam control valve, hand crankshaft. Generator bearings may be integral with
shutdown trip lever (or button), tachometer, and valve the generator end brackets or supported separately by
for regulating the oil-cooler water should be located so pedestals. If a rotating exciter is used, the armature
that one man can start, operate, and secure the set.
will be overhung on the gen-tor
front- haft extension.
A motor-driven condensate pump and a condenser Two- and four-cycle engines are available for marine
circulating water pump are generally provided for each electric plants. Four-cycle engines tend to be heavier
turbine exhaust condenser. These pumps are normally and costlier but more efficient than two-cycle engines.
provided by the shipbuilder but may be furnished with Most marine engines above 1000 hp are of the two-cycle
the turbine generator. Pipe connections may be made type. Two-cycle engines are generally equipped with
so that during emergencies the generator turbine exhaust attaclyxl positive-displacement blowers to supply scavcan flow to the main propulsion turbine condenser. The enging air to expel gases from the cylinder a t the end of
generator turbine condenser may be arranged to receive the exhaust stroke. I n addition, both two- and four-
612
MARINE ENGINEERING
cycle engines may be equipped with turbochargers

(driven by gears, exhaust-gas turbine,, or a combination
of both) to increase the engine capacity and provide
improved fuel economy. Most marine engines of 2000
hp and over are turbocharged to reduce their size and
weight. It is important that provisions be made for
sufficient combustion air, either by running air ducts
from the outside directly to the engine air intake, or by
means of the room ventilation system. Additional room
ventilating air also must be provided for removing engine
waste heat not removed by the lubricating oil and jacket
water systems. The ductwork must be checked for
pressure drop from the outside atmosphere to the engine;
usually not over 6 in. of water is allowable to obtain
guaranteed engine performance. For the same reason
the exhaust-gas pipeline from the muffler to the atmosphere should be sized to obtain a back pressure at the
muffler outlet not exceeding about 16 in. of water.
The complete marine engine includes additional
attached and unattached equipment as follows:
1 Fuel control system consisting of an engine-driven
fuel pump, duplex filter, suction strainer, and injector
control lever for manual starting, stopping, and emergency speed control.
2 Lubricating oil system consisting of an engine
driven oil pump, full-flow filter with by-pass relief valve,
strainer with relief valve, and cooler with by-pass relief
valve. When dry-sump engines are used, the lubricating system includes a scavenging pump with suction
strainer and by-pass relief valve.
3 Piston cooling oil pump.
4 Freshwater systems for diesel-generator sets larger
than 350 kw consisting of an expansion tank, enginedriven water pump (some engines may have two pumps)
cooler, and automatic water temperature regulator.
Smaller sets generally have a radiator and fan for cooling
fresh water.
5 Exhaust system consisting of a dry, spark-arresting
type muffler and watercooled or insulated exhaust
header. For 350-kw generator sets and larger, the
engine is usually equipped with an exhaust temperature
indicating system consisting of a a t of thermocouples,
a selector switch, and galvanometer. One thermocouple
is installed in the exhaust of each cylinder. The selector
switch and galvanometer may be mounted on the gageboard.
6 Starting air system consisting of a starting motor
(two motors may be necessary to accelerate large engines)
or air distributor for sequential admission of air to the
engine cylinders, strainer, and air control valve. A
solenoid-operated valve may be provided for remote
engine starting from the switchboard. Starting air
systems are generally designed to operate a t pressures of
125 to 250 psi. Starting air tanks and the air compressors are normally furnished by the shipbuilder. Diesel
generators rated at 500 kw or less generally use either an
electric or hydraulic starting system. Capacity for a t
least ten successive starts, beginning with a cold engine,
is provided with either method. Either a centrifugal or
pressure-operated device is provided to prevent inadvertent attempts to initiate cranking after the engine has
started. These devices or a solenoid-perated valve
are used to automatically stop cranking after the engine
has started. Also, means are provided to prevent unintended starting during maintenance of the set; for
electrically started engines, a disconnect switch is provided in the starting clcuit; for hydraulically and
pneumatically started engines, a cutoff valve is provided
in the associated piping system.
7 Air intake filter-silencer.
8 Oil relay type constant-speed governor or electrohydraulic load-sensing speed governor when small speed
variations and quick response are desired.
9 Speed adjusting (synchronizing) device designed
for local manual adjustment and an electric motor or
potentiometer for remote adjustment from the switchboard when synchronizing generators.
10 Overspeed trip device which upon overspeed of
not over 15 percent will close the fuel racks or combustion air supply to shut down the diesel.
11 For ship service diesel generators, an interlock
switch for actuating the generator circuit-breaker
tripping device to disconnect the generator from the
switchboard when the engine is shut down due to overspeed.
12 Gageboard including, as a minimum,. pressure
gages for the freshwater and seawater pump discharges,
fuel oil and lubricating oil flter inlets and outlets,
lubricating oil strainer inlet and outlet, scavenging air,
starting air, and also thermometers for the fresh water
and lubricating oil from the engine.
13 Manual engine-turning gear for turning small
engines or an air-motor type turning gear, with an interlock, for turning large engines.
14 I n addition to the aforementioned equipment,
turbocharged engines are equipped with a scavenging
turbocharger and turbocharger air intake cooler.
Tubetype coolers are used for cooling the lubricating
oil and fresh water for diesel generators larger than 350
kw. Seawater is used as the cooling medium in the
freshwater cooler and fresh water is used as the cooling
medium in the lubricating oil cooler. For sets rated
350 kw or less, fresh water is generally cooled by a
radiator and engine-driven fan.
If diesel generator sets are orderedior paralleling with
existing generators or with new sets procured from
another manufacturer, the required speed regulations
and electrical characteristics must be specified.
c. Gas Turbine Prime Movers. Gas turbine driven
generator sets are available for ship service or emergency
power and a limited number have been installed. Gas
turbines are smaller and Lighter than comparable steam:
turbines or diesel engines. Since gas turbines operate a t
very high speeds, they are usually noisier than steam
turbines. The starting time for gas turbines is normally
30 to 40 sec, but it can be reduced below 10 sec when used
for driving emergency generators. Batteries or compressed air may be used for starting.
ELECTRIC PLANTS
d. Electrical Characteristics. Except for small loads

supplied from batteries, all direct-current loads are
supplied by a-c/d-c motor generator sets or by rectifiers.
Rotating field type a-c generators are used for ship
service power. The generators are rated at 450 volts,
3 phase, 60 cycles. Stator windings may be either
delta- or wye-connected but usually are the latter; only
three main terminals are required per generator. The
inherent voltage regulation of a-c generators is comparatively wide due to the high synchronous reactance
of the windings. This is an advantage inasmuch as the
synchronous reactance limits short-circuit current, but
in order t o maintain the required voltage regulation an
automatic voltage regulator must be used with each
machine and the degree of regulation depends on the
sensitivity of the regulator.
Generators may be dripproof protected or totally
enclosed. If totally enclosed, the generator will be
equipped with a double-tube air cooler using seawater as
a cooling medium. Silicone insulation should not be
used for totally enclosed generators unless the slip rings
are located outside the generator enclosure; this is to
prevent abnormal brush wear and increased slip ring
maintenance. If the design and arrangement of the
generator are such that circulating currents may be
expected in the rotor shaft, means (such as the use of
insulated bearings) should be provided to prevent
circulating currents from passing between the journals
and the bearings, as the babbitted bearing surfaces may
otherwise be destroyed.
Ship senrice generators that weigh more than 1000 lb,
excluding the shaft, and all emergency generators should
be provided with electric space heaters to prevent
moisture condensation during shutdown. Generators
rated a t 500 kva and above should be provided with
resistance-type temperature detectors embedded in the
stator windings, The temperature indicating instrument should be located conveniently, .preferably on the
switchboard generator control panel.
An excitation system is procured with each a-c
generator. Two types of rotating exciters are the d-c
exciter and the a-c brushless excitkr. Both of these
exciters are coupled to the generator shaft and are
similar in outward appearance. In place of- the commutator on the d-c exciter, the a-c brushless exciter has
a solid-state three-phase rectifier mounted on the
generator shaft to provide the d-c excitation for the
generator field. The a-c brushless exciter responds
faster than the d-c exciter. A third type of exciter in
general use is the static excitation system. This system
eliminates the necessity of rotating components and has
a faster response than either type of rotating exciter.
,Selection of the exciter and voltage regulator should be
coordinated to obtain the desired recovery time. The
a-c. brushless exciter and the static excitation system
have in general replaced the rotary amplifier type of
exciter.
e. Emergency Generators. Emergency generators
provide a power source independent of any other equip-
61 3
ment on the vessel and are usually diesel driven. The

requirements outlined in the preceding paragraphs for
diesel engine prime movers apply equally to emergency
sets, except as noted in the following. Each engine is
equipped with a self-contained cooling system requiring
a radiator and fan. Tf ventilation ducts are installed to
and from the engine radiitor, the radiator fan must
develop enough head to force the cooling air through the
ducts. Motor7:;dperatedlouvers are generally installed
in supply and exhaust duct terminals which are exposed
to the weather. The vent motors are energized from the
generator side of the generator circuit breaker to insure
that the louvers are open when the diesel engine is in
operation. Emergency generator units should be arranged to shut down automatically upon loss of lubricating oil pressure, dangerous overspeeding, or release of
carbon dioxide in the emergency generator room. An
audible alarm device should be provided that will sound
in the event of low oil pressure or a high cooling-water
temperature.
Engines are generally arranged to start automatically
upon failure of ship service power. If battery-started, a
voltage-sensitive relay with contacts that close when
the ship service power fails is used to energize the control
circuit of the starting motor; if hydraulically started, a
loss of ship service power will de-energize a solenoidoperated valve to initiate the starting process. In
either case, means must be provided for automatically
rendering the starting devices inoperative after the engine
has attained firing speed. Devices for manual starting
control are required with each type of starting equipment for test purposes.
Emergency generators are not required to operate in
parallel with the ship service generators, except where
closed transition transfer with proper synchronization
with ship service generators is desired (to prevent power
outage when transferring power sources). An automatic
voltage regulator should be provided with each emergency generator. The emergency generator should have
the same voltage rating as the ship service generators
and should be of sufficient capacity to permit "cold"
starting of the ship's main power plant.
f. Special Generator Arrangements. A variable
generator frequency is obtainable by using special
control equipment. Variable-frequency generators may
be desirable where speed control of several large motors
is required. Generally, it is more economical to use d-c
motors supplied by an a-c/d-c motor generator set for
most variable-speed shipboard applications. Multiple
unit generator sets are available, eack consisting of two
generators driven by one steam turbine. Diesel
generator sets consisting of one generator driven by two
diesel engines have been installed on some vessels. In
case one engine fails, it may be declutched and the generator can continue to deliver approximately one half of
its rated output.
g. Voltage Regulation. A direct-acting type of
voltage regulator employing a mechanical regulator
element may be used for controlling the field of d-c
614
MARINE ENGINEERING
rotating exciters or very small auxiliary generators. The

regulator element may be a torque motor, solenoid, or
electro-dynamometer energized by the generator voltage
and restrained in motion by a spring. Rheostatic
elements are automatically operated field rheostats of
which there are two types. One consists of a motoroperated face plate rheostat controlled by means of
contacts on the regulator element and the other consists
of a resistor with numerous steps cut in and out by
mechanical linkage with the regulator element. Both
types have antihunting or damping devices to prevent
fluttering with small changes in load and overregulation
with large sudden changes in load.
Either of two types of static voltage regulators may
be used depending on the type of excitation system.
When a static excitation system is used, the voltage
regulator senses the generator output voltage which is
rectified and applied to the control winding of a magnetic
amplifier. The output of the amplifiers is impressed
across the control winding of three saturablecurrent
potential transformers, one per phase. The outputs of
the transformer secondaries are rectified and impressed
across the generator field. If an &c brushless exciter is
used, the exciter field current is supplied by a static
voltagr: regulator which senses generator output voltage.
An error voltage is impressed across a reactor which
becomes saturated, conducts, and fires a silicon-controlled
rectifier to provide current to the exciter field. The
average exciter field current is determined by the point
a t which the rectifier fires during each positive half-cycle.
Provisions are made in static regulators to provide
sufficient excitation that will result in fault currents
large enough to ensure selective tripping of overcurrent
devices during short-circuit conditions when the generator voltage is zero.
The regulators described in the foregoing are suitable
for use with generators operating in parallel, each
generator requiring an individual regulator. For parallel
operation, a compensating effect to reduce wattless
ELECTRIC PLANTS
current is obtained by making use of the potential

generated in the secondary of a current transformer, the
primary of which is in series with one of the main leads.
Each regulator, except for some emergency generator
applications, ingludes a transfer switch for cutting out
automatic operation and provides for manual control
of the generator voltage by means of a rheostat.
h. Generator Terminals. The preferred run of
cables between the generator and switchboard is downward, under the generator platform, and up behind the
switchboard. The preferred location of the terminals is
therefore at the bottom of the generator, unless the
generator is of such small size that connections may he
made inside a standard terminal box mounted on the
side of the generator frame. All generator terminals
should be protected against accidental contact and
mechanical damage. If terminals are located on the top
or side of the generator frame, they should be protected
by a watertight enclosure with removable covers
furnished by the manufacturer. Where cables enter a
terminal enclosure on the top or side of the generator
frame, the enclosure should be provided with terminal
tubes. For terminals located on the bottom of the
generator frame, the necessary protection, usually
expanded metal, is furnished by the shipbuilder.
Additional terminals are required for exciter and
imbedded temperature detectors and generator space
heaters, if used. Any such miscellaneous terminals
should be located and protected in a manner similar to
the main terminals. All generator power connections
should be silver-plated.
The number, type, and size of terminal lugs to accommodate the conductors should be specified and should be
clearly marked by the generator manufacturer for
identification. Particular care should be exercised when
terminals are brought out and marked to assure that the
phase rotation with respect to the terminal marking will
be the same on all generators, including emergency
generators.
Section 3
Switchboards and Panels
%
The following does not cover in detail

the design and construction of switchboards since these
details are the responsibility of the switchboard manufacturer. The procurement of marine switchboards
does, however, require that the shipbuilder preparefor
the guidance of the switchboard manufacturer-detailed
descriptive specifications giving complete information on
the required type and arrangement of the switchboard,
the number, rating, and wire size of feeder circuits
including bus ties, and any limits to the height, length or
depth of the switchboard imposed by its location in the
vessel. An elementary diagram of the electrical distribution system should also be given.
3.1
General.
The first step in the preparation of switchboard

descriptive specifications is a thorough study of the
ship's requirements. The ship's requirements determine
the number, rating, and type of generators to be controlled and usually impose specific requirements regarding the switchboards. A review of the requirements of
all applicable rules is also advisable.
3.2 Special Requirements. The following features
should be considered in connection with switchboards
for installation on shipboard. Switchboards should be
located in dry areas and should be accessible from the
front and rear. Also, switchboards should be located as
far inboard from the ship's sides as practicable. The
usually restricted space on shipboard requires careful

study of the switchboard assembly drawings, hull
structural drawings, and machinery arrangement plans
to ensure space for installation without interference frdm
girders, beams, stanchions, bulkhead stiffeners, and
major equipment.
The space in front and rear of switchboards should be
unobstructed and adequate for operation and mainte
nance; minimum clearances are 36 in. in front and 30 to
36 in. a t the rear (see regulatory rules for specific
requirements).
Since the space behind switchboards should not be
accessible to unauthorized personnel, an enclosure is
usually provided which extends from the ends of the
switchboard to the ship's structure with doors arranged
for locking. When this arrangement is not feasible,
protective enclosures are mounted on the switchboard
rear framework.
Switchboards should be located as close to their
associated generators as is practicable so as to keep the
length of cables to a minimum.
Space permitting, neither steam, water, nor oil lines
should be located over or dose to the switchboards.
Under all conditions, pipe joints should be located away
from switchboards.
Drip shields should be provided a t the top of all
switchboards to protect against dripping from pipes and
also against falling objects. Ventilation ducts should
not discharge air directly on the suritchboard.
Insulating mats or gratings should be provided on the
deck in front and rear of switchboards to insulate
personnel from ground and to prevent slipping. These
mats or gratings should extend the entire length of the
switchboard and be of sufficient width to suit the operating space.
Nonconducting handrails attached to the front of
switchboards are provided; usually these handrails are
horizontal. Nonconducting guardrails are also provided
a t the rear of switchboards.
The switchboard and its component parts as finally
installed must be capable of withstanding shipboard
vibration without damage or faulty operation and should
operate successfully when inclined a t an angle of 30
deg in any direction from the vertical. Special consideration should be given to adequately supportingtthe
bus bars.
If required, switchboards may be braced to a bulkhead
or the deck over. However, overhead bracing should be
flexible to allow deflection of decks without causing the
switchboard structure to buckle.
3.3 Rating and Characteristics. The rating and
characteristics of the ship service generator switchboards
and emergency generator switchboards are usually fixed
by the rating, type, and arrangement of the electric plant.
Three-phase, 450-volt, 60-cps generation and distribution systems are standard for both passenger and nonpassenger vessels. The quantity and kilowatt rating of
the generators are dependent upon the total connected
loads and demands of the electrical system. Direcb
current power supplies 'are often provided for cargo

winches, and other loads requiring precise speed control.
This power source will normally consist of motor
generator
sets with individual control and distribution
facilities separate and apart from the main switchboards.
Switchboards, both' maia and emergency, usually
contain a 3-phase, 120-volt, 60-cps distribution section,
energized via transformers, having suitable kva ratings,
from the local en-volt, Bphase, 60-cps bus.
3.4 Types bf Switchboards. 'There are two general,
types of switchboards, dead-front and live-front. The
applicable rules require that dead-front type switchboards be used for all a-c applications where the voltage
to ground or between poles is in excess of 55 volts and for
all d-c switchboards where the voltage to ground or
between poles is in excess of 250 volts.
A dead-front design provides for all energized parts
to be enclosed within the switchboard structure, whereas
a livefront design permits surfacemounted fused lever
switches, circuit breakers, and instruments. A deadfront design offers advantages involving personnel
safety and equipment protection, and is usually a
specific requirement of ship specifications for all marine
switchboards.
On dead-front switchboards, open-frame circuit
breakers, rheostats, and other heavy equipment requiring
front-of-board o~eration are mounted on suitable
supports fasteneb to interior angles with only the
operating handles or knobs projecting through the front
hinged panel. Distribution circuit breakers are mounted
on suitable support plates fastened to interior angles
with only the operating handles projecting through the
front panel. Instruments, indicating lights, and control
switches are semi-flush mounted on hinged front panels.
3.5 Lighting of Switchboards. Switchboard illumination may be provided by the compartment lighting
system. However, a preferred arrangement is the use of
lighting fixtures mounted on and under the overhang of
the switchboard drip shield. The lights, of which there
may be several, are connected in part to the emergency
supply so as to provide adequate illumination upon loss
of normal supply.
3.6 Arrangement of Switchboards. The usual practice is to provide a panel for the control of each generator
and additional panels in number as required for circuit
breakers and switches controlling power distribution.
With switchboards of small and medium size, the
generator panels may be a t one end of the switchboard
and all feeder panels to the right or left. For large
switchboards, a considerabId9avings in'cost of the main
bus may be effected by locating the generator panels in
the center with feeder panels of approximately equal
working load on each side. With this arrangement no
part of the main bus carries more than approximately
one half of the total working load.
3.7 Switchboard Applications. Switchboards are
normally used in the following shipboard applications:
a. Main Generator and Distribution Switchboard.
The main switchboard provides for the control, protec-
ELECTR1IC PLANTS
61 6
tion, and paralleling of the local ship service generators

and control and protection of the ship service power
distribution system.
Usually only one main switchboard is required on all
but large passenger vessels and special-purpose vessels.
For large and special applications two or more main
switchboards, connected together through bus ties, may
be installed depending on the number and location of
main generators.
~ e a n sof connecting the main ship service bus to
shore power and also to the emergency switchboard are
provided through a shore-power circuit breaker and a
bus tie circuit breaker respectively, each located on the
main switchboard.
Normally main switchboards consist of a generator
panel for each connected ship service generator, a shore
power and bus tie panel, and distribution panels in size
and number as required. Figure 3 is a typical main
switchboard one-line diagram.
Figure 4 is a typical main switchboard generator
control panel one-line diagram. Each generator control
panel should include, but not be restricted to, the
following :
1 A trip-free circuit breaker with separate overcurrent
trips for each pole except that trips are not required for
the neutral of dual-voltage systems. The circuit
breaker should be arranged to open all three poles with a
predetermined load existing on any one or combination
of poles. When two generators are installed, each
generator breaker should have inverse-time overcurrent
trips; for three or more generators arranged for parallel
operation, each generator breaker should have inversetime and instantaneous overcurrent trips. (Inverse
time tripping means that the opening time of overcurrent
devices decreases as the magnitude of the current
increases.) For large generators the circuit breaker
should be electrically operated to provide personnel
protection and for quick closing during paralleling.
2 An unfused disconnect device which will completely
disconnect the generator and its circuit breaker from the
bus. This device is not required when the generator
circuit breaker is of the drawout type.
3 An ammeter, with a selector switch to read the
current of each phase.
4 A voltmeter, with a selector switch to read each
phase of the generator and one phase of the bus. Also,
one of the generator voltmeter switches should provide
for reading each ~ h a s eof the shore connection.
5 A sGchro&ope and synchronizing lamps with a
selector switch to provide for paralleling ship service
generators including the emergency generator when
closed transition transfer between the main and emereencv
" switchboards is desired.
6 A control for prime mover speed for paralleling
generators and frequency adjustments. (The speed
control may be located on the engine for emergency
switchboards.)
7 An indicating wattmeter.
8 A frequency meter with a selector switch to connect
MARINE ENGINEERING
BUS
to any generator. This may be common to all generators.

(This is required for the local generator only on the
emergency switchboard.)
9 Space and mounting for generator field and exciter
rheostats.
10 A switch and indicator light for the generator
space heater supply.
11 A double-pole field switch with discharge clips
and resistor. For generators with variable-voltage
exciters or rotary-amplifier exciters, each controlled by a
voltage regulator unit acting on the exciter field, and for
generators equipped with static excitation and regulating
systems, the field switch, the discharge resistor, and the
generator field rheostat may be omitted.
12 A voltage regulator complete with accessories.
13 A switch for cutting out the voltage regulator.
14 A white light to indicate that the generator is
running.
15 Adequate means for ground detection.
16 The necessary current and potential transformers.
17 Current and potential test receptacles for use with
portable instruments (only on ship service switchboards).
18 One temperature indicator and selector switch,
when the generators are rated a t 500 kva and above.
19 A reverse-power relay for each generator, when
two or more generators are to operate in parallel.
b. Emergency Switchboards. The emergency
switchboard provides for the control and protection of
the emergency generator and the emergency power,
lighting, and interior communication systems.
Usually only one emergency switchboard is installed;
however, for safety reasons large passenger vessels may
have two emergency sources of power, thus requiring two
emergency switchboards.
Emergency switchboards normally consist of a generator control panel, a bus tie and distribution panel and
24-volt, 120-volt, and 450-volt distribution panels in
size and number as required.
Emergency generator switchboards include those
devices noted in the foregoing for main switchboard
generator control panels plus the following:
1 A white light to indicate that the normal supply is
available.
2 A green light to indicate that all devices are
"set up" for automatic operatio& (This indication
should be extended to the ship service switchboard to
alert the operator when the emergency generator controls
are not properly positioned for automatic startup.)
3 A normal supply circuit breaker, unless the automatic bus transfer is of the contactor type.
4 A feedback switch when the automatic bus transfer
is of the contactor type.
Except under emergency conditions, the emergency
switchboard serves as an extension of the ship service
power distribution system with its main bus supplied
from the ship service main switchboard through a bus
tie and an automatic bus transfer device. This bus
transfer device usually consists of two circuit breakers,
the emergency generator breaker, and the bus tie breaker,
t
TOSHORE PWR
TERMINALS
TOEMER
SWITCHBOARD
LEGEND
NO. I CIRCUIT BREAKER
-- GEN.
GEN. NO. 2 CIRCUIT BREAKER
C - SHORE PWR CIRCUIT BREAKER
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER.
.CT. - CURRENT TRANSFORMER
0 -NORMAL SUPPLY CIRCUIT BREAKER

E -0ISTRIBUTION CIRCUIT BREAKER
F -LOCAL 4 5 0 / 1 2 0 VOLT XFMR ClRCUlT BREAKER
FU FUSE
PT-
Fig. 3 Typical main switchboard one-line diagram
r 450 VOLT, 3 PH, 60 CPS
GENERATOR BUS
SYN LTS
TO 120 VOLT
BUS
SHUNT
TRIP
'
------LEGEND
VR -VOLTAGE REGULATOR
FM -FREQUENCY METER
AM -AMMETER
SYN SYNCHROSCOPE
PT -POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
WM - WATTMETER
TM - TEMPERATURE METER
CT -CURRENT TRANSFORMER
VM -VOLTMETER
GOV -GOVERNOR
B
GENERATOR
CKT
BKR
A -GENERATORCKTBKR
FU -FUSE
.
Fig. 4 Typical main switchboard generotor control panel --line diagram
-.
MARINE ENGINEERING
450 VOLT, 3 PH, 6 0 CPS
EMERGENCY BUS
619
ELECTRIC PLANTS
I20 VOLT, 3 P H
6 0 CPS. BUS
24 VOLT DC BUS
4 5 0 VOLT, 3PH, 6OCPS

/ F!NAL
EMER BUS
.-
I T
?A
TWO BREAKER
TYPE ABT
INTLK
4 5 0 1 120 VOLT
TRANSFORMER
4 5 0 VOLT
POWER
120 VOLT, 3 WlRE

FINAL EMER BUS
?
?
T
AC/DC MG OR CONVERTER
CONTINUOUSLY OPERtTlNG
'
450/120 VOLT
TRANSFORMER
FINAL
EMER
LOADS
120 VOLT, 3 WlRE

TEMP EMER BUS
b
t AUX
TO
GEN HTR
EM GEN CKT BKR

AUX CONTACTS
I
I
9-'
I
EMER
LTG
?VITAL AC
LOADS
I
I
LEGEND
A
- QEN CIRCUI,T BREAKER
B -NORMAL SUPPLY CIRCUIT BKR

C T -CURRENT TRANSFORMER
WM- WATTMETER
U V UNDERVOLTAGE TRIP
VR + VOLTAGE REGULATOR
-LTG XFMR CIRCUIT BKR

C
D - 4 5 0 VOLT DISTR CKT BKR
E
-120 VOLT DlSTR CKT BKR
F U -FUSE
FM -FREQUENCY METER
HTR HEATER
F
BATT CHARGER CKT BKR
G
2 4 VOLT DC DISTR CKT BKR
PT -POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
AM- AMMETER
VM- VOLTMETER
SW- SWITCH
CONTACTOR
TYPE ABT
LEGEND
AUX SW8 ON
MN GEN BKRS
AM -AMMETER
VM -VOLTMETER
F M -FREQUENCY METER
WM -WATTMETER
MG -MOTOR GENERATOR
P T -POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
C T -CURRENT TRANSFORMER
ABT- AUTOMATIC BUS TRANSFER
i
NORMAL SUPPLY
Rg. 5
Typical cargo ship or tanker emergmcy switchboard me-line diagram
SKETCH "A"
FU FUSE
A
GENERATOR CKT BKR
B
NORMAL SUPPLY
450/120 VOLT XFMR CKT BKR
C
D -DISTRIBUTION CKT BKRS (AS REQ'DI
E -MOTOR GENERATOR CKT BKR
,
F
BATTERY CHARGER CKT BKR
Rg. 6
- AUTOMATICALLY TRANSFERS EMERGENCY LIGHTING TO

BATTERY UPON LOSS OF NORMAL SUPPLY
@ - AUTOLATICALLY TRANSFERS VITAL AC 6 0 CPS LOADS
ABT @
ABT
TO MG UPON LOSS OF NORMAL SUPPLY
ABT @ -AUTOMATICALLY TRANSFERS VITAL DC LOADS TO
BATTERY UPON LOSS OF NORMAL SUPPLY (MG SET)
Typical passenger vessel emergency switchboard me-line diagram
both of which are electrically interlocked so that only one

breaker can be in the closed position at a time. The
bus transfer device is arranged to initiate an automatic
start of the emergency generator set upon failure of the
normal power supply. When the emergency generator
ig up to rated voltage, the bus transfer operates so as to
transfer the emergency bus from the normal supply to
the emergency generator. Upon restoration of the
normal power supply, the emergency loads may be
manually transferred to the normal supply and the
emergency generator manually stopped. Retransfer to
the normal supply, and particularly shutdown of the
emergency generator, should be done only after the
continued operation of the normal supply is reasonably
assured. See Figs. 5 and 6 for typical emergency
switchboard one-line diagrams.
On some small-capacity installations, the bus transfer
device is a contactor type in lieu of a circuit-breaker
type principally because of cost considerations. Functionally the operation of a contactor type is the same as
the conventional two-breaker type transfer; however,
the arrangement is different as noted in Fig. 5.
When the normal supply is not available, it is often

desirable to feed emergency power back into the ship
service system. To satisfy this condition when using a
circuit-breaker type transfer, provision is made to defeat
the electrical interlocking feature, thus allowing both
circuit breakers to be in the closed position a t the same
time. When using contactor-type transfers, a manually
operated feedback circuit breaker is provided to complete
r the normal
a circuit between the emergency g e n e ~ t oand
supply bus tie. When so arranged, electrical interlocking should be provided to prevent inadvertent paralleling of the emergency and ship service supplies.
For a passenger vessel the emergency switchboard has
two sets of buses, one designated 'final emergency" and
one designated "temporary emergency. " The "final
emergency" buses (450 and 120 volt) are normally
energized through a bus tie from the main switchboard
as described previously. The "temporary emergency"
buses (120-volt Bwire, 120-volt 1-phase, and 120-volt
d-c) are normally supplied from the "final emergency"
buses through associated transfer switches and are
automatically transferred to a storage battery supply
upon failure of the normal power. This provides

instantaneous restoration of the emergency power supply,
either directly from the battery or by means of d-c/&c
conversion equipment supplied from the battery, to
those loads requiring an uninterrupted power source.
See Fig. 6 for a typical emergency switchboard one-line
diagram for passenger vessels.
c. Load-Center Switchboards. Load-center switchboards are essentially remotely loc&ted sections of the
main switchboard distribution section. They are supplied from the main switchboard via a bus feeder and in
turn supply power to local lighting and power loads.
Load centers are centrally located regarding the loads
supplied for reasons of convenience and economy
and are normally installed on only large passenger
vessels having considerable power requirements located
throughout the vesael. (Figure 18 is a one-line diagram
of a typical load-center application.)
3.8 Selectivity. Selectivity provides for maximum
continuity of service under fault conditions through the
selective operation of various protective devices, that is,
the isolation of a fault with the least interruption of vital
senrices.
Selectivity is obtained through the coordination of

trip devices of the various breakers in the system. The
time bands, both long and short time, of the open-frame
type of breakers require special attention for coordin&
tion, especially when the spread between breaker trip
ratings is very narrow. When fused breakers are
employed, very careful attention must be given to the
coordination of fuses with the breakers, and with other
breakers in, the system. Complete information with
regard to generator maximum and sustained fault
current and system impedance must be available in
order to develop a properly coordinated system. For a
more detailed discussion of selective systems see Sub,%section 6.7.
3.9 Circuit Protective Devices. Protective -devices
such as oircuit breakers, fuses, reverse-power relays, and
current-sensitive relays are installed on switchboards to
provide protection against faults in the electrical
distribution system. These devices are applied so as to
isolate any fault with the least possible portion of the
system being interrupted; the arrangement should be
such that the generator circuit breaker is the last to open
under fault conditions. Each protective device (circuit
620
MARINE ENGINEERING
breaker) must have an interrupting rating adequate to

safely interrupt the maximum fault current obtainable
at the point of application.
Generator and bus tie breakers and breakers feeding
combined loads in a selective system are of the openframe type and have long-time and short-time trips.
Instantaneous trips may be used in those cases where the
circuit breakers have a short-time rating below the
interrupting rating, provided they do not defeat selectivity. Breakers feeding individual loads in the system
should be of the molded-case or open-frame type with the
only requirement being that the continuous and interrupting ratings are adequate for the application.
When three or more generators are to operate in
parallel, the generator circuit breakers should have
instantaneous trips which are set a t a .value in excess of
the maximum fault current obtainable from an individual
generator.
Fuse selection is based on system characteristics
(voltage and current) and speed response (standard or
time-delay) required a t the point of application. All
fuses should be of the nonrenewable cartridge type and
capable of interrupting the available fault current.
Reversepower relays are provided to prevent a
generator from operating as a motor when paralleled
with another generator. This relay trips its associated
generator breaker when power flows from the line to the
generator in lieu of from the generator to the line.
Usually the relay is set t o initiate generator breaker
tripping within 10 sec when reverse power is approximately 5 percent of the generator rating.
I t is sometimes necessary to employ current-sensitive
relays for tripping circuit breakers ,at a predetermined
current. This becomes of special importance when
arranging for selectivity between the emergen:y generator gnd main switchboard bus tie breaker during feedback operation. Under normal conditions (with the
emergency switchboard energized from the main switchboard), the bus tie breaker is coordinated with the main
generator breaker, and has a relatively high trip value.
During feedback operation it is necessary to trip the bus
tie breaker should the combined load (both main and
emergency) on the emergency generator approach a
value likely to exceed the emergency generator rating.
This is required so as to provide for continuity of
emergency supply to emergency loads.
The tripping scheme would normally consist of current
transformers and current-sensitive relays properly coordinated and arranged to monitor the emergency
generator total current and act on a shunt trip of the
main-emergency bus tie breaker. The trip circuit would
be electrically interlocked so as not to be effective a t any
time other than when operating under a feedback condition.
To avoid interrupting vital circuits as a result of overload tripping the generator circuit breakers, nonvital
loads may be arranged for automatic tripping when the
total load on any generator or bus tie circuit exceeds a
predetermined value. Usually, the loads to be tripped
are connected to a common bus or buses; tripping the

breaker feeding the bus thus disconnects all loads
commonly connected.
In lieu of the foregoing, nonvital loads may be sequentially tripped via a multiple-contact timing relay. The
contacts are arranged to close serially a t predetermined
intervals, and the closing of each contact trips one or
more circuit breakers serving nonvital loads until the
overload is reduced to an acceptable value. With the
overload cleared, the relay contacts open and the timing
relay resets.
The circuit breakers to be tripped must have either a
shunt or undervoltage trip device, undervoltage being
preferred because of its fail-safe characteristic. Current
transformers of the proper rating are required for each
generator or bus tie circuit to be monitored, and a
current-sensitive relay is required for each breaker or
group of breakers to be tripped. The relay may be
instantaneous or timedelayed so as to not initiate
tripping on momentary overloads.
3.10 Types of Panels. The panels most commonly
installed aboard ship for the many specialized service
requirements are of the following types:
a. Distribution Panels. Lighting and power system
distribution panels have the same'function as do loadcenter switchboards, i.e., supply power to local lighting
and power loads respectively. They are supplied from
either the main switchboard, emergency switchboard, or
a load-center switchboard.
Distribution panels are normally of a dripproof
construction and located in dry areas central to the loads
they supply. Distribution panels should not be accessible to unauthorized persons. They are surface
mounted except in passenger, crew, and public areas in
which case they are flush-mounted in way of joiner work.
Panels are fitted with multipole switches or circuit
breakers having a pole and an overcurrent protective
device for each associated circuit conductor. In general,
440-volt a-c panels are restricted to a maximum of 12
three-phase circuits, and 115-volt lighting panels are
restricted to a maximum of 14 threephase circuits (42
overcurrent devices).
Lighting papels are normally arranged for a threephase supply and single-phase distribution; power
panels are normglly arranged for a three-phase supply and
three-phase distfibution.
b. Alarm Panels. Alarm panels are commonly
provided for monitoring various criticaT checkpoints
associated with the ship service genepators, emergency
generator, generator prime movers, and vital propulsion
plant auxiliaries and systems. Checkpoints may be
monitored a t one common panel or separate panelstmay
be provided for specific systems.
Alarm panels should incorporate audible and visible
indication of a system failure or "off-normal7' condition.
Provisions should be made for silencing the audible alarm
with the visual indicator remaining "on" to indicate a
standing fault. Common practice is to have a "flashing"
light indication for the initial fault and a "steady" light
ELECTRIC PLANTS
I
I
for indication of a standing fault. Suitable means

should be provided for indicating an "out of service"
condition and for simulation of a fault for testing each
system.
Alarm circuits should be designed for operation from
a 24-volt or a 120-volt supply unless the circuits are
simple, in which case a 6- or 12-volt supply should be
satisfactory.
Each alarm panel should have a control power transformer, power supply fuses, power-available light, and
power supply control switch. In some instances remote
power supplies are provided for specific systems, and,
when so arranged, power-available indicating lights
should be provided for each such system.
c. Test Panels. A panel arranged to provide test
voltages at all values utilized on the vessel should be
installed in a convenient work area for the purpose of
testing electrical appliances and components. Normally,
the *C power supplies (440 volt and 115 volt) to the
test panel are from the ship service systems and the d-c
supply is from a rectifier of the proper voltage and rating.
Complete instructions for operating all test devices
should be mounted either on or adjacent to the test panel.
d. Special Consoles. A console arrangement provides for the grouping of selected navigation, communication, and/or propulsion plant indicators and controls on
or within a common enclosure usually having a sloping

desklike top. Typical examples are wheelhouse command consoles and engineers' operating station consoles
provided on vessels having automated propulsion plants.
*Typicalexamples of these types of consoles are given in
Chapter 21.
On vessels having centralized control for propulsion
plants, it is desirable that' the h i p service generator
control be adjacent to or in the vicinity of the propulsion
plant controls. Unle~sthe eritire ship service switchboard can be conve+6ntly located, the generator controls
are grouped on a control unit apart from the switchboard
so as to permit a choice of location. The control unit
may be a vertical type of the same design as if it were
part of the switchboard, or it may be of the console
type. A generator console type of control unit permits
grouping the generator circuit breaker control switches
and instrument control switches on the console sloping
top. Instruments, indicator lights, and less frequently
used control switches are mounted on the vertical area
of the console. Rheostats and voltage regulator equipment are usually located in the bottom section of the
console. A console type of design is preferred when
several generators are to be controlled from one location
or when a large number of controls are required for
remote devices.
Section 4
Power Eq~~ipment
4.1 Genered Requirements for Motors and Controls. types of enclosures and methods of ventilating motors
General recommendations for the construction and most commonly used are as follows:
application of motors and control apparatus for marine
1 Open, self-ventilated-used only where an adequate
service are contained in the IEEE Standard No. 45. enclosure is provided by the housing of the driven
Certain specific requirements are also contained in the machine. This type of enclosure should have ventilaregulations of the classification societies and in the tion openings which permit passage of external cooling
United States Coast Guard Code of Federal Regulations air over and around the motor windings.
-Title 4Mhipping, Parts 1 to 149.
2 Dripproof protected, self-ventilated-used for most
Motor and control equipment for marine service may applications in dry, sheltered locations. This enclosure
be classified into several standard types relative to is so constructed that drops of liquid or solid particles
mechanical and electrical characteristics. The proper falling on the motor at any angle not greater than 15
application of motors and controls for shipboard deg from the vertical cannot enter the motor. The
auxiliaries involves, therefore, the selection of those ventilating opefLings are riormally protected with wire
standard types having mechanical and electrical charac- screen, expanded metal, or perforated covers to prevent
teristics that are most suitable for the location and na- personnel from contacting electrical parts. These
ture of the driven auxiliary.
covers also keep out rats and mice that might use the
The ratings and characteristics of electrical motors and equipment as nesting places.
controls fop a typical singlbscrew cargo liner are listed
3 Totally enclosed, fawcool&-generaly
used for
in Table 2.
motors in spaces where lubricating or fuel oils are present;
they are also used for applications subject to splashing,
4.2 Mechanical Characteristics of Motors
spraying, or hosedown. This type of enclosure prevents
a. Enclosure and Method of Ventilation. A wide the free exchange of air between the inside and outside
variety of enclosures and methods of ventilation is' of the housing but is not sufficiently enclosed to be
available for motors in marine service. The specific termed airtight.
types selected depend on the particular environmental
4 Waterproof, nonventilated-used for practically all
condition to which the motor will be subjected. The motors mounted on weather decks, or where heavy
M A R Y E ENGINEERING
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washdown or possible transient submergence may be

encountered.
5 Explosion-proof, fan-cooled-used in an atmosphere
containing an explosive mixture. This type of enclosure
is required to be capable of withstanding an explosion of
a specified gas or vapor which may occur within it while
preventing the ignition of the gas or vapor surrounding
the enclosure. Explosion-proof equipment is not watertight and must be enclosed in a watertight housing if it is
subject to weather conditions. The cooling fan should
be constructed of nonsparking material and be protected
by a guard.
6 Submersible, self-ventilated-used for those limited
and special applications that may require normal
operation in air and emergency operation when submerged. A positive means of providing the required
capability is the use of a bell type of enclosure. The
motor and pump combination is vertically mounted and
covered with a close-fitting bell that is open a t the bottom.
The bell must be of sufficient depth so that the required
submergence will not force water onto the motor
windings.
Under special and restricted conditions established by
the U.S. Coast Guard, submersible motor-driven pump
assemblies may be used for pumping out cargo tanks of
liquefied methane, propane, ammonia, and other
unusual cargos, the primary restriction being that air
must be excluded from the cargo tanks at all times so as to
prevent the possibility of an explosive mixture existing
within the tanks.
7 Dripproof protected encapsulated, self-ventilatedused for those applications that may be subject to
temporary submergence, splashing, spraying, or hosedown. Witb encapsulated motors the windings around
the end coils and in the slots are completely encased in a
protective insulating coating that permits exposure to
specified liquids, and the bearing cavities are made
watertight. This type of enclosure is suitable for many
applications that heretofore have required total enclosure.
b. Terminal Boxes. All motors are normally furnished with terminal boxes having threaded pipe taps for
ship's cable entrance terminal tubes. Motor terminal
leads and ship's cable are mated by means of cable
connectors within the terminal box. The degree of
enclosure required for terminal boxes is usually the same
as that provided for the motor. The desired location of
terminal boxes and the number and size of tapped holes
for cable entrance are normally specified by the shipbuilder.
c. Insulation. Insulating materials for use in motors
are divided into categories according to their ability to
withstand high temperatures for long periods of time.
These categories are Class A, B, F, or H. Class A
insulation has the capability of operating a t a maximum
temperature of 105 C; Class B is rated at 130 C; Class F
a t 155 C; and Class H a t 180 C. These temperatures in
each case represent the insulation syqtem material
capability and are the summation of the ambient
temperature, motor-winding temperature rise above
625
ambient, plus an estimated temperature gradient

referred to as the hot-spot allowance.
The regulatory bodies have specific requirements
regarding temperature rise limits for the various classes
of insulation for different applications. Bearings and
bearing lubricants should be selected based on operating
temperatures encountered with each class of insulation.
d. Special Treatment. All motors for use in marine
applications should be given a special impregnation to
make the winqiigs resistant to salt water, salt air, oil
fumes, and fungus. Metal parts are made of corrosionresisting materials or are treated to render them corrosionresistant. For example, small hardware is usually
zinc-plated, and the shaft inside the frame, exposed
laminations, and brackets are usually treated to prevent
corrosion. Small hardware for motors exposed to the
weather is normally stainless steel.
e. Ambient Temperature. Motors for machinery
spaces are designed for an ambient temperature of 50 C,
normally using Class B insulation. Motors for use in
areas other than machinery spaces are designed for an
ambient temperature of 40 C, normally using Class A
or B insulation. Exceptions involve unusually hot
areas, such as a t the tops of boilers or adjacent to smoke
uptakes, and certain axial-flow exhaust fan applications
for which the motors are rated for 65 C using Class F or
H insulation. The trend is to use Class F insulation for
both 40 C and 50 C spaces, to reduce the overall size of
the motors.
f. Space Heaters. Motors.subject to wide variations
of temperature or excessive moisture conditions are often
provided with space heaters to prevent moisture condensation in the motor when idle. The heaters may be
resistance units bolted to the inside of the lower frame
or a phase winding energized through a low-voltage
transformer. I n either case, the heating circuit is
electrically interlocked so as to remove heater power
whenever the motor is energized.
g. Shafts. For flexible and rigidly coupled drives,
National Electric Manufacturers Association (NEMA)
standard short-shaft extensions are used. However,
in some instances shafts are provided with the end
tapered, threaded, and equipped with a nut and washer
for ease in disassembly and reassembly.
Brake mqtors or motors using shoe brakes are provided
with front-end shaft extensions as required by the brake
application. NEMA long-shaft extensions are provided
for pulley-driven auxiliaries. Special long shafts are
provided for impellers of close-coupled pumps and axialflow fans. Carbon steel sha@ are normally provided for
coupled drives and for freshwater closecoupled pumps.
Shafts made of corrosion-resistant materials (e.g.,
stainless steel or monel) and fitted with sle$*s are
generally required for pumps handling corrosive liquids.
h. Bearings. With few exceptions a-c and d-c
motors are equipped with greasable ball bearings; axialflow ventilation fan motors are usually equipped with
prelubricated sealed ball bearings, since they are located
in ductwork and not easily accessible. Sleeve bearings,
i
II
I
626
TORQUE (PER CENT OF FULL L O A ~ T O R Q U E ~ -
TORQUE (PER CENT OF F U L L - L O A ~TORQUE)
Fig.
ELECTRIC PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
7 Torquespeed curves for induction motors rated 30 to 50 hp
designed for flood lubrication or forced lubrication, are

used only in special applications.
i. Speed Reduction Drives. Separately mounted
coupled reduction gears or integrally mounted reduction
gears are used to decrease or increase the speed obtained
from the drive motor. Motors and gears must be
carefully selected to suit the speed, torque, and duty of
the driven auxiliary. A V-belt drive is often used for
air and refrigerating compressors and slow-speed fans.
The use of a V-belt drive requires the motor to be
mounted on a base that affords adjustment of the belt
tension.
j. Mounting. Motors are designed for mounting in
any required position, i.e., horizontal, inverted horizontal,
vertical with the drive shaft up or down, and in some
instances inclined. Most shipboard auxiliaries are
driven by horieontal motors mounted on a common
bedplate with the driven machine. However, the use of
vertically mounted motor-driven centrifugal pumps
provides a saving in deck area and a preferred piping
arrangement. In addition to general-purpose mountings,
NEMA has standardized two end mounts, types C and
D, and two flange mounts, types P and PH. Types C
and D are used either horizontally or vertically, with the
relative location of the face and .feet fixed by the standards. Types P and PH flanges are used for vertical
pump applications. Each type of mounting should be
coordinated with the driven auxiliary to insure a satisfactory fit and performance. For heavy assemblies
(such as an overhung motor with a disk brake attached
by a flange), it is advisable to provide a foot-mounted
motor to afford rigidity.
4.3 iElechical Characteristics of Alternating-Current
Motors. The speed, horsepower, and duty rating of a
motor is fixed by the required input to, and the operating

cycle of, the driven machine. Duty ratings. (operating
cycle) for shipboard applications are classified as continuous duty or intermittent duty. Continuous duty is
a requirement of service that demands operation a t a
Fig. 6
---
Design D Induction motor torque-speed curve for various slip values
substantially constant load for an indefinitely long time.

Intermittent duty is a requirement of service that d e
mands operation for alternate periods of (a) load and no
load; (b) load and rest; or (c) load, no load, and rest,
with such alternate intervals being definitely specified.
The applicable IEEE Standard No. 45 contains a
description of duty ratings for specific applications.
The majority of the motors used aboard ship are
squirrel cage induction motors. The design designations, Design A, B, C, and Dl for three-phase squirrel
cage induction motors, are based on torque, current, and
speed requirements. Each design offersdifferent torque,
speed, and current characteristics to meet various
operating requirements as may be seen from Figs. 7 and 8.
Design A motors have a normal starting torque, high
starting current, and low slip. This motor is not used
for the usual shipboard applications because of its high
starting current characteristic.
Design B motors have a normal starting torque, low
starting current, and low slip;. This is the motor most
commonly used on shipboard; it is generally used for
centrifugal pumps, fans, blowers, motor-generator sets,
and compressors that are not loaded when started.
Design C motors have a high starting torque, low
starting current, and low slip. This motor is normally
used for applications such as steering gear, anchor
windlass, plunger-type pumps, and compressors that are
not unloaded when started.
Design D motors have a high starting torque, moderate
starting current, and high slip; this motor is normally
used for capstans, winches, valve operators, conveyors,
elevators, and hoists.
The squirrel cage motor may be designed for one, two,
three, or four speeds. In addition, this motor is suitable
for adjustablespeed operation when used with a combined frequency and voltage control; adjustable speed by
voltage control only requires a specially designed highslip motor.
Wound-rotor motors may be used for adjustablespeed
or constant-speed applications. For adjustablespeed

applications, up to 50-percent speed reduction can be
obtained by inserting different values of resistance in the
rotor circuit by means of multistep controllers. Each
set of resistance values inserted in the rotor circuit
results in different torque and speed characteristics as
shown in Fig. 9. The use of wound-rotor motors for
constant-speed applications is limited on shipboard;
however, its use should be considered when it is necessary
to start a large motor from a relatively low-capacity
generator. The advantage in this case would be the low
starting current and normal starting torque that are
available with proper selection of secondary resistances in
the rotor circuit.
Typical applications requiring adjustable-speed selection on shipboard are forced-draft blowers, fuel-oil
service pumps, and main circulating pumps. Although
wound-rotor motors may be used, multispeed squirrel
cage motors are more commonly used for these applications.
,
Synchronous motors are used in shore practice for
improving the system power factor and are usually
applied to drive large continuous loads such as motorgenerator sets, compressors, pumps, and fans. They
have practically no application on shipboard but may be
used for such applications as large-capacity circulating
pumps and motor-generator sets to improve the system
power factor.
2EROEXTERNAL
RESISTANCE 2-4
CENT SLIP
/ PER
AT FULL LOAD
Fig. 9
Typical torque-speed curves for a wound-rotor motor with various

external resistances
loads with lower armature current and better commutation than with a shunt winding only. The compound
winding is desirable for loads of high inertia such as
certain direct-connected centrifugal fans, as well as for
such shipboard applications as the propeller shaft
4.4 Electrical Characteristics of Direct-Current Motors. turning gear, valve operators, compressors without
The major distinctive characteristic of d-c motors is unloaders, and positive-displacement pumps.
The crane or winch type of winding is a compound
their type of field windings. Direct-current motors may
winding
consisting of a light shunt field and a heavy
have a shunt winding, stabilized-shunt winding, series
series
field.
These motors are deigned for a specific
winding, cornPofind winding, or a crane or winch type of
load and afford many desirable characteristics such EM
winding.
Shunt or stabilized-shunt windings are used for high torque for heavy loads and high speed for light
applications requiring constant speed rkgardless of load loads with the light shunt field providing constant-speed
variation. Typical shipboard applications are fans, characteristics. Typical shipboard applications of this
type of winding are cargo winches and anchor windlasses.
blowers, centrifugal pumps, and elevators.
Motors with stabilized-shunt windings are provided
4.5 Mechanical Characteristics of Motor Control
with a light series field in addition to the shunt field to Equipment
prevent a rise in speed as the load increases; hence the
a. Starter and Controller Panels. A grouping of
term "stabilized". This type of winding is desirable for
loads of high inertia such as direct-connected centrifugal several motor starters housed in a free-standing deckfans or pumps, since acceleration is accomplished with a mounted structure is known as a group control or motor
lower armature current and better commutation than control center. Each motor starter within a group
control is energized from a common power supply feeder
with a common shunt winding.
Series-winding motors are used for loads requiring a through individual circuif, breakers mounted in each
very high starting torque. They are also used in starter. Group controls &-metal-enclosed unjts having
applications requiring operation over a wide speed range metal barriers between starters.
In general, individual starter enclosures are either
such that the motor develops a high-speed operation at
light loads, and at low speeds a comparatively light dripproof, watertight, submersible, or explosion-proof as
current- and a high torque. Series motors are partic- required by their location. Starters mounted in group
ularly suitable for the operation of warping capstans control switchboards are generally of the "open" type
which require a high torque a t low speeds for handling mounted in a dripproof enclosure.
Cabinet enclosures are usually designed for bulkhead
loads and a high speed at light load for retrieving lines.
The friction loss of the machinery is generally sufficient mounting in smaller sizes and for deck mounting in
weights over 150 lb. Consideration should be givenib ,
to limit the no-load speed to a safe value.
Motors with compound windings develop a high the need for rear access on large starter panels for
starting torque and have the ability to handle peak connections and inspection.
1
628
MARINE ENGINEERING
ELECTRIC PLANTS
Suitable provisions for cable entrance are made in all

cabinets, usually a t the top for the feeder and at the
bottom for the motor and control leads. Watertight
terminal tubes or other adequate seals to exclude moisture
should be provided where cables enter at the top of
dripproof cabinets. Cable clamps or other adequate
means for holding cables in place to prevent chaffing
from vibration should be provided where cables enter the
bottom of dripproof cabinets. All cable entrances in
watertight starters are made through terminal tubes.
In general, practically all motor starter enclosures,
excepting explosion-proof starters, are provided with
removable drilling plates so as to avoid the danger of
metal chips dropping in the working parts as could
occur if drilled after delivery. Explosion-proof enclosures are often purchased with the number and size of
tapped holes for cable entrance terminal tubes specified.
Separately mounted resistors, if required, should be
installed in well-ventilated spaces and provided with
protection from dripping liquids.
The ambient temperature and class of insulation for
motor control equipment are determined in the same
manner as previously described for motors.
b. Master Switches. The broad category of master
switches includes pushbutton, drum switches, selector
switches, pressure switches, temperature switches, interloclr sw~itches,float switches, and any other type of remote
pilot device required for proper operation of the controlled motor through starter equipment.
Local switches and indicating lights which form a part
of controllers should have the same degree of enclosure
as the controller. For remote locations, the enclosure of
switches should be dripproof, watertight, submersible, or
explosion-proof to suit the requirements of the location.
In general, for weather or corrosive areas, watertight
enclosures of cast bronze or brass for small switches and
bronze, nodular iron, or stainless steel for winch control
switches are provided.
The cable entrance into master switches should be
through a bushing in the bottom of dripproof switches
and through watertight terminal tubes in all others.
The regulatory body rules generally require that
controllers be mounted adjacent to the driven auxiliary.
With group control and in those situations where the
controller cannot be mounted in sight (as for certain fans
and forced-draft blowers), remote pushbuttons, designed
so that the stop button $an be maintained open, are
located a t the driven auxiliary.
c. Speed-Regulating Rheostats. For shipboard use,
speed-regulating rheostats for shunt field control of
direct-current motors are provided with dripproof covers
and enclosed terminals and are arranged for bulkhead
mounting. This construction permits a convenient
location of the rheostats with a minimum probability of
damage to the rheostat or injuries to personnel.
4.6 Electrical Characteristics of Alternating-Current
Motor Controllers., Motor controllers are designed to
perform definite electrical functions regarding the control

and protection of motors. The characteristics and
applications of the various types of controllers that

provide these functions are as follows:
a. Controller Operation. Controllers are designated
as being either manual or magnetic in operation:
Manual controllers are normally used for applications of
less than 2 hp that require only "on-off" operation.
Magnetic controllers are used for all other applications
and may be classified as automatic or nonautomatic.
Automatic controllers start and stop the motor in
response to some controlled factor with no attention
from an operator. Nonautomatic controllers require
manual operation of a pushbutton or switch to initiate a
start or stop. After the initial manual operation, the
controller completes the starting or stopping of the
motor. Nonautomatic controllers are used for practically all applications other than those auxiliaries that
require automatic cycling such as air compressors and
refrigeration compressors. Typical control-circuits for
a-c magnetic controllers are shown in Figs. 10 and 11.
b. Types of Controllers. Controllers of the acrossline type are used for practically all shipboard auxiliaries since the ship's generating plants are usually of
adequate capacity to handle the starting currents of all
motors installed. However, controllers of the autotransformer type are used when it is necessary to limit
the starting current of a motor so as to avoid imposing
an excessive load on the generating plant. This type of
controller should be designed for closed circuit transition
so as to avoid high transition currents. Standard
starting transformers for motors above 50 hp have taps
of 50, 65, and 80 percent of full voltage; only 65- and
80-percent taps are provided in sizes below 50 hp. The
starting current drawn from the line is proportional
to the square of the percent voltage tap; i.e., 80 percent
tap equals 64 percent of the across-line starting current.
A typical application is for fire pumps that must be
started from relatively small-capacity emergency generators.
A primary resistor type of controller could be used to
limit the starting currents of large motors and also for
speed control of small motors; however, their application
is very limited because the motor starting current is not
substantially reduced and therefore they provide little
or no advantage for shipboard use.
Controllers of the secondary resistor type are used to
limit the starting currents and provide speed control
for wound-rotor induction motors; typical applications
are forced-draft blowers and main circulating pumps.
A wye-delta type of controller could be used to limit
the starting currents of large motors. With this
arrangement the motor is started in the wye connection
and then reconnected, with closed transition, to the delta
running connection. This arrangement requires a
six-lead motor and the starting current would be
approximately 33 percent of the across-line starting
current. A typical application is a bow thruster.
See Fig. 12 for typical methods of starting a-c induction motors.
c. Controller Protective Features. Low Voltage
1
t
f
I
,I
Protection (LVP) is the feature that is provided to cause

the controller to disconnect the motor from the power
supply upon reduction or loss of voltage; the motor
remains disconnected until the voltage is restored and
the motor is restarted by manual operation of its starting
pushbutton, as shown in Fig. 13. This feature is provided as a means of preventing the simultaneous restarting (after an interruption of the supply voltage) of
a large number of motors such that their large starting
currents are additive.
Low' Voltage Release (LVR) is the feature that is
provided to cause the controller to disconnect the motor
from the power supply upon a reduction or loss of
voltage; the motor remains disconnected until the
voltage returns, .and then automatically reconnects the
motor to the power supply to restart it, as shown in
Fig. 14. This feature is usually applied to only those
vital auxiliaries that must be automatically restarted
immediately upon restoration of power. Typical examples are lube-oil service pumps, main and auxiliary
condensate pumps, main circulating pumps, and control
air compressors. It is usually desirable to use timedelay relays with LVR controllers to obtain staggered
starting and prevent simultaneous restarting of all LVR
auxiliaries. Motors that are automatically controlled
by pressure-switches, and similar devices, have an inherent LVR feature unless a low-voltage relay, which
opens upon failure of line voltage, is provided in the
control circuit. All manual-type controllers provide
LVR characteristics.
Overload protection is the feature that results in the
controller operating to disconnect the motor from the
power source when excessive currents (not short circuits)
occur that could cause overheating of the motor. This
feature is provided by overload relays; separate relays
are required for each winding of multispeed motors.
Overload relays may be either thermal or magnetic.
Thermal overload relays generally consist of a heatsensitive element and a heat-generating 'element. The
heat-generating element may be a heater or coil in series
with the motor load circuit. An excessive motor
current passing through the heat-generating element
causes the heat-sensitive element to react to open the
overload relay contacts, thus breaking the circuit to the
operating coil of the main line contactors; this in turn
causes the contactor to open the motor circuit. Since
the tripping characteristics of the thermal overload relay
depend on both the length of time of application and the
amount of overload current, the relay can be, and
normally is, designed to follow approximately the timecurrent heating curve of the motor. This curve represents the values of the current that a motor can carry for
different lengths of time without damaging the motor
insulation. Thermal overload relays should be compensated against possible ambient temperature changes.
Thermal overload relays are generally of the solder-pot,
bimetal, single metal, or induction type. Practically all
applications of overlaad relays on shipboard are of the
thermal type.
Magnetic overload relays generally consist of a coil in

series with the motor load circuit and a tripping armature
or plunger. When the amount of overload current for
which the relay is set passes through the series coil, the
tripping armature is actuated to open the overload relay
contacts, thus breaking the circuit to the operating coil
of the main line contactors; Bhis in turn causes the
contactor to open the motor circuit. Magnetic overload relays are not affected by variations in the ambient
temperature and &quire no temperature compensation.
Magnetic overlo*ad relays are of the instantaneous or
time-delay type and have limited application on shipboard because they do not use heat in their operation
and consequently do not follow the heating curve of
motors.
Overload relays are provided with a means of resetting
so that the motor controlled can be restarted with overload protection. Tripped thermal overload relays must
be allowed to cool before the tripping mechanism can be
reset. Magnetic overload relays can be reset immediately after tripping. The three forms of overload relay
resets are manual (hand), automatic, and electric. The
manual form is the most common for shipboard use and
consists of a rod or lever which, when operated, causes
the tripping mechanism to be returned to its original
position. The automatic reset has no practical application on ships. The electrical reset is limited to those
applications where it is desirable to reset a relay from a
remote operating position.
Emergency run features should be provided on controllers for certain auxiliaries, such as elevators, in which
case stopping in the middle of an operating cycle could
be highly undesirable. This feature, which is initiated
by operating a pushbutton or lever, renders the overload
relay tripping mechanism inoperative so that the auxiliary can be operated with the motor running in an overload condition until the operating cycle is completed.
In general, each control wire that leaves a controller
should be provided with short-circuit protection. Such
protection may be provided by a fuse, located in the
controller, if the lead is not already protected by a
current-limiting device (coil or resistor) located i11 the
enclosure.
When a secondary source of power greater than 24 volts
is brought into a motor controller for alarm, indicating
light, or other circuits, a suitable interlock is usually
provided to disconnect the secondary source upon
opening of the controller door. In lieu of disconnecting
the secondary source as noted in the foregoing, an
independent disconnect deyice may be used for this
purpose. This independent CP-iconnectihould be-located
adjacent to the motor and controller disconnect, and a
sign should be provided on the main disconnect to warn
that both devices should be operated to disconnect
completely the motor and controller.
4.7 Electrical Characteristics of Direct-Current Motor
StaHers. Direct-current motor controllers may be of
either the across-line or resistor type. Full-voltage

across-line controllers are usually manually operated and
MARINE ENGINEERING
630
LINES
L2
LI
ELECTRIC PLANTS
LlNES
L t
L21
L31
TDS
TDS TDS
L3
&
& A - - 4--ADS
H, :I: a
ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM
II M
OL
II
,
,
OL
N.
TI
T2
MOTOR
H2
CR
26
L(LA
80
PS
M
UNLOADER
SOLENOID
(L) LOCAL
(R) REMOTE
DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION
ELECTOR IN "HA ": TO START. PRESS A START BUTTON ENERGIZING SELF MAINTAINING RELAY "cR': THE "CR"
E o N T A c T s CLosEYNEasIzING MAIN CONTACTOR "M? THE * ~ ~ ~ c o r y CONNECT
A c n
THE MOTOR ACROSS THE
LINE AND ENERGIZE.7HE UNLOADER SOLENOID.
TO STOP PRESS A STOP BUTTON REMOVING OCR" "M"AND THE MOTOR FROM THE LINE.
SELECTOR
AUTO^: PLACING THE SELECTOR s w ~ i c n
IN AUTO^ INSERTS A N.B. PRESSURE SWITCH, *PS*: IN
~k
Fig. 11 Typical elementary and wiring

d l a g r m for a potable water pump application
...- --.. ...----,..
THC r n N T D n 1 I CD
TO START PRESS A START BUTTON ENERGIZING RELAY "CR". WHEN THE "PS~CONTACTSCLOSE, MAIN
CONTACTOR "M" IS ENERGIZED CONNECTING THE MOTOR ACROSS THE LINE. WHEN THE n
~
"Ma'IS DROPPED REMOVING THE MOTOR FROM TUC I INC
TO STOP. PRESS A STOP BUTTON R E I
I N AVOLTAGE FAILURE CONDITION, A L L
vv~la
PRESS A START BUTTON AFTER RESTORATwn vr r v ~ ~ r r utc~. v n
IN AN OVERLOAD CONDITION, THE 0.L.CONTACTS OPEN REMOVING THE
RESTART, PRESS A RESET AND THEN A START BUTTON. (OVERLOAD PROTECTIOIY
Ra. 10 Tvdcal e l e m ~ t aand

~
I.
TO START THE MOTOR MANUALLY, TURN THE SELECTOR SWITCH TO THE MAN POSITION. THIS
ESTABLISHES A CIRCUIT TO THE MAIN CONTACTOR M. THE MOTOR WlLL START AND CONTINUE TO RUN AS
LONG AS THE SELECTOR SWITCH IS IN THE MAN POSITION.
TOOPERATE THE MOTOR AUTOMATICALLY UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE PRESSURE SWITCH PS. TURN
E
SWITCH W ~ L LKENE ESTABLISH A-~IREUIT
THE SELECTOR-SWI~CHTO THE AUTO POSITYON.Y ~ PR&RE
TO THE MAIN CONTACTOR M. THE MOTOR WlLL START AND CONTINUE TO RUN UNTIL THE PRESSURE SWITCH
CONTACTS OPEN. THE MOTOR WlLL THEN CYCLE OFF AND ON AS THE PRESSURE SWITCH CONTACTS OPEN
AND CLOSE.
AVOLTAGE FAILURE WlLL CAUSE THE MAIN CONTACTOR M TO OPEN AND DISCONNECT THE MOTOR FROM
THE LINE. WHEN VOLTAGE IS RESTORED, M WILL RECLOSE AND START THE MOTOR (LOW VOLTAGE RELEASE).
AN OVERLOAD WILL CAUSE THE OL CONTACTS TO OPEN, DEENERGIZING M AND STOPPING THE MOTOR.
TO RESTART. PRESS THE RESET BUTTON.
THE MOTOR MAY B E STOPPED AT ANY TIME BY TU8NING THE SELECTOR SWITCH TO THE STOP
POSITION.
~
LINES
REAR VIEW OF DOOR
FRONT VIEW OF PANEL
ITO
LINES
REAR VlEW
OF DOOR
,
1-
FRONT VlEW OF PANEL
limited to those applications involving a maximum of

2 hp subject to the driven machinery withstanding the
resulting high starting torque and the motor handling
the high inrush current. Good practice restricts this
type of starting to small galley appliances, small pumps,
and ventilation fans.
Controllers of the resistor type are used for most d-c
motor control apylicatibns. They provide mean8 of
reducing the motor starting current to prevent motor

damage and prevent overloading the generating plant.
The resistor type of controllers may be either manual or
magnetic. Most controllers of the manual d-c resistor
type are similar to acros9-line controllers except for the
addition of a starting resistor and an accelerating
contactor. The control circuitry is designed such that
as the motor comes up to speed the accelerating con-
tactor is actuated to by-pass the starting resistance and

connect the motor to full voltage. Manually operated
"dial" or "face plate" starting rheostats may be used for
starting and speed regulation of nonreversing motors.
They are used for light-starting auxiliaries such as
ventilation fans but should be limited to ratings below
2 hp.
Practically all d-c controllers are of the magnetic,
reflistor type. Magnetic controllers may be of either
the nonautomatic or automatic type and consist of a
main contactor, control relays as required, one or more
accelerating contactors, an overload relay, emergency
run feature, and starting resistance. The main contactar is controlled by a manually operated master
switch (nonautomatic control) or by an automatically

operated device such as a pressure-regulating switch
(automatic control). When the main contactor closes,
the motor is connected to the power supply through the
starting resistances. The p n t r o l ciquitry contains
current-sensitive series relays and accelerating contactors so that as the motor comes up to speed, individual
steps of the starting resistance are by-passed until all
steps are out of the motor circuit and the motor is
connected across the line. Another method of control
starting uses definite time accelerating contactors to
close automatically and shunt out steps of the starting
resistance.
Speed adjustment for d-c motors may be obtained by
MARINE ENGINEERING
ELECTRIC PLANTS
REDUCED-VOLTAGE AUTO TRANSFORMER
LINES
633
ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM
START
Fig. 13 Typical motm canhol circuit

with low-voltage prohctim feature
(01 ACROSS LINES
TO S V R T THE MOTOR PRESS TYE START BUTTON. THIS ENERGIZES CONTACTOR M.

CONNECTING THE MOTOR ACROSS THE LINE. M MAINTAINS ITSELF THRU ITS OWN
AUXILIARY CONTACTS. TO STOP THE MOTOR, PRESS THE STOP BUTTON.
A VOLTAGE FAILURE WlLL CAUSE M TO OPEN STOPPING THE MOTOR. TO RESTAkT,
WHEN VOLTAGE IS RESTORED, PRESS THE START BUTTON. (LOW VOLTAGE PROTECTION).
AN OVERLOAD WlLL CAUSE THE OL CONTACTS TO OPEN CAUSING M TO OPEN STOPPING
THEMOTOR. TORESTART.PRESSTHERESETBUTTONANDTHENTHESTARTBUTT0N.
(b) CLOSED TRANSITION

LINES
SERIES
CLOSED- CIRCUIT TRANSITION
Fig. 12 Typical mehds of

starting a-c induction moton
IM
WOUND-ROTOR
INDUCTION MOTOR
IA a Z A ARE DELAYED
IN CLOSING BY A PRESET TIME
R
I
CONTACTOR SEO.
(C) REDUCED-VOLTAGE
PRIMARY RESISTOR
MOTOR
(dl FULL VOLTAGE

SECONDARY RESISTOR
using a rheostat in the motor shunt field circuit or by

varying the amount of resistance of continuous-duty
resistors in the motor armature circuit.
4.8 Brakes. Electric brakes for marine service are
of either the disk or shoe type, each type being spring
set and magnetically (solenoid) released. Solenoids or
magnets are usually energized (brakes released) through
contactors whenever the associated motor is in opera-
tion. Deenergizing the motor also deenergizes and engages the brake.
Disk brakes may be either a-c or d-c operated; shoe
brakes are usually d-c operated. For motors that are
50 hp and larger, d-c operated brakes are usually
provided.
I n general, brakes for suspended loads are rated a t 200
percent of the motor torque. For other types of loads,
the brakes are rated to stop the load under any operating
condition involved; in these cases, the brakes are
usually rated a t 100 percent of the motor torque.
Brakes located in weather locations should be of a
watertight construction and have electric heaters to
prevent the accumulation of condensation during nonenergized periods.
Brakes should be provided with a means of being
mechanically released for emergency operation in the
event of a power failure.
Disk brakes are attached directly to the motor fronb
end bracket and require no special foundation; from a
space point of view, disk brakes lend themselves to an
economical installation. Most shoe brakes are foob

mounted and require a special foundation for proper
alignment with their motor.
4.9 Transformers. Transformers _ are utilied to
supply alternating-currefif* loads which cannot be
operated on the ship's primary voltage. Transfortners
are normally of a single-phase, 60-cycle, air-cooled, dry
type that is designed for continuous duty with dripproof enclosures and suitable for connecting in a threephase bank. Each transformer in a bank should have an
identical rating with the primaries connected in delta
and the secondaries connected in delta or wye as re.
quired for the intended service.
634
MARINE ENGINEERING
LINES
LI
L2
635
ELECTRIC PLANTS
ELEMENTARY DIAGRAM
lead-acid or alkaline type. It is advisable that all

storage batteries provided on a given vessel be of the
same type, to prevent the possibility of contaminating
any battery electrolyte through the inadvertent use of a
common hydrometer.
Principal applications for storage batteries are: (a)
emergency power for radios; (b) no-break power supply,
(c) diesel-generator cranking; (d) lifeboat engine starting;
L3
IDS
IDS
IDS
MOTOR
OL
(e) emergency lighting when an emergency diesel generator is not installed; (f) fire-screen doors and watertight doors; (g) forklift trucks; (h) general alarm system;
and (i) certain interior communication loads.
The regulatory bodies h a w published specific detailed
requirements regarding the construction, rating (capacity), ventilation, installation, and arrangement of
i
storage batteries.
OFF
-RUN
Section 5
Lighting Fixtuns and Equipment
TO START THE MOTOR POSITION THE SELECTOR SWITCH &T"RUN". THIS ENERGIZES
CONTACTOR M CONNECTING THE MOTOR ACROSS THE LINE. TO STOP THE MOTOR POSITION
THE SELECTOR SWITCH AT"OFF~.
A VOLTAGE FAILURE WILLFAUSE M TO OPEN STOPPING THE MOTOR. WHEN VOLTAGE IS
RESTORED, THE MOTOR WILL IMMEDIATELY RESTART (LOW VOLTAGE RELEASE).
AN OVERLOAD WILL CAUSE THE OL CbNTACTS TO OPEN CAUSING M TO OPEN STOPPING
THE MOTOR. TO RESTART, PRESS THE RESET BUTTON.
LINES
REAR VIEW OF DOOR
Li
L21
T" T T
VIEW OF PAWL
L3f
Fig. 14 Typical motor m t r d cirwl

with law-valtage please feature
I
t
I
I
RESET BUTTON
PUSH TO RESET
MOTOR
06
'
The kva ratings of transformers should be based

the connected load plus a reasonable allowance for
installed spares and future development. Every effort
should be made to balance the load between phases of
transformer banks.
4.10 Motor Generators. Motor generators are provided to supply power to loads requiring special voltages
and/or frequencies that differ from the ship's primary
power. The principal applications for motor-generator
sets are: (a) Providing d-c power for cargo handling
equipment; (b) Providing a-c power for the "temporary
emergency" loads on passenger vessels; in this applic*
tion, upon loss of normal power, the motor-generator set
is supplied with power from an emergency battery and in

turn provides a-c power to selected vital emergency loads
until the emergency diesel-generator can start and
assume all emergency loads; and (c) Providing power for
automatic elevators on passenger vessels.
4.1 1 Reetiflers. Rectifiers are provided to supply
loads requiring d-c power that is not available from the
ship's primary power. Principal applications for rectifiers are: (a) Electronic equipment requiring d-c power;
(b) Battery charging; and (c) Fire-screen doors. Specific
details regarding requirements for rectifiers are contained
in IEEE Standard No. 45.
4.12 Batteries. Storage batteries are usually of a
5.1 General. Marine fixtures and appliances must

be of a special design and construction to suit the
various requirements incidental to shipboard installations. They must be rugged to withstand normal
shipboard vibration. Furthermore, enclosures must be
compatible with the particular environment in which
they are located; also, they must be of a corrosionresisting material or have an effective corrosion-resisting
finish. To prevent rapid deterioration of the finish,
decorative fixtures with polished or plated surfaces must
be protected from the salt atmosphere by some form of
protective coating, such as lacquer. The possibility of
radio interference from fluorescent or high-intensity
electric-discharge lamps also requires consideration in
the selection of light sources.
All lighting fixtures, with few exceptions, are required
to meet the standards of the Underwriters Laboratories,
Inc., publication UL595, Marine Type Electric Lighting
Fixtures. Fixtures not covered by this standard must
have U.S. Coast Guard approval for each specific
application and vessel.
In developing the design of the lighting system, the
"Recommended Practice for Marine Lighting, " published
by the Illuminating Engineering Society, should be used
for determining the minimum footcandle requirements.
5.2 Types of Fixtures. Fixtures may be classified
by the types of lamps used. Fluorescent, incandescent,
and high-intensity electric-discharge lamps are the main
types of lamps used. Of the three, the fluorescent offers
the most advantages and is replacing the incandescent
for practically all general illumination requirements.
The color rendition of fluorescent lamps has been steadily
improved in recent years and is now almost the equal of
the incandescent lamp in this respect. Their high
luminous &cacy makes them much better suited for use
in air-conditioned spaces due to lower heat generation;
and their longer life considerably reduces maintenance.
The incandescent lamp provides a compact, highbrightness source of light which can easily be directed by
a small, simple luminaire. This feature makes the
incandeacent lamp superior for spot and detail illurnin*
tion. It operates readily on either &C or d-c supplies.
It is less sensitive to ambient temperatures than other
light sources and, consequently, is preferred where
illumination is required in severe hot or cold temperatures, i.e., refrigerated spaces, weather locations, detail
lighting for boiler gages, etc. Incandescent lamps are
the most practical for minimal illumination requirements, such as small locker rooms and indicator lights.
The high-intensity electric-discharge lamps, in general,
are compact, with high brightness sources and have an
even higher luminous efficacy and a longer l i e than the
fluorescent. %lost of these lamps have an acceptable
color of light-----.__
W w o r k areas, such-aScZF6 KoIds,"aeEk -'
fEGIh$tTng, and engine~ooni~;but-arenot consiaered-~ ~ e ~ T o ~ 5 E 5 a T l J m m m - ~ ~ M
color -rendition. .Their opertttion 'and maintenance
ecGmYS-eGen more pronounced than for the fluore* .
cent. Their long lamp -life, ranmgto 24;MlU-%r and
45i%t,er1 makes them an ideal lamp for fixtures mounted
high on masts and kingposts and other locations not
easily accessible. The problem of relamping is reduced
such that the maintenance for this type of fixture is
practically negligible. Of the high-intensity electricdischarge lamps, the mercury-vapor is most acceptable
for shipboard use. For certain applications, supplementary instantaneous lighting may be necessary since,
in the event of power failure, instantaneous relighting is
not accomplished by electric-discharge lamps. The use
of some of these lamps is limited due to certain hazardous
characteristics (lamps containing sodium may cause a
fire when broken on a wet surface). Serious corrosion
condition8 may also result if the mercury from a ruptured
mercury-vapor lamp comes into contact with aluminum.
Even with these limitations, however, the mercury-vapor
lamp is finding its rightful place on shipboard.
Lighting fixtures may glso be identified according to
their application; i.e., cedi% lights (located overhead in
ceiled spaces), deck fixtures (located overhead in
unceiled spaces), bulkhead Mures, detail lights (desk,
berth, mirror, etc.), floodlights, navigational lights, and
I
miscellaneous lighting fixture4 --'%Sa*-faclr
baiic types of fixture enclosures for
shipboard use: watertight, dripproof, explosion-proof
and nonwatertighi--Waterti@itTiiiiipment is installd
b r d - ~ p t t . ~ e ~ Wwould
i ~ i tbe exposed to seas, splashing,
or severe moisture conditions, and for all installations in
the weather. Dripproof equipment is installed in the
% _
MARINE ENGINEERING
overhead in other wet or damp locations. Explosionproof equipment is installed in all areas that are subject
to volatile gas accumulations; this equipment is so
constructed that an explosion of a specified vapor
within the equipment will not cause the ignition of the
volatile atmosphere surrounding it. Nonwatertight
equipment is used where moisture and volatile gases are
not problems.
5.3 Passenger Stateroom Lighting. General illumination is provided for passenger staterooms by direct
or indirect lighting supplemented by b m l i g h t s ,
mirror lights, table lamps, desk lights, bracket lamps, etc.,
to s G t 3 h e =gement
%fTGmiture and decorative
scheme. The trend is to the use of fluorescent coves,
which may be combined with curtain valance lighting
and incandescent down lights.
A berth light, either separate or incorporated in a table
lamp, is provided a t the head of each berth or bed. It
should provide adequate light for reading but avoid
annoyance to occupants of other berths in the room.
Illumination for grooming at the dresser may be provided by bracket lamps on each side of the mirror, table
lamps on each end of dressers, or by a mirror light
recessed in the ceiling. These lights should be located
or arranged for best illumination of the person seated at
the dresser.
I n bathrooms, general illumination is provided by one
or more ceiling fixtures, with one or more mirror lights
provided for each mirror. In small baths, where the
mirror light provides the required level of general
illumination, the ceiling lights are omitted.
A receptacle is provided at each dressing table and a t
each lavatory for the convenience of the passengers.
5.4 Officers' and Crew Quarters. Ceiling fixtures
in the messrooms, lounges, recreation rooms, offices, and
staterooms of the officersand crew usually are fluorescent
with diffusing lenses. Berth, lavatory, table lamps, and
desk lights are provided to suit furniture arrangements.
Receptacles are installed at the lavatories, desks, and
also for bracket fans when required.
The toilet and shower spaces are illuminated by a
ceiling light and a mirror light at the toilet case. I n small
spaces where the mirror lights will provide the required
illumination, the ceiling lights are omitted.
5.5 Passage Lighting. I n ceiled passageways, fixtures are usually fluorescent of the cornice type with
concealed wiring. In unceiled passages, a similar type
of fixture located on the bulkhead below interferences
and angled to illuminate the center of the passage should
be used. Passage lights are spaced from 7 to 9 f t apart
and a light iii-IoCded'at the-interie6tlrdn+ofathwar2ship
and fore-and-aft passages. Receptacles spaced about
40 f t are provided in passages for the attachment of
vacuum cleaners and floor polishers.
5.6 Public Space Lighting. Architects and interior
decorators generally design the passenger spaces, including the selection of furniture and fittings. They also
determine the general character of the lighting installation and the type of fixtures to be used. The electrical
designer is responsible for the detail $esign of fixtures, as

desired by the decorator, in accordance with sound
engineering principles and for their suitability for marine
installation with respect to rigidity, accessibility for
servicing, ample ventilation, and adequate intensity of
illumination.
For illumination of the lounges, smoking room, dining
saloon, and similar spaces, including adjacent foyers and
passages, established practice favors simplicity with
dependence on murals for decoration and with totally
indirect trough or cove lighting arranged to provide
adequate general illumination and to accentuate the
decorative features. If direct illumination is provided,
the detail design is determined by the fixture manufacturer's specialists in interior decoration, but all fixtures
must be checked carefully by the electrical designer for
compliance with marine practice.
Special fixtures& public spaces include desk lights,
table lamps, and floor lamps which are usually provided
with built-in switches.
Illuminated signs are provided on each deck a t passenger stairways and elevators for identification of public
spaces, and for guidance of passengers to the debarkation
decks in event of an emergency. Illuminated signs also
are provided for all public toilets. When a toilet
entrance is located in an athwartship passage, an
additional sign is installed at each end in the main fore
and-aft passages.
Receptacles are provided, when desired, in floors or
baseboards for lamps and vacuum cleaners. Depending
on conditions, floor receptacles may be of the shallow
type with the box for the fitting and conduit for wiring
imbedded in the plastic floor covering, or they may be of
the deep type with the box extending through the deck
for wiring below.
5.7 Commissary Space Lighting. Careful consideration should be given to the illumination required for the
preparation and inspection of food. General illumination
for galleys, pantries, and service areas is provided by
overhead flush-mounted dripproof fluorescent fixtures.
Incandescent lights are installed under the exhaust hoods
for the illumination of the ranges, griddles, etc. These
fixtures must be constructed to withstand the intense
heat from the range tops. Refrigerated spaces are
lighted by guarded watertight deck fixtures controlled
by a switch located within the space near the door. A
fixture with a red globe, wired in parallel with the
refrigerated space lights, is installed outside the door to
show when the lights inside the compartment are "on".
5.8 Hospital Lighting. General and detail illumination for the hospital space is installed similar to a crew
stateroom. For vessels having an operating room, a
special operating light (or lights) is provided over the
operating table; and all electrical equipment installed less
than five feet above the deck must be explosion-proof.
The Coast Guard rules should be reviewed to determine
additional requirements as may be applicable to operating
room installatibns.
5.9 Workshop Lighting. Illumination should be
637
ELECTRIC PLANTS
concentrated over the workbenches, machines or other

areas where close visual tasks are performed. The
lighting fixtures should be so located that the work area
is not shadowed by the workman. Incandescent machine
tool lights are also provided on lathes, drills, etc. Where
fluorescent lighting is used in workshops having rotating
machinery, altkrnate fixtures should be connected to
different phases to prevent a stroboscopic effect.
5.10 MachinerySpace Lighting. The general illumination in machinery spaces is usually supplied by multilamp fluorescent deck fixtures utilizing 20- or 40-watt
lamps controlled at the distribution panel. The location
and spacing is generally dictated by interferences with
pipes, vents, and other obstructions. Fixtures should
be mounted as high as practicable to give good coverage,
but they must be accessible for cleaning and replacement
of lamps. Where necessary to avoid interference or
shadows, the fixtures are stooled down from the deck.
The fixture supports must be designed to avoid vibration
and must be rigidly braced. The general illumination is
supplemented by&--)-fi$t guarded watertight fixtures
located as required by the arrangement of the space.
This supplementary illumination is particularly necessary
in the bilges and for gages, oil sight-flow glasses, and
similar fittings.
Switchboard illumination must be designed carefully
to provide adequate light for the reading of instruments
without reflection or glare. A continuous inverted
a
trough with a line or lines of fluorescent lamps
frosted glass cover provides ideal illumination.
Auxiliary machinery spaces, such as compartments for
the steering gear Or
generally are lighted
guarded waterti%ht incandescent fixtures'
fluorescent fixtures are used if the spaces are heated.
Watertight receptacles, or combination switches and
receptacles, are provided in main and a~xiliah'mach3inery
spaces for the attachment of portable lights and tools.
I n the efigine room, receptacles are spaced about 40 to
50 f t apart, and in the smaller spaces at least one double
receptacle is installed.
5.1 1 Cargo Hold Lighting. There are two concepts
for cargo hold lighting. I n one the illumination is
provided by portable "cargo clusters' only; each cluster
consists of a fitting accommodating from one to eight
incandescent lamps, installed in a plastic or steel bowl
reflector, and protected by a wiremesh guard. Receptacles for the attachment of these portable fixtures are
installed a t each cargo hatch. The second, and more
prevalent, concept is to have permanently installed
fixtures for general illumination supplemented by cargo
clusters as discussed in the first concept.
Where lighting fixtures are installed on the deck over
for general illumination, they should be installed between
the deck beams or adjacent to the deep beam surrounding the hatches, where they are more readily protected
from damage. By providing the fixtureg with resilient
mounts, they are further protected from possible
damage due to shock from heavy cargo dropped on the
deck above, from shifting cargo caused by heavy seas,

and from rough cargo handling.
To reduce theft losses, the fixtures in cargo holds and
other spaces accessible to casual laborers should be
protected by guards requiring special keys or wrenches
for removal, and receptacfe caps should be of the
hinged type.
Watertight q u b l e receptacles, usually two at each
hatch, are provided for the connection of portable lights
for use in cargo holds and on the deck in the vicinity of
cargo hatches.
5.1 2 Weather Deck and Caw0 Handling Lighting*
Fixtures for open decks are required to be of watertight

c o n s t ~ ~ t i o nOn
. Passenger promenade decks, they are
U S U ~ ~ deck
~ Y
fixtures ~ n s i s t i n g of a screwed type
holophane or a frosted globe and a cast bronze body
without a guard- Else\vhere, they may be standard
guarded, watertight deck or b u l k h e a d - t ~ ~fixtures.
e
Exterior lights visible from ahead should be shielded.
Lights on the navigating bridge deck and in other areas
which cause interference to navigation should be controlled by switches located in the wheelhouse.
Portable floodlights, with local control, are provided
PO& and starboard to illuminate the gan&cwaYs. They
should be mounted on brackets that are so constructed
that they may be s w n g outboard and locked in place
for overside lighting.
-lighting of the oa'g0,-:handling gear and the
sumunding deck, watertight floodlights, usu"~ of
309- to 500-watt rating, are permanently mounted high
o ~ m ~ O r - E n g p o s t sThe
. lights and particularly
the mounting supports must be of rugged design to suit
the exposed location. The lights are ordinarily not
be set and secured in the position
adjustable and
which directs the beam to best advantage.
0, boat decks, lights are provided to facilitate the
loading and lowering of lifeboats. These should be
wide-beam 500-watt incandescent watertight floodlights
located on the rail or on a vertical pipe stanchion between
each pair of adjacent boats. ~h~ mounting arrangement should permit turning the floodlight inboard for
deck illumination or outboard and vertically downward
to light the water alongside. A quick-release clamp is
pmvide&to secure the light in any position.
For identification purposes, the owners usually require
floodlights for illumination of the smokestack insignia on
each side. Vessels on regular passenger runs may have
the name boards lighted for identification and for the
.
convenience of the public&The trend is to the use of electric-discharge mercuryvapor floodlights for all open-deck applications except
for lifeboat handling.
5.13 Navigational Space Lighting. When the ship
is underway at night, all lights provided for general
illumination in the wheelhouse and all exposed lights in
the forward part of the vessel are extinguished for better
vision of the navigating officers. Any illumination that
would be a detriment to navigation must be properly
controlled.
J
MARINE ENGINEERING
ELECTRIC PLANTS
In the wheelhouse, only lights built into the binnacle,

telegraphs, and other necessary instruments remain
lighted. The character and intensity of these lights
should be such as to permit reading the instrument
without interference with outside vision. A shaded
light controlled by a switch is provided over the chronometer box t o illuminate the faces of the chronometers
when reading is necessary.
I n the chart room there should be provided over the
chart table one or two bulkhead-mounted adjustable arm
type fluorescent desk lights fitted with a switch and a red
filter. The arrangement should be such that the lights
can be moved in a horizontal plane over the entire table
for intense lighting of any portion. The log desk in the
wheelhouse should have a similar light.
5.14 Navigation and Signaling Lights. All vessels
must be equipped with running and signal lights in
compliance with applicable International and Inland
Rules of the Road as enacted into law by the United
States Congress. The United States Coast Guard
publication "CG-169 Rules of the Road, InternationalInland" provides detailed requirements regarding these
lights. All fixtures are watertight, substantially constructed of corrosion-resisting material, and are fitted
with Fresnel lenses.
Navigation and signal lights fitted on ocean-going
vessels are listed in Table 3. A typical arrangement of
navigation and signal lights for a cargo vessel is shown in
Fig. 15.
The side lights are located port and starboard on the
navigating bridge level so that each is visible at a
distance of at least 2 miles on its respective side from
directly ahead to 22.5 deg abaft the beam. These

lights are fitted with inboard screens projecting at least
3 f t forward from the lights so as to prevent these lights
from being seen across the bow.
The masthead and range lights are identical and
screened so as to show forward through an arc of 225 deg;
that is, to 22.5 deg abaft the beam on either side. These
lights are located usually one on the forward mast and
one on the after mast, in a line with and over the keel
so that the forward light (masthead) is a t least 15 f t
lower than the after light (range) and visible at a distance
of at least 2 miles. The horizontal distance between the
two lights must be at least three times the vertical
distance between the lights. For an on-coming vessel
the alignment of masthead arid range lights shows the
course, and the color of the visible side light indicates
whether itwill pass to starboard or port. If both side
lights are visible, the vessel is coming head-on.
The stern light is located on the centerline at the
ship's stern and is screened so as to show aft through an
arc of 135 deg (67.5 deg to port and starboard of the
centerline); it must be visible from a distance of at least
2 miles.
The forward anchor light is located at the bow of the
vessel and at least 20 ft above the hull; the after anchor
light is located near the stern at a height not l e ~ sthan
15 f t lower than the forward anchor light. Both lights
are required to be visible all around the horizon at a
distance of at least 3 miles. The forward light is usually
permanently mounted on top of the jack staff and the
after light on top of the ensign staff.
The not-under-command light installation consists of
two lights located in a vertical line, one over the other,
not less than 6 f t apart and visible all around the
horizon at a distance of at least 2 miles. These lights
Table 3 Navigation and Signal Lights on Oceangoing Ships are normally portable but may be permanently installed.
The towing light installation in accordance with
International Rules consists of two lights located in a
vertical line with the masthead light, one over the other,
not less than 6 f t apart and screened to show forward
green
112.5
Starboard side
Port aide
112.5
red
through an arc of 225 deg (22.5 deg abaft the beam on
225
clear
JMasthead
either side). On tugboats and other vessels expected to
225
clear
Range
operate frequently with a tow, thege lights are installed
135
clear
ustern
360
clear
Forward anchor
permanently; otherwise they are portable.
After anchor
360
clear
The running lights (masthead, range, stern, and side)
Wot under command
360
red
must be constructed so as to have a backup light in event
225
Towing
dear
NAVIGATION SEARCHLIGHT
-STERN
LT.
1=.---RANGE
LT.
NOT-UNDER-COMMAND
----S I G N A L SEARCHLIGHTS (BRIDGE WINGS)-'
MASTHEAD LT.
LTS.
LTS.l
PORTa
~
~ STBD.
Fig. 15 Typical arrangement of navigation and dgnal llghh f a a cargo vessel
of failure of the primary light. One of the two methods

used for complying with this requirement is the use of a
bi-filament lamp in a single-compartment fixture. The
other method is the use of a two-compartment fixture
with a single-filament lamp in each compartment. The
latter method is considered the most dependable and is
the most commonly used. The signal lights (anchor,
not-under-command, and towing) are singlecomparb
ment with a single-filament lamp. Each compartment
of single and two-compartment fixtures is fitted with a
No. 14 AWG &conductor flexible cable having a 3point plug for attachment to its respective lighting
supply receptacle. These plugs and receptacles should
be of a unique design to preclude their use for other
purposes.
Vessels equipped with a steam whistle are usually
provided with a whistle light to illuminate the steam
released when operated.
In addition to the foregoing, tank vessels are required
to display a red warning light during transfer of bulk
cargo; this light should be located above the wheelhouse
so as to be visible on all sides.
The exact location of running and signal lights and the
provision of mounting arrangements, screens, and rigging are generally the responsibility of the hull designer.
5.15 Navigating and Signal Light Controls. A
navigating and signal light panel is installed in the
wheelhouse for control of all running and signal lights.
This panel combines an automatic or semiautomatic
telltale navigating light section for audible and visual
alarm and' control of the masthead, range, side, and stern
lights and a signal light section for control of the anchor,
not-under-command, and towing lights. The navigating light section is arranged to indicate failure of each
primary lamp or filament and is provided with a switch,
either automatic or manual, for transfer to the secondary
lamp or filament. The signal light section is arranged
only for "on-off" operation of the individual light supply
circuit.
5.16 Signaling Lights and Searchlights. A daylight
signaling light is required on all ocean and coastwise
self-propelled vessels over 150 gross tons and on tankers
over 150 gross tons that are engaged on international
voyages. It may be either a portable hand-held type, a
permanently fixed and wired lZinch unit mounted on
top of the wheelhouse, or a semi-fixed 12-inch unit with
arrangements for quick mounting and electrical connections at either wing of the navigating bridge. The
portable unit may be complete with a self-contained
battery or energized from a special low-voltage receptacle.
Searchlights, as such, are not required by the regulatory rules and are installed only when requested by the
owners. When requested, u+ly an l&in. incandescent
searchlight is installed on the top of the wheelhouse with
manual control of train and elevation from within the
wheelhouse. ~p"on-offn switch would be located near
the operating point.
Ships traversing the Suez Canal are required by the
Suez Canal Authority to have mounted over the bow a
searchlight with a special diffused beam to illuminate the
banks of the Canal. Normally, this light is rented from
the Canal Authority and is energised from a special
receptacle located at the bow.
5.17 Bmcket Fans. Bracket fans have become
obsolescent in living areas due tq the extensive use of air
conditioning; however, they are used in spaces not air
conditioned mch as galleys, pantries, laundries, workshops, and the wheelhouse.
Bracket fans are either 12 in. or 16 in. and of the oscillating, 3-speed marine type. Mounting on thin partition
bulkheads, where vibration may result in objectionable
noise, should be avoided. Receptacles are provided for
each fan and are located so that the portable cable
length is minimal.
5.1 8 Wiring Appliances. The bodies of watertight
fixtures and the special mounting boxes of other fixtures
are used for wiring connection boxes as far as circumstances permit. Additional branch boxes are provided
where necessary. For exposed wiring, they should be of
watertight or nonwatertight type as required, and
surface mounted. I n ceiled spaces, they may be flush
mounted with sheet metal covers if the decorative
character of the space permits; otherwise, they should
be installed behind removable panels for accessibility.
Switches and receptacles in public spaces, and living
areas in general, should be of standard commercial type
in the smallest enclosure obtainable; the depth, in particular, is limited. Switch and receptacle plates are usually
of a standard sise but may be a special narrow type to
fit on joint strips and door frames. They may be of
brass or aluminum suitably finished, or plastic material.
The mounting boxes for switches should be of adequate
size for wiring and are provided with arrangements for
clamping the entering cables. Specially designed
boxes to suit conditions may be required. In spaces
requiring watertight installation, the appliances should
be-of the standard marine h t e a i h t tGe.
Where aluminum boxes are used, particularly in the
weather, care should be taken in their mounting to
avoid the possibility of deterioration through electrolysis.
640
ELECrRlC PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
Section 6
Lighting and Power Distribution
6.1 General. Energy for lighting and power loads
is supplied from the ship service generators (through
their associated switchboard and via the ship service
distribution system) or from the emergency generator or
battery (through the emergency switchboard and via
the emergency distribution system). Normally, the
emergency switchboard and the emergency distribution
system are energized through a bus tie from the ship
service switchboard. If the ship service power fails, the
emergency distribution system is automatically transferred-fromits normal source to the emergency generator.
Subsection 3.7 contains details regarding this automatic
transfer.
There are many different arrangements for distributing power to the various types of electrical loads installed
on shipboard. Figures 16, 17, and 18 are typical
generator and bus tie diagrams for a tanker, a dry cargo
or containership, and a large passenger vessel, respectively. It should be noted that these diagrams are
typical in layout and should not be considered as being
restrictive or fixed for any type of vessel.
On large passenger vessels two or three sub-distribution, or "load-center" switchboards are provided for
lighting and power distribution. Generally, one will be
located in the forward part of the vessel, one aft and, if
the size of the vessel warrants, a third will be amidship.
Each should be centrally located regarding the loads
supplied. Each of the load-center switchboards is
supplied from the ship service switchboard by a bus
feeder, as shown by Fig. 18. This arrangement is much
more economical than providing numerous long feeders
from the ship service switchboard to all parts of the
vessel.
Each load-center switchboard should be installed in a
suitable compartment. These compartments usually
serve also as centers of electrical serviceand maintenance,
and each may be provided with a workbench and with
bins 6nd a locker for spare lamps, fuses, and other
electrical supplies.
6.2 Lighting Distribution. The lighting bus of each
distribution switchboard is supplied by a threephase
transformer bank; each bank consists of three 450/12U-
volt singlephase transformers connected delta-delta.

In some installations that use rapid-start (without
starters) fluorescent lamps, the secondary of the transformer bank is wyeconnected, in lieu of delta-connected,
re to
with the neutral-_grou
ensure reliab6tarting o
All lighting distribution panels are supplied by threephase feeders from the lighting bus of the applicable
distribution switchboard. These panels are arranged
for a three-phase supply and singlephase distribution.
The single-phase loads are connected to the threephase
aupply bus so as to ensure approximately balanced
loading per phase.
a. Lighting Feeders. All ship service lighting requirements are supplied by feeders from ship service
distribution switchboards through lighting distribution
panels. In general, it is economically good practice to
limit the load supplied by each lighting feeder to less than
100 amps, so that the feeder may be supplied from its
bus through a 100-amp circuit breaker.
At least two feeders are provided to senre the lighting
requirements of each machinery space.
Separate feders are provided for lighting in cargo

spaces. One feeder is usually provided for each cargo
hold so they can be disconnected at the switchboard
when the vessel is a t sea, thus eliminating the possibility
of electrical fire hazards in thpse unmanned spaces.
Separate feeders are provided as necessary to supply
all lighting requi7ements in working and living areas not
covered in the foregoing.
For passenger vessels that are subdivided into zones
by fire-screen bulkheads, separate feeders are provided
for each zone as necessary to supply the lighting requirements between adjacent fire-screen bulkheads.
Ship service feeder and emergency feeders that supply
the same or adjacent areas sxould be routed so as to be
separated as widely as practical to minimize the possibility of damage to both feeders from the same casualty.
q e based on 100 percent of
Lighting. feeder c-a,b&-..ggs
the total connected load plus t6e +errqge-iF,tive circuit
load for each spare switch or circuit breaker on the panel
being supplied.
b. Location of Lighting Panels. For machinery
spaces, the ship service lighting panels are usually
/
CIRCUITS TO INDIVIDUAL
LIGHTING LOAD CENTER
FWD CARGO HOLDS
3 0 . 4 5 0 / 1 2 0 VOLT
TRANSFORMER
LOADS AS
REQ'D
1
I
--
LOADS AS
REQ'D
INTERLOCK
TO CARGO H O ~ D
LTG
PANELS AS REQ'D
LIGHTING
AFT CARGO
LOADHOLDS
CENTER
-- -
---
I
I 2 0 VL
!T
EMERGENCY BUS
4 5 0 VOLT EMERGENCY BUS
--
--
LOADS AS
REQ'D
L REQID
o A m
L,
icLonos As R E Q Q ~
EMERGENCY SWITCHBOARD
2s
!
I
I
I
II
90
I
_1
SHORE POWER
TERMINALS
EMERGENCY SWITCHBOARD
3 0 , 4 5 0 1 1 2 0 VOLT
TRANSFORMER
II
120 VOLT BUS
/ - r e
-+-+TO CARGO HOLD LTG

PANELS AS REQ'D
CIRCUITS TO INDIVIDUAL LOADS
AS REQ D
AND DI$TRIBuTIoN PANELS
- - --- I
,---A
-AS REQ'D
120 VOLT BUS

120 VOLT MAIN BUS
--
4 5 0 VOLT MAIN BUS
--
4 5 0 VOLT BUS
- ---
. ----
SHIP SERVICE SWITCHBOARD
SHIP SERVICE SWITCHBOARD
Rg. 16 Typical generalor and bur tie diagram f a tankers
230 VOLT BUS'
Fig. 17 Typical generator and bus tie diagran f a a dry cargo a containership
642
MARINE ENGINEERING
located on the main operating level, and where readily

accessible as typically shown in Fig. 3 of Chapter 18.
On some vessels these panels are located at the main
entrance to the space.
Panels for cargo lighting are usually located in cargo
handling machinery deckhouses so as to be accessible,
and so that the +igh+ing in each cargo hold may be
deenergieed when loading is complete. These panels
are not permitted to be located in the cargo holds. The
number of panels for cargo lighting depends on the size
and arrangement of the vessel; generally, one panel is
provided for each cargo hold.
The location of ship service lighting panels in paBsenger
and crew spaces is determined, to a degree, by the
structural and fire zone subdivision of the vessel.
Generally, there will be one or more panels on each deck
in each subdivision or fire zone; however, two or more
decks may be supplied by a single panel, if the arrangement permits. Each panel should be located as near as
practicable to the center of the areas served to limit the
voltage drop in the branch circuitsj panels are usually
installed on passageway bulkheads. In way of joiner
work they should be of the flush type.
I n public spaces the panels are located near the en-
ELECTRIC PLANTS
trance doors and where the operator can see the lights
controlled.
c. Lighting Branch Circuits. Lighting branch circuits may be 15-amp, 20-amp, or 30-amp capacities
depending on the specific application. Fifteen-amp
branch circuits are used for general lighting applications,
and each circuit is limited to a maximum connected load
of 12 amps (1380 watts) when wired with a No. 12 AWG
conductor. When wired w i t h u E G coii&ctors,
the maximum connected load is 880 wet&: - --Twenty-amp branch circuits are normally used to
supply only fixed nonswitched lighting fixtures for cargo
hold or deck lighting. Each circuit should be limited
to a maximum connected load of 16 amps and be wired
with not less than No. 12 AWG conductors.
Thirty-amp branch circuits are normally used to
supply only fixed nonswitched lighting fixtures having
lamp holders of the mogul (oversize) type or lamps
exceeding 300 watts. Each circuit should be limited to
a maximum connected load of 24 amps and be wired with
not less than No. 10 AWG conductors.
Appliance loads, heater loads, and miscellaneous small
motors utilizing lighting system voltage may be supplied
from lighting distribution panels. Each branch circuit
should be limited to a maximum connected load of 30

amps.
The connected load on a general lighting branch circuit
is based on the actual lamp (incandescent) sizw installed,
but not lei% than 50 watts per lamp unless the fixture
design does not permit the use of lamps having a higher
wattage than originally installed. The connected load
for circuits supplying electric-discharge type lamps
(fluorescent and mercury vapor) is based on the ballast
i n ~ u tcurrent for each fixture. Receptacle outlets
in'stalled for the convenience of the passengers or crew
are not included as a connected load.
Special lighting fixtureshaving a large number of lowwattage lamps are supplied by a three-phase circuit
when the total load of the fixture exceeds 12 amps. The
supply circuit is controlled only from the distribution
panel, and the current in any conductor is limited to
12 amps.
Overcurrent protection for lighting branch circuits is
limited to 10-amp fuses or Isamp circuit breakers for
the 880-watt circuits, I s a m p fuses or circuit breakers
for the 1380-watt circuits, and 20-amp and 30-amp fuses
or circuit breakers for the 20-amp and 30-amp circuits
respectively.
In general, lighting branch circuits in machinery
spaces are arranged with alternate groups of lights on
different branch circuits so that large areas wiU not be
B'A
1- EY
'
/3%450/120
VOLT
r-7~
CHARGER 1 i
put
in darkness by failure of a single branch circuit. In
I
r
TRANSFORMER
these spaces no individual switches are provided as the
SWITCH~OARO .
FWD SHIP SERVICE SWITCHBOARD
lights are controlled only by the panel switches.
4 51
0-0"
(20;;BUS
4 5 0 VOLT BUS
"
7 Each passenger stateroom and public space should be
supplied by at least two ship service lighting branch
circuits, so arranged that in event of failure of one
branch there will be adequate light to permit use of the
space.
The ceiling fixtures in each stateroom, berthing space,
storeroom, and similar small compartments are controlled
by a switch at the room entrance, and located about 4 ft
I .I . L
I
I
i
~
i
~
i
above the deck. Staterooms having more than one
I
I
-I
I
entrance door should have a switch at each door for
t
t
LOADS AS
control
of the ceiling fixtures. Berth, desk, lavatory,
IC LOADS
LOADS AS
LOADS AS 1 i?)
I
REO'D
AS REO'D'
REO'D
REO'D
and dreeaing table -lights are usually controlled by
I
I
individual switches mounted on the fixtures or located
near the fixture.
r--/30.450/120
VOLT, XFMR,
!
I
Separate branch circuits are provided exclusively for
passageway lighting. Also, the lights in each passage
should be divided between ship service branch circuits
and emergency branch circuits, such that normal and
emergency illumination requirements are satisfied.
Separate branch circuits are generally provided for
bracket fans; however, where relatively few widely
distributed fans are installed, they are supplied from
local lighting branch circuits.
Branch circuits should not be routed through firescreen or watertight bulkheads.
-.
Typical arrangements of lighting branch circuits for
L.
.
.
.
I
I
.
.
..
L.I
.
.1 I
.
..1 .
AFT LQhD CENTER SWBD
a
crew
stateroom and a passenger stateroom are shown
AFT SHIP SERVICE SWITCHBOARD
FWD LOAD CENTER SWBD
MIDSHIP LOAD CENTER SWBO
in
Figs.
19 and 20 respectively.
Fig. 18 Typical wmratw and bur tie diagram for Q large panengar v-l
6.3 Power Dirhibvtion. Ship servicQpower system
1
'
loads consist principally of motor-driven auxiliaries and

heating equipment, and are supplied either individually
or in groups by feeders from a ship service distribution
switchboard. Individud feeders are normally used to
energize large propulsion pbnt auxiliaries that are
located in the same space as the distribution switchboard, but may ,be used for large motors anywhere in
the vessel. Grouped loads are supplied by feeders
through distribution panels, these panels being centrally
located to the loads supplied.
a. Power Feeders. Separate feeders should be
provided to panels and group control boards serving
machinery space auxiliaries and refrigeration equipment
that are not supplied individually. Machinery space
ventilation fans, living and working space ventilation
fans, and cargo space ventilation fans should be supplied
by separate feeders. Each ventilation feeder circuit
breaker should be provided with a means of remote
control for deenergizing its feeder in case of fire; the
remote control device provided for deenergizing msr
chinery space ventilation feeders should be located in the
passageway leading to, but outside of, the machinery
space. For all other ventilation feeders, the remote
control devices are usually located in the wheelhouse,
but may be located in a space near the wheelhouse as
permitted by the regulatory rules. The means of remote
control for ventilation feeders,$onsists of a normally
closed switch which, when 'operated to the "stop"
position, deenergbes an undervoltage trip device on the
circuit breaker, thus tripping the circuit breaker. This
arrangement may be such as to trip several breakers
(feeding various ventilation feeders) at one common
trip switch. These switches are mounted in special
locked enclosures having glass fronts which must be
broken to operate the switch.
Separate feeders should be provided for galley
appliances, air heaters other than isolated units, and
each group of cargo handling equipment. Equipment
required to be operated when underway should not be
supplied from the cargo handling equipment feeders,
since these feeders are usually disconnected from the
Wribution switchboard when at sea. Windlass and
capstan motors may be supplied from these feeders if
convenient.
The steering gear should be supplied by two independent feeders, separated as widely as practical to reduce
the probability of 10- of power from a single casualty.
Both feeders are pormally applied from the ship service
distribution switchboard; however, if the capacity of the
emergency power source is adequate, one feeder may be
supplied from the emergency switchboard. The steering
gear distribution panel is arranged, through interlocked
circuit breakers, to connect each motor or appliance to
either feeder.
A separate feeder should be provided from the ship
service distribution switchboard to a shore connection
box. The shore connection box should be suitably
located for supplying power from shore to ship when
tied up at shore facilities.
'
644
ELECTRIC PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
BERTH LTS.
30 W EACH
FAN
75W
11
LEGEND
0 RECEPTABLE
X SWITCH
OQ DOUBLE RECEPTABLE K SWITCH, 3 WAY
Fig. 19 Typical lighting branch circuit for a crew stateroom
O< -SWITCH, 3 WAY

@ -RECEPTACLE
8 -CONNECTION BOX
Fig. 20 Typical lighting branch circuit for a pauemger stateroom
The minimum current-cawing capacity of power

system feeders to individual motors should be based on
a t least 125 percent of the motor full-load current.
In general, for feeders supplying a group of motors, the
feeder current capacity should be based on 125 percent
of the largest motor rating, plus the sum of the ratings of
all other motors, plus 50 percent of the rating of the
spare switches on the panel supplied. For feeders
supplying cargo handling equipment, workshop tools,
windlass, and capstans, refer to regulatory rules for

specific requirements in determining cable currentcarrying capacities.
The current capacity of galley panel feeders should be
based on 100 percent of the first 50 kw of load or one
half of the total connected load (whichever is larger),
plus 65 percent of the remaining connected load, plus 50
percent of the ratings of the spare switches. The current capacity of transformer feeders should be based on
100 percent of the rated primary and secondary currents.

Steering gear feeder current capacities should be based
on the total ratings of all equipment normally connected
to it that operate simultaneously.
b. Location of Power Panels. For mchiinery spaces,
the ship service power panels, including those for ventilation fans, are usually located on the main operating
level, so as to be readily accessible and central to the
auxiliaries supplied. Panels supplying cargo handling
equipment and cargo hold ventilation panels are usually
located in cargo handling machinery deckhouses. The
steering gear transfer panel is located in the steering
gear
- room.
Ventilation panels serving living and working spaces,
and general service panels are located as near as practical
to the loads supplied. Where the loads served are located
in a single compartment, the panel should be in the same
space.
Galley panels are located within the galley space or in
a passageway and adjacent to the galley entrance.
c. Power Branch Circuits. Separate branch circuits
should be provided for each motor having a full-load
current of 6 amps or more, and for each air heater
regardless of rating. With these exceptions, several
small loads, having a total rating not exceeding 7.5
amps, may be grouped and supplied by a branch circuit
through a subdistribution panel; the circuit conductors
should not be smaller than No. 14 AWG and should be
protected by a circuit breaker of not more than 15-amp
rating or fuses or not more than 10-amp rating. Also,
groups of loads not exceeding 15 and 20 amps respectively may be supplied by branch circuits as noted in the
foregoing, provided the circuit conductors are not smaller
than No. 12 and No. 10 AWG, and the overcurrent
protection is rated not over 15 and 20 amps respectively.
Receptacle outlets should not be supplied from these
branch circuits.
The current-carrying capacities of motor .branch
circuits should be based on at least 125 percent of the
motor full load; the carrying capacities of all other
branch circuits should b e based on a t least 100 percent
of the connected full load. All branch circuits should
be wired with not less than No. 14 AWG conductors.
Each branch circuit should be protected by a circuit
breaker, with thermal or magnetic trips, or by a fuse.
Since there are many different requirements applicable to
overcurrent protection for branch circuits, the regulatory
rules should be reviewed for each specific application.,
The magnetic instantaneous setting for motor branch
circuits .should be a t a higher value than the starting
current of the motor; for branch circuits supplying loads
through transformers, this setting should be higher than
the inrush current of the transformer.
Power branch circuit loads that require other than
normal ship service voltages are supplied either by
individual transformers for each load, or by a bank of
transformers in the feeder circuit just ahead of the
distribution panel. Typical loads of this type include
645
laundry equipment, galley equipment, and special

refrigerated containers. .
d. Special Features. Vent fans serving spaces that
are subject to carbon dioxide flooding should be arranged
to be deenergized when carbon dioxide is released into
the space as the carbon dioxide will otherwise be spread
to other regions of the ship. The means for deenergizing
the fan motors is a 'presstireoperated switch in the
carbon dioxide piping system. When the switch is
actuated, by relgase of the carbon dioxide, it may deenergize an uidervoltage trip device on the circuit
breakers supplying the fans involved, thus tripping the
circuit breaker and stopping the fan motors, or actuation
of the switch mav cause the fan motor control circuit to
be deenergized, thus stopping the fan motor. Also, a
similar emergency means of stopping fuel-oil service
pumps, fuel-oil transfer pumps, and forced-draft blowers
should be provided if the machinery space in which they
are located is subject to carbon dioxide flooding. Stopping these motor-driven auxiliaries would avoid the
possibility of fuel oil feeding the fire from a ruptured oil
line, and reduce the probability of the forced-draft
blower discharging the carbon dioxide from the space.
Circuit breakers supplying the fuel-oil service pump,
fuel-oil transfer pump, and forced-draft blower motors
should be provided with a means of remote control for
deenergising each motor in case of a fire in the machinery
space. This means of remote coiitrol may consist of a
normally closed switch which, when operated to the
"stopJ' position, deenergizes an undervoltage trip device
on the circuit breaker, thus tri$ping the circuit breaker.
This arrangement may be such as to trip each breaker
~
These switches are mounted
at one common t r i switch.
in special locked enclosures having glass fronts which
must be broken to operate them. The switches are
required to be located outside the machinery space and
may be located adjacent to the emergency stop switches
provided for machinery space ventilation fans.
The Coast Guard rules should be reviewed to determine the specific requirements, as may be applicable to
each vessel, regarding the following: watertight door
system, fire-screen door system, lifeboat winches,
steering gear, air heaters, motion picture projection
rooms, hospital operating room, and locations where
gasoline or motor fuel is carried in vehicles. These
requirements involve: types and location of equipments,
special codes that must be complied with, cable size and
overcurrent protection restrictions, and special features
for control circuits.
For a discussion regarding the automation of the
machinery space, includins bridge control of the propulsion plant, see Chapter 51.
On many vessels, an impressed current cathodic
protection system is provided to prevent corrosion of the
rudder, propeller, and the submerged hull. The
system supplies a low positive voltage to submerged
anodes from which current flows through the seawater
to the hull, the purpose being to suppress the normal
flow of small currents between areas of a submerged
646
ELECTRIC PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
hull so as to prevent corrosion. System components

usually include :
1 Hull-mounted reference electrodes, in quantity as
required, to provide the degree of protection desired.
2 Hull-mounted anodes, in quantity and location as
required, to provide the desired protection.
3 Controller, usually located on the operating level
in the main machinery space, to select, monitor, and
provide the proper signals to the power supply units for
the desired protection.
4 Power supply units, in quantity and location as
necessary, to provide the necessary regulated d-c power
to the anodes.
5 Propeller shaft grounding assembly to provide a
path of low electrical resistance from the propeller to
the hull.
6.4 Emergency Lighting and Power. Some form of
emergency lighting ordinarily is provided for every
vessel equipped with an electric lighting system. Exceptions include, (a) small passenger vessels that operate
only between sunrise and sunset, and (b) small passenger
vessels that operate not more than
ore
of
having their source of general lighti
the propulsion plant and located above the bulkhead
deck.
The temporary source of emergency power required
on large passenger vessels is of limited capacity and is
rated to supply only selected emergency loads, for a
short time, while a large-capacity final emergency source
is being started. J X e following loads are reqhired to be
energized from the tgmporary source when available:
1 Navigation lights.
2 Adequate number of lights in the machinery space
to permit the performance of essential operations and
observations under emergency conditions and to facilitate
the restoration of service.
3 Lighting for passageways, stairways, escape trunks,
passenger quarters, crew quarters, public spaces, machinery spaces, and work spaces adequate to permit the
passengers and crew readily to find their way to open
decks and to lifeboat embarkation and assembly points
with all watertight doors and fire-screen doors closed.
4 Illuminated signs bearing the word "exit" in red
letters installed as required so that the direction of
escape to the open deck is apparent (passenger vessels
only).
5 General illumination for safe operation of poweroperated watertight doors.
6 One or more lights in galleys, pantries, radio room,
steering gear room, emergency power room, chart room,
wheelhouse, crew's mess, and recreation rooms.
7 Lighting for boat and embarkation decks and
passenger assembly points for safe embarkation into
lifeboats.
8 Electric communication systems essential under
temporary emergency conditions and which do not
have an independent storage battery source of power.
9 Power-operated watertight door system.
10 Emergency loudspeaker system.
11 Fire-screen door holding and release system.

12 Supply to motor generator or other conversion
equipment when a temporary source of a-c power is
necessary for essential communication systems, emergency, or safety requirements.
The entire emergency load, consisting of the following,
is required to be supplied from the final source of
emergency power :
1 All loads energized from the temporary source.
2 Illumination for the safe operation of the lifeboat
and life raft launching gear and the lifeboats and life
rafts in process of and immediately after launching.
3 Charging panel of temporary emergency battery
and of starting battery for the diesel engine driving the
emergency generator.
4 One bilge pump, one fire pump, and one sprinkler
pump, if required to be supplied from the emergency
source.
5 Daylight signaling lights.
6 Smoke detector system.
I n addition to the aforementioned requirements,
regarding the loads supplied from the final source of
emergency power, the United States Coast Guard rules
recommend that the following loads, if installed, be
supplied from the normal emergency source when the
capacity and character of the emergency source permits:
Radio installation
Radio direction finder
Loran
,+A Radar plan position indicator
\g Gyrocompass
Depth sounder
9 Electric whistle and siren control
The emergency source of power is required to have
sufficient capacity to supply only those loads that are
required to have an emergency supply; however, nonemergency loads may be supplied from the emergency
source provided there is adequate capacity to supply all
of the loads that may be connected simultaneously.
The location of the emergency generating set and its
characteristics are described in Subsections 2.4 and
2.5, respectively. When the emergency power source
is a battery, its location requirements are the same as
noted for the emergency generator. Batteries used for
the emergency power source should have characteristics
as specified in the rules of the regulatory bodies. The
arrangement of the emergency switchboard, including
automatic transfer equipment, is discussed in Section
3.7b.
The requirements for emergency supply for various
types of vessels are included in the United States Coast
Guard rules. The Coast Guard rules are revised
periodically, but are typically as follows:
a. Passenger Vessels Over 65 ft in Length

1 I n ocean and coastwise service, the emergency
source should be a storage battery of sufficient capacity to
supply continuously the full emergency load for 36 hr, or
a diesel or gas turbine driven emergency generator with

capacity to supply continuously the full emergency load
for 36 hr and a temporary source of emergency power
consisting of a storage battery of sufficient capacity to
supply the "tem~orary"emergency load for not less than
hr. Arrangements must be provided for an automatic transferof the full emergency load to a battery
supply upon loss of the normal supply, or an automatic
transfer of the U t e m ~ o r a load
~'l
the battery
s uand
~ ~
automatic starting of the emergency
generator,
transfer of the full emergency load to the emergency
generator upon loss of the normal supply, as applicable.
2 In
than Ocean and coastwise service, for
vessels of 100 gross tons and Over, the
source
should be a diesel or a gas turbine driven emergency
generator or a storage battery of sufficient capacity
supply ~ontinuousl~
the full emergency load for 8 hr, or
twice the time of run, whichever is the smaller. Arrangements must be provided
automatic transfer of the
load to battery
upon loss of
supply, or automatic shrting ofthe emergency generator
and the transfer of the emergency load to the emergency
generator upon loss of normal supply, as applicable.
3 In other than ocean and coastwise service, for
vessels over 15 gross tons but less than 100 gross tons, the
emergency source should be a diesel or a gas turbine
driven emergency generator of a storage battery of
sufficient capacity to supply continuously the full
emergency load for 8 hr or twice the time of run, whichever is smaller. Arrangements must be provided for
either automatic (as just noted in a.2) or manual transfer
of the emergency load to the emergency source. Manual
transfer requires that only a single operation of an "onoff" switch will cause the emergency system to supply
its connected load. This "on-off" switch is located in
the wheelhouse or as necessary to be under the control
of the chief engineer.
b.
and
and Tank Ships
Se&?opeued
1 In all-waters service, for vessels of 1600 gross tons

and over the emergency source is the same as just given
in a.3 except that the emergency load is required to be
camed for 12 hr.
2 I n all-waters service, for vessels of 300 gross tons
and over, but less than 1600 gross tons, the emergency
source may be the same type as noted in a.3 or may be
relay-controlled battery-operated lanterns. The emergency source selected must have sufficient capacity to
supply the full emergency load for 12 hr or twice the
time of run, whichever is smaller. When batteryoperated lanterns are used for the aforementioned
emergency service, they are required to have rechargeable
batteries, incorporate an automitic battery charger that
w i l l maintain the battery in a fully charged condition,
and not be readily portable. Also, the minimum period
of operation of these lanterns may be less than 12 hr but
not less than 6 hr.
6.5
647
Emergency Distribution System
a. Lighting. In general, the emergency lighting

system forms a part of the ship servicelighting system and
is energized at all times when the passengers or crew are
aboard. Separate emergency lighting feeders are provided for machinery spaces, crew and passenger areas,
and lights controlled from the wheelhouse.
The machinery space feeder supplies only those emerlgency
~ , lights loc,ted in the machinery space; this rupply
is through a didribution panel usually located above the
operating l e e 1 and near the main entrance to the space.
Usually the crew and passenger area feeders supply
distribution panels suitably located for the control and
distribution of the emergency fights throughout these
areas. For passenger vessels subdivided into mnes by
firescreen bulkheads, a t least one emergency feeder is
provided to supply the lighting in each zone between
adjacent fire-screen bulkheads.
A separate feeder, supplying a panel in the wheelhouse,
is provided for emergency lights located in or controlled
from the
Loads supplied from this pane]
include the navigation light panel, signaling lights,
emergency lights on open decks, lifeboat lights, and chart
room lights. The navigation light panel is generally
supplied by a through feed, without protection, from the
wheelhouse emergency panel; but, as an alternative, the
navigation light panel, signaling lights, and lifeboat
lights may be supplied by separate feeders from the
emergency switchboard. I n addition, on vessels that
have two "islands" (e.g., those with midship and aft
houses), lighting for lifeboat-associated areas located
remotely from the wheelhouse "island" may be controlled from a central location within the remote "island "
in lieu of from the wheelhouse.
Floodlights for adjacent lifeboats should be supplied
by different branch circuits.
Emergency lighting fixtures usually are of the same
type as the ship service lighting fixtures installed in the
same spaces. I n public spaces where fixtures may
contain more than one lamp, only the necessary number
of lamps to give the required illumination are connected
to the emergency circuit.
For ready identification, all lighting fixtures on the
emergency system are identified by a metal tag stamped
with the letter E (in red) a t least % in. in height. This
tag is secured to the deck or paneling immediately
adjacent to the fixture and, for fixtures having lamps on
both the ship service and emergency circuits, an additional tag is secured to the emergency supply cable
within the fixture mounting box.
b. Power. Separate &ergency power feeders are
routed from the emergency switchboard to each power
system load individually. Only a limited number of
power system loads are required to have an emergency
supply and they are not centrally located with respect to
each other.
c. Communication and Alarm. It is general practice
to supply vital machinery space indicating, monitoring,
648
Table 4
Correction Factor for Cable Calculations
CABLE
AWG
POWER
FACTOR
OF LOAD
fl
No.
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
9.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
2
1
n
1.00
1 .OO
1.01
1.03
1 0.5
0.99
1.01
1.04
0.96
0.98
1.02
0.92
0.95
0 .gg
0.84
0.88
0.93
0.76
0.80
03 5
0.68
0.71
0.77
r nn
ELECTRIC PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
The percent voltage drop in 3-conductor, 3-phase

circuits 52,600 CM and smaller is
173 I R L
Voltage drop =
(2)
CMV
92.2' TO CALCULATED
-----LOAD
CENTER . 8 9 0 % DROP--
---
For 3-conduchr, %phase circuits 661400 CM and

larger the percent voltage drop is
173 I R L CF
Voltage drop =
(3)
CM V
L
and alarm loads from an emergency panel that is conveniently located on the machinery space operating
level. This panel is supplied directly by a feeder from
the emergency switchboard. Other communication and
alarm loads are supplied individually from the emergency
switchboard.
d. Electronics. Electronic loads are usually energized from an emergency panel, centrally located to these
loads, that is supplied by a feeder from the emergency
switchboard. Electronic loads include radio, radio
telephone, radio direction finder, loran, and depthsounding equipment. Radar equipment is usually
supplied directly from the emergency switchboard,
since this equipment often requires a power supply
voltage different from the remaining electronic loads.
e. General. The distribution panels used for emergency system distribution are of the same type as those
for the ship service distribution system.
Emergency system cables that are not required to
terminate at equipment located within machinery
spaces, uptakes, or casings should be routed to avoid
penetrating the boundaries of these spaces, and should
be kept clear of the decks and bulkheads forming these
boundaries.
Voltage drops in emergency circuits are calculated in
the same manner as for ship service circuits. For
lighting circuits the voltage drop from the emergency
switchboard lighting bus to the most remote fixture
should not exceed 3 percent. For all other circuits the
total voltage drop should not exceed 5 percent when
supplied from the main bus of the ship service switchboard through the bus tie to the emergency switchboard.
CM
V
CF
--
2.17AMPS
.#v
-"
.483%DROP
1-
-".178%
.--
".104%
-1-
-- -
.077%
'
.G8%
k---FIVE
5 0 WATT 115 VOLT LAMPS-CALCULATED VOLTAGE DROP . 8 9 0 % ' F 0 ~ LONGEST BRANCH CKTNOTE: 4 4 9 7 CM CABLE USED IN<,LIEU
OF 4 1 10 CM (NO.14 AWG)
SWITCHBOARD
120 VOLT SECTION
= current, amps
= resistance of conductor, ohms/CM-ft
(for
copper, R is nominally 12)
= single length of circuit, f t
= Area in circular mils of each conductor or total
area of conductors in parallel
= Circuit voltage
= Correction factor determined by system power
factor and cable constants (see Table 4)
a. Lighting Circuits. Lighting circuit wire sizes are

usually fixed by voltage drop; however, wire sizes of short
runs of feedersand mains, in combination, for such spaces
as engine and boiler rooms, may be determined by currentcarrying capacities.
The IEEE rules establish the maximum values of
current that may be carried by each size and type of
cable. In general, the voltage drop in any lighting
circuit should not exceed 3 percent from the distribution
sw,itchboard lighting bus to the most remote fixture.
In calculating the voltage drop for large lighting cables,
the correctionfactor, CF, in equation (3) may be
considyed as 1.00, since lighting loads consist generally
of incandescent lamps or high power-factor fluorescent
lamps. However, if a significant portion of the load
is low power-factor fluorescenh-hmps, a correction
factor should be used as noted for power system circuits.
Figure 21 shows a typical lighting branch circuit for
a passageway or cargo hold, with no subbranches and
with all outlets uniformly rated. It is assumed that this
branch has the greatest drop of any supplied by the
feeder under consideration. The percent drop indicated
for each section was calculated using equation (I), and
the total percent drop for the entire branch was determined to be 0.890 percent.
To determine the minimum s2e of the feeder conductors, the branch circuit percent drop is subtracted
6.6 Determination of Wire Size for Lighting and from 3.00, and the remainder is substituted in equation
Power Circuits. Classification society rules establish the (2). For the feeder shown in Fig. 21 the minimum CM
maximum voltage drop limits for various electrical is determined to be
circuits. .In order to determine that these limits are met,
cable voltage drop calculations are made for each circuit
sup~lying:power to electrical loads. The voltage drop,
inpe;ce&,-for a 2-conductor circuit (d-c or single-phase
The next larger size is No. 2 AWG, with a sectional area
a-c) can be computed as
of 66,400 circular mils, and would be the proper selection.
200 I R L
From
wire tables it may be noted that No. 8 AWG with
Voltage drop =
a sectional area of 16,500 circular mils, for rubber or
CM V
t
-
---- +
2.1 I % ALLOWABLE DROP

SIZE N0.2-AWG ( 6 6 , 4 0 0 CM)
In the foregoing equations:
I
R
120 VOLT. 3 p H FEEDER

~~AMPERES2 14'-0"-
2.17 AMPS
91'-0"TO LOAD CTRSELECTED BY INSPECTION
.878Yo DROP
Fig. 21
OTHER BRANCH CIRCUITS-I0 ACTIVE AND 2 SPARE WITH

TOTAL LOAD OF 61.83 AMPS AT 115 VOLTS INCLUDING THE
SPARE CIRCUITS (SPARE CKTS ARE AN AVERAGE OF ACTIVE
LOADS)
Typical lighting branch circuit for passageways and cargo holds
thermoplastic insulated cable, would be adequate if

current-carrying capacity instead of voltage drop
determined the cable size.
A shorter method of calculating the voltage drop in a
branch circuit is based on the assumption that the entire
circuit load is concentrated at the "load center" and the
fact that the approximate location of this point usually
can be determined by inspection of the circuit as drawn
on the deck wiring plan. In fixing the exact load center,
the load on each outlet as well as its location must be
considered; in other words, the load center is analogous
to the center of gravity of a series of weights of total
value equal to the load on the several outlets.
From an inspection of Fig. 21 it is evident that the
load center is near the third outlet, 91 f t from the panel.
Substitution of this number for L and the total circuit
current (2.17 amps) for I in equation (1) shows a drop
of 0.878 percent, which is within 0.012 percent of the
calculated value. Detailed calculations prove that the
load center is actually 92.2 ft from the panel and the
use of this value in equation (1) gives the precise drop.
Figure 19 shows a typical crew stateroom branch
circuit. The total branch circuit load is 465 watts;
convenience receptacles are not included in the total load.
All conductors are 4497 CM (Navy type cable). In
calculating voltage drop, the ceiling fixture loads should
be oonsidered as being at the respective switches. The
exact method of calculation shows the maximum drop
to be 1.65 percent at 91.8 f t from the distribution panel:
Assuming the load center to be at the second ceiling
fixture in the stateroom, the short method gives a drop
of 1.53 percent. The method of determining the size of
the feeder and the total drop to the switchboard would
be as described for Fig. 21.
4
Table 5 i$ a typical tabulation listing a lighting feeder
and the branches it supplies; it Also notes all circuit
characteristics including calculated percent voltage
drops and selected cable sizes. This type of tabulation
is prepared for the entire lighting system, and includes
every lighting feeder and branch circuit on the ship; the
complete tabulation is usually identified as the "list of

lighting feeders and mains. "
b. Power Circuits. In contrast with lighting conductors which are usually fixed by voltage drop, the size
of power conductors is almost invariably determined by
carrying capacity. As an example, assume that a 240volt d-c, ten-circuit power panel supplies a group of seven
motors, one of which is rated 50 hp, three at 25 hp, two
at 10 hp, and one at 5 hp. The three spare switches are
rated a t 100 amp, 70 amp, and 50 amp respectively.
The feeder length from the switchboard to the panel is
400 f t and the longest branch is 150 f t and supplies a
25-hp motor. The total motor current, including 125
percentvofthe largest motor full-load current, is approximately 596 amps and the allowance for the spare
switches is 110 amps; therefore the feeder rating should
be 706 amps. This is greater than the capacity of the
largest conductor usually installed; therefore each leg of
the feeder could consist of two 400,000 circular-mil cables
in parallel. The rated current of the branch serving the
25-hp motor is approximately 115 amps (125 percent of
the motor rating) and the branch circuit could be No. 00
AWG (133,000 circular mils) twin-conductor cable.
From equation (1) the voltage drop in the feeder is
Voltage drop
(200) (706)(12)(400)
(soo,ooo)(240)
3.53 percent
and the voltage drop in the branch circuit is

Voltage drop
(200)(115) (12)(150)
(133,000)(240)
1.29 percent
therefore the total drop ffum the switchboard is 4.82

percent. Lengths as great as those assumed in the
foregoing are seldom, if ever, encountered on an ordinary
ship; hence it is obvious that, as previously stated,
conductor sizes are usually determined by carrying
capacity rather than by voltage drop.
Nearly all merchant ships with an %C electric plant
utilize 450 volts as the generated voltage. The probability of conductor sizes being dictated by voltage
Table 6
L-Cene-tor No. l-nhip's

service
Yemore conneotionbox
-us tie to emergency d b .
Main wnd. oirc. pump no. 1
Main wnd. cim. pump no. 2
Main cond. cnda. pump no. 1
Main wnd. cuds. pump no. 2
Forced-draft blower no. 1
Forceddraft blower no. 2
Lube-oileervicepump no. 1
Fuel-oil service pump no. 1
Fuel-oil service pump no. 2
Aux. cond. circ. pump
Aux. cond. cnde. pump
Fire, bilge & olean bdllrat
pump
Panel P14 mech. aux.
1P14 Saltwater semce pump
no. 1
&PI4
Bilge & oily ballaat pump ,
no. 1
3P14 Engine room bilge
- Dump
.
no. 1
4P14 Bilge & ballaat priming pump
no. 1
5P14 Control air compressor
6P14 .LPsteam pen. feed pump
no. 1
7P14 36" main cond. ovbd. valve
8P14 Atmw. cleen draii tank
pump no. 1
9P14 28" main oond. high suotion
valve
10P14 Stsck vibrator (4)
-
1P15
2P15
8P15
4P15
5P15
6P15
7P15
8P15
,9P15
10P15
llP15
i2pi6
13P15
14P15
10" aux. SWsystem valve

Spare
Spare
Spare
Penel PI5 mmh. aux.
Saltwater service pump
no. 2
Bilga & oily ballaat pump
no. 2 .,'
~ - e robm bilge pump
no. 2
Bilge LbdlaBt priming
pump no. 2
Fuel-oil traafer DumD
Boiler cold s t a r t ~ u m i
Lube-oil pwiEer
28" mein dond. low suction
wlve
Freshwater tnrnefer pump
& priming Pump
6"6re. bilge &clean ballast
dichg. valve
F r d l w a k r DUmD no. 1
b h ~ a t ~priminp
pump
Spare
8-
PUIUP
DC
Hp
PF
Load
Workii
Load
CIB.
BKB.
21' 6" h t fr. 137 8 ,440-34
BBMOd
llP14
42P14
-PI4
14P14
AC
-AM-EBFull
Smam
Cm. BKB. LEAQTE,
E ~ M E A T ft
- --Cm.
MILE
AND
,-mA
21'6'' h t fr. 147 8

bridge dk. fr. 163 8 .
2000A
lw0A
250A
175A
175A
BOA
BOA
225A
225A
70A
40A
40A
30A
20A
8' 0" level fr. 134 8

8' 0" level fr. 138 8
8'0" level fr. 132 P
8' 0" level fr. 132 P
upper dk. fr. 148 8
upper dk. fr. 148 P
8' 0" level fr. 148 8
8' 0" level fr. 148 8
8' 0" level fr. 150 8
8' 0" level fr. 145 8
8' 0" level fr. 142 S
8' 0" level fr. 150 P 440-34
8' 0" level fr. '131 8 440-34
125A
250A
1,48)350.000M-T-350
-(8)350.000 ~WT-350
(3)400,000 3-T-400
350,000
TSMI
168,000
T-168
168,000
T-168
41,700
T-41
41,700
T-41
300,000
T-300
300.000
T-300
33,100
T-33
9,016
T-9
8,016
T-9
9,016
T-9
8,016
T-Q
83,700
250,000
T-83
T-250
8' 0" level fr. 143 P
440-39
40A
9,016
8' 0" level fr. 148 P
440-34
MIA
16,500
T-16
8' 0" level fr. 152 8
440-34
15A
4,487
T-4
8' 0" level fr. 153 P 440-34

8' 0" level fr. 143 8 440-34
15A
40A
4,497
16,500
T-4
T-16
8' 0" level fr. 151 P

8' 0" level fr. 136 P
440-34
440-34
30A
15A
8.016
4,497
T-9
T4
8' 0'' level fr. 132 S
44-34
20A
8,016
T-9
15A
15A
4,497
4,497
T-4
D-4
15A
15A
50A
15A
350A
4,497
T-4
400,000
T-400
40A
9.016
T-Q -
50A
16,500
T-16
8' 0" level fr. 133 8 440-34

21' 6" flat fr. 147 8 440-14
8' 0" level fr. 142 S
440-34
440-34
440-34
440-34
8' 0" level fr. 143 P 440-39
8' 0" level fr. 144 P
440-34
8' 0" level fr. 148 P
440-34
8' 0" level fr. 154 P
440-36
lWA
15A

8' 0" level fr. 150 P
21' 6" level fr. 147 P
8'0" levelfr. 148 S
440-34
440-34
440-39
440-34
l00A
lOOA
l00A
l00A
15A
BOA
15A
15A
8' 0" level fr. 135 9
440-34,
lOOA
15A
8' 0" level fr. 152 P
440-34
lOOA
70A
8' 0" level fr. 151 P

8' 0" level fr. 149 P
440-34
440-34
15A
30A
440-34
440-34
440-34
15A
90A
15A
L C A B7
~ % Vom ?BOP
SIQ
Feeder M ~ U L
Totd
A n e r s t o r No. 2-ahip's
VOLTS
LOCATIOH
Typical List of Power System Feeders and Mains
T-9
ELECTRIC PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
circuit protective devices, a fault-current analysis of

the entire electrical generating and distribution system
should be made. I n calculating the total magnitude of
fault currents, it is necessary to determine not only
the contribution of short-circuit current from the
generators, but also the contribution from motors
connected to the system. The contribution from
induction motors decays very rapidly; however, the time
of decay usually spans the time range of circuit breaker
operation and should be considered.
The fault-current analysis should be based on the
total number of generators, including spare units, that
may be operated in parallel, the number of motors
expected to be operating, and the reactance and resistance of cables and transformers in the circuit in question.
The currents obtained are an average of the maximum
asymmetrical rms currents of the three phases at %
cycle after the inception of the fault; these currents
determine the interrupting rating required for the
protective devices.
The value of fault current may be calculated from the
ex~ression
Short-circuit current = EnK
(4)
2,
where
Fig. 22
Ratio of average rms current in three phasos at one-half cycle to rms

value of symmetrical current
drop with this voltage is much less than that with the
previously discussed 240-volt d-c system; however, in
order $0 prove compliance with classification society
rules, all distribution circuits should be checked for
voltage drop.
Table 6 is a typical tabulation listing of a power feeder
and the mains it supplies. Table 6 also no$es circuit
characteristics including calculated percent voltage
drops, selected cable sizes, and the size and type of
circuit breaker and element for each main and the feeder.
This type of tabulation is prepared for each power
system circuit on the ship; the complete tabulation is
usually identified as the "power system ligt of feeders and
mains. "
6.7 Short-Circuit Analysis, and Selectivity and
Coordination of Circuit Protective Devices. The steady
growth in the use of electric power on merchant vessels,

with the resulting increase in the capacity of the generating plant, has resulted in a considerable increase in the
mag'njtude of possible short-circuit currents throughout
the electrical distribution system. To maintain continuity of electrical gervice, with the least possible
interruption from fault currents, it is necessary to
provide adequately rated circuit protective devicesproperly coordinated with each other-throughout the
distribution system. These protective devices are
usually circuit breakers; however, fuses may be used for
many applications.
To determine the proper selection and application of
En = rated line-to-neutral voltage of generator (260

volts for a 450-volt generator)
K = Asymmetry factor dependent on ratio of total
reactance to total resistance in cii-cuit (see
Fig. 22)
Zen = equivalent system impedance in ohms per phase
between point of fault and source of current
As an example, the following calculations are for a
shipboard electric plant with two 1250-kw, 450-volt,
%-phasegenerators operating in parallel, and an induction
motor load of 1800 amps a t the time of a fault. A
three-phase fault is assumed to occur on the generator '
switchboard main bus. System characteristics are:
gene~atorsubtransient reactance = 0.0285 ohms
= 0.0087 ohms
generator armature resistance
= 0.0002 ohms
generator cable reactance
= 0.0003 ohms
generator cable resistance
By combining the foregoing -values, the total resistance
and total reactance of one generator and its cable to the
**
switchboard main bus are:
resistance = 0.0090 ohms/phase
reactance = 0.0287 ohms/phase
For two generators operating in parallel, and including
generator cables, the impedance is
Zen = d(0.0045)~ (0.0143)2 = 0.015 ohms

The ratio of reactance to resistance is 3.18, and K, in
equation (4), as read from Fig. 22, is 1.06. Substituting
the values for K and Z,, in equation (4), gives the total
generator contribution to the fault:
Short-circuit current =
(260)(1.06)
= 18,373 amps
(0.015)
The average asymmetrical motor contribution to the

fault is equal to approximately 3.5 times the motor
current, which is (3.5) (1800) or 6300 amps. Adding the
motor contribution to the generator contribution gives
a total short-circuit current available a t the switchboard
main bus of 24,673 amps. This value is the minimum
interrupting rating for the circuit protective devices
installed on the generator switchboard.
Figure 23 shows maximum fault currents at different
points of the distribution system used in the previous
example.
The fault-current analysis should be extended to
include calculations of minimum fault currents for remote
points of the system to determine that a sufficient
current is availabwa mcure the proper tripping of each
_..-_---device. Under this condition, the smallest
protective
generator which can be connected to the system, with
negligible motor contribution, is used for the calculations.
Using the fault-current analysis as a basis for the
selection of protective devices, a sequence of circuitbreaker tripping can be determined that will isolate any
fault in the distribution system with a minimum interruption of power to other services. In the event of a
fault, the nearest protective device on the supply side
of the fault.should open to isolate the faulted circuit;
other protective devices on the supply side of the fault
should remain closed. All circuit breakers and fuses in
the distribution system should have an interrupting
rating equal to or greater than the available shortcircuit current a t its paint of application. Breakers
..___
.--trip devices should have a3hortequipped with selective
time fatlKggequal to or greater than the short-circuit
current at 'iis"point of application.
The basic selective overcurrent tripping characteristics used on marine circuit breakers are long delay,
short delay, and instantaneous. The long-delay element
provides overload protection and operates in seconds or
minutes a t low multiples of its coil rating; a breaker
having this type of overload protection should not be
applied above its continuous current rating to avoid
exceeding its thermal capacity. The short-delay element
operates in a few cycles and provides protection against
high values of fault curreht; this type of delay also
allows the circuit breakers connected in series to operate.
The instantaneous trip element introduces no intentional
time delay and may be used to provide short-circuit
protection to load circuits.
n
'
TWO 1250 KW, 4 5 0 V, 6 0 CPS GENERATORS
9
MAIN SWBD
24.700AMPS
SHORE SUPPLY
I)
,
'
ENGINE ROOM
VITAL AUXlLlARlESl
POWER PANEL\
16,000
r' AMPERES
UlAJ
Cr(n\
,
-
REFRIGFRATION
GROUP CONTROL
CENTER
, AMPERES
LIGHTING BUS\
1 1,000
AMPERES
EMER SWBO
17,000 AMPERES
I,
30,450/120 V
TRANSFORMER
\A
EMERGENCY LTG
BUS 5 , 0 0 0 AMPERES
Fig. 23
6'
I,
--
150KW 4 5 0 "
~OCP~,EMER
OlESE DRIVEN
GENERATOR
Fault currents at various points of o distrib~tionaystem
To properly determine circuit breaker selectivity, a set

of time-current curves should be prepared. These
curves should show the tripping characteristics for the
various types of circuit breakers involved, and also the
generator decrement curves. -Regulatory body rules require that the long-time
setting of the generator circuit breaker should not exceed
115percent of the full-load current of the generator. The
short-time setting of the generator breaker should be set
to trip a t the lowest values of current and time which
will coordinate with the trip settings of the distribution
system feeder breakers. Where three or more generators
are arranged for parallel operation, each generator circuit
breaker should be provided with an instantaneous trip
set a t a value in excess of the maximum asymmetrical
short-circuit current available from its associated
generator. Using the curve of the generator breaker as a
base, curves of the other breakers are added to ensure that
there is no overlapping of tripping characteristics, thus
establishing proper selectivity between circuit breakers.
Selective circuit-breaker operation should be provided
between the generator, bus tie, bus feeder, and feeder
protective devices. For vital services, selective tripping
should be extended to include feeder and branch circuits.
654
MARINE ENGINEERING
Section 7
Interior Communications
7.1 General. Interior Communications are those
means used for signalling or transferring information
from the source to one or nlore points by indicating,
recording, voice, or audible equipment. This includes
alarm systems, telephone systems, navigational sensor
systems, and elements of the ship's control systems.
The legal requirements stipulated by the U.S. Coast
Guard and the Federal Communications Commission
must be observed in the design and installation of these
systems.
The U.S. Coast Guard requires that certain critical
circuits be supplied with power from emergency or
battery sources and recommends that others be connected to the emergency supply if sufficient capacity is
available. These requirements lead to a variety of
supply systems. Generally, the IC loads associated
with the machinery space are supplied from a local IC
power panel with an emergency power feeder. Those
circuits associated with the wheelhouse are generally
connected to the emergency supply via an IC and
electronics panel located in, or in the vicinity of, the
wheelhouse. Unique systems, such as the gyrocompass,
may have a requirement for electrical power not available
from the ship's supply or the switchboard. In this case,
the equipment will include power supplies to convert
the ship's power to the required characteristics.
The interior communication circuits are normally
identified by alphanumeric symbols similar to those
adopted by the U.S. Navy and IEEE. Symbols identify
the circuit primary function and simplify references on
plans and correspondence.
Interior Communication systems can be classified as
indicating, alarm, communication, and control systems.
Each of these classifications and the types of circuits
which they include are discussed in the remainder of this
section.
7.2 Indicating Systems. Indicating IC systems
transmit status information to areas of control aboard
the ship. The receiving device may be a dial, a light, a
digital display, or an input to a unit of control equipment. Indicating systems are also considered to include
the sensors, such as the underwater log or gyrocompass
initiating the information. Typical indicating systems
are as follows:
a. Refrigeration Temperature Indicating System
(Circuit RT). Vessels with refrigerated compartments
are required to have a refrigeration temperature indicatr
ing system which indicates the temperature maintained
within the refrigerated spaces. Temperature sensors,
strategically placed in the areas, are connected to
indicators located on an indicator panel outside the area.
Variations to the basic system consist of added alarm
devices to alert the crew before damaging temperatures
are reached. Recorders can also be provided to give a
printed record of temperature readings versus time.
b. Shaft Revolution Indicator System (Citcuit K).

The shaft revolution indicator system indicates the
direction of rotation, speed in rpm, and the cumulative
revolutions of the propeller shaft. A transmitter is
coupled to each shaft. Its output is generally fed into a
combination revolution counter and rpm and direction
indicator located in the machinery space and into rpm
and direction indicators located in the wheelhouse and
other miscellaneous spaces as desired.
c. Bearing Temperature Monitoring System (Circuit
TM). The bearing temperature monitoring system is
used to continuously monitor the temperature of selected
bearings in the main propulsion plant. A sensor is
installed for each bearing to be monitored, and is
electrically connected to the monitoring alarm and
indicating equipment incorporated in a status panel
located in or near the ship's control panel.
d. Rudder Angle Indicator System (Circuit N).
The rudder angle indicator system provides a means of
indicating, a t remote stations, the angular position of
the rudder; the system normally consists of a waterproof
enclosed transmitter, located in the steering gear room,
and waterproof enclosed indicators, located in the
wheelhouse and other selected stations.
The transmitter is a synchro generator and should be
connected to the rudder post through a mechanical
linkage such that it will transmit the actual angular
position of the rudder to each synchro indicator. The
indicators generally consist of a dial containing a fixed
amidship line and a moving pointer deflected left or right
of the line to indicate left or right rudder angle.
The system supply is usually 115 volts, 60 cps, single
phase, AC, and is often supplied from the emergency
switchboard.
e. Pyrometer Indicator System (Circuit PB). Boiler
flue temperatures are monitored by permanently
installed thermocouples mounted in the boiler uptakes.
Each thermocouple is contained in. a protective tubing,
and by means of a rotary selector switch it may be
connected to an indicator mounted locally and/or a t
the engineering operating station.
f. Salinity Indicator System (Circuit SB). The
salinity indicating systems provide a means of measuring
the degree of salt content of the w&er in potable water
systems and in boiler feed and condensate systems.
Separate systems are usually ~rovidedfor each application, one for each desalination plant and one for the
boiler feed and condensate system. Each system consists
of salinity cells with valve assemblies, in number as
required, and an indicator panel.
Salinity cells and valve assemblies are designed so that
the cells may be removed and replaced without interruption to a continuously operating piping system. T O
facilitate replacement and servicing, each cell is energized
through a watertight plug and receptacle.
ELECTRIC PLANTS
Indicator panels are normally arranged with an

individual control section for each associated cell, a
common audible alarm, and a meter for reading the
salinity content a t any 'cell by means of a cell selector
switch. Individual control section circuitry is such that
when the salinity content of the system, a t the point
being monitored, reaches a predetermined value, the
monitoring cell alarm light and the common audible
alarm are automatically actuated. A silencing switch
is provided in each individual cell section to deenergize
the common audible alarm; operation of this switch
should not affect the aural or visual signalling capability
provided for other cells. Each cell alarm light is
arranged to give indication of alarm until the salinity is
reduced below the alarm setting. Salinity systems are
normally set up to alarm when the salt cantent reaches
0.25 grains of sea salt per gallon.
Salinity systems that monitor the desalination plants
also incorporate a solenoid-operated dump valve that will
automatically dump, to the bilge, or by-pass all processed
water that exceeds the predetermined salt content;
dumping or by-passing will also take place upon loss of
power to the salinity indicator, the dump valve solenoid,
or the desalination plant pumps. Dumping for any
reason should actuate the common alarm on the indicator
panel.
The feed and condensate salinity system is usually
identified as circuit 1SB and the desalination plant
salinity system as circuit 2SB.
g. Underwater Log System (Circuit Y). The underwater log system measures the ship's speed through
water and the distance traveled. A rodmeter projects
through a sea valve and extends approximately 30 in.
below the shell of the ship. The rodmeter contains a
button electrode on each side. As water flows past the
electrodes, a voltage is generated proportional to the
ship's speed. The signal generated is amplified and
drives digital speed indicators a t various locations on the
ship. The system is not normally provided on most
merchant vessels due to its high installation and maintenance costs.
h. Doppler Sonar Speed Log (Circuit Y). The
doppler sonar s p d log is an electronic system for
accurate measurement of the ship's foreand-aft velocity
relative to the bottom a t depths to 500 f t and relative
to the water mass a t greater depths. Operation is
based on the principle that a signal transmitted from a
moving object and reflected back from a stationary
surface will indicate an apparent shift in frequency.
This frequency shift is proportional to the velocity of
the moving object in relation to the stationary surface.
Its principal uses are for "speed trials" and for continuous monitoring of the ship's velocity in coastal waters and
harbors.
i. Gyro Compass System (Circuit LC). True north
and, if desired, ship's roll and pitch information are
supplied by the gyrocompass system. The compass
h e a d i i information is furnished to steering and bearing
repeater compasses located a t various navigational
655
stations and to other electronic navigating equipments,

such as RDF, course recorder, and the radar displays
requiring this information. Roll and pitch information
can be supplied to stabilizing equipmenta if desired.
7.3 Alarm Systems. Certain alarm and warning
systems are essential for the safety of the ship equipment
and ship personnel; the deaign and function of such
systems are closely controlled by the U.S. Coast Guard.
The alarm indication may be visual or audible. When
two or more ~udiblealarms are required in a single
space, it isd~bmmonpractice to provide a common
alarm panel which provides one common alarm with
visual indications of the alarm source., A brief description of typical alarm circuits is as follows:
a. Lubrication-Oil Low-Pressure Alarm System
(Circuit EC). The lubricating-oil low-preasure alarm
circuit provides a warning alarm when the pressure in
the lubricating-oil lines to vital machinery becomes
dangerously low. The alarm is actuated by pressureoperated contact switches installed in the lubricating-oil
pipeline. The switch contacts are held open as long as a
predetermined pressure in the line is maintained. When
the pressure falls below the acceptable level, the switch
contacts close, energizing the alarm signal in the
machinery control spaces.
b. Feedwater Low-Level Alarm System (Circuit
FW). The feedwater low-level alarm system sounds an
alarm a t the propulsion control station when the level
of the water in the tank supplying the boiler feed pumps
becomes low. The equipment consists of a floatactuated switch located a t $hidfeedwater heater or tank,
alarm bells, indicating lights, and cutout switches. A
low level of water causes the switch contacts to close,
energizing the alarm indicators. An added feature to
this circuit can provide for the cutoff of fuel oil when the
feedwater reaches a dangerously low level.
c. Fire Alarm System (Circuit F). The fire alarm
system detects the presence of fire in the protected
compartments or spaces and transmits an alarm signal
to the wheelhouse or fire control station where audible
and visual alarm indications are provided.
The detecting system is divided into zones to restrict
the area covered by any particular alarm signal. The
system is designed so that the officer on watch can
determine from the fire alarm switchboard the compartment or zone in which the fire exists.
The dktecting system may be electric or pneumatic.
The electric system uses mercury or bimetallic temper*
ture detectors with an alarm switchboard. This system
is generally supplemented by manually operated contact
makers connected into the system to provide an alarm
to the switchboard.
The pneumatic system samples air drawn from protected areas to determine if smoke is in the space.
Photocells and light beams connected into an alarm
board provide an automatic alarm when smoke is
detected in the sample being checked. Provisions are
made for automatic sampling of the protected spaces by
such means as relays and timing devices.
MARINE ENGINEERING
On passenger vessels a fire alarm system is required

by the U.S. Coast Guard and the system design and
components require Coast Guard approval.
d. General Alarm System (Circuit G). A general
alarm system, the purpose of which is to warn all persons
on the ship of an emergency, is required on all manned
vessels of over 100 gross tons. The system consists of
electric vibrating alarm bells, manually operated contact
makers and distribution panels. The alarm bells are
energized by manually operating a normally open,
spring-return-to-normal contact maker to the "alarm"
position.
The number of contact makers and their location
should comply with the applicable U.S. Coast Guard
requirements. To prevent unauthorized operation of
the contact makers located outside the wheelhouse, they
should be mounted within an enclosure having a breakable transparent window.
The alarm bells should be at least eight inches in
diameter, and produce a distinctive tone different from
all other bells on the vessdl; these bells should be located
throughout the vessel in passenger and crew living areas,
work spaces, and machinery spaces in such numbers and
locations as to assure that all persons can hear an alarm
bell. In spaces where the ambient noise level is unusually high, the alarm bells within the spaces should
be augmented by flashing red lights.
All general alarm bells are supplied by feeders from a
feeder distribution panel through branch circuit distribution panels. The feeder distribution panel is supplied
from the system storage battery source. For vessels
that are subdivided into zones by fire-screen bulkheads,
at least one feeder should be provided for each zone, as
necessary, to supply the bells between adjacent firescreen bulkheads. For vessels that are not divided into
fire zones, the vessel should be divided into vertical
zones, not exceeding 150 ft in length, and at least one
feeder should be provided for each zone as necessary to
supply the bells within the zone. Distribution feeder
and branch circuit panels should be located above the
bulkhead deck or above the freeboard deck, whichever
is the higher, and outside the machinery casing. These
panels should be provided with overcurrent protection
for each feeder and branch circuit. Disconnect switches
are not provided. Branch circuit distribution panels
are provided as necessary for each zone. At least one
fused branch circuit should be provided for each zone
deck level. No more than five general alarm bells
should be connected to one branch circuit, and a branch
circuit should not supply alarm bells on more than one
deck level.
The power supply source for the general alarm system
is either a single storage battery or duplicate storage
batteries, located in a well-ventilated battery locker or
battery room that is above the bulkhead deck or freeboard deck, whichever is higher, and outside the
machinery space casing. On vessels having only one
general alarm battery, the battery must be maintained
in a fully charged condition a t all times by an automatic
charging panel. On vessels having duplicate storage

batteries, the batteries should be connected, through a
two-position transfer switch (no "off" position), so that
one battery will be on charge while the other battery is
set up to furnish power to the systems involved. For
specific details regarding battery loads and capacities,
refer to the U.S. Coast Guard lrequirements. For
vessels having a temporary emergency bus on the
emergency switchboard, the alarm system may be
supplied from this bus in lieu of being supplied from
separate general alarm batteries.
The entire general alarm system including all component equipments are subject to compliance with U.S.
Coast Guard requirements.
e. Refrigerated Spaces Alarm System (Circuit RA).
A refrigerated space alarm system is required in any
refrigerated space, accessible to ships personnel during a
voyage, that can be locked from the outside such that
egress from the space is impossible. Each space is
fitted with a waterproof pushbutton electrically connected to an audible alarm located outside the space
unless a mechanical pull operating a jingle bell is provided.
7.4 Communication Systems. Communication systems fall into two general categories: those required for
safety of the ship, and those installed as a matter of
convenience. Communication systems aboard ship are
typically as follows:
a. General Announcing System (Circuit MC). All
ocean and coastwise passenger vessels certified to carry
500 or more persons, including officers and crew, and all
passenger vessels whose lifeboats are stowed more than
100 ft from the navigating bridge are required by the
Coast Guard to have a general announcing system.
This system enables an officer on the bridge to transmit
orders or information to all lifeboat stations, all lifeboat
embarkation stations, all public spaces used for passenger
assembly stations, and throughout the passenger's and
crew's quarters.
The system is controlled from a single location on the
bridge. As directed by the Coast Guard Commandant,
certain loudspeakers are arranged for two-way conversation between the bridge and the lifeboat and embarkation
stations.
The distribution system, location of speakers, and the
equipment used are subject to U.S. Coast Guard approval.
b. Ship Service Telephone System (Circuit J).
Ship service telephone systems %re used for general
telephone communication, and are similar to shore
installations. They may be either automatic dial or
central switchboard control types. TrunMines are
provided for connectipg to shore telephone systems
when the vessel is in port.
c. Sound-Powered Telephone System (Cicuit JV)
and Voice Tube Systems. The Cosst Guard requirements specify that vessels shall be provided with an
efficient means of communication between each of the
following spaces:
Wheelhouse
ELECTRIC PLANTS
Engine room
Steering gear room
After steering station
In addition, the requirements specify that efficient
communication be supplied between the following:
Master gyrocompass and remote wheelhouse repeater
compass
Wheelhouse and remote radar plan position indicator
Wheelhouse and remote emergency squad equipment storage spaces
Wheelhouse and remote smoke detector cabinets
Wheelhouse and bow or forward lookout station
Wheelhouse and remote radio room and emergency
radio room
Wheelhouse and radio direction finding equipment
It should be noted that for this requirement, equipment

located in a space which opens into the wheelhouse is not
considered remote.
These requirements are generally met with soundpowered telephone circuits 1JV and 2JV. Soundpowered telephones are self-contained in that they require
no external power. This fact adds to their reliability.
Most installations now employ the magneto ringing
type and thus avoid the requirement for the external
ringing circuit "E." I n noisy areas the magneto ringing
circuit is used to operate a relay which controls an
electric-powered Maxon.
Installation costs have practically eliminated the use
of voice tubes to fulfill these requirements. Their use
is now restricted to short runs where the installation costs
are competitive or the use and storage of sound-powered
phones is impractical.
The system design and the equipment used in this
system are subject to Coast Guard approval.
d. Sound-Powered Telephone Call Bell System
(Circuit E). Sound-powered handset stations may be
alerted by a call bell system. The calling station
operates a switch which actuates an alarm at the station
beine called.
e. Call Bell System (Circuit A). Call bell systems
are usually provided on all vessels carrying passengers;
these systems provide a means for passengers to call for
assistance, when needed, and normally consist of pushbuttons, buzzers, and annunciators. A pushbutton
should be located in each passenger stateroom, convenient
to the head of each berth; operation of the p~shbutton
will cause a buzzer to sound, and an annunciator to
indicate the stateroom initiating the call. Annunciators
should be located where someone is always in attendance.
The power supply should be 115 volts, 60 cps, single
phase, a-c from the emergency lighting system.
f. Ship's Entertainment System (Circuit SE). Circuit SE distributes speech, radio, and taped programs in
the passenger and crew quarters where terminals exist.
A centralized control station, with amplifiers and
receivers, broadcasts the program collectively, or in
657
groups, over a series of reproducers. The system

components vary to suit the type of vessel.
g. Ship's Television System (Circuit TC). The
ship's television system provides an outside antenna
connected to outlets located in various spaces as desired.
The system may also include an omnidirectional or
rotating antenna as well ag a radio frequency signal
booster.
7.5 Confrol Systems. Control systems are used for
remote contro~.'of the ship's functions from the pilothouse or other designated control areas. They may
transmit specific orders to be initiated manually, or they
may power synchro or servo loops that actually initiate
the necessary action. Typical control circuits are as
follows:
a. Engine Order Telegraph System (Circuit MB).
The U.S. Coast Guard rules require that all self-propelled
vessels have an efficient method of transmitting engine
orders from each ship control station to each engine
room along with a method of transmitting acknowledgment of engine orders from the engine room to each ship
control station. This may be accomplished by mechanical, electrical, or other methods, each being subject to
approval of the Coast Guard. However, for most
vessels an electrical system is selected because of its
reliability and overall economy in first cost and maintenance costs.
The electrical system is designated as "MB," and is
designed for operation on 115-volt, 60-cps, single-phase,
a-c power; the source of supply is often from the emergency switchboard.
An electrical engine order system could consist of (a)
combined-type transmitter-indicator telegraph instruments located in the wheelhouse, engine room, and other
ship control stations on the vessel; (b) a wrong-direction
alarm unit located in the engine room; (c) an alarm bell
located in the engine room; ( d ) A power-failure alarm
panel located in the wheelhouse; and (e) a transfer relay
panel located in the wheelhouse.
Each telegraph instrument is fitted with a transmitting
synchro and an indicating synchro. To initiate an
engine order from a ship control station instrument, the
transmitter handle (and synchro) is operated to the
selected order position. This positions the transmitter
synchro out of synchronism with the engine room
indicator synchro and causes the engine room indicating
synchro to rotate to the same relative position as the
transmitter synchro, thus indicating the desired engine
order. Acknowledgment of the order is accomplished
by matching the engine room telegraph instrument
transmitter pointer (an&- synchro) with t h e order
pointer, which causes the ship control station indicator
synchro (and pointer) to match its transmitter pointer
nosition -4n audible alarm at each transmitter and
indicator instrument rings when an order is transmitted
and continues to ring until the order is properly acknowledged.
The wrong-direction alarm unit consists of an audible
alarm, a visual light, and a contact maker arranged to
658
MARINE ENGINEERING
provide alarms when the engine room throttle valve is

operated in the wrong direction from the transmitted
order.
The power-failure alarm panel should be arranged to
aut~matically sound an audible alarm and indicate
visually when the ~ystempower source fails; also, a
switch should be provided to silence the audible alarm.
The transfer relay panel is arranged electrically, so
that only one engine order transmitter instrument
may be connected electrically to the engine room
indicator instrument a t any one time. The reply
pointer of all transmitter instruments should operate
in synchronism a t all times.
Passenger vessels of 20,000 gross tons or over that are
equipped with an electric engine order telegraph system
are required to have a standby engine order telegraph
system, either electrical or mechanical.
The entire engine order telegraph system including all
component equipments is required to be watertight and
is subject .to compliance with U.S. Coast Guard requirements.
b. Whistle Operator System (Circuit W). The
whistle operator system may be used in the "at will" or
"automatic" mode of operation and from various conning
stations. Moving a control switch to the "at will"
position closes the circuit to a solenoid which opens the
whistle valve or closes a contactor. Moving a switch
oq the whistle timer control panel located in the pilothouse to the "automatic" position energizes a coding
timer motor driving a mechanical cam that intermittently
closes the whistle solenoid circuit. The coding timer
can be set for 1, I%, or 2 min periods as required by
international navigational rules. Mechanical whistle
pulls are installed a t the navigating stations for emereencv
- < use.
c. Automated
A number of IC circuits are
included in the ship's automated control system;
however, they will not be reviewed here as they are
discussed in Chapter 21.
d. Steering Control System (LP). The U.S. Coast
Guard rules require that a means be provided for controlling the main steering gear from the pilothouse and
from an alternative steering station; this means of control
may be either mechanical, hydraulic, or electrical. The
alternative steering station is required to be located on
the after weather deck unless duplicate pilothouse
controls are provided, in which case an alternative
steering station on the after weather deck is not required,
and the steering gear room may be considered as the
alternative steering station.
ELECTRIC PLANTS
On most vessels, two independent electrical steering

control systems are provided. These systems usually
consist of a common (dual) steering stand, located in the
pilothouse, and two control units, one for each main
steering unit, located in the steering gear room. Each
control system is arranged to transmit an electrical rudder
order signal from the steering stand to its associated
control unit. The control units, operated by hydraulic
servo power, stroke their respective main hydraulic
steering unit which moves the rudder to the ordered position. When the rudder reaches the ordered position the
electric order signal is nullified, through potentiometers
or synchros located in the steering stand and the control
units, and the rudder is stopped at that position.
Three modes of electric steering control operation are
normally provided; automatic, hand-electric follow-up,
and non follow-up. Selection of the steering control
mode is made at the steering stand by means of a
selector switch.
In the automatic mode of operation, steering is controlled by the master compass, which senses any deviation from the ordered course and feeds a course error
signal into the system to move the rudder and bring the
ship back to the ordered course. The ordered course is
set up by turning the steering wheel to the desired course
position; no further adjustments are required until the
ordered course is changed.
In the hand-electric follow-up mode of operation, the
steering wheel is turned manually to the desired rudder
position. The rudder will stop a t that ordered position
and remain so until the steering wheel is turned to
another desired rudder position.
In the non follow-up mode, the rudder is moved by
port or starboard manual operation of a non follow-up
controller lever. This system is arranged so that the
rudder will stop moving when the lever ys released.
The steering stand for dual control systems is provided
with a selector s ~ t c hfor selecting either the port or
starboard control system; this switch should also be
arranged to start the main steering pump motor associated with the selected control svstem. Widelv se~arated
control cable runs should be &stalled from ;he ;teering
stand to the steering gear room; these port and starboard
control cables are connected to their associated hvdraulic
< power control unit located in the steering gear room.
Each steering control system ira, supplied 115-volt,
single-phase, a-c power from either its associated steering
motor controller, or through a transformer fed from the
steering gear power panel. Usually, when fed from the
steering gear power panel, provisions are made for
transfer to either steering power feeder.
-
Section 8
Electronic Navigation and Radio Communication
8.1 General. Electronic navigation and radio communication systems are primarily used to ensure the
safety of the ship and the ship's personnel. The exact
suite of equipment installed is determined by legal
requirements and the design function of the vessel. The
physical placement of the units and the installation of the
associated antennas are unique to each type of equipment, and must be designed to comply with the operational requirements of each device.
The rules and regulations controlling the services, type
of equipment, and installation requirements for the
minimum acceptable suite of navigation and radio
communications equipments are issued by the U.S.
Coast Guard and the Federal Communications Commission and, in the case of vessels engaged in international voyages, they must conform to the International Safety of Life a t Sea (SOLAS) Convention.
Installation layouts must be approved by the U.S. Coast
Guard for navigational equipment. The Federal Communications Commission also requires the use of
approved radio equipment and some navigational equipment.
8.2 Radio Communication. Radio communication
installations consist of receivers, transmitters, and
transceivers together with their associated terminals and
antenna systems; these equipments are selected on the
basis of the requirements of the individual ship and in
accordance with the requirements established by the
Federal Communication Commission and the U.S.
Coast Guard as a minimum. SOLAS Safety Radiotelegraphy or Safety Radiotelephony certificates attesting to compliance with SOLAS requirements are required
on vessels engaged in international voyages.
Communications are normally maintained by voice or
radiotelegraph; the more advanced communication
systems may include radioteletype and digital data
facilities.
The radio installation for a typical vessel consists of
the following:
1 A main transmitter, receiver, antenna, and power
supply.
2 An emergency transmitter, receiver, antenna, and
power supply, all of which must be separate from those
required in item 1.
3 A radiotelephone transmitter, receiver with selective ringer, antenna, and power supply.
4 An automatic alarm receiver to monitor the 500kHz international radiotelegraph distress frequency.
5 An automatic alarm keying device to key the main
and emergency transmitters with the international
automatic alarm signal in case of an emergency.
6 A complete and portable transceiver for use in a
lifeboat.
On most vessels, the aforementioned radiotelegraph
equipment, excluding the antennas and item 6, along
with the necessary components that are required for

complete operation and supervision of the radio complex, may be combined into a communication console
designed for yse by one operator. This console is
located in the<radioroom and is fitted with special means
of main andkmergency lighting separate from the radio
room lighting. Normal lighting supply is from the
normal power feeder to the console, and the emergency
lighting supply is from the emergency radio battery.
The power supply for the main console is from the
emergency switchboard to the power supply conversion
equipment located within the console. The emergency
power supply for the emergency transmitter, receiver,
and automatic keyer is from a storage battery located
in a battery locker that should be adjacent to the radio
room; means should be provided to maintain this
battery in a fully charged condition a t all times.
The automatic alarm receiver for monitoring the
international distress frequency, 500 kHz, item 4 of the
foregoing, is provided to supplement manual monitoring
when a radio operator is not on duty. This feature is
provided to satisfy the SOLAS and FCC requirements
that all ships a t sea must monitor continuously the
internationally assigned distress frequency.
The automatic alarm keyer, item 5, is primarily an
emergency device that can be set up to key either the
main or emergency transmitter with a redetermined
automatic alarm signal sequence.
Some vessels are provided with facsimile recording
equipment, including antenna, for the purpose of
reproducing weather maps and charts transmitted from
shore stations. This recording equipment is usually
located in the radio room.
The radiotelephone installation, item 3, provides
medium-range voice communication service between
ships and between ship and shore stations by using the
2-%MHz
maritime service bands; it may also be used
-T.m"---to monlt5r international distress frequencies. This
installation usually consists of a transmitter-receiver
unit complete with a local hand microphone and a
channel fielector switch for selecting pretuned operating
frequency circuits, a power supply unit, a selective
ringer, and a remote telephone handset. Most equipments are designed to transmit and receive alternately
on a push-to-talk basis., ,The transmitter-receiver unit
and its power supply unit are sometimes mounted within
the main radio console or may be separately mounted,
either in the chart room or in the radio room. The
selective ringer has a built-in signal bell and is arranged
electrically to sound when another station is trying to
contact the vessel; this ringer is normally located in the
radio room or on the bridge. Where greater range is
required, radiotelephone equipment covering the 2-24
MHz marine bands and employing the single sideband
mode of transmission and reception may be fitted. This
660
ELECTRIC PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
equipment provides- reliable radiotelephone communication over manv thousands of miles under normal atmospheric conditions.
For reliable short-range communication up to 50
miles, VHF (very high frequency) transceivers are
becoming increasingly popular. The units operate in
the 156 MHz marine bands and employ the frequency
modulation mode of transmission and reception. Selection ringing equipment is also available for this service.
A bridge-to-bridge channel (channel 13-156.56 MHz) is
incorporated in the VHF transceiver and is used for
bridge-to-bridge communication between vessels for
navigational purposes only. Channel 16 (156.8 MHz) is
the allocated channel for distress, safety, and calling.
Radio communication antennas may be of the verticalstanding whip type, or a wire type, depending on the
system requirements and the shipboard configuration.
Each antenna design and installation for compulsorily
fitted equipment is subject to Federal Communication
Commission and U.S. Coast Guard approval.
A portable radio unit, complete 4 t h hand-cranked
generator, is provided on each vessel for emergency use
in lifeboats. The entire unit is required to be packaged
so that it is buoyant and of a minimum weight; it is
normallv stowed in the radio room in a s~ecialrack
designei for easy and quick removal.
8.3 Navigation. The navigational systems installed
on a ship are determined by the ship's mission. The
capabilities of available systems range from position
location, with an adcuracy of feet, to general position
information, accurate to plus or minus 5 miles. Ranges
of effectiveness vary from line-of-sight for certain
station-keeping systems to a system that will allow a
properly equipped vessel to determine its position with
an accuracy of f mile anywhere on the surface of the
earth. Ultraprecise and short-ranged systems are
normally used by dredges, well-drilling ships, survey
ships, and are temporarily installed on large ships during
sea trials and performance tests.
The systems may use the principle of determining the
bearing angle of the navigating station to known points,
determining the distance of the navigating station to
known points, or a combination of both methods. Radar
is also commonly used for navigating purposes when it
is necessary to know the location of the ship in-relation
to surrounding shorelines, buoys, and other ships.
8.4 Radio Direction Finding. A radio direction finding system aboard a ship provides a means of establishing
the ship's position based on the location of two or more
fixed transmitting stations. Radio direction finders are
used for both navigation and for the safety of life a t sea
involving search and rescue of ships or lifeboats in
distress. A typical shipboard system could consist of a
radio receiver-indicator located on the ship's navigating
bridge or in the chart room, a fixed cross-loop antenna,
and a sense antenna.
The receiver-indicator is tuned to receive the specific
frequency signal of the selected transmitting station.
The relative intensity of this received signal is reduced by
rotating a movable coil, within the receiver, with respect to the fixed-loop antenna until a null position is
realized in the signal received from the transmitting
station. This null position indicates the bearing a t
which the system is in electronic alignment with the
transmitted wave front of the radio frequency transmission from the transmitting statioh. The indicated
bearing from the ship to two or more fixed stations is
noted and the reciprocal lines are plotted on an appropriate chart. The position of the vessel is indicated by
the intersection of these lines.
The sense antenna provides a means of preventing the
180-deg ambiguity that could result in bearing readout
if the received signal is not properly oriented.
The main radio transmitting antenna should be
grounded (inoperative) when the radio direction finding
system is in operation to prevent distorted signals from
causing maloperation and to reduce error in the direction
finding system; this grounding is usually accomplished
at the main radio console through a switching unit that
disables the main antenna and also provides power to the
radio direction finding system. Also, special~onsiderations regarding guywires, stays, handrails, etc., must be
taken into account and compensated for by proper
design during installation of the radio direction finder
system.
The accuracy of radio direction finder observations is
affected by fluctuations in the ionosphere and consequently vary in accordance with the time of day and
time of year. Daily distortion of the sky wave component of the radio transmission known as "night
effect" can cause considerable error in the plotted
position.
The shipboard power supply for the radio direction
finder is usually 115 volts, single phase, 60 cps, a-c and
is taken from the main radio console power supply
through the switching unit noted in the foregoing.
8.5 Radar. Radar systems aboard a ship normally
operate at wavelengths of 3.2 and 10 centimeters. They
consist of a transmitter-modulator, receiver, a rotatable
directional antenna (scanner), required power supplies,
a master indicator, and remote indicators (when
desired). The radar video presentation may take many
forms. The most popular method is by the Plan
Position Indicator (PPI) which displays a map presentation of an area 360 deg around t h e ~ h i p . The radius of
this presentation can be varied by the operator from
close ranges to the maximum capability of the radar.
The maximum range capabilities of a radar system is a
function of frequency and transmitter power, but is
primarily controlled by the line-of-sight characteristics
of microwave frequencies.
Radar is quite important to safety at sea. The video
presentation displays other ships, buoys, islands, and
other navigational hazards and shows their relationship
to the navigating station.
Introducing compass information into the radar
system display will permit the observed bearings to be
measured as true north, magnetic- north, or relative
66 1
Fig. 24 Typical liner of position

from two pairs of Loran stations
quantities. Circuitry can be provided to give a true

motion presentation on the P P I tube; that is, echoes of
stationary objects remain stationary and echoes of
moving objects move. Normally, without this circuitry,
all objects on the PPI tube appear to move because of the
ship's motion.
Many large ships use two radar systems, one operating
at 3.2 centimeters and the other at 10 centimeters
wavelength.
'8.6 Hyperbolic Systems. A popular method' of
navigational positioning measures the difference in
distance between the navigating station and two or more
known fixed stations. A navigating station positioned
between two stations a t known geographic locations can

measure the difference in time of arrival of a radio
frequency transmission from the two stations if their
transmissions are synchronized. A line connecting all
the positions between 'khe two transmitting' stations
where the same time difference, or delay, would be
measured will describe a hyperbola, having the transmitters as focal points. A similar measurement between
one of the first two transmitting stations and a third
station will describe a second hyperbolic line that will
intersect the first hyperbolic line at the navigating station
This method allows the
position, as shown in 1'ig:24.
installation of a network of stations and the preparation
662
MARINE ENGINEERING
663
ELECTRIC PLANTS
of navigational charts with the hyperbolic calculations

identified. The navigating station takes two or more
measurements and projects its position from the appropriate intersections on the chart.
Loran A was one of the first operational hyperbolic
systems and operates in the 1.5 to 2 MHz radio frequency
spectrum. The transmitting stations are operated in
pairs with one the master station and the other the slave
station. The master statioii transmits a pulse 6f R1'
energy; the slave station receives this signal and after a
programmed time delay transmits a pulse of Rl? energy.
The navigating station measures the lapse of time
between receiving tlle master station signal and the slave
station signal; the navigating station then measures the
lapse of time bettveen receiving signals from a different
pair (master and slave) of Loran stations. Each
measured lapse of time is used to determi~iethe navigating station's proper line of position (with respect to each
pair of transmitting stations) on a Loran (hyperbolic)
chart. Where the two measured lines of position cross
establishes the navigating station position; see position
"V" on Fig. 24.
Each
of Loran stations is usually located several
hundred miles apart. One station is often made common
to two pairs. As noted in l'ig. 24, M is a common or
double-pulsed station (master); S1 and 52 are singlepulsed stations (slaves). A double-pulsed station is
co~lsideredto be two separate stations at the same location, since this type of station sends out two entirely
distinct sets of pulses; each set of pulses is paired with
the pulse from adjacent stations.
A typical shipboard Loran A installation includes an
antenna arid a receiver-indicator; the receiver-indicator
should be installed in the chart room, above the chart
table, and should provide direct in-line time-delay
readings.
Loran A transmissions are effective at ranges of about
700 nautical miles in the daytime and up to 1400 miles
at night with accuracies between f1 mile and f,5 miles
depending upon location of the navigating station in the
hyperbolic grid, time of year, and time of day.
Loran C uses the same principles as Loran A except for
the frequency of transmission (100 kHz), which affords
better and more stable area coverage. Each master
station has at least two and sometimes three associated
slave stations; using these multiple slave stations provides for a more accurate identification of lineofpbsition hyperbolic grid lines.
The use of the lower frequency, as compared with
Loran A, allows for greater range on the reliable ground
wave and separation of the master and slave stations by
as much as 800 nautical miles.
A typical Loran C shipboard installation will vary
according to the requirements of the particular vessel.
It may range from a suite of equipment similar to Loran
A to elaborate computer-controlled devices with automatic updating and readout capabilities. The trend
on merchant ships is to provide a combination receiverindicator that is suitable for use with both Loran A and C.
The Omega navigational system is a long-range

llyperbolic navigation system that uses synchronized
signals from two or more radio transmitters that may be
spaced several thousand miles apart. Omega stations
transmit on low radio frequencies from 10 to 14 kHz;
use of these low frequencies results in transmission of
signals that are very stable, accurate, and predictable.
Precalculated line-of-position (hyperbolic) charts are
used to plot the navigating station position, based on
measuring the particular signals received from pairs of
stations, somewhat similar to the Loran system, except
that all stations are synchronized from a common time
source and share transmitting time with the other
stations. Each station transmits for a specific duration
of time (approximately one second) and all stations
transmit successively and always in the same order.
Ultimately the Omega navigating system will consist
of only eight stations strategically located so as to
provide worldwide coverage; it is expected that the
Omega system will result in accuracies approaching
nautical mile in daytime and one mile at night. The
current installation consists of four stations, located in
Korway, Trinidad, Hawaii, and New York.
A shipboard Omega installation would consist of a
comparatively short ship antenna and a receiver.
The Decca navigation system is a highly stable
continuous-wave radio position-fixing hyperbolic-type
system operating in the 70-130 kHz band. Each system
or "chain" comprises a central master station and three
slave stations disposed in a three-pointed star configuration about the master station. Slave stations are 70-120
miles distant from the master station. There are upward of 35 such chains throughout the world, most of
which are in the eastern hemisphere. The performance
range is up to 250-300 miles by day and positions
correct to within &50 yd can be obtained at a range of
50 miles. Unlike Loran and Omega, which are operated
by the U.S. Government, Decca is a privately owned
system. The Decca receiver and indicators (Decometers) are generally installed in the chart room.
Navigation charts for areas served by the Decca chains
are readily obtainable.
In general, receivers for the foregoing hyperbolic
navigation systems are located in the vessel's chart room.
8.7 Echo Depth Sounding Sonar. An echo depth
sounding system provides a means of measuring the sea
depth beneath the vessel by computing the time interval
required for sound waves to trave1,"at a known velocity,
from the ship's bottom to a reflecting surface and return.
The measured depth may be visually indicated and
permanently recorded. This system usually consists of
a transducer, an electronic control unit, an indicator, and
a recording unit.
The transducer is permanently mounted in and flush
,kith the ship's hull a t approximately one fourth the
distance from the bow to the stern, and a h e a r the ship's
centerline as is practicable; this transducer converts
electrical oscillations, from the control unit, into sound
energy during the transmit cycle and converts the echo
sound energy into electrical oscillations during the

receive cycle. The control unit contains the circuitry
that produces, times, and controls the various signals
necessary for system operation; this unit is usuaIly
located in the chartroom. The indicator visually
displays the depth of the water, and is usually located in
the wheelhouse. The recorder produces a permanent
record of the sea depth on a calibrated chart and should
be located in the chart room above the chart table.
Some vessels are equipped with an alarm device,
located in the chart room, that sounds \\-hen a p r e
determined shallo\v depth occurs.
Echo sounding systems are also used for measurement
of ground track by using t~vo,four, or more directional
sonar beams transmitting impulses at an angle. The
doppler effect on each beam is measured, indicating a
rate of change of slant range in that particular direction.
The ground track navigation systems are used by large
vessels navigating in shallo~v coastal waters, survey
vessels, and ships required to maintain station over a
given point. Ground tracli information is also required
by ships using a doppler shift method of satellite navigation, such as the Transit System. A typical ground
tracli installation could consist of a receiver/driver, four
transducers mounted in the ship's bottom (which may
be combined in arrays), a dead-reclioning tracer, and a
digital readout device displaying forward, aft, and
athwartships velocities.
8.8 Special Systems. Extremely accurate position
information can be computed using navigational satellites in polar orbit. The first operational development
was the U.S. Navy Transit system; military require
ments dictated that this be a passive system. Satellites
in polar orbit are monitored by ground tracking stations.
Some of the tracking stations have the capability of
updating the information stored in the satellite-borne
computers. Every tw-o minutes a satellite transmits a
message containing the time of transmission and orbital
track information. The transmission occurs on two
frequencies, in the UHF spectrum, separated by approximately 300 MHz, to compensate for distortions in
propagation encountered in ionospheric and atmospheric
penetration. The navigating station receives the transmissions with a receiver/computer complex that measures
the doppler effect on the transmissions caused by the
satellites movement with respect to the navigating
station. The resulting quantity, which is the rate of

change of slant range, is used to compute position. By
taking several observations from successive satellites,
accuracies to a few hundred yards are possible.
A shipboard installation for the Transit system consists of an omnidirectional dual-frequency antenna, a
receiver/computer console, and a precise frequency
standard. Concepts for navigational satellites suitable
for commercia.1,. use are being developed: these are
directed toward reducing the complexity of the shipboard installation by removing the requirement for
passive navigational stations. Using interrogating transmissions from the navigating station and a shore-based
computing station, several methods are being considered
to establish position information.
8.9 Portable Systems. Dredges, sea drilling ships,
cable laying ships, and similar special-purpose vessels
require medium to short-range navigational systems of
high accuracy but do not require permanent shore
stations for reference. Several systems are available
using portable shipboard and shore station units.
Raydist is typical of this category.
Raydist DR-S (dual range, single sideband) systems
consist of small portable shore stations with an antenna
installation selected by range requirements, and the
shipboard terminal consisting of a CW transmitter, a
navigator, and a strip chart recorder. The shore
stations can be placed as required by range coverage
because no tra~lsmissiorls occur between the shore
stations. Two shore statioris-are required. The system
measures the distance from the navigating station to
each of the shore stations by phase measurement. The
use of single-sideband transmission techniques reduces
the radio frequency spectrum occupancy required by the
system. The system requires active participation by
the navigating station in that CW transmissions to the
shore stations occur. Ho~vever,in the case of multiship operations, three or more navigating stations can
receive position information by proper range organization. For operating areas where the use of land-based
reference stations is not feasible, battery-operated
reference stations encased in buoys are used. The
Raydist DR-S can furnish position information up to
250 miles and accuracies of from 1 to 3 yd. It is widely
used to record the speed of ships during standardization
and maneuvering tests.
Sectio~~
9
Wiring Application and Methods
9.1 General. I n general, shipboard electric cables
are specified to be constructed and tested in accordance
with the specific requirements of IEEE Standard KO.45.
However, as an exception to this requirement, most
owners permit the substitution, for the equivalent IEEE
cable, of cable constructed in accordance with military
specificationsMIL-C-915,MIL-C-2194, or MII~-C-23206.
The use of cable in accordance with military specifications
is allo~vedprincipally because of its reduced material
cost and ready availability. The only limitation usually
placed on the use of Navy cable is that the maximum
current for any conductor should not exceed the current-
664
MARINE ENGINEERING
carrying capacities specified in the publication "Cablc

Comparison Guide, " NAVSHIPS 250-660-23.
The regulatory body rules contain specific requirements regarding cable application and installation.
These rules also contain tables of allo~vablecurrentcarrying capacities, dimensions, weights, and physical
and electrical properties of mercbax~t marine cables;
NAVSHIPS 250-660-23 contains this same type of
information for cables for naval ships.
9.2 Light and Power Wiring. Except for flexible
service applications, all light and power cables should
have a basket-weave armor of steel, aluminum, or bronze;
bronze armor is normally used for those cables installed
in the weather, and in damp areas. Except for lighting
and power branch circuits installed in dry spaces, such
as crew and passenger areas, all light and power cables
should have a moisture-resisting jacket under the
armor; this jacket may be lead, thermoplastic, or
thermosetting compound. Because of the excessive
material and installation costs involved, lead jackets are
seldom used.
Rubber- or thermoplastic-insulated cable may be
used in spaces where the ambient temperature does not
exceed 50 C. Varnished-cloth, asbestos-varnished-cloth,
or silicone-insulated cables should be used where the
ambient temperature exceeds 50 C; additionally, these
types of insulated cable may also be used for other
applications. Where varnished cloth insulation is used,
the wire size should not be smaller than No. 12 AWG;
this type of insulated tape on wire of smaller size will not
withstand bending.
Asbestos-varnished-cloth insulated, jacketed, and
armored cable is generally used throughout merchant
ships for lighting and power circuits. There are,
however, the following exceptions to this generalization:
SJ, SJO, or SJ'l' should bc used for portablc lights, tools,

and appliances.
9.3
Interior Communication and Electronic Wiring.
The IEEE rulcs list the various types of merchant

marine electric cable designed for use in interior communicatio~lsystcms, telephone systems, and electronics
systems. However, as noted previously, the trend is to
the use of Navy-type cable, in lieu of the merchant type,
for most shipboard applications. The general practice
followed in the selection of IC and electronic wiring is as
f 0110\\-$:
a. IC Systems. Navy-type SGA cable is used in
the 4000 and 9000 circular mil sizes; for larger sizes
IEEE merchant marine types, as used for power and
lighting systems, are usually employed. Navy type
MSCA is used for all multicorlductor applications with
the exception of tempqrature-indicating systems, in which
case Navy types PBJX and PBTX are used.
b. Telephone Systems. Navy cable types SGA and
hlSCA are used the same as for I C systems; Kavy type
TTHlCWA is used for all twisted-pair applications.
c. Electronic Systems. Navy cable types SGA and
MSCA are used the same as for IC systems; Kavy types
TTRSA and RG coaxial are used for shielded applications. As recommended by the equipment manufacturer, special cable and conductor types are used for
electronic circuits and antenna connections.
Basket-weave armor and moisture-resisting jackets
are provided on the foregoing cable types, the same as
described for the light and power wiring in the previous
section.
9.4 Cable Installation. All cables should be continuous between terminations and, insofar as practicable,
be routed to avoid areas where excessive heat, moisture,
or oil may be encountered. Cables should not be run
For local lighting branch circuits that are installed through oil tanks or pump rooms unless they are enin spaces having ambient temperatures not exceeding closed within watertight trunks; also, cables should not
50 C, rubber-insulated and armored cable is,used in dry be run behind, or embedded in, heat insulation. Where
spaces; in damp spaces, rubber-insulated, jacketed, and it is necessary to pass cable through insulation, the cable
should be run in a continuous pipe.
armored cable is used.
Cables routed through cargo spaces should be proIn lieu of the IEEE type of cable, Navy cable (type
tected
against mechanical damage incidental to the
SGA in sizes 4000 and 9000 circular mils and type
handling of cargo; advantage should be taken of the
MSCA) is used.
protection afforded by beams, girders, and stiffeners.
Three-conductor cable should be used for all a-c
Routing of cables within a radius of 15 ft from any
3-phase circuits to neutralize the inductive effect that magnetic compass should be limitzd to the necessary
may cause heating of adjacent equipment or structure. binnacle and local lighting circuits.
The largest Bconductor cable normally installed is
Cables should be installed in compliance with the
400,000 circular mils. For circuits requiring greater United States Public Health Rules so as to avoid
than 400,000 circular mils, two or more 3-conductor harborage for rats.
cables of the same size are connected in parallel; one
Tanker vessel cable runs between "islands" and to the
conductor for each phase of the circuit should be con- forepeak are routed either: (a) on the underside of the
tained in each paralleled cable.
fore-and-aft walkway, and protected by steel channels
All portable cords should have a minimum size of No. or enclosed in cable trunks or pipes; (b) attached to a
16 AWG, and should be in accordance with the specific steel plate supported from the walkway handrail
requirements of the Underwriters Laboratories Standard stanchions; or (c) in a wireway-type structure on the
for Flexible Cords and Fixture Wire. Types S, SO, or weather deck, protected by steel channels and cover, and
ST should be used for hard service applications; types located well inboard to afford protection from seas.
ELECTRIC PLANTS
Cables should not be bent to a radius of less than six

diameters to. avoid damage to the insulation.
Cables should be grouped and routed in main wireways
as much as economical distribution permits and should
be supported as shown in Fig. 25(a), (b), or (c). Small
groups of cables should be supported as shown in Fig.
5
, ( ) (i), or (1. Figure 25(j) shows typical methods
of supporting a maximum of four small cables located
behind joiner bulkheads and ceilings. Where cables
are run on thin nonwatertight bulkheads, they may be
secured by through screws and nuts as shown in Fig.
25(i). Single cables should be supported as shown in
Fig. 25(g) and (h).
Cables may be secured in wireways by fitted straps,
such as shown in Fig. 25(a), or by banding straps, as
shown in Fig. 25(e); these straps are usually 5.8 to % in.
wide. Cable supports are usually spaced not more than
18 in. apart on vertical runs and 14 in. apart on horizontal runs. Cable straps should secure the cable
without damage to the armor or insulation. Cables
should be strapped in position a t every hanger in
vertical runs, and at not less than every fourth hanger on
horizontal runs; at turns of horizontal runs the cables
should be strapped a t every hanger. Cable hanger
material, not exposed to the weather, should be steel;
galvanized material is normally used in refrigerated
spaces and galleys. Exterior cable hanger material
should be corrosion-resisting material or steel with a
corrosion-resisting coating with CRES, brass, or bronze
nuts, bolts, and washers.
A variety of the alternative methods of passing cables
through decks and bulkheads is illustrated by Fig. 26.
Cable penetrations of nontight declcs and platforms are
usually through clear openings of adequate size for the
cables involved. Steel collars, extending approximately
3 in. above the deck, should be provided all around the
edge of the opening.
Where single cables pass through nontight bulkheads
or beams, and the bearing surface for the cable is less
than % in., a bushing should be provided as shown in
Fig. 26(c). Where the bearing surface is % in. or
greater, a clearance hole with rounded edges is acceptable.
Figure 26(h) shows a method of passing a group of cables
through beams with insulation.
Cable penetrations of watertight and airtight bulkheads are through stuffing tubes, as shown typically by
Fig. 26. Cable penetrations of watertight decks are
through kickpipes with stuffing tubes, except that watertight riser boxes with stuffing tubes are sometimes used
for groups of cables not in the weather; these are also
shown typically by Fig. 26. The following subsection
contains a description of stuffing tubes and their
application.
Insofar as practicable, cable runs in finished crew and
passenger areas should be concealed. When paneling is
fitted overhead or on bulkheads, through wiring is run.
behind the paneling and secured to the steel deck or
bulkhead. Where heat insulation is applied to the deck
or bulkhead, the wiring is run between the insulation and
665
paneling, and supportcd as shown in Fig. %(a) nrld (b).

I n some instances, when vertical cable runs arc not near
a stcel bulkhead, a ladder type of frame, from dcclc to
deck, is provided to support thc cablc, and is corlccalcd
by paneling.
Switches, call buttons, and rcccptacles locatcd in
paneled spaces are usually recessed into hollow H-section
joints. All cables to these'outlets should be run overhead and then down in the H-section to their termination;
each cable should be secured at the top of the H-section
and a t the outjet. Wiring to light switches a t entrance
doors is run in the hollow door frames on which the
switches are mounted.
Where concealment of cable runs in finished areas is not
practicable, special troughs or channels are sometimes
used to conceal individual runs of cables to surfacemounted outlets; otherwise, exposed wiring should be
installed to be as inconspicuous as possible.
9.5 Stufflng Tubes. Stuffing tubes are either of the
terminal type or bulkhead type as illustrated by Fig. 27.
Terminal-type tubes are used to provide a watertight
cable entrance into electrical equipment enclosures;
they are made of either brass or nylon. I n general,
terminal tubes consist of a body, gland rings, packing,
and a gland nut or cap. A watertight penetration is
obtained by tightening the gland nut or cap to squeeze
the packing against the cable. For enclosures Y I G in.
thick or thicker, tapped holes are provided to accept the
tube male pipe threaded end. For enclosures less than
a/,, in. thick, clearance holes*are provided; in this type
of installation, brass tube' bodies are brazed to the
enclosure, whereas nylon tube bodies are fastened and
made tight by a locknut and O-ring assembly.
Bulkhead type tubes are used to provide watertight
and airtight cable penetrations through bulkheads and
decks. Bulkhead tubes are usually steel, and are
similar to brass terminal tubes, except that the tube end
'opposite the gland nut has standard IPS female threads
to accept threaded pipes. For passing cables through
bulkheads, a pipe nipple of adequate length is threaded
into the tube body; the assembly is jnserted into a
clearance hole in the bulkhead, with the tube body
butting the bulkhead; the tube body is then welded to the
bulkhea'd. For passing cables through decks, kickpipes
are welded into the deck with a bulkhead-type tube
threaded,on the upper end. The height of the kickpipe
assembly should be a t least 9 in. to the top of the tube,
with the pipe extended below the deck, or sheathing, as
applicable, leaving approximately % in. of the pipe
exposed.
An additional method &-passing cables through tight
bulkheads is by means of a "multicable transit," shown
by Fig. 26(i). This method utilizes a special assembly,
welded in a clearance hole in the bulkhead, through
which several cables may be pulled. After the cables
are pulled, they are positioned and maintained in place
using a system of split insert blocks; the complete cable
grouping is made tight by applying compression through
special bolting and plates. Cable transits may be used
ELECTRIC PLANTS
MARINE ENGINEERING
*
ELDED STUD
INSULATION
,-CONDUIT
COUPLING
PHENOLIC COUPLING
WALL THICKNESS 3/8:
OUTSIDE THREADED
STEEL CABLE BAND
( 0 ) SINGLE ROW OF CABLE SUPPORTED

FROM INSULATED OR NON- INSULATED
DECK OR BULKHEAD
(c)
WITHOUT INSULATION ON ONE SIDE
(a) FOR REFRIGERATED SPACE BULKHEAD
STEEL DK OR 81
FOR NON-TIGHT BHDS
K,,,,,
GAP FOR RAT HARBORAGE PROTECTION WHERE--J

WIREWAY IS NOT BEHIND RAT PROOF SHEATHING IS
PROVIDED BYSTEEL SADDLE BANDEDTOHANGER.
THREADEDWASHER
(el MULTIPLE ROWS USING BANDING METHOD
STEELHANGER
OR BHD
E
METAL
SHEATHING
STEEL STRAP
AT EVERY 4 t h
HANGER AND
WHERE CABLE
CHANGE DIREC
--
.I " .MAY
..-.. n l.A
CABLE
kI-
SHEETMETAL
I-3"
L---KICKPIPE.
I
( t ) SINGLE ROW ON INSULATION SHEATHING

+--9"MAX.--+
CABLES MAY BE SUPPORTED

ON EITHER TOP Ok BOTTOM OF
HANGER BUTNOT BOTH
STEELDKORBHD
STEE
CABLE Dl
STEEL CABLE
STRAP
( g ) SINGLE CABLE
(b) SINGLE ROW OF CABLE SUPPORTED FROM

INSULATED OR NON-INSULATED DECK OR
BULKHEADS TO CLEAR OBSTRUCTIONS
LEETS- -
DK OR BHD
WELDED STUD
WlTH COLLAR
STEEL STRAP
rSTRAP
MAX--+
EVERY 4 t h HANGER 8 WHERE WIREWAYS CHANGE DIRECTION

DEC I(
(h) SINGLE CABLE WHERE EXCESSIVE

MOISTURE IS PRESENT
NON - WATER TIGHT
STEEL BULKHEAD
STEEL
FERRU
ONLY WHERE
BEHIND RAT PROOF
i5" MAX. ALLOWABLESPAN FOR CABLE
ROUND
INSIDE EDGES
SECTION A-A
( i ) SINGLE ROW MOUNTED ON BULKHEAD

TOO THIN TO WELD.
SULATWN
WHERE CABLES ARE FEW
STEELSTRAP
-- -
ROUIYD EDGES
L~~~
PARTIAL LINER
(h) FOR NON-TIGHT BEAMS WITH INSULATION
(g) FOR BEAMS WlTH LIGHTENING HOLES
CHANNEL
WELDED COLLAR
THE SUPPORT OF MULTIPLE ROWS OF CABLE ON STEEL
BULKHEADSISACCOMPLISHEDTHE SAME EXCEPTTHAT
EACH TIERSHOULDBESTRAPPEDANDNOSPANOF
CONTIGUOUS CABLES SHOULD EXCEED 9': WHERE SPANS
UP TO 15" MAX. ARE REQUIRED, A HOLD-DOWN BOLT
SHOULD SECURE THE RETAINING STRAP AT ITS CENTER.
ASSEMBLIES SHOULD NOT BE SPACED MORE THAN 14"
APART. CENTER TO CENTER.
RE FILLER BLOCKS
EPROOF ELASTOME
FOR FUTURE CABLE
( c ) MULTIPLE ROWS OF CABLE SUPPORTED

FROM INSULATED OR NON- INSULATED DECK.
TRANSIT FRAME
-CABLE
JOINER BHD
OR CEILING-
( d l TWO SMALL CABLES 3/4"DlA. MAX

(LOCATED BEHIND JOINER BULKHEAD OR CEILING)
Fig. 25
STRAP-
CABLE STRAP
JOINER BHD
OR CEILING
(i) CABLE RUN OF FOUR SMALL CABLES ON STEEL DECK

OR BULKHEAD WlTH AND WITHOUT INSULATION
(BEHIND JOINER BULKHEAD OR CEILING)
Methods of supporting cable
INSERT BLOCK
FIREPROOF
ELASTOMER
THRU DECK APPLICATION
(i) MULTI-CABLE TRANSIT TYPE BULKHEAD

PENETRATION ASSY (WATERTIGHT BHD)
Fig. 26
Methods of pauing cables through deck and bulkheads
668
MARINE ENGINEERING
ELECTRIC PLANTS
EXPLOSION PROOF '
RUBBERSEAL
(b) SECTION THRU MALE TERMINAL
STUFFING TUBE
SHEET META
(c) SECTION THRU BRAZED TERMINAL

STUFFING TUBE
UP TO 3/16
(a) SECTION THRU CABLE SEAL

FITTING FOR EXPLOSION
PROOF EQUIPMENT
BUSHING
WAS
ASHERS
WASHERS
NlPPL
-W
ENCLOSURE WALL
(dl
SECTION THRU NYLON TERMINAL

STUFFINGTUBEFOR ENCLOSURES
OVER 3/16
II
(el
Fig. 27
SECTION THRU NYLON TERMINAL

STUFFINGTUBE FORENCLOSURES
UP TO 3/16
Cable rtufFlng rubes
for passing groups of cables through decks, provided a

riser box is utilized; in this application, the cable transit
would be installed in the top of the riser box, Fig. 26(j').
Cable entrance into explosion-proof equipment located
in explosion-hazardous areas must be accomplished
through an approved seal fitting, similar to that shown
in Fig. 27(a). Proper installation would be as follows:
nipple the seal fitting to the explosion-proof enclosure
by a pipe not more than 18 in. long; remove all of the
cable covering, except the individual conductor insula-
LBUSHING
I L O C K NUT
tion, f ~ o mthe point of entering the seal fitting to its end;

fill the seal fitting with a sealing compound through the
filling plug hole. When the compound hardens and the
filling plug is in place, the cable entrance is explosionproof.
9.6 Determination of Cable Lengths. The length of
each run of cable may be determined from wiring deck
plans, or isometrics, using a standard map measure. I n
addition to the lengths measured from plans, the
following allowances should be made:
10 ft for each vertical run between decks.

5 f t for each vertical run from overhead to bulkheadmounted equipment.
10 f t for each connection to a switchboard.
I n addition to the foregoing allowances, 10 percent'
should be added to feeders and branches to cover waste,
losses incidental to making up cable ends, and for
unforeseen bends.
9.7 Connections and Terminals. Connection of
wires to terminals should ensure a good electrical contact
without damaging the conductor. Since no splicing of
wires is permissible, all terminations should be made by
screw connections or approved cable connectors located
within equipment enclosures or wiring appliances. I n
general, all ship cable connections should be made by
solderless lugs of an approved clamp or compression
type; exceptions include twist-on pressuretype connectors with a securing device which are sometimes used
for making connections in lighting outlets and connection
boxes. Also, interior communication and electronic
system wiring connectors may be of the soldered type or
may have the wire end formed into an eye and be
solder-dipped. Cable ends of vital circuits should be
sealed against the admission of moisture.
Usual practice is to select connectors of the proper
size, but in special cases, where the wire size has been
increased to reduce the voltage drop, strands may be
removed to permit the use of smaller connectors. I n no
case should the remaining cross-sectional area be less
than that required to carry the maximum current.
9.8 Grounding. Except for final branches which may

be grounded ut the supply end only, the metallic sheath
on all armored cable should be groutded a t each cnd.
Where armT%TZg;tile eiltGrs n box or wiring device, the
armor should bc coritinucd into the box and secured by a
clamp or corinector to assure good contact with the box.
If this is impracticable, thc armor should b ~ ~ o u n d to
ed
the steel structure a t the ngrest cable strap. For each
ground the armor and strap shouldJe we11 cleaged,at the
point of contaot.
Radio, radar, and miscellaneous communication
equipmenta have various requirements regarding grounding which are specified by the equipment vendor. To
ensure proper operation, the shipboard installation
should comply
- - with the vendor's recommendations.
Stays, shrouds, and other standing rigging should also
be permanently grounded to prevent the accumulation
of static electricity. Rigging and railing in way of the
radio direction finder loop and sense antenna need not be
grounded but should have insulators inserted every few
feet to prevent a shielding effect caused by nearby
induced radio frequency currents.
Enclosures and frames of electrical equipment generally
have inherent grounding by support from the ship's
structure. When they are not attached directly to
steelwork, special grounding should be provided.
All portable equipment should 'be grounded by a
separate conductor in the flexible supply cable and a
grounding device in the receptacle and plug.
PIPING SYSTEMS
CHAPTER XVlll
E. E. stephenson
ERmGE DECK
Piping Systems
Sectio~~
1
Machinery Space Arrangement
1.1 Introduction. The development of a machinery
space arrangement and the development of piping
systems within a machinery space are closely related
processes. I n fact, they are inseparable; the location of
the majority of machinery components is predicated on
the basis of piping system considerations.
The considerations which must be entertained when
developing a machinery space arrangement were outlined
in Chapter 1. As is the case with the development of
designs for many types of complex systems, the development of a machinery space arrangement is an iterative
process. Such an iterative process is illustrated by the
preliminary design spiral shown by Fig. 3 of Chapter 1.
For most types of ships, such as passenger liners, oil
tankers, and containerships, there is no uniquely
optimum machinery space arrangement that is clearly
discernible. In the usual case, a number of arrangements would be considered satisfactory; of course, some
would be preferable to others. It is the responsibility of
the marine engineer to assess the various alternative
courses of action and select the one which affords the
best compromises. In order to arrive a t a reasonably
optimum machinery space arrangement, the marine
engineer must possess a broad base of knowledge covering the operation and maintenance of propulsion plants,
piping systems, ventilation systems, and electrical
systems.
Concurrent with the preparation of the specifications
for a ship, sketches of the machinery space must be
developed. One of the foremost considerations when
developing a preliminary machinery space arrangement
is to recognize that the arrangement is based on many
components which are onlyftentative selections and that
their dimensions are only approximate. Insofar as
practicable, a reasonable allowance should be made for
variations in dimensions and unanticipated developments.
Since payload is not carried in the machinery space,
the marine engineer is under constant pressure to decrease
the size (particularly the length) of the machinery space.
Sufficient space must, however, be provided for proper
operation and maintenance of the machinery and
supporting equipment.
1.2 Development of Machinery Space. One of the
first decisions to be made regarding the design of a
machinery space is its location. Although many varia-
67 1
tions are possible, particularly for ships with special

applications, there are usually two choices with the more
commonplace merchant ships; namely, the machinery
may be located either in the aftermost region of the ship
or in the region of the ship somewhat aft of amidship.
The machinery spaces of oil tankers, as an example, are
without exception confined to the stern of the ship;
this arrangement generally simplifies the design of the
ship, especially in that explosion hazards are minimized.
Two factors permit such an arrangement: one is that the
hull lines in way of tanker sterns are full so that there is
sufficient hull width to accommodate the machinery.
Another is that the ability of tankers to take on ballast
enables the ship operator to adjust the operating drafts
within rather broad limits; therefore, the heavy weight
inherent with the main machinery presents no trim
problems even when confined to the stern of the ship
because seawater ballast can be taken on in the forward
region of the ship so as to maintain a reasonably even
draft.
Many types of dry cargo ships, on the other hand, do
not have the ability to arbitrarily adjust their operating
drafts; consequently, the weight inherent with the main
propulsion machinery would present a severe trim
problem when the ship is lightly loaded. Furthermore,
the hull lines aft on most dry cargo ships are so fine that
the propulsion machinery will not fit within the confines
of the hull in the aftermost region of the ship. For these
reasons, the machinery space for fine dry cargo ships is
located considerably further forward.
When developing a machinery space arrangement, the
designer must visualize the piping, valves, and other
equipment associated with each component. Also, the
functional requirements and interrelationships of the
various components must be borne in mind both from a
mechanical and the operator's standpoint. Maintenance i
and overhaul play important roles in the arrangement of
many components, particularly those containing tubes
which occasionally require replacement.
There is often a range of flexibility in the arrangement
of a machinery space. Assuming for discussion purposes
that overall considerations of the type outlined in
Chapter 1 have led to the selection of a steam turbine
type of propulsion plant, the boilers may be positioned
forward of the main engines or they may be located aft
and above the main engines as illustrated by Figs. 1-
MAIN D E C I
'
Fig. 1
Machiney arrangement-ale~ationat c looking to p a t
through 4 (which are a typical dry cargo ship arrangement). The latter arrangement permits a shorter
machinery space, but the raised center of gravity of the
relatively heavy boilers is disadvantageous as compared
with the former arrangement, which permits the boilers
to be located low in the ship.
In selecting the boiler location, the space between,
forward, and aft of the boiler must be studied from the
viewpoint of operation as well as such maintenance
considerations as boiler tube renewal, soot blower tube

removal, economizer tube removal, burner removal, and
desuperheater removal (if appropriate to the boiler
selected). The uptake location between the boiler and
boiler hatch, as well as the forced-draft blower duct work,
are investigated and normally shown on preliminary
design sketches. Forced-draft blowers are usually
located advantageously to draw the hottest air either
from air casing surrounding the uptakes or from the top
PIPING SYSTEMS
MARINE ENGINEERING
MARINE ENGINEERING
PIPING SYSTEMS
of the machinery space casing if uptake casings are not

required. Machinery space casings are hecked to
determine that their size is adequate to ccommodate
the boiler uptalres and the ventilation air intakes with
access around the uptalres.
Trade-offs between the components selected and the
space available are sometimes required as the equipment
tentatively selected may not lend itself to an acceptable
arrangement. For example, in the choice between
horizontal and vertical pumps, horizontal pumps require
more space but are easier to support Bnd are more
readily overhauled. I n the case of heat-transfer
equipment, the choice between vertical and horizontal
types can also be made to favor the space available.
Once the general location of the main engines has been
tentatively established, the vertical position of the main
engines is investigated. As discussed in u a p t e r 11, the
location of the propeller is fixed by hydrodynamic
considerations, but, by raking the shaft, a degree of
freedom in locating the main engines is provided. As
can be seen from Fig. 1, in the usual case there is scarcely
adequate space beneath the main reduction gear for the
lube oil sump, and the main condenser is so lo\\- that it is
difficult to provide sufficient submergence for the main
condensate pump without recessing the innerbottom.
As a result, the main shafting is invariably raked upward
going forward so as to alleviate these problem areas.
Moderate amounts of shaft rake are not objectionable
(see Chapter 11).
If the main eneines are located in the aft end of the
machinery sgace, a check must be made to ensure that
there is adequate space around the reduction gears for
passage and that sufficient access to the gear and pinion
bearings is provided. Foundation girders for the reduction gears and the main thrust bearing are sketched in to
confirm that sufficient rigidity can be provided.
At this time the large machinery components should
be studied to ascertain that they can be either unshipped
through the hatch or removed through a hole cut in the
hull. Frequently, unshipping considerations necessitate
adjustments in the location of the machinery components.
Several aspects of the main condensate system require
special study during the early design stages. The main
condensate pumps must be able to handle water under
vacuum a t its saturation temperature. Flashing will
occur a t the pump impeller entrance unless adequate
head between the minimum operating water level of the
condenser hot well and the pump suction is available. A
short and direct lead slopingc-from the hot well to the
pump is essential. Locating the pumps near the
condenser fore-and-aft centerline will reduce erratic
suction conditions in the event that the vessel rolls or
assumes a ~ermanentlist.
The main condenser seawater piping, due to its size,
should be shown on the preliminary plans and analyzed
with.the condenser overhaul space. The main circulating water pumps should be arranged to provide short sea
suctions via high and low suction sea chests. The pump
discharges to the main condenser and then overboard as
c2
675
shown bv kcin. 2. The seawater coolant for the main

lubricatiig oz coolers is usually supplied by the main
circulating pump.
The lubricating oil pumps take suction from the oil
sump under the main reduction gear and should be
located to provide the shortest suction piping practical.
Where a gravity system is employed, the lubricating oil
pump discharges through a'strainer and cooler to a
gravity tank that is located well up in the machinery
space casing. The gravity tank must be of sufficient
height to supply 'oil under the flow of gravity a t a pressure
of about 10 psi a t the turbine and gear bearings. The oil
completes the cycle by collecting in the oil sump beneath
the slow-speed gear.
Due to damage control considerations, naval ships are
not provided with a gravity lubricating oil system;
instead, the pressure in naval lubricating oil systems is
maintained by pumps. Due to arrangement considerations, some merchant ships also employ a pumppressurized lubricating oil system.
Other systems such as the auxiliary condensate system
and feed system are treated similarly. As illustrated
by Pig. 2, components such as fire pumps, bilge and
ballast pumps, fuel oil transfer pumps, sanitary pumps,
freshwater pumps, general service pumps, and air
compressors, which are not directly related to the
propulsion system, are studied and located to advantage.
At this point, with a satisfactory arrangement tentatively established on the lower level, the main operating
level can be established. When fixing the operating
level height, due consideration-must be given to the
space required beneath the level for piping, wireways,
ventilation ducts, lighting, and the necessary headroom
on the lower walking level. The operating level located
outboard on each side of the main propulsion unit serves
as a foundation for the turbogenerators, switchboards,
distilling plants, contaminated evaporators, and other
equipment as shown in Fig. 3. It is desirable from an
operational standpoint for the operating level to be a t
the same elevation a t all points; however, a lower level
may be required between the turbines and over the main
reduction gear for access to bearings and to permit
observation of lubricating oil thermometers and sight
flow indicators.
The size and location of structure, including pillars,
within the .machinery space may be determined to suit
estimated component weights.
Smaller equipment such as air ejectors, pump indicator
panel, telephone booth, and log desk are located on the
basis of o ~ t i m u mo~erationalconsiderations.
The space provided for.#perating -areas and access
should be confirmed as adequate. I n determining access
and operating areas, the following should be considered
minimum. The headroom in all working areas should
be 6 ft-3 in. The clear operating space in front of the
main throttle and control stations and the width of the
boiler firing aisle should be 5 ft. The width of main
access passages should be 24 in. ; however, the width of
secondary or infrequently used passages q a y be 18 in.
676
MARINE ENGINEERING
The width of main access ladders should be 24 in. and

the angle of sloping main access ladders should be 60 deg
from the horizontal. The slope of infrequently used
ladders may, however, be greater; the width of vertical
ladders to infrequently used intermediate levels may be
18 in. with 12 in. as a minimum.
At this point an overall evaluation must be made. I s
there adequate space for access, operation, and maintenance? If not, there may be a necessity to increase the
length of the machinery space. It is most unlikely to
find that the space available is in excess of that required;
but in the event of such fortunate circumstances, the
excessive space should be assigned to the cargo.
PIPING SYSTEMS
1.3 Summary. Despite the amount of work that

has gone into the design of the machinery space thus far,
the arrangement developed is only tentative. Much of
the arrangement is based on approximate data; furthermore, sketches of several alternate arrangements may
have been developed for some areas. There now remains
the task of evaluating the various alternatives and selecting those offering the best compromise from the standpoints of cost, performance, operation, accessibility and
overhaul. If all of the foregoing is carefully executed,
very little rearranging will be required during the development of the final working drdwings which are prepared
for ship construction.
Section 2
P i p i ~ ~Desig~~
g
Details
2.1 Piping Arrangements. Piping should be arranged in a neat, orderly manner and should not
obstruct or interfere with operation of doors, hatches, or
scuttles. Piping should permit free passage in walking
areas and performance of work in designated working
areas. The operation and control of machinery should
not be impeded, and the interference of piping with the
maintenance of equipment and ship structure should be
minimized. Wherever practicable, piping should be
kept clear of removable plates provided in the ship
structure for shipping and unshipping machinery or
equipment. The access to a compartment, boiler drums,
or other components should not be limited by the piping.
Piping should be portable in way of machinery and
equipment that require dismantling for periodic overhaul,
and wherever necessary for access to other piping
systems or electrical systems. Cutout valves should be
judiciohsly located to isolate sections of piping intended
for removal during maintenance and overhaul of
machinery and equipment, so that interference with
continued operation of the remainder of the system is
minimized.
Piping should be located where it ~vouldnot normally
be subjected to mechanical damage. When situations
malie this impracticable, a means to protect the piping
should be provided.
Ample provisions should be made to accommodate the
thermal expansion of pipes and movemerits due to hull
deflections. This is often accomplished by means o f .
exparisiori bends or offsetsin thc pipirig (see Scctiori 2.!5),
where such can bc provided without causing uridcsirable
poclccts; alternatively, in some cascs cxpansior~joints
may bc used.
l'ipirig arrangemerits which causc exccssivc turbulence
det/rimental to tlic system or coritairi unlicccssary high
or lo~vpoints should bc avoided. Wlicrc high and low
points in piping or equipmerit are u1invoidable, vents,
drains, or othcr mcans diould bc iristallcd to erisurc
proper operation of the system and its connected equipment.

The amount of piping led through messing and livingt
spaces should be minimized. Piping in such spaces
should be symmetrically and neatly arranged and
installed in the most inconspicuous location practicable,
consistent with efficient operation and maintenance of
the piping system.
Except as necessary to serve the space, insofar as
practicable, piping should not be run through medical
and dental spaces, chain lockers, freshwater tanks,
gasoline tanks and service areas and voids surrounding
them, refrigerated spaces, and wiring trunks and
enclosures.
Steam and liquid piping should not be located where
drips or sprays from leaks, condensation, or splashing
from funnels could damage electric equipment. Where
this is not practicable, adequate shielding of the equip
ment should be provided. I n addition, flange or union
joints should not be installed in the vicinity of such
equipment.
Where bilge or ballast piping is led through deep
tanks, means should be provided to prevent the flooding
of the compartmerits being served in the event of pipe
leakage within the tanks. Such means may consist of
an oiltight or watertight pipe tunnel, xJr the lines may be
of schedule-SO pipe thickness, fitted with expansion
bends, and all joints within the tanlcs welded.
Where a pipe tunnel is installed, the watertight
integrity of the bullheads should be maintained, and if
the tunnel is riot of sufficient size to afford easy access,
valves or fittings should riot be located within it. Bilge
lines led through deep tanks without a pipe tunnel
should be fitted with norireturn valves a t the bilge
suctions.
Where pipes are carried through watertight or oiltight bulklieads, declcs, or tank tops, the watertight
iritcgrity of thc structure should be maintained.
Lead or other heat-sensitive materials should riot be

used in piping systems which perletrate watertight
subdivision bulkheads, where deterioration of such
systems in the event of fire would impair the ~vatertiglit
integrity of the bulkheads. Illsofar as practicable,
piping with operating temperatures exceeding 125 1' arid
vacuum piping should not be located in the bilge area.
Pressure',gages, thermometers, level gages, and other
instruments should be located so tliat they are visible
from equipment operating areas.
Every effort should be made to locate valve hand\\-heels such that they can be conveniently operated.
Where this is impracticable, remote operatirig gear
should be provided for convenient operation, or the
valves should have attached gears or extension shafts for
this purpose. Valves in horizontal piping below eye
level should be arranged with their stems pointing above
the horizontal wherever practicable.
Globe and angle cutout valves may be arranged \\-it11
the pressure either above or belon- the disk, whichever is
more advantageous for operation, protection, and repair
of machinery and equipment served by the system.
Examples of typical valves which should have the
pressure under the disk are boiler stop valves, root
valves, throttle valves, sea valves, and tank valves
subject to tank pressure. Where a valve is subject to
vacuum in the closed position, the vacuum should also be
under the disk.
Manifolds may be used wherever globe or angle valves
are satisfactory, provided their use results in a simplified
piping arrangement or affords an advantageous operational feature. Insofar as practicable, manifolds should
be installed with their body just above the floor plates.
Inlet piping to safety and relief valves should be short
and direct. Where relief is to the atmosphere, open
ends of discharge pip$g should be such as not to damage
machinery or equipment, or endanger personnel. Relief
of flammable liquids should be to a suitable lowerpressure part of the system. Relief of toxic or explosive
gases from containers or systems shbuld be to the
atmosphere above the weather deck.
Air escapes from flammable fluid tanks and atmospheric reliefs from toxic and ,inert gas systems should
not terminate where their discharge can be picked up
by ventilation or forced-draft air intakes, or where their
discharge would otherwise damage machinery or equipment or endanger personnel.
Tailpipes should terminate a t the lowest point in
tanks and should be installed in such a manner as to
preclude their coming into hard contact with the bo4tom
of the tank should the bottom of the tank deflect upward. The end of each suction tailpipe should be enlarged to provide an area not less than 1.5 times the
inside area of the tailpipe. The height above the bottom
should be one half the tailpipe diameter and the tailpipe
location with respect to adjacent plating or other
components should provide a free suction area around
the open end periphery of not less than 1.5 times the
inaide area of the tailpipe.
677
All of the foregoing requiremcrits arc desirable without

exception; lio~vcvcr,it is riot uriusual that some must be
forcgo~icand compromises must bc made a t the expelise
of the less importarit arcas.
Thc importaricc of a thorough working knowledge of
the applicable rcgulatioris of tlic U.S. Coast Guard [I],'
l'ublic Hcalth Scrvicc [2], and classificatiori societies
(e.g., referericc [3]) cannot tfc ovcrempliasized. Definitive requiremcrits regarding marly aspects of pipirig
systcms are cyitained in thesc regulations. It is
important that these requirements be reflected in a piping
system design during the prelimiliary stages as conformarice to the requirements a t a.later point call be
costly and necessitate undesired compromises.
2.2 Materials. In order for a material to perform
characteristics:in service, it must possess the follo\ving
satisfactorily
Suficielit strength or load-carrying ability a t the
operating temperature to resist the imposed stresses.
Retention of suitable ductility arid impact properties
a t all operating temperatures.
Satisfactorv corrosion and erosion resistance to the
medium which it contacts.
Resistance to galling with mating materials in
moving contact.
Many materials may be suitable for the same service.
Factors which could influence the decision to select a
particular material include the service, availability,
cost, castability, forgeability, weldability, and lead time
required in production. Metals cannot be classed
simply as castable, forgeable, or weldable as such
properties are a matter of degree. What might be
considered as a satisfactory application for one category
of service could be unsatisfactory in another application.
Past successful practice plays an important role in the
selection of materials.
Pressure and tem~eraturelimits for the more common
piping materials are giver1 in Table 1. Limits for
recommended working stresses for piping materials a t
various operating temperatures are given in reference [4].
A discussion of such metallurgical subjects as the
affinity of materials to gall and galvanic corrosion of
materials in seawater is covered in Chapter 22 and will
not be repeated here. Regarding galvanic corrosion,
however, the following factors may be considered when
designing 9 system to minimize its effects.
Reduce potential differences between metals by
selecting materials close together in the galvanic series
or metal combinations where one member polarizes
easily.
Avoid bimetallic couples where possible, by insulation or by proper choice of materials.
Where bimetallic couples cannot be avoided, keep
cathodic (noble) metal area small in relation to the
anodic metal. Important members such as fasteners,
-
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 1
Material Pressure and Temperature Limits

DESIGNLIMIT
MATERIAL
Steel Pi e
8 e a m k carbon
Seamless alloy
Electric-resistance
welded
Butt welded
Wrought Iron Pipe
Lap welded
Butt welded
Plates
Carbon steel
Iron Castings
Malleable iron
ASTM
Smc.
h y r e , Temp.,
deg F
A53-A, B
...
A106-A, B, C
...
A335-P1
...
A335P2
...
A335-Pll
...
P12, P21, P22
A312TP321. ~ ~ i 4 7. .
875
1200
A53-A, B
A135-A, B
A63
roughness. Empirical values, such as those of Moody

[5], are commonly used for the friction factor.
Most practical piping systems contain valves and
fittings whose resistance to flow is significantly greater
than that corresponding to their actual length. Their
resistance contribution is usually assessed by assigrliilg
them a nondimensional equivalent length, this being the
length of straight pipe (measured in diameters) of the
same nominal size required for a n equal pressure drop.
For piping runs containing n valves and fittings each
having an equivalent length (L/d)i, the term L/d in
equation (4) 11-ould be replaced by
where
A72
A72
p = fluid pressure, psf

r = fluid density, lb/cu ft
V = fluid velocity, fps
g = acceleration of gravity, ft/sec2
z = elevation of fluid, ft
T = fluid frictional shear stress, psf
R = mean hydraulic radius of flow channel, ft
L = pipe length, ft
A201-A, B
A47-32510, 35018
A197-(Cupola)
Cast iron
A126A, B, C
A278
Copper and Copper Alloy
Pi e and Tubing
Eeamless copper
B42
B75
-. BSS
Copper alloy
B43 (Red brass)
B111 (Adm. Metal)
B l l l (Al-brass)
B l l l iAl-bronze)
B l l l ( ~ e brass)
d
B l l l 70-30 Cu-Ni)
.
B l l l [8&20 Cu-Ni
B l l l (90-10 Cu-Nil
Brazed copper
...
Co per Alloy Castings
ironze
B61 (Steam bronze)
B62 (Ounce metal)
B14.3 (Tin bronze)
~ 1 7 8 (PVC)
5
.
Plastic Piping
difference between specified points along a pipe in terms

of flow rate, pipe dimensions and roughness, and properties of the fluid. The tools of analysis are derived from
the momentum relation (an expression of Newton's
second law), continuity (an expression of conservation of
mass), a friction factor, the general energy equation, and
the equation of state. The f i s t three of these may be
combined to form the following differential. equation
which describes the condition of fluid in motion:
PIPING SYSTEMS
If the fluid flow is nearly horizontal or is a ga& the

third term can be dropped. Additionally, if the fluid
can be considered as incompressible and there are no
significant changes in flow area, the second term can be
dropped and the remaining terms can be integrated to
obtain the following expression for the pressure loss over
a length of pipe.
- ---
75
320
300
150
300
150
450
366
450
140
valve seats, and critical components should be the

cathode in a bimetallic system.
Paint or coat large cathodic areas.
Remove mill scale from steel surfaces.
When using stainless steel, avoid crevices and
regions which will contain standing water. Do not
rivet stainless steel or use lap joints for underwater
service.
Waterproof all faying surfaces involving stainless
steel with other bimetallic connections.
Structures under cathodic protection ahould be
electrically bonded together to provide low-resistance
connections.
Provide proper drainage to prevent accumulation
of standing water.
Choose appropriate metals for specific environments
to prevent stress-corrosion cracking.
2.3 Determination of Pipe Sizes. A fluid flowing
through a pipe must be supplied with a pressure gradient
to overcome the frictioilal resistance of the pipe walls.
Tllc typical engineering problem is to find the pressure
The fluid frictional shear stress is defined as
where f is a dimensionless friction factor. R is defined

as one fourth the pipe diameter, dl for a circular pipe;
therefore, the head loss, hL, over a length of pipe car1 be
determined from equation (2) as
The use of equation (4) is not confined to incompressible fluids (i.e., liquids) ; it can also be used in connection
with compressible fluids (i.e., gases) when the pressure
difference along the pipe is so small that the fluid density
is nearly constant between the points of interest. I n the
design of main steam piping, for example, equation (4)
can bc used because there is a negligible change in fluid
density between tlic supcrheatcr outlet arid the turbine
throttle. On thc other hand, boiler escape piping offers
cquation (4) is inacan example of a system for wl~iicl~
curate because of thc largc prcssurc drop, and hcncc
steam dcrisity change, in thc piping.
Thc friction factor is, in gc~lcral,a function of I<cynolds
number (and hence of thc fluid velocity, density, l~rld
viscosity, and the pipe dinmctcr) and of thc pipe wall
Values of equivalent lengths for common valves and

fittings can be found in handbooks such as reference [6].
Piping is generally sized on the basis of pressure drop
and flow requirements except where other criteria or
operating conditions specified for a particular system
impose additional considerations.
where a main serves two or more units of machinery
or equipment through parallel piping circuits, the design
and arrangement of the piping should ensure adequate
flow to each during all operating conditions.
Where necessary and practicable, throttle valves,
orifices, or similar devices may be used to regulate flo~v.
However, since these components tend to create turbulent
flow, they should be installed only where similar results
cannot be obtained by a more optimum piping system
design. Piping design and component selection should
be such that it is not necessary to install restrictions in
the flow to a major component to assure adequate flow
to an auxiliary component.
Table 2 contains a tabulation of suggested fluid
velocities which may be used as a guide in selecting pipe
sizes. The upper velocity limits listed f r ~Table 2 should
not be exceeded even for the larger sizes because of
erosion, water hammer, or the possibility of noise.
The velocities suggested in Table 2 should be disregarded if the corresponding pipe sizes are so small as
to incur head losses exceeding the pump suction or
discharge head ratings.
Particular care must be taken to analyze the h-- -~ n-. d
loss on the suction side of pumps. The suction piping
should be checked on the basis of design details for each
specific case. For oil systems the suction losses due to
high viscosity plus static lift can easily exceed the rated
suction lift of the pump and should be analyzed i n detail.
2.4 Pipe Wall Thickness. Definitive requirements
which control the minimum permissible thickness of pipe
walls are promulgated by the U.S. Coast Guard [I] and
the classification societies (e.g., reference [3]). Pipe
wall thickness requirements are continually updated
and revised; therefore, details of the current requirements are not repeated here.
2.5 Flexibility. Flexibility is a major consideration
in the design of high-temperature piping systems. Hightemperature piping systems must be designed to have
679
Table 2
Fluid Design Velocities
SEUVICE
Condensate primp suction
Condensate pump discharge
Condensate drains
Hobwater suctions
Hobwater discharge
Feedwater suction
Feedwater discharge
Cold freshwater suction
Cold freshwater diskharge
Lube-oil service $ump suction
Lnbe-oil discharge
Fnel-oil service suction
Fuel-oil service discharge
Fuel-oil transfer suction
Fuel-oil transfer discharge
Diesel-oil suction
Diesel-oil discharge
Hydraulic-oil suction
Hydraulic-oil discharge
Seawater suctions
Seawater discharge
Steam, high pressure
Steam exhaust, 215 psig
Steam exhaust, high vacuum
a
FLUIDVBT~OCITY,
fps
Nominal.
Limit
dd
3
3&
8
0.3Cd
1
&
3
8
3&
1.3&
4
4dd
10
3 4
15
5dd
20
dd
4
2&
6
&
1.5&
da
2&
2dd
5dd
1.5&
8&
343
5dd
50&
75&
75&
4
6
6
15
7
12
8
20
156
15b
200
250
330
d is the pipe internal diaketer in inches.

9 fps for galvanized steel pipe.
sufficient flexibility to prevent thermal expansion or

contraction from causing excessive stresses in the piping
material, excessive bending moments a t the joints, or
excessive forces or moments a t points of connection to
equipment and a t anchors and guide points.
Piping flexibility calculations should be made when the
system design temperature exceeds SO0 F and reasonable
doubt exists as to adequate flexibility of a system.
Reasonable doubt of flexibility for a two-anchor system
of ferrous piping of uniform size may be considered to
exist when:
where
pipe nominal diameter, in.
resultant of movements to be absorbed by pipe,
in.
L = developed length of pipe, ft
U = straight-line distance betl\-een anchors, ft
y
=
=
Flexibility should be -Iacorporated into a piping

system by the use of piping bends, loops, or offsets or the
use of flexible joints.
The use of expansion bends is simple and reliable.
The most simple form of an expansion bend is U-shaped
as illustrated by Fig. 5. The departure from the
shortest run of piping between the two anchor points is
obvious. The points shown as anchored must be
considered to be anchored not only in position but also
PIPING SYSTEMS
MARINE ENGINEERING
680
With Restraining Forces
No Restraining Forces
Fig. 5
Exponsion U-bend
Anchor
Point
J.-
7Rg. 6
---------
No Restraining Forces S h o w n
Three-dimension01 expansion bend
so that the piping is held without angular deflection. In

order to return the pipe to the position it had before
thermal expansion, only a single. force is necessary.
However, the action of this force results in the pipe
having an angular deflection a t this point and to compensate for this a restraining moment must be added.
The expansion stresses in the pipe in this case are
entirely bending stresses. The deeper the U-bend
between the anchored points, the less the stresses for a
given temperature change.
In actual practice expansion bends frequently are not
in a single plane as in the case of the U-bend but occur as
three-dimensional bends as shown in Fig. 6. The
flexibility is increased greatly over that for the single
plane bend by the fact that, for movement in any direction, one of the three legs is always in torsion. Usually
the additional thermal expansion in the third dimension
does not offset the gain in flexibility which the torsional
leg develops. Three-dimensional bends can be used
advantageously whenever space restrictions do not permit
sufficiently large single-plane bends to reduce the
stresses to the desired values.
Piping should be adequately supported by hangers or
guides, so that the weight of the piping is not excessively
transmitted to valves and fittings, and the inertia load of
the piping due to vibration and pitching and rolling of
the vessel are within acceptable limits. Pipe supports
should be designed and arranged so as not to restrain
thermal expansion of the piping and to insure that excessive loads are not imposed on connected equipment.
Anchors, pivots, and restraints should be fabricated and
installed so as to secure the desired points of piping i ~
relatively fixed positions and permit expansion and
contraction in opposite directions. .
Supports should be installed for heavy valves and
fittings to prevent their weight from overloadilig tlie

attached piping or causir~gvibration problems. Tlie
number of supports installed, the type selected, alld tlieir
location should prevent excessive vibration of piping
under all operating conditions; but they should not
restrain the piping to such an extent as to cause an
exccssive transfer of load from support to piping or from
support to support. The location and type of support
selected should. prevent excessive stress from being
transmitted from the piping to machinery, equipment,
or ship structure.
Stress calculations should be made to determine the
magnitude and direction of the forces and momerlts a t all
terminal connections and anchor and junctiod points, as
well as the resultant bending stress, and longitudinal
pressure stress, torsional stress, and combined expansion
stress a t all such points. Definitive requirements
regarding the calculations of pipe expansion stresses and
criteria for ensuring that adequate flexibility is provided
are enumerated in the Coast Guard rules [I].
2.6 Piping Joints. In order to provide piping
systems of maximum reliability, welded and brazed
joints should be used to the maximum extent practicable.
I t is especially important that the joints in areas
inaccessible for maintenance be welded or brazed where
practicable. Additionally, the number of joints should
be miliimized through the maximum use of pipe bends.
Components welded in the piping should be accessible
for repair, reseating and overhaul in place and should be
located to permit removal, rewelding, preheating, and
stress relieving in the event major repair or replacement
is necessary.
Complex assemblies, such as groups of valves, strainers,
and traps in a high-pressure drain system; that cannot
be satisfactorily repaired in place and ordinarily require
periodic removal, should be demountable as assemblies
by using a minimum number of flanged joints between
the root valves. Cutout valves, other than root valves
a t drain connections, may have a flanged end next to the
machinery or equipment and the other end urelded,
provided such valves can be repaired in place, and the
breaking of the one flanged joint provides sufficient
portability for overhaul of the machinery or equipment. Similarly, cutout valves in header and other
fabricated assemblies may have one flanged and one
welded end for attachment to flanged valves or takedown
joints and welded components. ,
On other systems,
takedown joints should be used where necessary for
portability. On systems that havc brazing components,
such as heating coils in tanks, \vhcre systcm tightness is
more important than optimum portability, talicdoi~na t
locations other than a t flarlgcd valvcs is pcrmittcd by
heating a t brazcd joints for disasscmbly and brazing
upori reassembly. Ho\vcvcr, wlicrc acccss is insufJicicljt
for disasscrnbly by hcating and rcasscmbly by brasirrg,
r takedoivn joints should bc installctl.
Flanged and ulliorl joints sllould be locatcd \\ Ircrc t1rc.y
are lcast affcctcd by pipclitlc forces (lu(: to tllc1-111:d
expalision or othcr causcs. Gor~cr:illy,this rc.cl~iirc.stllc
(0) SCREWED
(b) SCREWED
(cT SLIP-ON
AND WELDED
(f) LAP JOINT
WELDED
(9) WELDED NECK

Fig. 7
(h) FLARED
(dl
SOCKET
WELDED
( i ) BRONZE
HIGH-HUB
(e) PLATE
(J) FLANGED PIPE
Flange attachments
joints to be located away from bends or offsets. In no lines exceeding 8 in. nominal pipe size may be designed
case should a welding or brazing flange be located on a for a pressure of 25 psi.
pipe or fitting radius.
Stop-check type cutout valves or combinations of gate,
Mitre joints should be used only in piping such as air globe, or angle and check valves should be installed
escapes and overflows where their use would not cause where a reversal of flow is possible and would be detrian objectionable pressure drop or turbulence in the fluid mental to proper functioning of the system. Where a
flow. Branch connections should be located to minimize gate, globe, or angle valve and a check valve are required
turbulent flow, and the type used (crosses, sweep tees, to be located near each other in a pipeline, one stop-check
Y's, and lateral fittings) should be selected as required valve may be installed instead. The type of check
for the flow characteristics.
valve selected (swing, lift, ball, or special) should be the
Valves such as safety, relief, regulating, and governing one best suited for the service*condition. Special check
valves which require frequent removal for mainte~ance, valves having springs, hold-open gear, or other special
should be flanged. Flanged connections in piping devices are sometimes required by the system design.
systems containing combustible liquids under pressure Horizontally mounted swing-check valves should be
in the vicinity of hot exposed surfaces having a tempera- installed in a fore-and-aft position.
ture over 450 l? should be provided with protective
All automatic operating valves such as reducing,
shielding around the flanged joint.
governing, temperature and pressure regulating, back
Figure 7 illustrates some of the common alternatives pressure, and unloading valves should be sized on the
when selecting the type of flange attachment for a basis of capacity requirements. They should have the
particular application. For a detailed description of the control sensitivity and adjustment necessary for all
limitations of the various types of flange attachments, operating conditions. Where extreme sensitivity is
refer to the Coast Guard rules [I].
required, air diaphragm operated control valves may be
2.7 Valves and Fittings. It is suggested that fittings installed. The design of manually operated throttle
such as elbows and tees-be designed to the requirements valves and their operating mechanisms should be
set forth in reference [7].
reviewed to ensure that they have the necessary sensiValves should close with a right-hand (clockwise) tivity of control.
motion of the handwheels when facing the end of the
Gate valves should not be installed for throttling
valve stem. Valves should be of the rising stem type, service.
preferably with the stem threads external to the valve
Cutout valves should be installed to isolate machinery,
body. Where conditions do not permit the use of a equipment, and piping components as necessary for
rising stem valve, a. nonrising stem valve may be used operating conditions, maing~anceand overhaul, and
if it is provided with an indicator which clearly shows damage control. The type of cutout valve selected
whether the valve is open or closed. However, it is not (gate, butterfly, globe, ,or angle) should be the one bestnecessary for valves installed in tanks and operated by suited for the service condition. Generally a gate type
reach rods to be fitted with indicators.
should be installed where pressure drop or turbulent
Valves, flanges, and fittings should be designed for the flow characteristics of globe and angle types would be
maximum pressure to which they may be subjected, but detrimental to the system. Cocks should not be
in no case should the design pressure be less than 50 psi. installed in place of cutout valves unless they are necesHowever, large fabricated ballast manifolds connecting sary for proper operation of the system.
682
MARINE ENGINEERING
Forged or cast steel may be used for the construction

of valves and fittings for any system without pressure
limihtions.
but there are temperature limitations as
------ ....indicated 'by Table 1. ~ressure and temperature
limitations for other common valve and fitting materials
are also given in Table 1.
2.8 Sea Connections. Suction chests should be
located where they are not prone to pick up fluid
discharged by an overboard connection. Fire pump sea
suction chests should be located where there is no practicable possibility of their picking up fhmmable fluid
from an overboard discharge connection. Suction
chests should be located to avoid high entrance losses and
suction difliculties with the ship underway. The possibility of suction chests becoming airbound under
conditions of roll, pitch, or astern operation and the
intake of entrained air carried along the submerged hull
are also design considerations.
Sea chests and overboard fittings should be clear of
bilge keels and other hull projections. Their location
should minimize interference with docking blocks. They
should alm be located clear of butts in shell and innerbottom plating, and clear of welded joints insofar as
practicable.
Where intersections between fittings and welded
structural joints are unavoidable, such as may be the
case with main condenser aea chests, the line of intersection of the welded joint should be normal to the structural joint.
Suction chests should have perforated strainer plates
a t their junction with the shell. Where practicable, the
size of perforations should be smaller than the diameter
of the heat exchanger tubes to minimize the possibility
of fouling of flow passages. The clear area through
strainers should be a t least 1.5 times the area of the inlet
port of the sea valve. Burrs and sharp edges should be
removed from perforations.
Suction chests should be provided with a means for
clearing the strainer. Steam may be used where it is
readily available; otherwise, compressed air can be used.
For this purpose, a connection to the sea chest should be

installed outboard of the sea chest valve and so arranged
that the chest can be blown out in the most effective
manner.
Nozzles on sea chests and overboard fittings should be
as short as practicable and should have gusset plates
welded on when necessary to prevent excessive stress a t
the welded connection to the plating.
I n way of the innerbottom, sea chests should extend
between the shell plating and the innerbottom plating
with the mnge for attachment of the sea valve as close
as practicable to the innerbottom plating. A sea valve
should be installed adjacent to each suction sea, chest
and overboard discharge connection. Where more than
one pump is connected to a sea suction line or to an
overboard discharge line, a valve should be installed in
each branch to permit isolation of each pump. Where a
pump is located in a compartment other than that in
which the suction sea chest or overboard discharge
fitting is located, an additiondl valve should be installed
in the compartment in which the pump is installed.
A sea valve should be installed adjacent to a sea chest
which serves manifolds for ballast tanks from the sea.
If more than one manifold is served by a sea chest, an
additional valve should be installed
.- - in each branch to
permit isolation of each manifold.
Insofar as practicable, sea valves should be of the gate
type. Sea valves of the gate type should have stems of
one-piece construction and the stem should not be
attached to the disk by use of pins. Butterfly valves
may also be used. An angle valve should be used where
the installation of a gate valve or a butterfly valve is
impracticable. Sea valves in spaces not normally
manned should have a remote operating system with
control from the deck above.
Malleable iron and nonductile cast iron are not suitable
materials for connections to the shell plating below the
freeboard deck. Ductile materials such as steel,
bronze, or nodular cast iron should be used instead.
Steel plate is the material commonly selected.
Section 3
Piping Systems
3.2 Main Steam System. The purpose of the
Steam piping for ships propelled
main
steam piping system is to deliver steam from the
by steam turbine propulsion plants consists of two
principal systems, main steam and auxiliiry steam. boilers to the main propulsion turbines for both ahead
The latter system is further subdivided into secondary and astern operation. The turbogenerators and the
s u ~ ~-l l v-i nauxiliaries,
g
heat exchangers, deck boiler drum desuperheaters are also served by this
svstems
-"
machinery, heating systems, laundries, etc. Both the system.
With the location of the propelling engine or engines
main and auxiliary steam systems, and particularly those
capabilities essential to the safe operation of the ship, as well as that of the boiler (or boilers) having been
must be able to operate individually or collectively determined, the next task is to arrange the main steam
without interference. For this purpose, the systems pipes properly. This is comparatively simple in a vessel
are provided with the capability of being segregated where there is only one boiler and one engine, but it
becomes more complicated as the number of boilers
through the use of cutout valves.
3.1
Steam Piping.
I
I
i
I
PIPING SYSTEMS
increases and still more so where there are also two or

more propulsion units.
I n order to take care of expansion in the pipes, a
sufficient number of bends must be used between anchor
points such as fixed supports and attachments to boilers
and machinery. Lines should be arranged with a
definite slope either toward the boiler or toward the
throttle; in any case, provisions must be made to drain
the line. Pockets in the lihe must be avoided, if possible;
if unavoidable, they must be adequately drained.
After the pipe sizes have been determined on the basis
of capacity, the thickness of pipes should be computed
for the pressure involved. The pressure calculations
consider the hoop stresses in the pipe and it is also
necessary, particularly when high steam pressure is used
in combination with high temperatures, to consider the
stresses due to the expansion of the pipes. It should be
noted that increasing the pipe thickness, while reducing
the hoop stresses, will, on account of added stiffness,
increase the anchor loads due to expansion and it may
become necessary to rearrange the piping in order that the
total reaction loads may be kept within the allowable
limit.
Valves and fittings should be located, insofar as
practicable, in accessible positions. When it is necessary
to fit a valve in a place where it cannot readily be
reached from the floor or grating, access must be
provided or an operating extension should be fitted. I n
addition to the stop valves a t the boilers, another valve
should be fitted in the steam main ahead of the throttle.
Any branch line emanating from the main should have a
valve a t the branch from the main as well as a t the unit
it supplies, in order to provide double valve protection
and to facilitate overhauling.
Hangers or other types of supports must be provided
not only to carry the weight of the piping but also to
restrain lateral movement where such is not desired.
Fixed supports should be located in such a manner that
bends in the piping between them will provide sufficient
flexibility to permit movements due to expansion. I n
each case the locations of supports depend on the general
arrangement; where practicable, the pipes should be
placed so as to facilitate simple supports from adjacent
ship structure.
Figure 8 is a typical main steam diagrarp for a merchant ship. The system shown has two boilers; consequently, as required by the USCG rules, boiler cutout
valves of the stop-check type are provided to prevent crossflow from an operating boiler to one not on
the line. Each superheater outlet valve is 6 in. nominal
size and the turbine root valve is 8 in. nominal size.
For all steam valves larger than 6 in., the classification
society rules [3] require that the valves be fitted with a
bypass. The purpose of a bypass is to equalize the
pressure on both sides of the main valve so that it will
be easier to open. The bypass valve also permits the
pressure and temperature to be raised slowly in the
downstream piping when corning up to operating conditions.
683
For this particular design, it was specified that the

throttle pressure for the main turbines and the turbogenerator turbines be 850 psig. With a boiler superheater outlet pressure of 875 psig, this allows only 25psi
pressure loss from the boiler to the turbine throttles.
The 6-in. boiler line from each superheater outlet and the
&in. combined boiler flow line to the main throttle
satisfy the condition of 25-psi maximum pressure loss to
the main turbine throttle. For the turbogenerators, the
3-in. line from the 6-in. superheater outlet line to each
turbogenerator meets the requirement of 25-psi maximum
pressure loss t o the turbogenerator turbine throttle.
3.3 Boiler Pressure Auxiliary Steam System. The
purpose of the boiler pressure auxiliary steam system is
to supply steam directly or by way of reducing stations
to all the steam-driven auxiliaries and ship services not
served by the main steam system. A typical diagram
of such a system is shown in Fig. 9.
Boiler pressure steam is supplied from the boiler
desuperheater directly to the boiler soot blowers and the
turbines driving the main feed pumps. Through either
reducing station regulating valves or a thermostatic
control valve, the auxiliary steam system also supplies
the following components:
1. Main air ejectors, turbogenerator air ejectors, and
distilling plant air ejectors.
2. Main turbine and turbogenerator gland sealing
steam regulators.
3. Steam atomization for the boiler fuel oil burners.
4. Steam to the whistle.
5. Steam to the contamifhted steam system heat
exchanger for the evaporation of steam for contaminated
services. The normal steam source of this system when
under way is from the H P turbine bleed steam connection; however, for slow-speed conditions, port operation,
maneuvering, and astern operation, live steam must be
supplied to this heat exchanger. When the heat exchanger cannot be used, live steam may be used to
serve the contaminated steam system via a bypass
around the heat exchanger.
6. Steam for heating seawater for the tank cleaning
system via a thermostatic temperature control valve.
7. Steam to the auxiliary exhaust system. The
normal source of steam for the auxiliary exhaust system
is the exhaust steam from the w i n feed pumps and bleed
steam from the main turbines. For conditions when
bleed stehm is not available (i.e., slow ship speed,
maneuvering, or when in port), live steam must be used
to supplement the supply of exhaust steam from the
main feed pump.
Due to the fact that $he auxiliary steam lines are
smaller in size and a t legst in part subject to lower
pressures than the main steam, some of the difficulties
encountered in the proper arrangement of the latter are
eliminated. The inherent flexibility of the smaller
piping makes it more convenient to take care of expansion
and the necessary supports can be provided more readily.
However, the detail design is important, and in arranging
the distribution of the steam to the various auxiliary
MARINE ENGINEERING
PlPlNG SYSTEMS
OM DRUM PILOT' SAFETY VALVE
BOILER N 0 . 2
AUX. STM. SYS.
LEGEND OF SYMBOLS
W
-11
I-
GLOBE STOP VALVE

GLOeE STOP CHECK VALVE
SUPHTRSAFETYVALVE PILOTACT.
ANGLE STOP-CHECK VALVE
RINIG (L BLIND FLANGE
REMOTE READING THERMOMETER

PRESSURE GAGE
-I;+ ORIFICE
D THERMOMETER
" ~ " T V P ESTRAINER
NOTES
AHEADTHROTTLE
T
O
-+
-,
STM. FLOW TRANSMITTER
Cc
TELL-TALE
'
4.
5.
ATMOS 10.
I I.
Fig. 8
A L L GAGES ARE TO BE F I T T E D WlTH A VALVE AT T H E MAlN AND ONE AT THE

GAGE EXCEPT WHERE GAGE I S LOCATED ON MAIN. THEN ONE VALVE WILL BE USED.
A L L PlPE SIZES SPECIFIED ARE NOMINAL, WlTH 1.P.S OUTSIDE DIAMETERS.
A L L PIPING. VALVES AND FITTINGS TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE U S C G
ANDABS.
PlPlNG TO BE BENT T O A RADIUS OF 5 DIAMETERS.
PROVISION FOR EXPANSION TO BE MADE IN A L L PIPES WITHOUT THE USE OF
SLIP JOINTS OR CREASED OR CORREGATED PlPE BENDS.
CONTROL AND INSTRUMENT PlPlNG L E D FROM SUPERHEATED STEAM LINES
SHALL BE SOARRANGED AS TO PRECLUDE CONDENSATE FROM ENTERING THE
SUPERHEATED STEAM L I N E S IN ORDER TO GUARD AGAINST THE POSSIBILITY
OF CRACKING DUE TO THERMAL SHOCK.
FLANGES FOR MAlN STEAM TO BE USED ONLY AS REOUIREO AND WHERE
ATTACHEO TO TURBINES AND EOUIPMENT. LINE JOINTS TO BE WELDED USING
BACKING RINGS.
OPERATING CONDITIONS AT THE BOILER SUPERHEATER OUTLET ARE 8 7 5
P S l G AT 930.F TOTAL TEMPERATURE.
ALL PIPE LINES A R E TO BE PROVIDED WITH DRAINS WHERE NECESSARY.
LOCATE O N M A I N CONSOLE.
FOR EMERGENCY OPERATION ON H.P. TURBINE ONLY, TEMPORARY PlPlNG I S
INSTALLED AS SHOWN BY DOTTED LINES. FOR OPERATION WlTH THE L.P.
TURBINE ONLY, THE BELLOWS I S REMOVED FROM THE CROSSOVER PlPlNG AND
DESUPERHEATED STEAM IS INTRODUCED TO THE L.P.TURBlNE BY THE
TEMPORARY PIPING.
FLOWS AND VELOCITIES
NOTES
m MEET
REDUIREMENTS OF THE USCG ANDABS.
PlPlNG ARRANGEMENTS SHALL B E DESIGNED WITH
DUE REGARD FOR THERMAL EXPaNSION AND
ALLOWABLE LOADS ON PUMPS AND OTHER
ALL PIPING. VALVES AND FITTINGS
..
EOLI~PMENT
FLANGES FOR AUXILIARY STEAM ARE TO BE USED

ONLY WERE ATTACHEO TO VALVES FITTINGS OR
EQUIPMENT.
BACKING
RINGS.
LINE JOINTS ARE T O ~ WELDEDUSINO
E
Diagram of main steam for a 24,000-shp ship
PlPlNG f0BE-~ENTTO A RADIUSOF 5DIAMETERS.

A L L PlPE LINES ARE TO BE PROVIDED WITH DRAINS
WERE NECESSARY.
machines, the pipe size must be determined as required

for efficient service and the design details must be selected
to suit the pressure involved.
Some of the auxiliaries are usually designed for full
boiler pressure while for others a reduced pressure is
required. Where this is the case, a reducing valve is
fitted in the branch line and is set to deliver steam a t the
required pressure. A stop valve is installed on each side
of the reducing valve and a bypass is provided so that
steam may be supplied and regulated by hand in the
event that the automatic valve should require overhauling. A relief valve must be fitted in the low-
pressure lines to protect both p$ing and machinery

which are not designed for the higher pressure. A
pressure gage is also provided to indicate the reduced
steam pressure.
3.4 Turbine Bleed Steam. As discussed in Chapter 2,
the heat available from the steam is progressively
reduced as it passes through the main turbines, and only
a limited portion of the steam's available energy can be
converted to useful work by the turbine. Ultimately,
after the steam leaves the LP turbine, a large fraction
of the heat in the steam is exhausted into the main
condenser. By extracting steam from the turbine,
Fig. 9
Diagram of auxiliary and high-pressure bleed steam
wetern heat exchanger via a regulating valve. Highpressure bleed s t a m is the least economical of the bleed
atesm dbmatives since it contains a considerable
amount of heat available to the turbine; nevertheless,

u&g it is an economic preference to the use of live
a*m.
2. I n t e r m e h t e bleed connection. There may be
mveral intermediate bleed connections as indicated by
Fig. 10. S h r n from this connection can be used to
supplement the auxiliary exhaust for boiler air heaters,
f d w a t e r heating, and to provide for ship services such
as qusl4ers heating, hobwater heating, galley and other
hotel services. The boiler &r heaters are served directly
f r ~ m&is bleed connection. On the other hand, the
skmn pressure to the other services is not allowed to
iu&uate; et pressure regulating valve is provided to
admiti demperheated steam into the system as required
tb maintain the pressure at a set level. Intermediate
ateern can be used at about one half the cost of live steam.
3. Low-pressure bleed connection. The use of lowpressurn bleed atearn is an effective means of improving
the t h d efficiency of a cycle. At this point very
little of the h a t remaining in the steam is available to
the turbine and &&ti remaining would be largely
exbauded ik~hthe condenser. However, the use of
sham at &is ~ Q R pressure
is limited; its major applicatbm w e to wrvice the low-pressure feedwater heater
md the distilling plant.
Pn ge.nera1, the design of the turbine bleed system
&auld be: sueh that the heat available in the steam is
utilimd t~ he& advantage f o m the time it leaves the
bailer until it, is returned to the boiler as feedwater.
Eat bftlanees, web as: described in Chapter 2, in ~ h i c h
the: h a t req~rementsd the various shipboard services
me andyzea, w e the design t o d s used to establish the
mast+appropriate turbine bleed steam system.
b5. AwdTmry Exhaust System. The auxiliary exbus%rsystem wlbcts the steam exhausted by the
vwiaus au~nirt~g
machinery wmponents and deIivers
the &earn ta EL number of services. The design concepts
w d ta establish the optimum auxiliary exhaust system
amatgemen&ape much akin to t h e used in the design
af the t~rhinebleed system. Services typically supplied
b y the auxiliary exhaplat system include the ship's space
besting system, hotr~vaterheaters, galby, and other
hotd equipme~t. The U.S. Coast Guard rules [ll xequire that the seam pressure far space heating not
exmd 45 psig; mptsequently, by utifiaing steam from the
t$ux&ry exhaust iyrstern, this service is provided in the
most emnomieal manner powible.
Qmd the primmy objectives of the suxilirtry exhaust
sy&em is to m p p I ~stmm to the dmerating feed tank.
In the b e r a t h g f e d tank, the exhaust steam comes
in& direct csnbeti wikh the candensate which is sprayed
(we Chapter 14). ahia mixing of the steam and
wadensate b t a ekre fedwater to its saturation temperatare, thus causing the BXimldSir md gases (particuhrly
ctqge~
which
~ is highly cmsive) to be nIessed from the
Pdmkr.
The exhaust system may d e o t s h m fmm a number vessels9 B a t

pctg sysknas, zilaehiy,
of a&ry
turbines in &B m a
a
d
o&er ieg
em
& q e due to i e x ~ v e
pttrticular design &own in
exhaust steam is the
fed
ee% att a p e s w e not exceeding that fap uhich the
3.6 M y Vdve a d
js
&signed The reg&tssy bodies require h i
or ~ R t valves
y
must be
relief v o r 1 m b e ~ h p 8 . e n S ~ h ~
688
MARINE ENGINEERING
pressure of more than 3 percent above the set pressure of

the valve for steam, 10 percent for gases or vapors, and
10 to 25 percent for liquids.
A safety valve is broadly defined as a valve designed
to open automatically to relieve excess pressure in the
pressure vessel or element to which it is attached.
Safety valves can, however, be further defined according
to their specific type. The more common types of
safety valves are defined briefly as follows:
Spring-loaded safety value: A valve fitted with a spring
which normally holds the valve disk in a closed position
and allows it to open and close a t predetermined
pressures.
Pressure-loaded pilot-actuated safety valve: One which
is held in the closed position by steam pressure and
controlled in operation by a pilot-actuator valve.
Spriny-loaded pilotactuated safety valve: One in which
a spring is used in the conventional way to hold the disk
against the seat; however, it has a piston attached to.the
spindle and enclosed within a cylinder which, when
subjected to a limiting or set pressure, unbalances the
spring load, thereby opening the valve.
Spriny-loaded pilot valve: A conventional safety valve
designed to actuate another spring-loaded safety valve
through a pressure transmitting line led from the body
of the pilot valve.
Lever safety valve: A valve having the disk held on its
seat by the action of a weight hung on a lever which is
pivoted on a fulcrum.
Relief valve: Valves having the same general design
characteristics as safety valves, provided to relieve
excess pressure. A relief valve may, however, be used
for a service where an approved safety valve is not
required by the regulatory body requirements.
Sentinel valve: A small valve that is used to warn the
operator of a malfunction and serves as a telltale. The
set pressure is usually above the normal working pressure
but lower than the pressure the system can withstand.
A relief valve, or similar feature, is installed in the
outlet piping from each pressure reducing station. The
relief valve is located downstream of both the reducing
valve and the bypass valve and is sized on the assumption that the reducing valve could stick wide open.
Relief valves for steam or air service are provided with
a substantial lifting device so that the disk can be lifted
from its seat when the pressure below the seat is 75
percent of that a t which the valve is set to blow.
If the design of a relief valve is such that liquid can
collect on the discharge side of the disk, the valve
should be equipped with a drain a t the lowest point
where liauid can collect.
~ s c a piping
~ e from the boiler drum and superheater
safety valves should be designed to have an area of not
less than that of the combined areas of the outlets of all
valves discharging into the escape piping and should be
led as near vertical as practicable to the atmosphere.
The piping should be adequately supported and installed
so that little stress is transmitted to the safety valve body.
Safety or relief valve discharges, when permitted to
terminate in the machinery space, should be led below

the floor plates or to a remote position to minimize
personnel hazards.
3.7 Main Feed System. The purpose of the main
feed system is to provide a continuous supply of heated
and deaerated water to the boilers. The pump in the
main feed system takes suction from the deaerating feed
tank. Boiler feedwater comprises condensate from the
main and auxiliary systems, condensed heating steam,
and miscellaneous freshwater drains. These sources of
feedwater are collected in the deaerating feed tank.
As discussed in connection with the auxiliary exhaust
system, auxiliary exhaust steam is used to heat the
feedwater in the deaeratisg feed tank. The air and
dissolved gases in the feedwater are thereby released
and are either vented to the machinery space or piped to
the gland exhaust condenser. The heated and deaerated
feedwater collects in the bottom portion of the deaerating
feed tank where it is a source of feedwater for the main
feed svstem.
The main feed pumps take suction from the deaerating
feed tank and discharge the feedwater to the boilers. I n
the system illustrated by Fig. 12 at least two feed pumps
must be provided in compliance with the regulatory
body requirements. The regulatory body requirements
further specify that the only function these pumps are
permitted to perform is to supply feedwater into the
boilers. The feed discharge piping must be designed
for the pump relief valve setting or the pump shutoff
head if a relief valve is not provided.
To comply with the regulatory body requirements,
two feed lines must be used to serve the boilers. In the
particular design shown, feedwatgr can be delivered
through the main feed line or through the auxiliary feed
line. Each pump discharge is fitted with a stop-check
valve in the main feed line and in the auxiliary feed
line. The main feed line is provided with a feedwater
regulator, a feed stop valve, and a feed stop-check valve.
The auxiliary feed line is provided with a feed stop valve
and a feed stop-check valve.
Each boiler in the design illustrated by Fig. 12 is
fitted with an economizer; therefore, the feed is circulated
through the economizer before being discharged into the
boiler drum. If the design had included more than two
stages of feedwater heating, the subsequent heating
stages would also have been in the feed pump discharge
%
line.
Under normal operating conditions, the level of the
water in the boiler drums is automatically maintained,
usually a t mid-level of the boiler drum, by the feedwater
regulator. Since the auxiliary feed line does not contain
a feedwater regulator, the level in the boiler drum must
be manually regulated by throttling the feed stop-check
valve when the boiler is being supplied via the auxiliary
feed line. The auxiliary feed stop valve should not be
used for this pdrpose; i t is essential that wear on this
t a minimum so that i t can serve as a
valve be k e ~ to
tight stop ialye in the event positiGe isolation of the
boiler is required.
PIPING SYSTEMS
j - - j
L .J
D!ti5 RUB BE^

BILGE.
'
HOSE
CHEMICAL FEE0 TK
15 GAL.)
~ E S CABINET
T
NOTES
1. ALL PIPING. VALVES AN0 FITTINGSARE TOMEET T H E
REOUIREMENTSOFTHEUSCG AND A B S
ALL PIPE SIZES SPECIFIED ARE
WITH IPS OUTSIDE
z. nlaucTcmc
NOMINAL
5. VALVES REFERRING TO THIS NOTE SHALL BE LOCATEOONOR

OPERATEOFROM THE MACHINERY FLAT.
6. THE MOTOR OPERATED VALVE AT THE MAIN FEED PUMP
SUCTION I S CONTROLLED FROM THE MAIN CONSOLE
7. STOP
THE VACUUM
VALVES UNDER
SUBJECT
THE
TOVALVE
VACUUM
SEAT
S H A L L BE
WITH
INSTALLED
8. EACH DECK FILLING CONNECTION S W ~BEL FITTED WlTH HOSE

CONNECTIONS AND PROVIDED WITH.LOCK CAP AND CHAIN. EACH
CONNECTION SHALL BE MARKED WlTH AN ENGRAVED LABEL
PLATE INDICATING THE SERVICE
9. VENT PIPE THERMINAUS SHALL b E FITTED WlTH DOUBLE
SCREENS WHICH SHALL BE REMOVABLE FOR CLEANING. M E
INNER SCREEN SHALL HAVE I I I Z " S O U A R E OPENINGS T H E
OUTER SCREEN SHALL BE FITTED IIP~~FROMTHE INN& SCREEN
A N 0 SHALL BE OFSTAINLESS STEEL WIRE WlTH II~~SOUARE
-. -...,.
"".
nDmmr.c
10. CONTROL VALVE SENSING LINES SHALL BE A S S H o R b A S

POSSIBLE.
I I. LOCATE O N MAINCONSOLE
12. LOCATE GAGE TO BE READ ~TCOMBUSTION CONTROL CONS&.
' <e -
Y
Fig. 12 Diagram-feed, condensate boiler blow, and boiler water sampling
~CUNNEL
PIPING SYSTEMS
Even when 6;Re flaw of @~hf& fe$Twa6er is h w ar h m h d sufE&ently hi& ailhove Bhe M x a t e r r$dn dQQ-~~QVZexkb for s h o ~h
t tmah4wohr muse oakQhu8 hantiag tank &at it em drain hy gr&vity to this h k .
ts b9, &rodate& t h ~ u g bOPre w i n fwd pump in ~pdw A is m a E y desimMa ta amid a pwphg amgement,
as ea, pump and motar end tihe required p i e g and eon~EB
cod the p m p Fw thiw puqmse?wdwlating
t the system is
have h e n pr~vkled. Them lines fishre flaw bmm the W s em eEmh~kd,md the initial e ~ s d
pump" dheharge m d rwira$a&e the fiow back to the F & W ~ as are maintenance snd space requirements.
A rYypiml wmngement, for a 60ndensate sys.tem is
detaamting f cedi tank.
High md bw lexgls am mainhined in 8he deaemtbg ilkusbated by Kg. 12. En &e sys4enr &own there is Qne
feedvaa$~Beatm 6 a the d e - b
spill an4 the m k t main emdenser semd by Cw~amain condensate pump;
up f e d & e ~ * mpeeiTFely, each of f i c h ere mta- the re&at~ry bedies q u i r e &at two means be prayid&
mpItim& mntded by BigB4e;vd md law-led mnW far dl6&twging the condensatefmm Ohe maah wndewem.
Mker being pumped fmm the main cmdem~).
the caw
pilob. The high-level spill d y e bps the &emate
in the h e feeding a h fimbsfaga fedwater B&ex BQ the EEmmte st.tcceely passe8 tbmugh the main stir ejector
&tilled water tank; #e ~QW-level
mrtKeup f e d valve m a d e a ~ r s %
the $and Eed'c-off condenser, and the firstdumps W&&F fmm the disblled water tank to &e m& stage feed heater enroute ta the deaemting feed tank.
eormdenser; see Fi.12.
3-9 S a w d e ~Sysams. The pwpse of smwatex
As indicated in Fig. 12, water r x t m can
~ ~ be $&en q & e m e
m ~arn-dfiuenship is tm pmvide seawater
fram the W e r water wa.110, deaexating feed b k , and d m t , ta the main and d i a r y mn4ensers and the
c~lhtamin~txd
skwn pnemhr amd the mm$es a n he vmiaus heat exchangers (e-g., the main Eubriating-aiE
cooled aind tmted in cmvelrient access &aa sink.
matera, lubricating-02 d e r s for the turbine-dkea
TOf&ciE&aQe
the rnaintenaaw of W e r water &emis- aw5Eari.e~~
turbcrgeneretor 8ir and Iwtb~ioaGng-ailw'ters,
try, a & e m i d mixing tank and a chemical feed tank m a i ~feed pump IubPicating wler, and ship service
and eargQmfG@:e&im~~PEdensem].In most instances,
are a h provided w shown in Fig. 12.
During perids of shiplay-up, hebailew &remzmtimee independenti mawater systems are pmvidd ta supply
filled with watep, Wdez far t h k purpose can be drown the: emfanant im e a q ~and shig service refrigerating
&am
distilled wabr tank. A apecid esnxamthn mndemem and ot:h~rmiscellanmus semiem tm %wt~ate$
feam &e distilled w a t e ~tmk ta Me f e d pump s,uetiaaz by Fig. 13.
The regdatwy bodies mquiPe that a mala drculating
lines Erm been p d e d far this puqms~. (Tbm are
dm same bailer Iray-wp t e ~ h ofn the
~ *dry"
~
type in pump and rn emergenoy meam d eireulathg water
which the wahepsitde G*comp1eteBy &abed and t3k&ceanb t h u & the main condenser be, provided. When dud
me i n t m d u d ;see Chapter 3 for additional ~ m d m
-in eireulakjngMmps are ins+dE& (with b t k required
for Pull-power design conditians), the emergency requim
wx t h i ~mhj&-)
8.8. eZPPbtb a d CrndemseCe Systems. The p q o w of men& is m n & d to he satisfied; QP the emergency
the drain and mndenmte sysfmn~fiis ta milmt the d ' ] : s j ! ~ provbiwbns,may e m i s &~f a cannection fmm an iElcIepe*
md txwxkmat4 fmm th& vtwhu~sset~mes~ deliver deab, power pump &at is fitted hetween the m&
%hemta the deztera&g feed tank.
clreulating pump an& the m~denser. Dud main
are
cHm&m&iw af drnim: hq+mm
ejircdrrting pump8 and various cxms wmeetiona fzr
nd hw-pressurn dmba IEigh-pmessu~edrains nomd and emergency semiee b $hevaio\rs system are
i&& &me fmm the main ateam fin% ba:ie~preswure mmetimw provided M iindiesbed i~ Fig-13.
With some ships, a smap system forces &he seawater
auxih~
a t a m lines, m d other high-pressure pockets.
These Mils me piped b m high-pm~e.cfrtah main bhugb the aondemr [82. The ppewure bead that @a
Yre deveEaped:by o snoop ia limited sueh &a,& 10is generally
whi& diwhqps $ i t b%~z
the dew~3imgf d tan&
use samps with t m p a ~candenst3~8.
~
The law-pscssme (or:freshwat,er) &&in mi& OQ$~@& not feasible
the &mias from the main turbine, OE~-EUB~&OP~
A d d i t i ~ d sinw
~ , the pressme h e 4 d ~ d ~ by
p d
tihihe
s ~the
~ d ship'^ q - ~ ~ se dq ~ aemga
~ & ~
dLt3W $w& g l d exhawt m&hsert low-pewre W W IS~ p r ~ p s ~ t i t~
earnat b% employed w&h ~QW-SPEB~ship as the sim 4
M
n
t piping S L W V+dm
~ ~s p m hafiepa, b ~ b d heaters;
a ~
g d q p md hun&y. The E o w - m ~ edrain
fhe piping and wden~ernemss8ry t
a m%intaia a,
cm&im inb the freshwater &&a edl-gg
tank, and s & i c i d g low ~ X I Y I T dmp
I . ~ wnseu'id b m e grrohibd
~
&am t h e it can either k ~ U E QfbOl ~t&. dtw~sti~g
t i d y ba~rge. Therebare, 4Ene &p@imtictn~f W X I Q k
'
g ~ e ~ dconfined
ly
ta the higher-spmd ship8 with &&efwd tank w "~a~tl.w-dra@&"
to the cxmdenser.
En addlthn b the law-p~essurechin mak8there are paes cmdenms (e.g., paersenger &ipsz carga ship* msnd
m v e d ather dxains which dimbarge into khe f d w & k r acc&o~d tankers),
At very Iw forwad speeds and when manewex+
a
drain &mting W k . Dmbs fpm pockets in &e
audimy exhaust main, h w - p m w e steam, and bleed m o p does not prgduce a sufEciently large pressure head
&earn piping dm &charge Into the freshwater: drain ta maintain am &equate seawater AQW. Therefo~e,
when, a scoop i~xjee~an
sy&m is install&, it is also
mllfecting tank.
The low-prwure feed heatex drains can be either n e c v ba pELPOvide
a w i n ckdat;lng gpmp far IQW
pumped itktD the eondensate .system, wwaumdsagged. to spe& md ahen msneuvering.
the condenser, ar the law-presswe. feed heater mqy be
Normally,
addltktn %i tbesa. mean5 of p r ~ v i h g
NOTES
I. REOUIREMENTS
ALL, PIPNVG. VALVES
OF THEUSCG
AM FITTINGS
+WOABS
ARE w ,WT T*
2. ADJACENT
A~~ MOTORTOUN~T
OPERATED
ANOVALVES
ALSO AT.RE
THE
ID
EN=
;*=
mOPERATING CONSOLE
3. CONDENSER HEAD V E ~ T SSHAU SLOPE
w TOT=-
CHEST VENT.
4. THE SEA CHEST VENT SHALLTE~WA~E
OECX,
5. SWING CHECK VALVES SHALL
BE ISTAL~OIN
N WE
AN0 AFT OIRECTION.
6. STRAINERS ARE TO HAVE PERFWTKINS~IA~R~W
SEA WATER PASSAGES IN EOUIPMUYT
S E ~ ~ D
U~~~~~ THAT EOUPMENT ISSERWO W D ~ ~ I T I ~
STRAINERS.
~ ~ r ~ n m ,
am=
EMERGENCY
ONE HOSE VALVE
COOLING
L O COF
A TLINE
E ~~IOWAY
SHAFT
IN wamu6~
SH~~FTIIL~X
-L
BE PRW~OEO
THE MOST
WITHREMOTE
A HOSEBEARING.
OF SUFFKIENT
~~d~~
P'PING IS TO BE BENT TO A RADIUS OF S DI~*ETER~9. ALL SEA CHEST WNNECT~ONSSHDXL BE I N S T ~ L L ~ ~ ~

THE SIDE OF THE SEA CHEST EXCEPT V E U wcw
~
-E
MOUNTEO ON THE TOP OF THE CHEST.
10. NEEDLE VALVE M U S T S OPENED WHEN 7 ~ ~ ~ c . m ~
SE~VICE
T ~ APUMR
~ IS IN OPERATION AM RL-TEO~CH
THE TEMPERATURE OFTHE COUTAUINATEO ~ ( U M
SUCTION DOES NOT EXCEED laO-F.
692
MARINE ENGINEERING
seawater to the main condenser, yet another supply of located beneath the reduction gear. The sump should
seawater is usually provided by arranging the piping have a total capacity sufficient to contain the oil in the
such that either the auxiliary condenser seawater pump gravity tank, the service piping, and the normal operating
or the general service pump, if such is provided, can capacity without overflowing through the main gear
bearings. The main lubricating-oil pumps pump the
discharge through the main condensers.
Circulating water is taken from the sea by way of oil back to the gravity tank.
In order to provide a satisfactory lubricating-oil drain
either of two suctions. One suction, usually located
near the turn of the bilge, is called the high suction and piping design, exacting attention must be paid to design
the other, located very low in the ship, is referred to as details. To minimize foaming within the sump tank, all
the low suction. With this arrangement clean water return lines to the sump tank should discharge below
can be taken in even when operating in shallow water the normal working level. Since this arrangement
precludes a flow of air through the piping, it is essential
with a muddy or silty bottom.
Seawater piping should be designed such that air that the drain piping be designed so as to avoid trapping
pockets will not form, and the design should be such that pockets of air in the piping and thereby restricting the
entrained air remains entrained as it passes through the flow of lube oil. This is accomplished by (a) liberally
piping, condenser or heat exchanger, and overboard. sizing drain piping and (b) sloping all drain piping but
Condenser heads should be vented, and the vent piping ensuring that the slope does not exceed about 60 deg
should be sloped upward. It is generally advantageous from the horizontal (in spme cases this may. require the
to combine the piping vents with the sea chest vents and piping to follow a spiral path). Additionally, all branch
route them within the vessel well above the load waterlines should connect from the side of the main drain
lines. For additional discussion regarding the design of
line.
Protective strainers should be provided to protect the lubricating-oil tanks, see Chapter 20.
Two (one a standby) lubricating-oil service pumps
tubes of heat exchangers provided with a seawater
coolant. The mesh or perforations of the strainer each take suction from the oil sump through a strainer.
baskets should be equal to or smaller than the heat Each pump discharge is fitted with a relief valve relieving
exchanger tubes which they serve. Duplex strainers to the sump tank. A stop-check valve may be installed
are shown for the seawater piping to the turbogenerator in each pump discharge to prevent backflowjhrough
oil and air coolers in Fig. 13. Simplex strainers may be the idle pump; or, alternatively, a check valve may be
used when services are supplied by multiple pumps, as located on the suction side of the pump. Check valves
is the case with the seawater service pump suction piping on the suction side offer the advantage of preventing air
from entering the system through the pump seals. The
in Pig. 13.
3.10 Lubricating-Oil System. The propulsion plant pumps are preferably located lower than the operating
lubricating-oil system provides the means to lubricate level of the oil in the sump in order to ensure that the
and cool bearings and working parts within the main standby pump suction is always flooded with oil.
The pumps discharge through a duplex magnetic
propulsion turbines, main reduction gears, and main
thrust bearing. A detailed discussion of lubrication strainer via the lubricating-oil cooler to the gravity tank.
theory and lubricating systems is contained in Chapter The temperature of the lubricating oil leaving the coolers
20 and therefore will not be repeated here. Instead, the is regulated by a thermal element which senses the oil
following discussion is primarily directed towards the temperature, and the oil temperature may be controlled
in either of two ways: (a) a bypass valve may route the
piping of lubricating systems.
The lubricating-oil piping must be independent of lubricating oil around the cooler when the aooler disother piping systems. The lubricating-oil system should charge is excessively cold (a control valve bypasses oil
be designed to operate satisfactorily when the vessel is so as to maintain the temperature of the oil in the range
permanently inclined to an angle of 15 deg athwartship for proper lubrication), or (b) the quantity of cooling
and 5 deg fore and aft, and when rolling up to 30 deg or water to the cooler may be varied to maintain the oil
pitching 10 deg. While this requirement also applies to discharge temperature in the proper range.
The gravity tank is provided wit6 an overflow line to
other piping systems, it is of particular importance in
connection with the lubricating-oil system (e.g., the slope the sump tank with an illuminated sight flow indicator
of drain piping must be checked at all inclined positions, located on the main operating level. The capacity of
and the oil free surface in sumps must be investigated each lubricating-oil pump is in excess of the turbine and
gear requirements, thus providing a continuous flow of
to ensure that the oil will be properly contained).
The main turbines and reduction gears are usually oil in the overflow line. The overflow line is equipped
lubricated by a gravity-pressure system in which oil is with an air separator to free the oil of entrained air
supplied to the main propulsion unit from a gravity tank before being returned to the sump. The gravity tank
located on the upper level of the machinery space; such is also provided with a low-level alarm switch set to
a machinery arrangement is illustrated by Fig. 1, and a sound when the tank level drops below a predetermined
diagram of a typical lubricating-oil system is shown in level. A low-oil-pressure indication and alarm is
provided at the main gageboard. Usually, about six
Fig. 14.
The oil drains from the propulsion unit to a sump minutes supply of oil is contained in the gravity tank.
PIPING SYSTEMS
MARINE ENGINEERING
The capacity of the settling tank is usually sufficiently

large to hold one complete change of oil.
The lubricating-oil service pump motors are fitted
with a control system arranged to automatically start
the standby pump in case the operating pump fails. An
sounds when the pressure developed by
alarm
the operating pump drops below a set value. The
redundancy provided by the standby pump results in a
highly reliable pumping capability.
Nevertheless,
steam-turbine-driven propulsion machinery depending
on forced lubrication must be designed to shut down
automaticaUy upon complete failure of the lubricating
system. To accomplish this, the pump discharge main
is often arranged to supply oil for the operating cylinders
of the main turbine ahead and astern throttle valves.
Filling of the lubricating-oil system is accomplished
from the deck to the storage tank. Makeup oil to the
main sump may be taken from the storage tank via a
locked-valve line to the gravity tank overflow. Makeup
oil to the turbogenerator sump may also be taken from
the storage tank. Oil may be drawn from the settling
s
For batch purification the contents of the entire

system are purified. This is accomplished by draining
the gravity tank to the sump tank. Then the oil in the
sump tank is transferred from the sump to the settling
tank with the main lubricating-oil pump. Next the oil
in the settling tank is heated and allowed to settle. The
purifier suction pump then takes suction from the
settling tank and discharges through the lubricating-oil
heater to the purifier, and the purifier discharge pump
delivers the oil to the gravity tank and fills the sump
tank by overflowing the gravity tank.
Iror ships which have oil-lubricated stern tube bearings
(as opposed to water-lubricated rubber or wood bearings),
a separate lubricating-oil system is provided for the
stern tube bearings. The system incorporates a gravity
tank which maintains a pressure in the stern tube
slightly in excess of the seawater pressure. The tank
is provided with a fill connection, gravity pressure line
to the stern tube bearing, sight level indicator, vent, and
high-low level alarm. The system a t the stern tube
itself has been designed with many variations. It may
consist of a pump taking suction from a drain tank and
discharging through a filter or coalescer to the aftermost
stern tube seal. A thermometer is located in the return
line from the stern tube and a pressure gage is provided
at the pump discharge. For a more detailed discussion
regarding lubricating systems for oil-lubricated stern

tube bearings, see Chapter 11.
3.11 Fuel-Oil Filling, Transfer, and Oily Ballast

Syrkm. There are two fuel-oil piping systems aboard
ship which are closely related but are clearly distinct.

These are the fuel-oil service system, and the fuel-oil
transfer, filling, and oily ballast system. The fuel-oil
service system includes the piping necessary to convey
the oil from the settling or day service tanks to the fueloil burners. The transfer and filling system includes the
low-pressure piping required for fining the tanks and for
the transfer of oil from one storage tank to the settling
tanks for immediate use or another storage tank when
necessary for trimming the ship.
In order to increase the draft of the ship and improve
its seakindliness, i t is often desirable to fill empty fuel-oil
tanks with seawater ballast. The piping system used
to take on and discharge seawater ballast from fuel-oil
and ballast tanks is known as the oily ballast system. I n
addition to providing the ability to fill and transfer fuel
oil, the same distribution piping to the fuel-oil tanks may
the ship below deck. Filling lines run from the main
down to the tanks. The overflows are provided with
adequate height to prevent overflow under normal
conditions when filling.
The fuel-oil transfer system is served by a fuel-oil
transfer pump and, in an emergency, it may also be
served by a general service pump. Fuel oil carried in
the storage tanks (innerbottom or double bottom and
deep tanks) is transferred to the fuel-oil service tank by
the fuel-oil transfer pump. The stored fuel oil usually
must be heated before it can be pumped.
3.12 Fuel-Oil Service System. I'uel-oil
service
pumps take suction from the service tanks and deliver
the fuel oil to the burners a t the desired temperature
and pressure to suit the type of oitburned. A diagram
of a fuel-oil service system is shown in Fig. 16.
Suction lines are provided a t two positions in the
service tanks. Normal operation from the low suction
is changed to the high suction in the event of excessive
water in the bottom of the service tank. When water
or sludge is found in the tank, the fuel-oil transfer pump
may be connected to the low suction and discharge to a
slop tank.
The fuel-oil suction main is provided with a duplex
strainer to prevent sediment from the fuel-oil tanks
entering the service pumps. Oil from the service pump
passes through a stop-check valve to the fuel-oil heaters,
SKETCH "A"
TYPICAL SECTION THROUGH
FUEL OIL TRANSFER AND
BALLAST MANIFOLD.
F ~ . O V B O . BF.O.TRANS.
PUMP DISCHARGE
O"F.O.OVERFLOW STAN
0.8. TKS. NO. I F.O. OR
sW.
ENDOF TAILPIPE
LOCATE0 ABOUT 3 "
ABOVE TANK TOP P 8 s
SECTION- OVERFLOW PIPI
NOTES
I.
DATA BASED ON FUEL OIL V l s c O ~ l ~3y0 0 0 ssU

loTAL
FLOW OF 2 2 0 0 BBLS/HR TO ALL TANKS ~
N
OF 3 6 0 BBLSfHR TO NO I DOUBLE BOTTOM T
A
3. SPEED
THE F PUMP
U OIL
~WHICH
TRANSFER
~
DEVELOPS
PUMPA IS
TO
A TY A
E R~HEAD
T ~ C AOF
LT ~ O -
C
~
1 0 0 PSI AT 3 0 0 GPM.
'9.
l5
of fuel-oil filling, transfer, oily bollast, and overflowsinmachinery
discharge strainem, meter1 mntrol valves) and the fuelburner header. Bypass valves are provided around
the meter and the control valves.
Strainers in the System suction and discharge should
be of the
type Or of a type
of being
deaned without intempting the fuelmoilsupply. C0amin@) drip pans, etc., should be fitted under the strainers
and
and wherever necessary to Prevent oil from
spilling onto Piping

plates
draining to the
bilge.
The regulatory bodies require that at least tm-0 fueloil sewice pumps be provided and that each have
sufficient capacity to supply the boilers a t their
rating. Two motor-driven rotary-type fuel-oil service
pumps are usually
and are valved and intermnnected such that either pump can take suction from
696
MARINE El
either service tank. Each pump is installed such that it is

capable of being overhauled while the other is in service.
A relief valve is located in the discharge of each pump
and is arranged to discharge into the pump suction. An
automatic pressure-regulating valve is usually installed
between the service pump discharge and the burner
header. This valve maintains a constant pressure at the
inlet side of the burner headers by recirculating oil back
to the pump suction.
Fuel-oil service pumps must be equipped with means
of emergency shutdown from a position outside of the
machinery space which will be accessible in the event of
a fire in the compartment in which the pumps are
located.
Two fuel-oil heaters, each capable of supplying the
total oil requirements of the boilers and arranged such
that one can be overhauled with the other in service, are
usually provided. The steam to the heater is supplied
through a thermostatically controlled pressure regulator
which is capable of maintaining the temperature of the
oil leaving the heater at the value necessary for proper
atomization of the oil being burned. A relief valve is
located on the oil side of the heater to prevent excessive
pressure within the heater.
The fuel-oil flow to the boiler is controlled by the
combustion control system.
A recirculating line is provided for each boiler to return
the oil to the pump suction when recircu.lating to heat
the oil during a cold start-up or during a condition in
which all fires in a boiler are temporarily secured.
The discharge piping from the fuel-oil service pumps
to the boilers must be of steel, seamless, and of schedule80 thickness. Nonferrous material cannot be used in
this system except for the short lengths of tubing from
the burner header to the individual burners.
Piping between service pumps and burners should be
located so as to be readily observable.
The relief valve located at the pump discharge may
discharge back to the suction side of the pump. The
relief valve provided for the fuel-oil heaters should
discharge to a service tank. The return line from the
burners should be so arranged that the pump suction
piping cannot be subjected to discharge pressure.
If screwed-bonnet valves are used, the valves should
be of the union-bonnet type capable of being packed
under pressure.
Unions are not used in pipe sizes of one-inch nominal
size and above. Bushings and street ells should not be
used in fuel-oil discharge piping.
3.13 Bilge and Ballast Systems. The bilge and
ballast systems, while having two distinct functions to
perform in the ship, are usually so interconnected that
it is found advantageous to cover the two systems on the
same arrangement plan. The same pumps are commonly
connected to serve both systems, and the piping with its
valves and fittings must be so arranged that each system
can function without interference with the other. For
this purpose the systems should be provided with more
than one pumping capability, as required by the regula-
PIPING SYSTEMS
tory authorities, particularly for the pumping of bilges.

All manned vessels must be provided with a satisfactory bilge pumping system which is capable of pumping from and draining any watertight compartment
except for ballast, oil, and water tanks which have an
acceptable means for fillingland emptying independent
of the bilge system.
The capacity and number of pumps or their equivalents
to be used in the bilge system depends upon the size,
type, and service of the ship. Specific requirements
regarding the number of bilge pumps and their capacities
are delineated in references [I, 31.
The bilge pumping system must be capable of dewatering the ship under all practicable conditions
after a casualty including extreme conditions of list and
trim. For this purpose, wing suctions are generally
fitted except in compartments that are narrow in the
fore-and-aft direction and at the ends of the vessel,
where one suction is sufficient. In compartments of
unusual form, additional suctions may be provided. A
nonreturn valve should be fitted to the end of the bilge
pipe in the compartment which it serves.
All bilge suctions must be fitted with suitable strainers.
In the machinery spaces these should be placed so that
they are easily accessible from the floor plates and
should be of a type that can be easily cleaned. At the
end of the bilge lines in other compartments, ordinary
box strainers or their equivalent are satisfactory provided
they have an open area not less than three times the area
of the suction pipe. In addition to the suction strainer,
easily cleaned strainers should be fitted in the line
between the manifold and pumps and so arranged that
the pumps will be protected against any debris that may
have passed through the individual strainers.
The piping design must be such that miscellaneous
water in the compartments will drain to the bilge suction
pipes. The bilge suctions are arranged so that water
from all tank tops, watertight flats, insulated holds,
peak tanks, chain lockers, and decks over peak tanks can
be drained. Where drainage from particular compartments is considered undesirable, the provisions for such
drainage may be omitted, provided the safety of the
vessel is not impaired.
The pump discharge from the bilge system is always
led overboard,-and when the same pump is used for
other purposes, as for ballast water, fire main, etc.,
other discharge connections are pwvided. Each pump
may have a separate discharge through the ship's side,
but it is desirable that the shell penetrations be as few
as practicable; therefore, two or more discharge lines are
usually combined in one outlet, each line being fitted
with a valve to permit isolating the line from the others.
Bilge and ballast pumping systems are arranged so as
to prevent oil or water (from the sea or ballast spaces)
from passing into cargo or machinery spaces or from
passing from one compartment to another. The bilge
and ballast mains are fitted with separate suction valves
at the pumps.
The number, location, and size of the bilge suctions in
RECIRC LINE
-F
PLAN VlEW
SEE NOTE 7
NOTE NOTE 7
BRIDGE DECK
.L
SEE NOTE 8
,,
\BAFFLE
r---1
-,
'
\SEE
NOTE B
SECTION VlEW
SHOWING BURNER FUEL OIL AND

DIESEL OIL COLD BOILER START PIPING
PUMP TABLE
ROTaRI
COLD BOlLER S1ART
NOTES
I. ALL PIPING, VALVES AN0 FITTINGS ARE TO MEET THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE
U.S.COASTGUP.ROAN0 ABS.
2. ALL PIPE SIZES SPECIFIEOARE NOMINAL WITH I P S OUTSIDE DIAMETERS.
3. COAMINGS. ORlP PANS. ETC SHP.LL BE FlTTEOUNOERNELOILSERVlCE
4, ~ ~ ~ ~ j ~ $ ~ f : L ' " p ~ ~ ~ C T ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ S ~AytALGE..
~ E ~ ~ ~ , " ~ M ~ T ~ L ~ ; ~ J & ~ ~ ~ ~
TEMPERATURE STEAM LINES.
5. FUELOIL SERVICE PUMPS SHALL BE CONTROLLEOFROM THE AUXILIARY BOARO.

ALSO THE PUMPS SHALL HAVE PROVISIONSOUTSIOE THE MKHINERY SPACE
FOR EMERGENCY SHUT OOWN.
6 . THE MAIN SOLENOIO V4LVE IS TOCLOSE IN EVENT OF LOSSOF POWER TO THE
FORCEOORAFT BLOWER. LOW WATEROR TOTALFLAME FAILURE WITHIN THE

BOILER A MANUALTRIP SHALL BE PROVIOEOONTHE VALVE
7. HIGH SUCTIONPIPE SHALL TERMINATE IB'ABOVE TANK BOTTOM LOW SUCTION

PIPES SHALL TERMINATE BELOW THE LEVELOF THE BOTTOM o ~ T H E T A N K I N A
ORAlN WELL.
8. FUEL O h RECIRCJLAT hG L NL IS TOENTER NEAR TOPOF FUEL OIL SETTLING
TAN* AN0 TERMINATE NEAR THE WTTOM OF TANK IN A"U"BENO.
9. THE BLlNER SOLENOIO VALVE IS TO CLOSE N EVENT OF BURNER FLAME
fAILJRE. A MANUAL1R.P S ~ A L LLIE PROVIOEOONTHE VALVE.
Fig. 16
Diagram of fuel-oil service
system
MARINE ENGINEERING
the boiler and the machinery compartments must be

determined when the piping plans are submitted for
approval by the regulatory bodies and must be based
upon the size of the compartments and the drainage
arrangements.
A bilge and ballast system for a typical dry-cargo ship
is illustrated by Fig. 17. For the purpose of determining
the required number of bilge pumps, this ship is classed
as an oceangoing dry-cargo vessel over 180 f t long.
Since centrifugal pumps have been provided in the
system illustrated by Fig. 17 (as is the usual case with
bilge and ballast systems), a central priming system
has been installed. An alternative would have been
to provide centrifugal pumps with their own priming
system; or, where positive-displacement pumps are
used, a priming system is not required.
The chain locker sump and the bilge pockets, such as
those around the bow thruster, are often drained by an
eductor. Actuating water for the eductor is furnished
by the fire main.
As stated previously, the ballast system is usually.
connected with the bilge system. It is usually served,
in part, by the same pumps, but the piping between the
pumps and the ballast tanks has no connections with
the bilge system. In some cases a tank requires connections to both systems, as when the tank is used
alternately for ballast or dry cargo. Under these
conditions the bilge system and the ballast system must
be arranged to serve the tank but so arranged that, when
one is needed, the other is blanked off.
The arrangement of the piping to the various ballast
tanks is in general similar to that for the bilge system,
the main difference being that, with the exception of the
discharge overboard, the bilge piping is arranged for
suction only, while the ballast. piping aonsists of-both
suction from'and discharge to each ballast tank.
Separate main lipes for suction and discharge should be
provided to simplify operation; in any event the two
should be so arranged that water may be drawn from
any tank or from the sea and discharged into another
tank or overboard as may be found necessary to maintain
a proper trim of the vessel.
The sea suctions are usually so arranged that water
can be run into the tanks by gravity if the pumps should
be otherwise employed, and valves must be provided
wherever necessary for the proper control of the system.
I n general the size of the ballast pipes is made large
enough to maintain the suction lift rating of the pump
down to one half the full level of the tank.
A pump serving both bilge and ballast systems should
have at least three valves in the suction manifold: one
stop-check valve for connection to the bilge main, one
stop valve for the ballast, and one stop-check valve for
suction from the sea. I n the discharge manifolds, there
should be a valve for ballast and a valve for the overboard discharge.
When tanks are being filled by pump pressure, provision must be made to protect the tanks against a
pressure greater than that for which they are designed.
For this purpose ovedows are provided. In order to

avoid the necessity of comparatively large overflow
pipes from each tank leading up through other compartments, where they interfere with the arrangement of
these spaces, it is common practice to provide a standpipe on the main discharge from the pumps to the tanks.
This pipe should be the full size of the discharge main
and should have its outlet at a level not exceeding the
allowable test head on the tanks. The pump discharge
must be so arranged that when the tanks are being filled
it will also have an unobstructed discharge overboard. .
The standpipe outlet must be separate from the regular
overboard discharge.
In the arrangement illustrated by Fig, 17 the forepeak
tank and the afterpeak tank axe connected to the clean
ballast system. As required for trimming the ship, these
tanks are filled from the sea or emptied by the fire and
clean ballast pump. The centrifugal motor-driven fire
and clean ballast pump may have to be primed before
emptying the peak tanks (when the head corresponding
to the level of the water in the tank is not sufficient to
prime the pump) ; for this reason, it is connected to the
central priming system.
3.14 Freshwater Systems. As discussed in Chapter
1, a fundamental decision to be made in the design of the
freshwater system is the choice between providing
sufficient tankage aboard ship so that fresh water can be
purchased at the various ports of call and stored until
used, and the alternative of producing fresh water aboard
ship by distilling seawater in low-pressure evaporators.
The most advantageous choice or compromise between
the two depends upon particular circumstances;however,
low-pressure evaporators are the common choice.
An additional decision to be made deals with the
number of grades of freshwater systems carried aboard
ship. Here there is the choice between designing a
system containing two grades of fresh water (potable
and wash water) or only a single grade (potable). The
appreximate quantity of the two grades of water can be
computed from the data given in Table 3. Carrying a
single grade of water greatly simplifies storage and
handling facilities, and the trend has been toward freshwater systems of a single grade.
The freshwater system must provide a continuous
supply from the storage tanks to the hot potable water
system, the cold potable water outlets throughout the
ship, and other freshwater services. Itmust be arranged
to receive potable water from shore or from a n ~ t h e ship
r
and from the distilling plants to fill the storage tanks.
Hot potable water must be supplied to all showers,
lavatories, sinks, and other services. The arrangement
should contain separate mains with branches or independent loops, each serving a washroom or a group of
plumbing fixtures.
The steam supply for water heaters should be controlled by thermostatically operated valves set to limit
the water temperature. Steam valves should close
automatically upon failure of the thermostatic element.
Each heater should have a relief valve; the discharge
699
PIPING SYSTEMS.
DRAIN FROM BOILERS

VACUUM SWITCH
osEN
Lv.*lL,--
MACHINERY SPACE
SUCTION B DISCHARGE
TO AFT PEAK TANK
TANK
DETAIL 'B"
TYPICAL SECTION THROUGH

BALLAST MANIFOLD
NOTES
I. ALL PIPING, VALVES AND FITTINGS ARE MEET THE REQUIREMENTS
OF USCG ANDABS.
2. ALL PIPE SIZES SPECIFIED ARE N O ~ W A LWITH IPS OLS~SIDE
DIAMETERS:
3. VACUUM SWITCH STARTS ONE PUMP WHEN'THE VACUUM DROPS TO 1 5 " ~ g .
STARTSA SECONDPUMP WHEN I T REACHES 12" Hg, AND STOPS THE PUMPS
~ . SWITCH CONTAINSA MANUAL
WHEN THE VACUUM REACHES 2 0 " ~ THE
OPERATING FEATURE.
4. SPECTACLE FLANGE TO BE POSITIONED m ALLOW ONLY THE BILGE
SUCTION TO BE USED WHEN CARRYING DRY CARGO IN THE DEEP TANKS
Wg. 17 Diagram of bilge, clean ballast, and priming syatem in machinery apace
700
All risers exposed to the weather should have means

for
draining
to prevent freezing.
WATERCONBUYPIION,
Gage glasses should have guards, or be otherwise
gallons/personday
Potable
Wash
protected against accidental breakage.
Water
Water
U8E
Hose valves and piping for receiving water or
Drinking water
supplying
water overboard should be installed in a
Crew, passengers
horizontal position about two feet above the deck and
Cooking water
Cook~ngand food washing
in a protected location. Each hose connection should
Dishwashing
be provided with a cap and chain. A label plate should
Washing
be installed to indicate the service.
Baths
Lavatory
Locked, verminproof lockers or other suitable
Laundry
...
1.0
storage should be provided for the stowage of potable
Cleaning in galley and dining area
1.5
...
water hoses; a label plate inscribed "POTABLE WATER
8.0
22.0
HOSE STOWAGE ONLY" should be installed on the
lockers.
If a hose connection is used to supply potable water
from the relief valve should be to a deck drain knd should to a facility or other system, a warning label plate should
be provided in a conspicuous location, and inscribed
terminate so as not to endanger personnel.
Cross-connections between potable and seawater Z E F - S H A L L BE DISCONNECTED WHEN NOT
systems, or connections to other systems that could IN US&.''
Fittings for hose connections .should consist of a
contaminate the potable water system, are not permitted.
stop-check
valve and a vacuum breaker, installed in that
Valves and blind flanges are not considered a dependable
order,
upstream
to downstream.
means of separating potable water from the other
Additional requirements regarding freshwater systems
systems. Potable water should not be delivered to
other systems, tanks, or facilities that could contain are contained in the regulations of the Public Health
water of inferior quality unless an air gap of a t least two Service 121; a thorough understanding of the Public
supply pipe diameters is provided between the supply Health Service regulations should be obtained before
and receiving connections. Examples of facilities which undertaking the design of a freshwater system.
3.15 Air Escapes,Z Overflows, and Sounding
must have an air gap are the supply to galley and pantry
While air escapes, vents, overflows,
Arrangements.
sinks, dishwashers and other scullery equipment,
and
sounding
arrangements
do not constitute what may
vegetable peelers, steam kettles, laundry machines,
sterilizers, and plumbing fixtures of all types. Presh be considered a piping system, they are nevertheless of
water should be supplied to steam kettles, dough mixer, great importance for the proper operation of the pumping
steam tables, and mixing machines via a swing faucet. systems and are subject to special requirements by the
The location of faucets above the rims of lavatories, regulatory authorities.
Air Escapes. An air escape must be provided for all
sinks, and other open receiving vessels constitutes an
compartments
fitted with filling, suction, flooding,
adequate air gap. It may be necessary to provide a
sluicing
arrangements,
or interconnected by cross
funnel in the air gap receiving connection.
floding
ducts
unless
the
compartment is otherwise
Distilling plant discharges to both the cold potable
water tanlts and the distilled water tanks must do so via open to atmospheric pressure. Additionally, air escapes
an interlocked manifold so that flow from the distilling must be installed for all bottled gas stowage compartments.
plant can be directed to only one system a t a time.
An air escape or overflow should be provided for
Design details to be considered when developing a
voids or other-unvented spaces which contain pressure
freshwater system are as follows:
Bolted connections should not be made through the piping. In general, a 1.5-in. line is considered adequate,
based on the probability of slow leakage and not comshell of potable water tanks.
Pumps, manifolds (filling, transfer, and suction), plete failure of the pressure piping.
Compartments having carbon dioxide flooding systems
and gages should be grouped.
or
in which high-pressure air or inert gas are located,
Potable water services should be grouped to keep
and
which may be closed tightly under any condition,
the number of branches from the main to a minimum.
must
also have a vent independent of ventilation ducts,
Service branch sizes should be based on the number of
unless the test head of the space is in excess of the
fixtures installed.
Potable water piping should not be run through pressure that can be built up by the discharge of the
l.21
flasks when the compartment is secured.
ullgaa.
Air escapes shouldbe sized in relation to the maximum
All branch oonnections to the main freshwater
system should be provided with stop valves.
A check valve should be installed in the supply to
up in
water heatem, to prevent hot water from
a The terns air escape and vent are used synonymously with
regard to tanks or cbmpartments.
the cold water piping.
Table 3
A ~ ~ r o x i m aMinimum
te
Rates of Water Consumption
70 1
PIPING SYSTEMS
MARINE ENGINEERING
filling rate to which the tank may be subjected. In

general, sizes may be as follows:
Air escapes from tanks, other than fuel oil, having
suction and pressure filing connections should be one
tenth the area of the suction or filling connections, -but
not less than 1.5-in. ips for freshwater tanks and 2 in.
for water ballast tanks.
Air escapes from fuel-oil tanks should be sized to
limit the air velocity through the air escape to 25 fps when
the tank is being filled a t its maximum designed rate, but
not less than 2.5-in. ips.
If two or more air escapes are joined together or to a
header, the size of the common air escape or header
should be not less than the total area of the air escapes
connected thereto and serving a group of tanks which
will be filled or drained simultaneously.
In addition to the foregoing requirements, all nonstructural tanks containing combustible fluids must have
a total venting area not less than that in Table 4,
unless equivalent venting is otherwise provided to prevent excessive pressure when the tank is exposed to an
external fire.
Air escapes should be run with the maximum attainable
rising pitch from the tank to the terminal end to facilitate
drainage back to the tanks served.
Additional air escapes should be installed for tanks or
compartments when their shape prevents complete
venting by one air escape. If more than one air escape
is required, they may be combined and led to an air
escape main or to the weather deck. Each branch
should be full size.
All air escapes should terminate in return bends (i.e.,
gooseneck bends).
Air escapes should terminate in the weather, except
those from water tanks, which may terminate within
structure open to the atmosphere, and lubrication-oil
tank vents which may terminate in the same space in
which the tank is located. In order to prevent water
from entering an air escape that terminates on deck, a
ball check valve may be installed a t the terminus of the
air escape. Permanently mounted means should be
provided for closing the openings of all vents (see the
requirements in reference [I] on this subject).
Air escapes from tanks or compartments carrying
flammable or toxic volatiles should terminate outside
of the ship a t least three-feet clear of air ports, ventilation
intakes, or other openings into the ship.
Air escapes from reserve feed or potable water tanks
should not terminate in unventilated spaces- or spaces
assigned primarily for electric equipment. Those from
potable water tanks should be fitted with insect screens
and should not terminate in toilet or hospital spaces.
To prevent compartment flooding under a damage
condition, air escapes should terminate a t a height not
less than the tightness head of adjacent main transverse
bulkheads.
Air escapes from tanks carrying different liquids
should not be combined.
Fuel-Oil Tank Air Escapes. Air escapes should be
Table 4
Suggested Minimum Vent Sizes for Tanks Containing

Combustible Fluids
VENT SIZE,in. ips

Test Head Test Head
5 psi
10 psi
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
2
2.5
3
0.5
0.75
1
1.25
1.5
2
2.5
provided for fuel-oil and ballast tanlts and settling tanks,

and should be led to the weather deck. If the check
valves in overflow piping are outside the tanks served,
air escapes may be connected to overflow piping on the
tank side of the check valves, provided the overflow is
connected to the highest point on the tank top.
Air escapes from fuel-oil tanlts should terminate in
return bends, the open ends of which should be enlarged
to 1.5 times the diameter of the air escapes and fitted
with double screens which should be removable for
cleaning. The inner screen should have a clear area
through the screen equal to that of the escape pipe.
The outer screen should be fitted about 0.5 in. from the
inner screen and should have 0.5-in.-square openings.
The screens should be bronze, brass, or nickel-copper
alloy. Screens should be installed so that they cannot
be easily painted over or dainaged.
Plumbing System Vents. The protection of plumbing
system trap seals from siphonage or back pressure
should be accomplished by the appropriate use of vents
from the plumbing drains. The vents should be sized
and installed to permit the admission or emission of air
so that under normal use the seal of any fixture trap is
not subjected to a pressure differential of more than
one inch of water. The vents should be installed as
continuations of the vertical stack with individual
fixture drain connections forming branches therefrom.
Where a horizontal drain line connects to a vertical line,
the vent should be a continuation of the vertical line.
All vent and branch vent pipes should be sloped and
connected so as to drip back to the soil or waste pipe by
gravity.
The vhnt pipe opening from a soil or waste pipe,
except for water closets and similar fixtures which flush
by siphoning of the trap, should not be below the trap
weir.
All plumbing system vgnts should terminate. in the
weather. Those from fixtures above the watertightness
level should terminate just below the deck next above
that on which the fixture is located. The vents should
be welded directly to the structure where they penetrate
the shell or deck houseside.
Vents terminating above the watertightness level
from soil drains should not terminate near hatches,
doors, air ports, ventilation intake openings, or galleys.
MARINE ENGINEERING
702
"T" outlets of the same diameter as the vent should be

fitted at the outlet ends of the vents.
Overflows. Tanks generally are not designed to
withstand the shutoff head of the system pumps;
therefore, the tanks must be protected by overflows
which will prevent the tank pressure from exceeding the
design value. An alternative means of protection (by
installing a standpipe at the pump discharge) is described
under the ballmt system. Overflow pipes discharging
through the ship's side should be located as high as
practicable and should be provided with nonreturn
valves at the shell; where the pipe does not extend above
the freeboard deck, there must be provided, in addition,
an effective accessible means for preventing water from
passing inboard.
Reserve feed tanks or other tanks may be fitted with
relief valves in the filling system or on the tank itself to
protect against pump pressures.
Overflow piping should be designed so that the
combined static and dynamic head in the overflow line
during the most critical overflow condition will not
exceed the test head of the tank.
The following factors should be considered when
designing overflows :
Intertank or tank-to-compartment flooding by any
combination of damage to piping and tank boundaries
should be minimized.
Liquids should not be lost when rolling up to 30 deg.
Piping runs should be in protected locations, and out
of machinery spaces where possible.
Piping should be sectionaliaed to minimize fire
hazards.
A minimum number of shell or oiltight structure
penetrations should be required.
The overflow overboard discharge should terminate
a t least one deck height above the full-load waterline.
The size of the overflow from any tank should not be
less than the size of the filling ~ i p i n gto the tank and not
less than that required to prevent the test head of the
tank from being exceeded.
A reverse bend should be installed just upstream of
the check valve and the valve installed adjacent to the
shell.
All check valves in overflow lines should have their
flap hinge axes athwartship and should not be springloaded.
No closure fitting or gagging device should be in any
part of the overflow system.
All overflows should be installed to ensure gravity
drainage of the piping back to the tank or to the overflow
tank if one is provided.
Overflows should not discharge inside the ship
except to an overflow tank provided with an independent
overboard discharge.
Tanks filled through a funnel need not be fitted with
overflow pipes.
Overflows and air escapes may be combined where
practicabIe.
Sounding Arrangements. In order to determine the
@
height of liquid in tanks, sounding rods, which directly

mearmre the depth of the liquid, are generally provided.
If the shape of a tank which requires sounding does not
permit dropping a sounding rod in a straight line from
the deck, platform, or flat above to the deepest point of
the tank, a sounding tube must be provided.
Some tanks or compartments which require sounding
may be so located that the sounding tube would seriously
jsopardize the watertight integrity of the ship or would
be unsatisfactory in other respects. In such casei
static-head gages or gages of other suitable types may be
used.
Factors to be considered in the design of sounding
arrangements are as follows:
Sounding tubes should not have reverse bends.
The minimum radius of curvature for sounding tubes
should be 10 ft.
Sounding tubes, should be located at or as close as
practicable to the deepest point of the tank. This is
particularly true in connection with fuel-oil tanks so
that soundings can be taken at the deepest point of the
tank.
Sounding tubes for all tanks fitted with suction
piping should be located as close as practicable to the
terminal of the suction tailpipe.
Combining sounding tubes and air escapes from
compartments subject to high filling rates, such as fueloil tanks, should be avoided. The sounding tubes from
these tanks should be provided with a cap so designed
that the accumulated air pressure in the tube will be
slowly released and equalized before or as the cap is
unscrewed.
Protective plates, extra-heavy tees, or similar
protection should be fitted at the bottom of sounding
tubes to prevent damage to plating and to prevent the
sounding device from leaving the tube.
Sounding tubes for potable water tanks should
terminate with caps. Each tube should have its own
sounding rod permanently stowed in the tube.
The upper ends of sounding fittings and tubes that
are located below the full-load waterline should terminate
in gate valves.
Where the sounding fitting would otherwise be
located in a locked space, a sounding tube extending to an
accessible location on the deck above should be provided.
The sounding tube should terminate in passageways where practicable. If a soun$mg tube terminates
in a compartment, sounding fittings should be readily
accessible and should be located so as not to interfere
with the function of the compartment.
Oil tank sounding tubes should terminate one deck
height above the tank top if practicable.
Sounding tubes for double-bottom oil tanks and
water tanks should extend to a convenient height above
the floor plates and in all cases above the highest point
of the tank.
Upper ends of oil tank sounding tbbes should be
located so that oil cannot discharge onto high-pressure
PIPING SYSTEMS
703
steam p i p or e1eMe equipment when the tube ia of the pump being contaminated with oil. This is the
pump, as required by the rules, which always should be
opened and the tank b being fiBerE.
a.16 Fire Pretectlott, A number of meass m y be readily available for fire-fighting purposes.
The fire, bilge, and clean ballast pump is used to
used for fighting s h i p b r d h.The alternatives
include ma,qa&er,w&z fag, carbon dioxide, and foam draw clean seawater or clean ballast and discharge to
systems. Eah dtesnative hm limitations (e-g., sea- the clean ballast tanks or to the sea. When serving the
water and mtm fog are h d o u s when 4 in the clean ballast system,, there .is no danger of the pump
vicinity of electrical equipment, them is danger d being eontaminated with dl. Since there are several
personnel asphyxi~dion should c m b n dioxide be other bilge pumps (oily bilge and ballast and the general
indvertentlg dimhwged into l i h g qwkrs, and foam service pump) yhich normally are used for bilge service,
systems detariomte when subjected ka hihigh tempem- the fire, bilge,' and clean ballast pump is seldom used
turn). E ~ m l ~ due
er~
t o i b availability and generally exoept for loading and discharging clean ballast. In
satisfactary r e d @ seawater has continued to be the remote instances when this pump must be used to draw
from the bilges, it normally will pump non-oily bilge.
primary rneaeana of fighkhg shipbard fires.
The U.& CQ& Guad as well as the elmifieation Therefore, this pump is entirely suitable for fire-fighting
societies have apee3c quirementa r e p d h g fire- purposes.
Since both d the fire pumps are motor-driven and the
extinguishing equipment on ~ h i p b m d d; e t d s of these
source
of power is the turbogenerators, another power
requirementis m oontained in their published d e s and
regarE&&m [I, 31. The h-fighting aystem deait with source other than stkam must be provided for one of
here is eonfined ta that employing seawater as $he the pumps to satisfy the rules. As a remlt, one of the
medium; ifhwin be noted that this system has a number of fire pumps is connected to the emergency diesel generator
interfaces 6th @tihershipboard piping ayatems. 0 t h ~as the second source of power. The fire pumps are
appmtxls mob as portable extinguishers a d special located in different compartments as required by the
eqaipmend required fa^ different type8 d mrviee md d m . (The basis of the rule is to ensure that a fire in a
machinery instaI:Iatb~are defined under the generd single:space will not incapacitate all of the fire pumps.)
hwdbg of 6re gmfmtion in the W.S.Gaast G u d mlm. As required by the rules, each fire pump discharge is
(a) Fhe MirXain System. In order to review the fitted with a pressure gage.
dmijp d B fire main sya&m%c ~ m i d wtihe ~ystern The fire main aystem must be designed for a t least the
illustrated by Rg. 18. The fire main system shown in shutoff head of the fire pumps. If the piping itself is
Fig. 18 ia f ~ an
r oeem going dry-carm ship and iEl not so designed, the pump discharge must be fitted with
themfore required to be equippad with at Iemt f i w ~fire a relief valve and the system' must be designed for the
relief valve setting.
pump%. Eaeh of the fire pump muet have a r&*urn
There must be provided at least one international
eapnity oaf two thirds of the required minimum capacity
of an itrdqendent Bilge pump. Each fire pump muat shore connection to the fire main available to each side
t
a
b be cd ~ui%ient eapaclty to deliver water simul- of the vessel and it must be located in an accessible
tmmdy hhmagh the two highmt and most remete location. Suitable cut out valves and check valves
2%
-is. hydrants connected w%h W ft of h w . Each should be provided. Suitable adapters should also be
h e mzde af
in. d i m mu& have a t least 60 psi a t provided to ensure that the vessel's shore connection8
will mate with those on the shore fin lines.
the ~ d e .(The, capacity mquhd far 50 psi 3
inlet af tm %-in. nozkles i~ generally 1e6s than the
AU paste of the fire main located on exposed decks
reqi~emenf,d h m %hi& of the ezapacity of one bilge &ou1d either be protected against freezing or be fitted
cut oqG valves and drain valves so that the entire
~ump.1
When the fire main i~ use& for washing down the e-d
parts of this piping may be shut off and drained
mdor &@in, &shing the & a h Eaekar and sirniflar in freeaing weather. Except when closed to prevent
d i c e , tihe fim grrmp eclpeitiy mmt be i n m d t
o take fmeakg, these valves should be sealed open.
oage d this w~~ on the laasia that &he flushing;s e d e ~
ESre Byrkants and Hose. Fire hydrants should
mdd 14e in WE &nIrltmnwu~lpwhen water k required be of ~uffioientnumber and so located that any part of
for fire exfhqpishing~ U ~ ~ Q S Mowwer,
~ E A
the fire pumpa living qumfiers, storerooms, working spaces, and weather
an be connected to the deck wash q~ternwithauk
de&e acsessible to the crew while a t sea may be reached
i n e d n g the mquhd pump m@ty.
with twa effective spray patterns of water. At least one
As sbawn ie. Fig. 1% the two fire pump ma also usad
in other s@ema m their name& imply. One is called spray pttem should b e ' h m a siligle 50-ft length of
the fire md eaiEtk c J d n g p m p md &B ~ t h m
is referred how. In main maehhery spaces, dl portions of such
a~ the frre, bilge* and clean b d a t pump. Neither spaces ~houldbe capable of being reached by a t lemt
pump k pemi8ted ta have meotiom ta lie^ or tmks tm effeaive apmy patterns of water, each of which
should be fram a single S f t length of hose from separate
m~t4ningoil.
The &e. and amk d e e n g pump ia us& to wmh down outlet%
Ebb fire station h y d t a ~&ouId
t
be provided with at
@heear@
t d w . Qelhn swamter is heah&far bmk
Ie& one len& of hose with a noade atkached. A hose
e purposes; mnsequentkl~k,there, b na h
w
PIPING SYSTEMS
MARINE ENGlNEERlNG
/SEA
ChEST
wvENT
RESERVOIR
TANK
INTERCEPTOR
FLOOR LVL IN PUMP RM
SKETCH "A"~
TYPICAL DIAGRAMMATIC ARR OF STRIPPING
SYSTEM FOR CARGO OIL PUMPS
BILGE
VERTICAL
B STRIPP
DUPLEX
PUMP
PLAN VIEW -PUMP ROOM

Fig. 21
Dbgrcm d carga-oil piping in p m p room
Since the operation of large pumps with steam conditions

as low as 500 F would not be economical, the turbines
are confined to the engine room.
Figure 19 illustrates the cargo-oil piping on deck.
The discharge from each cargo pump is led to the upper
deck through individual lines to the discharge station
amidships. Each discharge line is fitted with twin hose
connections on the port and starboard sides of the ship
for discharging to shore facilities.
The loading of cargo oil is generally accomplished
through filling drop lines connecting to the lines within
the tanks; however, filling may be accomplished by
cross connections between the deck piping and suction
piping in the pump room. The filling drop lines and
their connections are shown in Figs. 19 and 20.
The piping main (the fore-and-aft piping extending
from the pump room forward) is sized for a low velocity
(8-9 fps) so as to avoid excessive pressure drops in the
suction piping. The mains are generally sized larger

than the branches to permit simultaneous pumping from
either one large tank or two small tanks without restricting the oil flow. For the purpose of flexibility in handling the cargo oil in the tanks, the mains are usually
capable of being cross-connected in such a manner that
any pump can be connected to any tank in any group.
One of the more difficult aspects of the design of a
cargo-oil system is the stripping (removal of the last
remnants of oil) of the tanks. When the oil level in a
tank is pumped down, air's enter the suction piping if
the pipe suctions are not completely covered with oil;
however, it is not necessary for the suction pipe inlet to
become uncovered in order for gaa to enter the suction
piping. A major source of gaa in the suction piping is
oil vapor produced by the lighter ends of the cargo-oil
gasing-off. When the level of the cargo oil in the tank is
low, but still covers the suction inlet by several feet,
MARINE EN
gasing-off of the cargo oil in the suction pipe can be a

serious problem. When the air or oil vapors subsequently pass through the suction piping and enter the
eye of the pump impeller, the cargo-oil pump will lose
suction, operate erratically, and possibly be damaged
due to excessive speed surges.
The high viscosity of the oil is one factor which
impedes the uniform flow of the oil into the pipe suction.
Additionally, the flow restrictions presented by the necessary strength members in the bottom of the cargo-oil
tanks further complicate the stripping of the oil tanks.
An important feature not shown in detail in Fig. 20
is the design of the suction fittings at the end of the tailpipes in each tank. To be effective in emptying the
tank completely, the suction fitting must be located
within to in. of the bottom plating and have a flow
area of approximately 1.5 times the cross-sectional area
of the attached tailpipe. The different types of suction
fittings are described in detail in reference [9].
Several different schemes have been used for stripping
oil tanks. One entails the operation of a main cargo-oil
pump at a reduced power level such that the gas will not
be as damaging when it passes through the pumps. An
alternative arrangement is one in which stripping is
accomplished by independent reciprocating pumps.
Yet a different stripping scheme involves the use of
vacuum pumps to remove the air and oil vapor from the
main cargo-oil pump suction piping. This scheme is
described in references [9, 101; it essentially consists of
a separate tank (from which gas is removed by means
of a vacuum pump) that is installed in the suction piping
just upstream of the main cargoail pump. A diagrammatic sketch of a typical arrangement for removing the
air from the suction piping of cargo-oil pumps is shown
in Fig. 21.
A diagram of the piping arrangement in the pump
room is also shown in Fig. 21 and it may be noted that a
steam reciprocating pump is provided for bilge and
stripping duty. A reciprocating pump is preferred for
bilge service due to the fact that maintenance of a
suction head is not essential; contrary to the case with
centrifugal pumps, reciprocating pumps can pump gasliquid mixtures without difficulty. Additionally, the
reciprocating pump is well-suited for stripping the cargo
oil left in the tanks and stripping the oil from the main
cargo pump and piping. Strippin pumps are sometimes
arranged to prime the main argo-oil pumps.
A relief valve should be installed in the discharge of
each pump and piped back to the suction (except that,
when the pumps are designed such that it is impossible
to build up a pressure above that for which the system as
a whole is constructed, relief valves are not necessary).
It is highly desirable to maintain the system pressure
below 225 psig (Class 2 piping systems as defined by
references [I] and [3]; otherwise, the system must conform to the more rigorous requirements of Class 1 piping
systems).
As an alternative to the cargo-oil system shown in
Figs. 19, 20, and 21, some installations make use of the
PIPING SYSTEMS
deep-well type of cargoail pump. This eliminates, in

some cases, the cargo-oil pump room and the engine
room space for the prime movers. Deep-well pumps
(pumps with the impeller located down in the cargo
tank and driven through a long shaft by a prime mover
located on deck in an enclosure; see Chapter 12) were
primarily developed for small special cargo tanks but
their use has been expanded. The use of deep-well
pumps can reduce the need for the long runs of piping
required with the pump rooms located aft. More
significant than the reduction of piping is the elimination
of the associated suction pressure losses, particularly
with the larger units. An important aspect of deep-well
pumps is their self-priming feature; when the pump
discharge pressure drops (due to gases passing through
the impellers), the liquid discharged from the impellers
is recycled back to the pump suction. There are, however, practical limits in the application of deep-well
pumps. Although size is theoretically not a limit, due
to the size of the vertical driveshaft and the prime mover
with the higher ratings and the thrust developed,
deep-well pump installations are usually limited to about
1000 hp. See references [9, 101 for additional discussion
regarding deep-well pumps.
All cargo-oil tanks must be cleaned periodically to
remove the residue that accumulates on the tanks. The
medium used to clean the tanks is seawater that is
pressurized to about 200 psig and is either used cold or
heated to a temperature of 180 to 200 F (see Section 3.4
of Chapter 14 for a discussion of the heat exchangers
employed). Either fixed or portable tank cleaning
(Butterworth) systems may be used. With a portable
system the spray nozzles are lowered into the tanks a t
intervals of about 5 f t by means of their attached hose.
The nozzle mechanisms are constructed such that the
nozzles slowly revolve around the central gears, thus
directing a stream of hot seawater over all parts of the
tank. With a fixed tank cleaning system the nozzle
mechanisms are permanently mounted in the tanks, with
the valves which control the flow of water located on
deck. Neither the portable nor fixed system cleans the
tanks thoroughly; in order to remove the oil residue
from the regions that are not properly covered by the
spray patterns, cleaning with a manual nozzle is required.
During the tank cleaning operation, the stripping
pumps take suction from the tanks and discharge to a
slop tank or to shore. This oily mixture is handled in a
manner similar to the oily ballast dishssed earlier.
All cargo-oil tanks must be vented, and for this purpose
each tank should be fitted with a pressure and vacuum
relief valve. Alternatively a vent pipe may be led from
each tank into a common header, which should be carried
to ten or more feet above deck and be fitted with a flame
arrester or a vacuum relief valve a t the outlet to the
atmosphere. Where vessels are intended only for the
carrying of oil having a flash point above 80 F, a venting
system consisting of individual return-bend vents fitted
with wire gauze and a positive means of closing is
satisfactory.
4 "Power Piping," USA Standard Code for Pressure

Piping, USAS B31.1, published by ASME.
5 L. F. Moody, "Friction Factors for Pipe Flow,"
Trans. ASME, 1944.
6 "Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings, and
Pipe," Engineering Research Division, Crane Co.,
b
Chicago.
7 "Wrought Steel Buttwelding Fittings," USA
Standard Code USAS B16.9, published by ASME, 1964.
References
8 E. F. ~ e & n sand J. R. Reilly, "Condenser Scoop
- - - - -- - - - - - Design," Trads. SNAME, vol. 48, 1940.
1 Code of Federal Regulations, Title 46-Shipping,
9 A. W. Feck and J. 0. Sommerhalder, "Cargo
published by the Office of the Federal Register.
2 "Handbook on Sanitation of Vessel Construction, " Pumping in Modern Tankers and Bulk Carriers, "
, 4, no- 3, July 1967.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Marine T e c h ~ h Ivol10
W.
M.
Morrison,
"Control of Cargo Oil HanPublic Health Service.
3 Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels, dling," Automation in Merchant Ships, published by
Fishing News (Books) Ltd., London, England.
The control of the cargo-oil valves within the tanks

and in the pump room can be accomplished by various
means. Cargo-oil valves on the older ships were manually operated from deck stands with reach rods to the
valves. The trend is to fit hydraulic operators to the
valves and to control the valves from either a location
on deck or from a central control room. Section 2.6 of
Chapter 21 contains additional discussion regarding the
automation of cargo-oil piping systems.
'
709
11
CHAPTER XIX
Marked
I En~ironmentalControl
Section 1
Introduction
1.1 Merchant vs. Naval Practice. The terms air
conditioning, refrigeration (cooling), ventilating, and
heating cany dierent connotations as applied to merchant and naval practice. Accordingly, effort is made
in the following discussion to differentiate between the
two; but space limitations preclude full treatment of
the latter. In general, the ventilating, heating, and
cooling facilities on naval construction are the minimum
required to accomplish the following:
1 Keep the crew physically fit and mentally alert.
2 Provide ambient temperature conditions suitable
for the operation of equipment.
3 Provide suitable ambient conditions for certain
ammunition.
Preserve perishable products (stores,
and
the
or explosive atmosphere.
of a contaminated' noxiouq
The weight added, the space occupied, and the power

consumed by these facilities are generally undesired;
therefore, the minimum of equipment is provided to
maintain acceptable conditions. The ability of equipment to withstand shock and the maintenance of the
ship's watertight integrity are vital design requirements.
Compared to naval construction, merchant ship ventilating, air conditioning, and cooling treatment are,
generally speaking, more liberal. Almost all spaces
which are not air conditioned are ventilated. I n addition to comfort, heating is provided to prevent the
freezing of stores, cargo, and equipment and to facilitate
operation of equipment. I n some cases dehumidification
facilities are provided for dry cargo preservation. Refrigerated stores are more segregated on merchant ships
than naval ships. Also, in many cases, refrigerated
cargo compartments can be designed for specific products
rather than a "universalncargo. Additionally, merchant
ship air-conditioning practice is less standardized. Space
and weight considerations are far less restrictive; therefore, accessibility for maintenance and repair operations
are much better. Furthermore, many refinements can
be provided which are not feasible for naval construction.
Summarily, naval ship facilities require more precise
application of the various techniques involved to provide
tolerable conditions with minimal equipment, space

usage, and energy consumption. I n comparison, merchant construction is less standardized and allows greater
latitude for innovation.
1.2 Air Conditioning Deflned. The various techniques utiliied to achieve control of the environment of
shipboard spaces are collectively known as air conditioning. By definition, air conditioning is the process of
treating air so as to control simultaneously its temperature, hGmidity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the
requirements of the conditioned space.
Contrary to widespread belief, odors rather than
carbon dioxide concentrations and depletion of oxygen
are the most significant cause of discomfort in poorly
ventilated spaces. The term replenishment air is used
in Navy pratice to denote the
air supplied to
air-conditioned compartments to maintain an aiceptable
atmosphere. I n merchant practice the terms minimum
outside air or minimum .freshair have the s a m d a n i n g .
A ventilation system serves a dual purpose of removing
contaminants as well as heat generated in a space. Its
ability to control temperature is limited, however, in
that it can only maintain an ambient temperature above
that of the outside air temperature. The temperature
rise, i.e., the difference between the temperature of the
supply air and the space ambient, depends on the ventilation (heat removal) rate. For this reason, temperature
rise is one of several criteria for ventilation design. To
maintain a space at an ambient temperature below that
outside, the supply air temperature must be below the
required ambient; thus, some form of refrigeration is
employed to cool the supply air.
Humidification is the process of adding moisture to a
space to prevent excessive dryness, which may cause
either discomfort to occupants or deterioration of goods.
Dehumidification is the process of removing moisture
from a space to achieve one of several objectives. Dehumidification is an integral part of the air-conditioning
cooling process; it maintains the relative humidity of the
space served within the "comfort" range. In cargo
spaces, dehumidification is primarily employed to prevent deterioration of stowed goods. The dehumidification inherent with the cooling of refrigerated compartments, however, is disadvantageous as it causes surface
%
deterioration (drying, wilting, etc.) and increases the

refrigeration load.
Air motion serves to produce a uniform ambient temperature (temperature equalization) throughout an airconditioned space. However, excessive air velocity .has
a localized cooling effect and, therefore, every effort
must be made to achieve uniform, low-velocity air motion in the occupied zone; i.e., to avoid drafts. Consequently, proper air motion is an important characteristic
of an air-conditioning installation.
Effective temperature (ET) is an arbitrary index which
combines into a single value the resultant physiological
effect of temperature, humidity, and air movement. It
is obtained from tables or a chart on the basis of dry bulb
and wet bulb temperatures and air velocity [1].' Tests
have shown that personnel can stand 93 ET for a regular
4-hour watch and still work efficiently without ill effects.
Where heavy work must be performed, such as handling
rooms and magazines, the effective temperature should
not exceed 85.
1.3 Preservation of Perishable Products. The preservation of perishables is commonly associated with
refrigeration, which, in the true sense, only involves the
extraction of heat. However, all of the processes associated with air conditioning are required to preserve
perishable products.
All fresh fruits and vegetables, including flowers, are
living things and are commonly referred to as "live"
products. Even when separated from the tree, vine, or
soil they continue to generate and dissipate heat as does
the human body. The amount of heat respired (called
heat of respiration) varies with the product and its
temperature. I n the respiration process, live products
absorb oxygen and give off carbon dioxide and water.
Respiration and ripening can be controlled by reducing
the oxygen supply and increasing the carbon dioxide in
the surrounding atmosphere. In some cases carbon
dioxide is injected into refrigerated spaces, but not on
U. S. ships.
Unripened fruits also give off other gases which must
be controlled. For instance, during ripening bananas
release ethylene and volatile esters. Ethylene accelerates ripening, during which starch in the pulp is converted
to sugar. The color of the peel also changes during this
process, which is of advantage because it provides a
visual indication of the fruit's ripeness. Ventilation is
required to control the concentration of the released
gases.
Refrigeration (cooling) serves to maintain the individual product at the temperature at which it must be
carried for proper preservation.
Heating is required to prevent freezing of many
products, such as fruits and vegetables. libr instance,
bananas should not be exposed to a temperature below
about 55 degrees for an appreciable length of time.
High humidity is required to prevent wilting of leafy
vegetables, loss of moisture, and associated shriveling

and loss of flavor. Whiie low relative humidities (40
to 50 percent) are conducive to human comfort, humidities of between 80 and 95 percent, as high as possible in
many cases, are required in refrigerated spaces carrying
fruits and vegetables.
Good air distributi~nis essential to the preservation
of perishables. It providesbiform air conditions (temperature, humidity, and air purity) throughout the
storage space.,,,'Thus, localized spoilage is prevented.
Air distribution is not as critical for frozen products,
referred to as "dead" products, as it is for most unfrozen
(live) products.
1.4 Psychrometry. Psychrometry is the branch of
physics which deals with the properties of air under various conditions, particularly air containing moisture.
Psychrometric data are presented in both charts and
tabular form; Fig. 1 is a popular form. The terms used
in Fig. 1 are defined as follows:
Dry Bulb Temperature. The temperature of air as

registered by an ordinary thermometer.
Wet Bulb Temperature. The temperature registered
by a thermometer whose bulb is covered by a wetted
wick and exposed to a current of rapidly moving air.
Dew-Point Temperature. The temperature a t which
condensation of moisture begins when the air is cooled.
Relative Humidity. Ratio of the actual water vapor
pressure of the air to the saturated water vapor pressure
of the air at the same temperature.
Specific Humidity or Moistwe Content. The weight of
water vapor in grains or pounds of moisture per pound
of dry air.
Enthalpy. A thermal property indicating the quantity of heat in the air above an arbitrary datum, in Btu
per pound of dry air.
Enthalpy Deviation. Enthalpy correction due to the
air not being in the saturated state. Enthalpy deviation
is applied where extreme accuracy L required; however,
for normal air-conditioning estimates it is neglected.
Specific Volume. The cubic feet of the mixture (air
and moisture) per pound of dry air.
Sensible Heat Factor. The ratio of sensible to total
heat.
Alignment Circle. Located at 80-F DB and 50 percent RH on Fig. 1, it is used in conjunction with the
sensible heat factor to plot the various air-conditioning
process lines (room and coil slopes).
Note that all units are expressed in terms of "per pound
of dry air"; the reason for this is that the various properties of the moist air chaqge during an air-conditioning
cycle and only the weight of dry air remains constant.
It may be seen that if any two psychrometric properties are known, the remaining can be determined. The
following relationships also can be observed from Fig. 1:
1 The enthalpy (or total heat content) is determined
from the wet bulb temperature alone, and vice versa.
2 The dew point depends only on the moisture content of the air, and vice versa.
MARINE ENGINEERING
3 Any air-conditioning process which doea not add

or extract moisture is represented by a horizontal line
through the original condition point.
4 Any air-conditioning process which does not change
the dry bulb temperature is represented by a vertical
line through the original condition point.
Figure 1 also shows a simple air-conditioning cycle.
Points 1, 2, 3, and 4 represent psychrometric conditions
of room, outside, mixture of outside and recirculated air,
and air leaving cooling coil, respectively. Points 1 and 2
are established by design conditions while point 3 is
determined as follows :
Ha = (Ql/dl)Hl
Q1/d1
where
(Qn/da)Hz
++ QJdz
Q = air quantity, cfm

d = air density, cu f t per pound of dry air
H = enthalpy, Btu per pound of dry air
Subscripts apply to the various points. A much simpler
way of obtaining the conditions of the mixture at point 3
is commonly used, except where unusual accuracy is
required. This is represented by the equation:
Distance 1-3 = Qs
Distance 2-3
Q1
(1)
When the dry bulb temperatures are known, this may be

expressed, and ts obtained, as follows:
The total heat, HT, removed by a cooling coil consists

of the sum of the sensible heat load, Hs, and the latent
heat load, HL. The sensible heat load is the transfer of
heat which results in a change of temperature as read by
an ordinary dry bulb thermometer. The latent heat load
is the heat necessary to cause a chaqge of state, e.g.,
steam to water. These quantities may be computed
as follows:
Hs = 1.08 QAt
(3)
HL = 0.68 QAG
(4)
where
Q = air volume entering coil
At = dry bulb temperature reduction, deg F
AG = moisture removal, grain moisture/pound dry air
H T can also be expressed as:
HT = 4.45 QAH
(5)
where
AH
enthalpy reduction of air passing through coil,

Btu/pound dry air
Figure 1 shows two sensible heat factor slope lines.

Line 1-4 is the "room slope" and line 3-4 represents the
"coil slope." By definition, the sensible heat fact0r.i~:
SHF =
Hs
Hs
+ HL
Hs
or HT
I n order to obtain the proper (simultaneous) balance

between room sensible and latent heat removal, the air
supplied must be so conditioned that it falls on the room
slope line. Any point on this)ine is satisfactory. While
the coil slope 3 4 is represented as a straight line, the
actual path contour depends on several variables, one of
which is the coi1,ebnstruction;in any case, the only significant point is the psychrometric conditions of the air
actually leaving the coil, i.e., off-coil conditions.
Design off-coil conditions below those established by
the room slope frequently are arbitrarily selected for
systems with high sensible heat factors. This is done
in order to utilize larger terminal temperature differentials [At, equation (3)]; thus, less air is required, which in
turn results in smaller systems.
Where a system serves several spaces, it may be
neither possible nor practical to provide conditioned air
to satisfy the lowest individual room slope. I n such
cases an arbitrary or average off-coil condition is selected
for the system. Spaces having a lower sensible heat
factor, theoretically, will be overcooled if the air quantity
is selected to meet the latent heat load. Therefore, the
supply air to such spaces may require reheating to compensate for the excess removal of sensible heat.
In order to obtain an optimum design and avoid excessive air quantities, some marine specifications allow a
degree of latitude in the room design conditions of spaces
with high latent loads. By slightly reducing the room
design dry bulb temperature and increasing the wet bulb
temperature (and relative humidity), the sensible heat
of occupants is increased and the latent heat is reduced
(see Table 8); thus the sensible heat factor is increased
and the necessity of reheating may be avoided on
occasions.
1.5 The Refrigeration Process. The compression
cycle of refrigeration, Fig. 2, is the most common one
used today. In this type of cycle, a refrigerant vapor is
compressed and, in the compression process, gains
energy corresponding to the work of compression. The
hot compressed vapor next is cooled by any convenient,
inexpensive, plentiful medium, such as water or atmospheric air. This cooling process condenses the hot
vapor to # a liquid. The high pressure liquid next is
expanded to a lower pressure and becomes a cold mixture
of liquid and vapor. This refrigerant mixture is fed into
a heat exchanger (evaporator) where it absorbs heat and
changes back to a vapor, the same state as the beginning
of compression cycle.
The principal components of a compression refrigeration system, Fig. 2, are a receiver for storing liquid
refrigerant, an expansion valve for controlling the flow
of refrigerant (liquid and vapor), an evaporator where
the required useful refrigeration is produced, a compressor which simultaneously mairitains the evaporator
(suction) pressure and increases the refrigerant vapor
temperature and pressure, and a condenser which coola
'4-
715
MARINE ENGINEERING
WATER REGULATING
T VALVE
Fig.
'
RECEIVER
LlNE
L
m
-l
EXPANSION
VALVE
-- - - - - - - - s - + - s - J
Actual compression cyde

[Allied Chemical]
Y
EFFECT OF SUPERHEATING SUCTION VAPOR
I
M
EVAPORATOR
OlAGRAnWATlC REFRIGERATION CYCLE

REFRIGERANT STATE A N 0 ENERGY CYCLE
KEY
- LOW PRESSURE LlOUlD

- LOW PRESSURE VAPbR
- HlGH PRESSURE VAPOR (HOT GAS)
- HlGH PRESSURE LlOUlO
Fig. 2
KEY
- L -+- LlOUlD LlNE

- S -b - SUCTLON LlNE
HG -b
HOT GAS LlNE
+- CONDENSER WATER LlNE
--r)
R -b
- CAPILLARY TUBE
- REGULATING VALVE TUBE
Graphic presentation of a mechanical refrigeration cycle
(removes both heat of compression and refrigeration

load) and condenses the hot refrigerant vapor to its
original liquid state.
The refrigerant properties of importance in refrigeration thermodynamics are temperature, pressure, volume,
enthalpy, and entropy. Reference [I] presents these
properties in both tabular and graphic form. Pressureenthalpy diagrams are one form of presentation and
comprise three zones as may be seen from Fig. 3. Zone
1, on the left, represents subcooled liquid; Zone 2, the
middle zone, represents a liquid-vapor mixture; and
Zone 3, on the right, represents superheated vapor.
Figure 3 also shows how the actual cycle departs from
the theoretically ideal Carnot cycle of Refrigerant 12
in several respects. Due to these departures, published
performance data (refrigeration capacity, refrigerant
flow rates, horsepower requirements, condensing medium
requirements, and efficiencies) are derived from actual
code tests and empirical data.
Superheating has certain thermodynamic advantages
and disadvantages as may be seen from Fig. 3. In
general it improves compressor and system performance
and is desirable. Some subcooling, about 5 deg F, of
the liquid refrigerant occurs in the condenser which increases its refrigeration effect; i.e., it reduces the quantity of refrigerant circulated. Where cooling is provided
by a liquid-suction heat interchanger (Pigs. 18 and 19))
the associated superheating of refrigerant vapor also
serves a useful purpose.
In addition to the single-stage compression cycle just

described, there are many more efficient-but also more
complicated-ones [2]. Such systems usually are justified in marine work only for very-low-temperature applications, such as liquefied gas transport and fish processing, where single-stage compression would involve
excessive compression ratios. Another reason for using
compound compression, though not particularly applicable in shipboard applications, is to increase thermal
efficiency. Cascade systems have been installed on a
few ships. With this arrangement, two completely
independent refrigeration cycles are used; the refrigerant
of the high-stage cycle is the condenser cooling medium
of the low-stage cycle. By uaing a refrigerant in each
cycle which is most suitable to its operating range, very
.efficient performance is obtained. Reference [3] contains an excellent discussion of this subject and a comparison of reciprocating versus centrifugal compressors
for cargo refrigeration applications.
Absorption refrigeration systems have been used a t
sea only for certain special applications. The only
fundamental difference between an absorption cycle and
a compression cycle is the substitution of the absorbergenerator compressor (operated by heat energy) for the
mechanical compressor (operated by work energy). (See
reference [I] for a complete discussion of absorption
cycles.)
Thermoelectric cooling has many advantages which
are particularly significant with regard to marine applica-
tions. However, thermoelectric cooling is normally not

competitive with other forms of cooling and is used only
for special applications; e.g., temperature control of
electronic components and scientific instruments.
1.6 Refrigerants and Brines. A refrigerant is commonly defined as a substance which produces a refrigerating effect by its absorption of heat while expanding or
vaporizing. Additionally, a secondary refrigerant is
defined as the volatile refrigerant used in a secondary
system, or a nonvolatile liquid refrigerant such as brine.
A brine is defined as any liquid cooled by the refrigerant
and used for transmission of heat without a change in
its stage, having no flash point or a flash point above
150 F. From the foregoing it is evident that water may
be clmified as either a brine or a secondary refrigerant.
Refrigerant characteristics have a bearing on system
design, application, and operation. Theoretically, a
refrigerant should be selected for a specific application
so as to match the system performance requirements.
However, safety, standardization, availability, and other
nontechnical factors enter into this selection.
The selection of refrigerants for various shipboard
applications has become more or less standardized; all
are halogen compounds. Refrigerant 41 is used with
centrifugal systems for air conditioning and large hightemperature cargo refrigeration installations. Refrigerant 12 is used with reciprocating systems and large
centrifugal systems for medium and low-temperature
refrigerated cargo installations. Refrigerant 22 is used
with small reciprocating factory assembled units for air
conditioning, liquid chilling, and refrigeration; this includes water coolers, ice cubers, pantry refrigerators, and
freezers. In Europe R-22 is used for certain cargo
refrigeration applications. Future developments in this
country will undoubtedly include the gradual replacement of R-12 by R-22 for high-temperature.systems and
R-502 for low-temperature systems.
Water solutions of calcium and sodium chloride are
common refrigeration brines; properties of these brines
are presented in references [I, 41. Ordinary salt (sodium
chloride) is used where contact with calcium chloride
could not be tolerated, as for example the brine fog
method of freezing fish and other foods. Nevertheless,
the lower freezing point of a calcium chloride solution

makes its use advantageous. The presence of magnesium salts in either brine is undesirable, as they tend
to form sludge. Neutral brines are comparatively noncorrosive. However, they are subject to contamination
from various sources which influence the brine's corrosive
effects. Since air (oxygen) and carbon dioxide are
among such contaminants, excessive aeration of brine is
avoided and closed systems are used whenever possible.
Ethylene glycol and propylene glycol brines, inhibited
for corrosion control, have been widely used. Ethylene
and propylene glycol are colorless, practically odorless
liquids, and completely miscible with water. Inhibited
ethylene glycol solutions are normally preferred over
propylene glycol solutions because of their more desirable
physical properties, especially at lower temperatures.
However, in applications involving direct contact with
food or beverages, toxicity considerations may require
the use of propylene glycol. On an equivalent percentby-weight basis, propylene glycol solutions generally
have slightly higher values of specific heat than ethylene
glycol, though solutions of either are not as efficient as
water alone for heat-transfer applications. Information
with regard to glycols may be obtained from reference [5].
1.I Thermal Insulation. Thermal insulation is provided on a ship's structure and equipment to limit heat
transfer (gain or loss) and to prevent condensation.
Condensation is generally undesirable in that it can damage the insulation itself as well as other materials it
contacts. In addition, condensation can cause damage
indirectly by creating high-humidity ambients which in
turn can cause deterioration of structures and materials.
Effective and efficient insulation treatment is particularly important to economical ship design for the
following reasons :
1 Most materials use$-in ship construction have
very high thermal conductivity.
2 Structural conformations cause discontinuity of
insulation applications.
3 The "fin effect" of beams and other stiffening
membem appreciably increases heat transfer through
structures.
4 There are many heat-producing (hot) spat- which
MARINE ENGINEERING
must be thermally isolated from cooler surrounding

Because of the weight factor, insulation treatment on
naval ships is somewhat less than it is on merchant ships.
This applies primarily to the basic thickness of the
insulation used for comparable applications. Another
difference is that on merchant ships, ceilings and linings
are fitted in "hotel" areas to conceal structure as well as
insulation, piping, ducts, and other services. Therefore,
the insulation can be less durable with respect to service
abuse, and does not require a surface finish for protection
or decorative reasons. Also, as shown in the discussion
of insulation theory, the resulting dead-air spaces have
an insulating effect.Another significant difference is
that on merchant &ips, metal sheathing is fitted to
protect insulation which is not concealed by linings and
ceilings (joiner work). The high conductivity of this
sheathing appreciably reduces the effectiveness of the
insulation treatment unleis adequate means are provided to thermally isolate it from the supporting ship
a = thermal conductance of air space, Btu/hr-sq

ft-deg F
in the foregoing equations to obtain:
Values for f,, fo, and C are obtained from tests of typical
constructions using the "guarded hot box" method. fi
and j o vary with surface temperature and direction of
heat flow (up, horizontal, or down); also, fi varies with
the frame-spacing dimension. Conductance values, C,
for a particular material vary according to the mean of
H = UAAt
('I) the surface temperatures, (ti f to)/2. For estimating
purposes, an outside film coefficient, fo, of 7.0 is commonly
of heat transmission, Btu/hr- used in deriving air-to-air U factors; the l/f component
is omitted for sides exposed to the sun or liquids, i.e.,
Of the three variables having a n effect on heat transmission, only the overall coefficient of heat transmission
other highly conductive material extending wholly or

partly through insulation should, if possible, be determined by test; but approximations can be made as
described in references [I, 61.
This is facilitated by using the expression

temperature of the air. M~isturecreates a partial
pressure in air which is a function of the air temperature;
consequently, if the tem~eratures*ofthe two parallel
surfaces of a porous or fibrous material are different, a
moisture vapor pressure gradient will exist between the
two surfaces. Unless a suitable barrier is provided on
the warm side, the difference in vapor pressure will force
1
x
1
moisture from the warm air into the colder material.
R =-+'+-+3+fi
ki
a ko f o
Even a small increase in moisture content appreciably
increases the conductivity (k value) of insulating materials. Therefore, moisture in the insulation and condensation accumulating on surfaces below the ambient
f = film or surface conductance, Btu/hr-sq ftdeg F
dew point both negate the effectiveness of the insulation,
x = material thickness, in.
k = material thermal conductivity, Btu-in/hr-sq ft-- even if the moisture does not actually cause deterioration
of the insulation.
where R is the total resistance to heat flow; it is equal to

the sum of the various individual resistance components.
For example, the thermal resistance of a structure con&ting of two homogeneous materials (denoted by i for
inside and 0 for outside or weather) having an air space
. between them can be expressed as:
OECK
E ~ P O S ~ ~
CONSTRUCTION
==
-OR(
11
XXXXX
Heat transfer occurs whenever there is a difference in

temperature between two adjacent bodies. It may be
accomplished by any one, or a combination of, three
modes: conduction, convection, and radiation. The
heat, H, transmitted through a flat structure, such as a
deck or bulkhead, can be expressed as follows:
= overall
SURFACE TO AIn
The thermal conductance of an air space is a function of

the height, depth, position, character, and temperature
of the bounding surfaces. The relationships are not
linear, and accurate
must be determined
test.
a structure consisting
a single homogeneous matedal) the expression reduces to
or
In the case of c~nStructiOnshaving
irregular sections, such as are common akoard ship, the
resistance of the section, 1/C, is substituted for
717
=
=
MARINATE SHEATHING OR LINING

SHEET METAL SHEATHING OR LINING
WOOD DECK 12.5 INCHES THICK)
ANTI-SWEAT COHPOUNO
UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED, INSULATION THICKNESS I S 2 ~ ~ C ~ ON

I E PLATES
S
AND I INCH ON BEAMS
AND STIFFENERS.
THERMAL BREAKS OF NON-METALLIC FURRING
AND BLOCKS ARE CONSIDERED TO BE PROVIDED
TO PREVENT METAL-TO-METAL CONTACT BETWEEN METAL
SHEATHING AND SUPPORTING STRUCTURE.
INSTRUCTIONS
2.
USE "SURFACE TO A;IR"FACTORS FOR CALCULATING

SOLAR LOADS AND TRANSMISSION FROMSURFACES
D P O S E D TO LIQUIDS ON ONE SIDE. USE "AIR
TO AIR" FACTORS FOR ALL OTHER SURFACES.
TREAT PROMENADES AND SIMILAR SPACES, WITH OR
3-
WITHOUT WINDOWS, THE SAME AS WEATHER AREAS.

FOR CARPETED SURFACES, REDUCE THE u FACTORS
1.
BY 20 PERCENT; NEGLECT THE EFFECT OF DECK

SUCH AS, TILE, MAGNESITE, LINOLEUM,
AND TERRAZZO.
4. FOR HEAT ABSORBING AND DOUBLE GLASS, REFER
TO MANUFACTURER'S CATALOGS FOR SUITABLE u
FACTORS
USE0 PROJECTED AREA

FOR BUD SOLAR ONLY
OECI
INSIDE
718
MARINE ENGINEERING
The term permeance, expressed in perms, is used to

classify a material's resistance to the passage of water
vaDor. Metals have zero permeance and, therefore. are
pe;fect barriers. closed-cell, nonhygroscopic mateAals,
such as cellular glass, also have zero permeance. The
permeance rating to be specified for a surface depends on
the severity of the particular application. For instance,
the vapor barrier for the insulation on an air-conditioning
duct need not have as low permeance as that on the hot
side of a refrigerated compartment boundary. The
joints invariably are the "weakest link" in vapor barrier
treatment. Even when a barrier has been perfectly
applied, expansion and contraction in time' open joints
and thus reduce the effectivenessof the installation. It
is a matter of record that most applications of insulation
to refrigerated spaces deteriorate with time because of
water vapor absorption. Accordingly, it is traditional
to design such applications conservatively (81.
1.9 -Sound Conditioning. The noise and vibration
generated by refrigeration, ventilation, and other airconditioning equipment are only part of that generated
within the ship. Obviously for efficient and consistent
treatment, all such disturbances must be considered
simultaneously ; otherwise overcorrection of one source
of annoyance will only serve to emphasize others. As a
result of this necessity for coordinated analysis, noise
and vibration problems are best handled by an acoustic
specialist. Accordingly, no effort is made herein to

treat this subject aside from stating the following
-general -guidelines:
RECIRCULATION-EXHAUST
FROM SPACE
1 Locate noise-generating equipment as far as practicable from spaces where quietness is essential. Passageways, or spaces where quiet operation is not as
essential, can be used as buffers between noisy and quiet
EXHAUST
e-
-- _ tipaces.
2 Do not mount noise-generating equipment on bulkheads bounding quiet spaces.

3 Use rotating rather than reciprocating equipment
where quiet operation is of primary importance.
4 Secure foundations for equipment on rigid structural members, such as deck beams; i.e., do not support
equipment on flexible plating.
5 Mount equipment on resilient mounts and provide
flexible pipe or duct connections to isolate vibration.
NOTES
Main air connections and
shuluff eocb are not
shown.
OUTSIDE
AIR
If the mhimum ouhlde air

bv~ossis omitted. a s b ~ .
aiiustable for balancinb;
is provided on the ouhide
alr damper ta prevent full
closure and ta permit the
passage of minimum outside air when in the closed
(minimum open) position.
On merchant ships, acoustical and vibration control

serve mainly as a means for comfort and to prevent
damage to equipment. On naval and oceanographic
ships, however, vibration and noise must be controlled
for additional and more vital reasons. These include
elimination of interference with detecting and measuring
devices, prevention of detection by enemy, prevention
of deafness, and elimination of interference with aural
communications.
3. TWO-position valver the

valve is closed below the
change-wer temperature.
CHILLED'
WATER
LEGEND
HUMIDISTAT
ROOM THERMOSTAT
4
4
1
0
0
DUAL DUCT AIR MIXING UNIT
FAN
PNEUMATIC DAMPER & MOTOR
FILTER
CQOLING COIL
Fig. 5
Section 2
System General Requirements
The spaces served
by a common system depend upon the usage of the
spaces, periods of occupancy, occupancy density, and
odor potential; also, in naval construction, damage control classification is a prime consideration. System
capacities from 5000 to 8000 cfm are common, with
extremes being approximately 1000 cfm and 10,000 cfm.
Naval ships are air conditioned by central station
reheat systems which are referred to as "recirculation
systems." The requirements for reheat zoning is the
only basic variable. I n general, where the net heating
load is negative, such as an internal space with a yearround cooling load, reheating is not provided. An
exception to this is where one or more of the spaces
served by a system require control of the relative humidity. Since the humidity controller can override the
room thermostat, reheat is required to compensate for
overcooliig. Generally, spaces are zoned according to
heating requirements. Large spaces, such as mess rooms
and "critical" spaces, may have individual reheaters or a
separate recirculation system.
Air-conditioning systems installed on merchant ships
are classified as: (a) those serving small spaces (passenger
staterooms, crew's quarters, offices, shops, etc.); and
(b) those serving large spaces (dining rooms, lounges,
2.1
AilcConditioning Systems.
messrooms, etc.). Figure 5 illustrates the "Class A"

system typical for air conditioning large (public) spaces.
The outside and return (recirculated) air mixture is
filtered and conditioned (preheated, cooled, dehumidified, and reheated as required) by the central station
equipment.
Air is recirculated in air conditioning systems for the
sake of economy. Automatic dampers (outside air,
recirculation, and exhaust) in Fig. 5 modulate the supply
of outside air commensurate with the refrigeration system capacity; 100-percent outside air is supplied unless
room conditions cannot be maintained with the cooling
coil valve fully open. Note that cooling is controlled by
both a humidistat and room thermostat. The room
thermostat controls both cooling (water) and reheater
(steam) valves, which are sequenced to maintain a set
room temperature. When the humidity exceeds the
humidistat set point, it overrides the room thermostat
and opens the cooling coil valve for additional dehumidification. Should this cause overcooling, the room thermostat opens the reheater valve to maintain the set
temperature. When a single Class A system serves
several spaces, each has its own reheater controlled by
only a room thermostat.
A Class D (terminal reheat) system is shown in Fig. 6.
Clan A air-conditioning system

with humidity control
MASTER
POSITIVE POSITIONING RELAY
P PREHEATER (STEAM)
R REHEATERIW=WATER, S=STEAMI
@DUCT
THERMOSTAT
N.O. NORMALLY OPEN (VALVE OR DAMPER)

N.C. NORMALLY CLOSED (VALVE OR DAMPER)
Conditioned air is supplied to each space to accommodate

maximum design cooling load requirements. A mixture
of outside and return air is filtered, conditioned (preheated or dehumidified and cooled as required) centrally,
and distributed to individual reheaters at the spaces
served. This system is used for passenger staterooms
on most ships now in service, as well as for crews'
quarters of many vessels. Note that automatic dampers
(two-position) are controlled by two sensors (ductstats)
in the air intake; one for the heating cycle and the other
for the cooling cycle. The preheater thermostat is set
several degrees below the design chilled air (off-coil)
temperature to prevent simultaneous operation of the
preheater and cooling coil.
The Class E system, Fig. 7, is another system provided
for small spaces requiring high-quality treatment. It
is a primary air-secondary cooling and heating system;
PNEUMATIC CONTROL VALVE

DIVERTING RELAY
B.P. n l N l n u n OUTSIDE AIR BYPASS,
SEE NOTE 2.
the central station equipment conditions onljr the primary air. This primary air is distributed to induction
units located in the various air-conditioned spaces which
induce ropm (secondary) air to flow through a water
coil, an integral pad of the induction unit. The induced
air is either heated or cooled by this coil. No r e t h
(recirculated) air facilities are required. The plimary
air is sufficient for ventilation purposes and to balance
exhaust air requirements;-$ is conditiohed to take care
of the entire ,latent load (outside air plus room). Primary air is reheated, as necessary, to provide all heating
for spaces when the temperature is above the changeover point (described in the following) with chilled
(secondary) water being simultaneously distributed to
the induction units. Below the change-over point, the
water-chilling plant is inoperative; hot water is supplied
to the induction units and primary air is preheated
MARINE ENGINEERING
COJD
HOT
RECIRCULATION -EXHAUST
FROM
PASSAGE
RECIRCULATION-EXHAUST
FROM PASSAGE
-TO
EXHAUST
L
TO ROOM
ROOM
STEAM
S E E FIGS. 5 8 6
FOR CONTROLS
OUTSIDE
AIR
. ..
/CHILLED
\--WINTER
WATER
HOT WATER SYSTEM
MASTER THERMOSTAT
ISEE FIG. 14)
SEE FIG. 5 FOR LEGEND

AND NOTES
W S E E FIG. 6
FOR CONTROLS
Fig. 8
SEE FIG. 5 FOR LEGEND

AND NOTES
Clau G air-conditioning system
Fig. 6 Class D air-conditioning system
(TYPICAL EACH ROOM1

TINDUCTION UNIT
TO OTHER UNITS
OUTSIDE
AIR
SEE FIG.5 FOR LEGEND

AND NOTES
SEE FIG. 6 1
FOR CONTROLS
Fig. 7 Clau E air-conditioning system
(tempered). The primary air is distributed a t high

velocity and pressure and thus requires relatively little
duct space. However, this space saving is offset to some
degree by the space required for additional piping,
secondary water pumps, and induction units.
The change-over temperature may be defined as the
outside temperature which exists when the internal room
sensible load equals the transmission loss plus the cooling
effect of the tempered primary air. I n central station
cooling systems, e.g., Classes A and D, outside air is
available up to the full system capacity. Once the out-
side air falls below the design off-coil temperature it can

accomplish all of the necessary cooling, and the refrigeration equipment may be secured. Thus, the design offcoil temperature is also the change-over temperature.
The change-over temperature of the Class E system,
however, must be somewhat below the primary air off-coil
dry bulb temperature (approximately 50 F) because it
(primary air) provides only part of the sensible cooling
load, i.e., about >5. Change-over temperatures usually
fall between 30 and 40 F, 35 F being the most common.
Note that room thermostats are of the dual pressure
type since it is necessary to change the action from

normally open when the water is hot to normally closed
when the water is cool.
Figure 8 illustrates a varine dual duct or Class G
system; it has gained considerable popularity in recent
years. The high-pressure fan of a central station unit
distributes conditioned air through two parallel systems
of ducts (pipes) a t high velocity (approaching 5000 fpm).
One duct system carries cold air and the other hot air.
The air mixing units automatically proportion the hot
and cold air to satisfy room loads. The series arrangement of the cooling coil and reheater shown gives excellent performance; it provides maximum dehumidification
which in turn produces low room dew points. Accordingly, the possibility of condensation on cold ducts and
equipment and the necessity for perfect vapor sealing of
the insulation are minimized. Parallel arrangement of
the cooling coil and reheater, which is common'ashore,
has proven unsatisfactory.
2.2 Ventilation and Heating Systems. The central station air-conditioning systems discussed in the
foregoing also are suitable for ventilation and heating,
with cooling and recirculation facilities omitted. Fans
amprovided with two-speed motors (100-percent and 50
or 67-percent speeds) with the low speed being used
during the heating cycle to reduce the ventilation air
heating load and air movement.
Systems serving galleys, pantries, shops, laundries,
and similar work spaces are provided with preheaters
(50 to 60 F leaving temperature); they are referred to as
"tempered air" systems. I n merchant practice some
systems, such as those serving steering gear rooms, are
shut down during the heating cycle, i.e., when not required to limit temperature rise; this permits the omission of preheaters.
I n general, it is most practical to use mechanical supply

ventilation systems also for heating. Those spaces not
served by air-conditioning or supply ventilation systems
are heated by direct radiation. This also applies to
those spaces served by supply systems which may be
shut down during cold weather.
References [9, 101 contain typical ventilating and heating requirements for merchant construction; similar
requirements for naval construction are contained in
reference [ll].
Galleys, bakeries, and sculleries are ventilated primarily by mechanical exhaust, mainly through hoods
located over major heat-producing equipment. Mechanical supply, equal to about 50 to 90 percent of the
exhaust, spot-cools working stations. Some supply is
drawn (via accesses, grilles, or jumper ducts) from
adjacent compartments or passageways to confine heat
and odors.
Large laundries have a mechanical supply and mechanical exhaust. Exhaust terminals are so located that
equipment heat is not drawn across working stations.
Some supply is natural to confine heat and moisture.
In small deck laundries, the mechanical supply is omitted
when a natural supply is from air-conditioned areas; the
exhaust is located to prevent short-circuiting. Wherever
possible, the exhaust from dryers is discharged directly
to the weather with suitable lint-extracting facilities
being provided.
Mechanical supply ventilation is provided for auxiliary machinery rooms based on a Zmin rate of change
or a 15 deg F temperature rise, whichever is greater.
The mechanical exhaust should be between 110 and 1'20
percent of supply, where indraft is essential to prevent
the dissipation af hot air to cooler adjacent spaces.
MARINE ENGINEERING
Natural exhaust, via other heat-producing spaces, is tration retard heat dissipation to working and watch
areas. Most of the supply air is distributed directly to
common.
Pump rooms handling inflammable cargo have me- watch areas, so that personnel benefit from spot cooling;
chanical exhaust systems with a 2- or 3-min rate of air there is a relatively small air temperature rise in the
change; high and low terminals are provided, the latter blast area.
Exhaust ventilation may be natural, mechanical, or a
exhaust from bilges and other low pockets. Exhaust
fans are direct-connected, centrifugal type with noil- combination of both. Theoretically, the exhaust equals
sparking wheels and watertight fan shaft stuffingboxes. 110 to 120 percent of the supply. The excess exhaust
The fan preferably is mounted on the pump room side accomplishes two things: (a) it compensates for the
and the motor on the machinery space side of a water- thermal expansion of supply air, and (b) it creates an intight bulkhead; fans are driven by steam turbines draft to confine heat. Exhaust requirements generally
where this arrangement is not practicable. Natural are determined without considering combustion air. The
supply ventilation helps confine explosive vapors; the combustion air extraction, however, must not impede
t g n k s extend down close to the operating level where the normal thermal flow of hot exhaust air up machinery
necessary to avoid interference with the natural rise of space casings. Otherwise, the temperature within the
air heated by the pumping equipment. Transfer pump casings will increase, which in turn will increase the heat
rooms generally are exhausted by steam-ejector vent&* transmitted to surrounding spaces. The introduction
of gas turbines has served to reemphasize the importance
lators located on the weather deck.
Battery rooms and lockers are ventilated to remove of this ~roblem. The annular mace between the outer
the hydrogen gas released when charging. Require- staclc and uptake (smokepipe) provides an ideal passage
ments with regard to battery room ventilation are for natural exhaust. Natural exhaust produces satiscontained in reference [12]. Acid-resisting paint protects factory results where air paths are short and there is
ducts and centrifugal exhaust fans; the latter are located ample space to utilize low duct and terminal velocities
(1000 fpm or less) ;where both of these conditions do not
outside of the ventilated space.
Winch resistor and motor-generator rooms require a exist, mechanical exhaust is essential.
Shaft alleys on merchant ships are usually ventilated
mechanical exhaust to remove and confine heat produced
by the equipment. Heating, required to keep the equip- by natural supply from the machinery space at the forment dry, is accomplished by resistors furnished with the ward end of the shaft alley, and by natural exhaust via
equipment. Propeller fans usually are most practical the escape trunk at the after end. This arrangement
for these applications.
acts as an equalizer when the combustion air consumpEmergency diesel generator rooms may have either tion varies.
mechanical or natural exhaust (with natural or mechaniThe ventilation of cargo is by no means simple, as may
cal supply). Mechanical supply has the advantages of be noted from reference [13], which was the first major
being available for heating and minimizing infiltration. treatise on the subject, and references [l4, 151. Different
Supplementary direct radiation is recommended, even cargos present different ventilation problems. Products
with tempered mechanical supply, because of the copious such as grain, vegetables, and fruits are ventilated to
infiltration through engine cooling facilities. When the cool the cargo and remove liberated gases, moisture,
engine is operating, space ventilation is accomplished heat, and odors. Since cooling also reduces the moisture
by the engine radiator cooling fan. This fan draws released from hygroscopic materials (wood, grain, paper,
outside air (coolant) into the space, through the radiator, etc.), water damage as well as rot and mold growth is
and finally discharges it directly to weather. Automatic reduced. It must be noted that dunnage, battens,
dampers, at the weather supply and exhaust terminals, packaging, and bilge liquids also are si&ficant moisture
are interlocked with engine starting and are open only sources. Regarding metal products, the ventilation
when the engine is operating.
serves only to equalize temperature and thus prevent
Machinery space ventilation provides a tolerable at- condensation on the product, both on board and when
mosphere for operating personnel and maintains satis- unloaded.
factory ambient conditions for machinery. Judgment,
On a typical winter voyage from a cold to warm
based on previous experience rather than heat liberation climate, the cargo warms up slo+ly and moisture in
calculations, generally dictates air requirements. Knowl- ventilation air will condense on the cold cargo. This is
edge of successful treatment of spaces having similar referred to as "cargo sweat." Also under such circumchar teristics and equipment is particularly valuable. stances, hygroscopic cargos cool slowly and, therefore,
On me hant ships with turbines or high-speed diesel continue to liberate moisture untii their temperatures
propulsion equipment, mechanical supply rlystems usu- have fallen appreciably. Daily temperature changes
ally provide one air change per minute. A rate of change due to sun variations can cause a cargo to heat unevenly;
of 1.5 or 2 minutes is common for spaces with slow-speed unless removed, the moisture released may condense ondiesel or reciprocating engine rooms which are relatively the colder surfaces of both cargo and ship's structure.
spacious. The supply air quantity falls in the range of The latter is referred to as "ship's sweat." Variations
6 to 10 cfm per shaft horsepower.
in temperature of seawater, such as encountered by a
Exhaust terminals over sources of high heat concen- vessel sailing through the Gulf Stream, have a similar
723
effect. Cargo and ship sweat can cause various forms

of damage which can jeopardize both the s h i ~and its
cargo. ~ o n s e ~ u e n -t many
l~,
ships have special dehumidification and ventilation facilities to prevent sweat
and to accelerate temperature equalization. Dry cargo
spaces generally are ventilated by mechanical supply
and natural exhaust, the latter directly to the atmosphere
from each compartment. For many years a 30-min rate
of change (2 air changes per hour) based on grain cubic,
was considered adequate; however, in recent years a 20min rate of change has become more or less standard.
Where fruits and vegetables are regularly carried in
appreciable quantities, special ventilation is provided to
suit the s~ecificreauirements. For further information
on cargo 601d ventiation and dehumidification systems,
see reference [9].
2.3 Refrigerated Stores. Changes in food processing, the introduction of new construction materials
and techniques, and economic pressures make the design
of refrigerated spaces one of the most interesting aspects
of shipbuilding. Frozen foods, frozen concentrates, precut and boned meats and similar innovations have
materially reduced space requirements; however, improved palatability has increased the demand. Many
operators now carry food in frozen form rather than that
formally suitable for dry stores stowage. Individual
preferences, as well as specific requirements of various
trades (class of service, length of voyage, replenishment
facilities away from home port, seasonal variation, etc.)
are important considerations in planning refrigerated
stores spaces. Generally, the owner outlines the segregation of commodities, holding temperatures, capacities
(including reserve margins) and other essential design
criteria.
The bulk of refrigerated stores are stowed in insulated
"walk-in" compartments [Fig. lS(a)] which form an
integral part of the ship. Each compartment is fitted
out to suit the particular produce to be stowed; for
instance, unpaclcaged meats require hooks overhead,
while those for frozen foods have shelves. Portable
stanchions are provided to prevent shifting of commodities. Any general formula for estimating compartment sizes provides only a rough approximation to be
used when exact criteria are not available. One method
allows 10 pounds per person per day, with gross volume
based on a stowage factor of 70 cu f t per ton. This does
not include space for the thaw room, ice storage, or
frozen foods. Maritime Administration requirements
regarding refrigerated stores are listed in reference [8];
Table 1 shows the requirements for passenger ships.
A thaw room (Fig. 18) serves several functions: (i) it
improves sanitary conditions, as meat must otherwise be
thawed in passageways outside the refrigerated spaces
where the dripping and other refuse make good housekeeping difEcult: (ii) it is a work space, including a
butcher shop where so fitted; and (iii) it is used for overflow stowage. Tangible advantages of a thaw room
reflected directly in the refrigeration plant performance
are: (i) it reduces infiltration loads; (ii) defrosting is
Table 1
Refrigerated Stores Requirements for Passenger

Shi~s
(Net Volume cu ft per 100 ~ a e s e n ~ eper
r s Day)
1st
2nd
3rd
Product
Class5
Clad
Classe
Fresh fruits.. . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . 5.10
3.37
2.55
Fresh vegetables. . . . . . . .. . . . . 7.60
5.02
3.80
Meat.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,. . . . . 17.65
11.65
8.83
Fish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 2.80
1.85
1.40
Poultry.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 7.20
4.75
3.60
Butter.. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 0,77
0.51
0.39
Cheese.. . . . . . . . .,::. . . . . . . . . . 0.18
0.12
0.09
Eggs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.80
1.19
0.90
L d . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . 0.23
. 0.12
0.15
Milk.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'.. . . 2.15
1.42
1.08
Ice cream-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.60
1.72
1.30
I?
.I:.
Includes officers.
Includes junior officers cadets, etc.
Includes members of the crew.
required less frequently; and (iii) temperature fluctuations within compartments are negligible and thus the
products are maintained in best condition.
On many older ships, refrigeration equipment is located in the passageway serving the refrigerated compartments; the Liberty and Victory ships of World War
I1 are examples. However, present merchant practice,
fortified by automation, requires that the machinery be
located in the main machinery space, along with that for
the cargo and air conditioning, where most easily attended. This practice increases costs and requires a
more careful design of refrigeration piping. Usually
two identical condensing units (compressor, condenser,
receivers, and controls) are provided on cargo ships and
tankers; see Fig. 18. Both systems operate during
pulldown, but only one is required for normal operation
(reference [lo] requires each compressor to be adequate
to handle the load during a 72-hr pulldown period).
All compartments, large or small, have individual temperature control and are entirely automatic in operation.
On large passenger liners there usually are several
groups of medium-size "short-hold" refrigerators remote
from the main stores refrigerated spaces; separate directexpansion systems are provided to serve the walk-in or
reach-in refrigerators in each group. Where the individual short-hold groups are widely separated, a refrigerated brine circulating system may be used. Brine
systems 4also may serve all of the ship's refrigerated
stores compartments.
Small miscellaneous (reach-in) refrigerators are provided for pantries, bars, and similar service spaces.
These usually are cooled by integral condensing units or
separate units located iri;r-or adjacent to, the compartments served.
Chilled drinking water may be provided by a scuttlebutt or water cooler connected to the ship's stores.
However, Maritime Administration specifications require, and many owners prefer, self-contained water
coolers. In Navy prrtctice,,45 F chilled water from the
air-conditioning plant is sometimes used to cool potable
724
MARINE Eb
725
water, with small heat exchangers located near each

fountain. Where a large quantity of chilled drinking
water is required, it is considered good practice to install
an independent refrigeration system for this service
only, with the water being constantly recirculated.
Cube and flake ice are made by automatic, selfcontained units, which are designed especially for marine
use and to comply with U. S. Public Health Service
regulations [16]. Ice cube makers may be fitted with
attachments for crushing the ice and are arranged to
discharge the ice into storage bins. By locating these
machines a t the main points of consumption, throughout
the ship, very efficient service is possible. Smorgasbord,
salad pans, and similar food services are refrigerated;
embossed plate type evaporators are used in most cases.
2.4 Refrigerated Cargo. Almost all modern cargo
and passenger ships have part of the cargo space fitted
out for carrying refrigerated products. This space often
comprises 20,000 to 40,000 cu ft, divided into 2 to 6
compartments, each of 4000 to 14,000 cu ft. The size
of compartments varies with the trade; much depends
on the variety of cargos carried and their compatibility
with respect to odors, method of packaging, susceptibility to damage, etc. Some ships are designed primarily to carry a single product, e.g., bananas, in a
specific trade; all, or almost all, of the cargo space then is
designed to carry refrigerated products.
Since the "artJJdeveloped over a long period of years,
often by trial and error, the reasons for certain refrigem
tion practices may not be self-evident. The industry
continually experiments on ways to improve pi-oduct
preservations; such achievement can completely revolutionize an industry or create new ones. The United
States Department of Agriculture, similar organizations
in the United Kingdom and other foreign countries, as
well as various fruit growing and transportation companies, all are vitally concerned and sponsor pertinent
research in this area.
The introduction of frozen foods has substantially
reduced the design holding temperature for "universal"
(general purpose) refrigerated compartments. Zero F
to minus 10 F now are most common. Precooling of
cargo appreciably reduces the plant refrigeration requirements. However, shipboard cooling of "hot" produce
still is required in certain trades.
Shippers frequently specify the pulldown, reduction,
and holding temperatures for each product, as well as
the maximum allowable variation during holding. One
or two degrees F is commonly specified for the latter.
To check temperature, locked recorders may be placed
within the cargo block. Recent developments in automation, and more stringent regulations requiring highquality cargo out-turn, have greatly increased the use of
automatic control, indicating, and recording equipment.
Special recording instruments are required for "cold
treatment," which is required to destroy certain insects
in fruit [17]. For example, the insects imported with
Vinifera grapes die when exposed to a su5ciently low
temperature (32 to 35 F) for an extended length of time

(11 to 17 days) varying inversely with temperature.
The handling of refrigerated cargos must be rapid to
minimize temperature variations. Also, it must be carefully coordinated with operations ashore, including
transfer to and from the ship. Compartments normally
are precooled before loading to remove heat from structure, insulation, and fittings. This accelerates pulldown,
and prevents damage or staining of precooled or frozen
cargos due to contact with warmer surfaces. Since
sweat forms on cold surfaces and the temperature rises
when compartments are opened, every effort is made to
load and unload an entire compartment at one time.
Where this is not possible, curtains or other means are
used to minimize these adverse effects.
The procedure for handling unfrozen (chilled) beef is
unusually painstaking [18, 191; special air circulation
facilities are required to minimize temperature variations, i.e., 1 deg 1? and less. Fairly high humidity and
exceptional sanitation are essential.
Bananas are one of the largest cargos requiring refrigeration. Several recent innovations effect the stowage of this product. Polyethylene bags, provided to
protect stemmed bananas, also reduce the deleterious
effect of excessive air motion. Humidification facilities,
provided in shore-based banana ripening and fruit storage rooms, have not proven practical aboard ship to date.
High humidity is instead achieved by careful design of
the evaporators (air cooling facilities). By minimizing
differences between refrigerant and air temperature,
moisture removal also is minimized; thus, the necessary
high humidity is maintained.
Heating facilities are required to prevent freezing of
fruits and other "high-temperature" products. These
facilities also are used to warm canned and other nonrefrigerated metal products prior to unloading; this prevents condensation on such cargos when unloaded in
humid climates.
Ventilation may be either intermittent or continuous;
the lBtter is preferred since temperature variations are
minimized. Details of ventilation requirements are covered in Section 3.
2.5 Refrigerated Cargo Containers. I n the design
of refrigerated cargo containers for transportation by
ship, corrosion, ship's motion, stowage stresses, weather
tightness, and exceptionally high reliability must be
considered, as well as the over-the-rad goals of minimum
weight, maximum cubic capacity, and refrigeration
facilities which can withstand severe vibration and shock
[20,21,22, 231. Since both frozen and chilled cargo are
carried, shipboard containers are "universalJJrefrigerated
cargo carriers. As such, their capacity must be adequate
to pull down "hotJJproduce.
A number of different types of refrigerated containers
have been used [20]. The regular land type is not suitable since refrigeration equipment is an appendage and
thus does not permit economical stowage. Additionally,
the materials are readily corroded by salt air, spray, and
stack gases and many commercial containers are not

tight. These, plus unusual structural requirements for
handling and stowage (stacking six high on some ships),
necessitate that containers for shipboard service be specially constructed. Handling and securing attachments
must be flush or removable.
The minimizing of insulation to increase payload
necessitates the elimination of metal attachments, and
the associated high heat transfer, between the container's
interior, and exterior. Tight external construction is
essential to prevent air infiltration due to high wind
velocities and vapor migration. Tests have indicated
astonishing amounts of leakage; as a result, specifications
include pressure and smoke tests to control this factor.
Odors can contaminate cargo; therefore, materials are
specified to be odor-free, or nearly so [21].
Full-scale road tests have shown appreciable variations
in the performance of trailers. Also, theoretical calculations of loads are unreliable and often a 25-percent
allowance is added as a margin of safety. The U. S.
Department of Agriculture and interested private organizations have developed standards for rating refrigerated
containers to assure reliable performance. Tests show
(a) infiltration can equal the heat transmission load;
(b) the solar load is appreciably reduced when the
vehicle is moving and, under this condition, infiltration
may be the major component of refrigeration load.
Reference [2] discusses the design considerationsinvolved
and lists the pertinent references regarding container
design.
Because of problems associated with operating aircooled cond&nsingunits in confined spaces, such containers are carried only on deck. Containers stowed
below decks are provided with water-cooled condensers,
preferably utilizing fresh water.
Several nonmechanical methods may be employed for
refrigerating containers. Liquid carbon dioxide (COz)
may be exclusively used to refrigerate containers or to
achieve a quick chill of the load in containers fitted with
mechanical refrigeration. This system is not to be
confused with the solid carbon dioxide or "drv iceJJ
method. Liquid nitrogen functions practically th;! same
as liquid carbon dioxide; however, it is said to offer
greater possibilities for future use. Like carbon dioxide
systems, liquid nitrogen systems have no working parts.
The liquid nitrogen is carried in a specially insulated
cryogenic cylinder which is really a large thermos bottle.
There are several disadvantages associated with the use
of these methods; one is that operating costs of nitrogen
and C02 systems are higher than those of mechanical
systems. , Another disadvantage is that a replacement
supply of refrigerant may not be readily available. Nevertheless, acceptance by the transportation industry is
progressing rapidly.
2.6 Air-Conditioning System Controls. Automatic
controls are the brains of air-conditioning, refrigerating,
and heating systems. It is essential they be carefully
designed, installed and properly serviced; preventive
maintenance is essential. Automatic controls fall into
three
electric.
categories; namely, pneumatic, self-contained, and
Pneumatic control systems are the most common type
used on merchant construction (see Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and
14). Generally, where pneumatic controls are used for
any other control service, i.e., boiler combustion and
hold dehumidification, it is easy to extend the compressed air system arid utilize this type of control for air
conditioning and heating. Air from ship service systems
is not suitable,.for this purpose because of its oil and
moisture content; this is particularly troublesome on
tankers and bulk carriers where there are long runs of
weather-exposed piping. The best practice, particularly
for passenger ships of appreciable size, is to provide one
or more independent compressed air systems, crossconnected to the control or ship service system only for
emergency operation.
Primary compressed air (usually between 80 and
100 psig) is reduced in two stages, after drying and
cleaning, to the 15 to 19 psig required. Heating-cooling
thermostats (Fig. 7) require dual-pressure compressed
air; the lower pressure is for heating and the higher one
is for cooling. Switching of pressures is accomplished
automatically or manually.
Self-;contained controls are only used on merchant
construction where there are few controls or where suitable compressed air is not readily available. On naval
vessels, they are used for controlling steam coils; e.g.,
~reheaters.reheaters. and combination heaters. Selfcontained controls are limited as to sensitivity, adjustability, and throttling range. They are not suitable
where the available pressure drop is small, i.e., singlepipe heating systems,-or for systems requiring sequenced
operation. The "metering" poppets of self-contained
control valves are designed especially to modulate small
steam capacities at relatively high pressures (30 to
35 psig). An integral strainer is provided.
Electric controls are not used extensively in merchant
construction. They are used primarily for simple applications where (a) compressed air is not available under
all circumstances, and (b) suitable self-contained devices
are unavailable. A typical example is the control of
dampers at weather terminals serving emergency diesel
generator radiator cooling. On naval construction, special dual-temperature thermostats are used to control
chilled water coils and reheaters (steam and electric).
Sensing elements for water coils, either temperature or
humidity actuated, control on-off switches. Humidity
control is ~rovidedonlv for "critical" maces.
The folGwing recomkendations are offered with regard
to the design of automatic control systems:
1 The selection of components (size, types, etc.)

should be the sole responsibility of the manufacturer.
He should design, furnish, and calibrate the system and
guarantee its satisfactory operation. He should either
install or, as a minimum, supervise the installation.
2 Equipment should have a special marine type
corrosion-resistant finish.
726
MARINE ENGINEERING
3 Except for duct bulbs of controllers and thermometers, equipment should not be located in outside air
intakes or in the direct path of outside air.
4 Damper motors and linkages should be mounted
outside ducts, to minimize corrosion and dirt clogging
problems. Outside air dampers should preferably be
made of stainless steel; return air and exhaust air dampers may be stainless steel or mild steel, hot-dip galvanized
after fabrication.
5 Damper construction should be integrally airtight
without the use of nonmetallic seals. They should have
simple, accessible position indicators. 6 Sufficient thermometers should be provided to
check the performance of all automatic controls. Dials
should be mounted on the control panel. The range
should be suitable for the temperatures measured with
graduations of 1 deg F preferred, but not more than
2 deg F.
7 Control and indicating equipment, with identification label plates, should be mounted on simple, well-
L,,
lighted, accessible panels in equipment (fan) rooms.

Panels should also accommodate system label plates,
diagrams of systems, and operating instructions (including air and water temperature schedules).
8 Panel-mounted air gages should be provided for
checking the performance (branch-line pressures) of controllers located in equipment rooms. Elsewhere, tees or
other means should be provided to facilitate testing and
troubleshooting.
9 The instruction manual should include (i) schematic diagrams of each type of system with normal valve
positions, spring ranges, control pressures, temperature
settings, sequences of operation, and master-submaster
schedules; (ii) air piping diagram of installation showing
isolation valves, compressed air source, and pressure
reducing stations to facilitate trouble-shooting; (iii) in- ,
stallation, operating, and maintenance instructions for
each piece of equipment; (iv) spare parts list; (v) instructions for ordering parts; and (vi) information on
manufacturer's service facilities.
Table 2
Outqide Design Conditions for Environmental Control Systems, deg F
Cycle
Maximum cooling.. ...........
90
Intermediate cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heating .....................
10
Ventilating ................... 90
Wet
Bulb
81
...
...
...
Sear
rater
85
...
28
85
B";%
90-95"
75
0
Wet
Bulb
Seawater
78-82b
75
85-90c
80
30
85
...
...
90
,'
" Maritime Administration standard is 95.

Worth Atlantic service only 78; semitropical service 80; tropical service 82; Maritime Administration standard
in
-- 82.
Inside Design Conditions for Environmental Control Systems, deg F
Cycle
ET
Maximum cooling.. ...........
74
Intermediate cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heating. .......................
Ventilating. .................. 7 deg F
risec
3.1 Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Ventilation

Design Criteria. The itinerary, type of ship, and class
{,
!I
Maritime Administration standard is 88.
Table 3
Section 3
Design Criteria and load Con~prrnents
boundaries exposed to the sun, the maximum simultaneous heat gain may occur a t a time of day other than
of service are considered when selecting the outside when the instantaneous load is maximum on either the
design conditions for air-conditioning, ventilating, and horizontal or vertical surfaces. Additionally, the ship's
heating facilities. Temperatures given in Table 2 may orientation with the sun changes frequently, often a t
be used for merchant construction unless specific service short time intervals, which further complicates an accurate analysis of the solar heat gain.
experience indicates otherwise.
Naval practice is simple and empirical. Surface temThe inside design conditions listed in Table 3 are for
"hotel" spaces. Exceptions occur in naval practice peratures of weather boundaries exposed to solar radi%
where special equipment requires better control of tion are considered to be as follows:
temperature and hu&dity conditions. The higher qualWood decks.. ................... .I20 F
ity treatment indicated in Table 3, in general, applies to
Steel decks.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .I40 F
passenger accommodations. Hotel spaces on many
Vertical steel boundaries. . . . . . . . . . .I20 F
cargo ships are designed for an effective temperature
(ET) of 72 F; values above 74 lc are uncommon in new The total heat transfer (solar plus transmission heat gain)
construction. An E T of 73 1' is recommended with a resulting from these surface temperatures is considered
relative humidity between 40 and 60 percent and an only for that weather boundary having the greatest heat
average air motion of 20 fpm. In applying Table 3, all gain. The solar effect of other sun-exposed boundaries
combinations of dry bulb, wet pulb, and relative hu- is neglected.
Merchant practice varies. In some cases naval pracmidity used must fall in the E T range shown.
Ventilating and heating requirements for typical mer- tice is followed; but in others the s8ar load is considered
chant ships are enumerated in references [9, 101; similar to be the total of the individual maximum heat transfer
information for naval construction may be obtained from through all sun-exposed surfaces, with the calculations
being based on the surface temperatures shown for naval
reference [ll.].
3.2 Air-Conditioning Internal Cooling Loads. The practice. A more suitable approach is reflected in Fig. 4
internal cooling load of an air-conditioned space is com- and Table 4. Table 4 contains temperature equivalents,
posed of the following elements: solar (sun), transmis- F, of the solar heat gain for spaces with single and multision, lights, equipment (sensible and latent), and person- ple solar exposures. The total heat gain includes the
nel (sensible and latent). The instantaneous solar load normal transmission, which is calculated separately.
depends upon the sun's azimuth and altitude, cleanliness Note that Table 4 allows for the reflection effect of bulkof the atmosphere, color of impinging structure, and head (or shell) surface color. Except for the heat gain
other variables. Where a space has several weather through glass, the solar heat gain through a structure is
727
gg
Wet
Bulb
80"
68"
...
6SP.d
...
...
ET
g%
Wet
Bulb
RH
71-78
71
75-85"
75-77
70-7B-d
66-69"
66-63
60-50
60-45
...
...
7 dig F
nse~
" This temperature is only approximate since any combination of dry bulb and wet bulb falling on the 74 ET line is
acce table. 80 F dry bulb is used for load calculations.
b & other than hotel spacesl the tem erature may vary from 40 to 60 Fl the lower value being uaed where heating
is provided only to prevent freezing of lquids or to facilitate operation. 60 F generally is suitable for workshops and
other spaces where physical activity permits a reduced temperature.
c Temperature rise is the maximum allowable difference in dry bulb temperature between air entering and leaving
a space. It is the equivalent to At in equation (3). In heat-producing spaces the temperature rise (average) may
ap roach 80 deg F.
P75 F in hospital a aces and toilet apacsa of paasenger ships; 80 F in operating moms. The Maritime Administration standard is 70
On naval construction, 75 F for shower and toilet qaces.
a Maritime Administration standard is 80 F dry bulb and 66 F wet bulb.
" -"
obtained by the use of appropriate At values in equation (7).

~r&smission heat gain through surfaces other than
those exposed to solar radiation is calculated the same
for both naval and merchant practice, with one possible
exception. In naval practice, credit is allowed for the
cooling effect of adjacent spaces designed for a lower
temperature; this usually is not done in merchant practice. Equation (7) is used for calculating transmission
gains.
The temperature of ventilated spaces equals the outside design (cooling) temperature plus the allowable
temperature rise. An assumed temperature must be
assigned to nonventilated spaces and those whose ventilation is not based on temperature rise. When assigning
such temperatures, consideration is given 'to the temperature of surrounding spaces, heat sources within the
space, insulation treatment, and the space's function.
Assumed temperatures in Table 5 are applicable to merchant construction; similar data for naval construction
are included in reference [ll].
If the wattage of lights is known, the lighting load
heat gain equals the total wattage X 3.41; that for fluoresaent lights must include ballast, which can be approximated as 25 percent of the light wattage. Lighting
loads on merchant ships often are so high that use factors

similar to those in Table 6 are applied. If actual wattages are not known, the data in Table 7 may be used as
an approximation.
Equipment heat loads usually are electrical, except in
commissary and hospital spaces where steam or water
heated equipment also is used. Use factors are applied
to allow for intermittent operation of equipment [I].
Hoods and strategically located return and exhaust terminals can effectively minimize the heat dissipated by
equipment. Naval practice with' regard to equipment
heat loads is described in reference [ll].
The sensible heat and latent heat dissipated by personnel are shown in Table 8. The total personnel heat
load of a space is obtained by multiplying the number of
persons in each activity classification by the corresponding sensible and latent heat allowances.
3.3 Cooling Coil k d . The fotal system cooling
coil (refrigeration) loads are:
Room internal sensible
Outside air sensible
Fan heat
Duct loss (supply) and
gain (return)
Room internal latent

Outside air latent
'I[
5
728
Table 4
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 5
Equivalent Temperatures for Solar Heat Gain
EQUIVAI,ENT
TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE,
deg F
Bulkhead
Solar Exposures
Deck
or Shell
Wood deck only.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Steel deck only.. .....................
50
Bulkhead or shell only--dark color. ....
35
Bulkhead or shell only-light color. ....
20
Wood deck and bulkhead (or shell)dark .............................. 25
25
Wood deck and bulkhead (or shell)light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
15
Steel deck and bulkhead (or shell -dark
35
25
Steel deck and bulkhead (or ahell{-light
35
15
Single glass, deck over space exposed". . 110 Btu/hr-sq ft
Single glass, deck over space not exposedb 80 Btu/hr-sq ft
a Equivalent temperature for solar heat gain only; transmission
gain is not included;
bThe shading effect of curtains and blinds is included. See
reference [I] for double and special glass. For additional information, see Fig. 4.
When both the fan (or other driven equipment) and

motor are in the airstream, or treated space, the heat
gain is:
Motor brake horsepower X 2545
Htnf =
(9)
Motor efficiency
The efficiency of electric motors may be taken from
Table 9. The heat gain when only the fan is in the airstream, i.e., a centrifugal fan or a belt-driven axial-flow
fan, is:
H j = Motor brake horsepower .X 2545
(10)
For merchant construction, the fan heat can be estimated
as follows:
H j = FSPQ
(11)
where
Assumed Inside Temperatures of Spaces
ABBUMED
TEMPERATURE,
deg F
Space
Cooling
Heating,
Machinery and boiler spaces, deck. .....
130
70
Machinery and boiler spaces, bulkhead. .
120
70
Machinery and boiler casings, deck. ....
140
70
Machinery and boiler casings, bulkhead.
130
70
Motor generator and resistor, deck. . . . .
130
30
Motor generator and resistor, bulkhead. .
120
30
Toilet space in air conditioning area. ...
b
70
Miscellaneous stowage and lockers in air
conditioning area.. .................
L
4
Passages and stairwells.. ..............
b
70
Galley and pantry hood areas. .........
140
70
Miscellaneous stowage and stores spaces
outside air conditioning areas. .......
105
50
Settling tanks.. ......................
120
70
Fuel oil tanks. .......................
120
40
Cargo oil tanks. .....................
2
,
40
Voids above waterline. ...............
120
40
Voids below waterline.. ...............
100
40
Fresh water tanks. ...................
120
30
Cargo spaces above waterline. .........
110
20
Cargo spaces below waterline. .........
100
40
Seawater............................
85
30
Shaft alley. .........................
105
40
a Depends on ventilation treatment and number of unheated
exposures. The following are recommended:
SOURCE SUPPLY
Heated
Tempered
Weather
OF
Exposures
0
1
2
over 2
729
70
65
55
40
60
50
40
30
50
40
30
20
Air-conditioning design inside dry bulb temperature plus 5 deg F.

"Use cargo pumping temperature, t,, except where it may cool
during a voyage, in which case use t, - 20, but not less than 110 F.
b
culations, the heat gain in the return air path (passageways, stairwells, fans, and ducts) may be assumed
to be 5 deg F.
The outside (replenishment) air sensible and latent
H = fan heat, Btu/hr
loads
are obtained. from psychrometric data as outlined
F = factor: 0.65 for centrifugal fan (outside space)
in
Section
1.
0.85 for axial and propeller fans
3.4
Heating and Ventilation Loads. The space
SP = fan static pressure, in. of water
heating load is composed of the heat lost through cold
Q = fan capacity, cfm
boundaries to the weather and colder adjacent spaces
When better information is lacking, the fan air temper* and heat required to raise the outside (replenishment) or
ture rise, tj, in deg F may be approximated as follows:
infiltration air to the space temperature. No allowance
is made for solar heat gain. In merchant practice, no .
credit is taken for heat gain from warmer spaces; e.g.,
The heat gain in the supply ducts of an avergge system uptakes, machinery spaces, and similar hot spaces.
with 1-in. board insulation may be assumed to equal a Also, the heat gain from personnel, lights, and equipment
2 deg F rise, except where the longest run of duct after the is disregarded. See reference [Ill for information recooling coil is such that the rise is greater based on a garding naval construction.
Spaces which obtain their supply from an adjacent
1.5 deg F rise/100 ft.
The heat gain in the recirculation air path (passage- space will have an irrfiltration load if the supply is colder
ways, stairwells, and hotter surrounding spaces) may be than the heated space. Where a space, such as the
calculated; however, a rise of about 3 deg F is frequently wheelhouse, is adjacent to weather, the heating load
assumed. Where return ducts are less than 25 f t long, includes an infiltration allowance for cold air entering
the heat gain may be neglected; where longer, the rise when a weather door is opened.
A space's ventilation load consists of solar load, transmay be estimated as 0.5 deg F/100 ft. To simplify cal-
mission from warmer .adjacent space boundaries, and Table 6 Use Factors for Electrical Lights, Percentage of
heat gain from lights and equipment; only sensible heat
Watts Installed
is included. Heat from personnel is neglected.
Total Watts
NUMBER
OF FIXTUREB
The heat gain through each boundary may be calculated
Installed
4 or less
5 and 6
7 and over
from equation (7). The solar load is based on the differ- Up to 200
100
...
301-400
100
90
80
ence between the surface temperature (95 F plus solar 201-300
90
80
75
equivalent temperature from Table 4) and either the 401-600
...
75
70
design space temperature (outside air design temperature 601 and over
... /
70
60
plus design temperature rise) or an assumed space
temperature (Table 5).
Loads due to lights and eaui~mentheat dissi~ationare
discussed in sections 3.2 and 3.3.
table 7 Assumed Lighting Loads
The quantity of ventilation air required for a given
(Watts/sq ft Deck Area)
cooling load is calculated from equation (3). Note that
Space
Incandescent Fluorescent4
a temperature rise equivalent to supply fan heat, t j in
Passenger
staterooms
and
offices.
...
4
3
equation (12)) must be deducted from the allowable Officers staterooms. ..............
3
2
temperature rise to obtain the net rise used in equation Crew staterooms. ................
3
2
5
4
(3). This consideration may establish whether mechan- Messrooms ......................
ical or natural supply ventilation is selected for certain
a Includes heat of ballast.
spaces, such as those for refrigerated cargo.
3.5 Air-Conditioning Load Calculations. A form
similar td that shown in Fig. 9 is normally used when
performing air-conditioning load calculations for the sun-exposed surface are calculated separately to simplify
various ship spaces. Instructions for completing the partial load determinations such as those required a t
change-over. The solar load is constant irrespective of
Fig. 9 form are as follows:
the outside dry bulb temperature. As an example, if
1 The appropriate "key" is entered in the "key" To is 35 17, the transmission loss is a negative cooling
column to identify the load component computed. load; however, the solar gain is still positive and, being
Standard key designations are:
the same as previously used to determine maximum
cooling load, need not be recalculated.
KEY
LOAD
2 "T" is the design insideadrybulb temperature and
Deck Gver. ..........................
1
is
entered for keys 1 through 6 inclusive. It may be
Deck under. .........................
2
taken
from Table 3 or as specified.
Outboard bulkhead or shell. . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3
"To"
refers to .the temperature outside of the
Forward bulkhead. ................... 4
space
being
calculated; it is used, with equation (7)) to
After bulkhead. ...................... 5
compute
the
transmission loads corresponding to keys 1
Inboard bulkhead. .................... 6
through
6.
When To is not specified, use 95 F for
Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
weather
boundaries.
When the adjacent space is venEquipment ...........................
8
tilated,
use
90
F
plus
the
specified temperature rise or an
Personnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
assumed
inside
temperature
taken from Table 5.
Infiltration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1. ...... 10
4 Data regarding insulation treatment, dimensions,
The same key legend is used in both cooling and heating and areas are obtained from the ship's drawings.
load calculations; however, key 10 is not applicable to
5 The "U key" column is provided to identify the
cooling calculations and keys 7, 8, and 9 are not applica- insulation treatment of the boundary in question. U
ble to heating calculations. Note that keys 1,3,4, and 5 keys for various construction configurations are obtained
are entered twice for each surface exposed to the sun; from Fig. 4. The appropriate overall heat transmission
i.e., once for the transmission and once for the solar gain, coefficie~t(U factor) is also obtained from Fig. 4 and is
Table 4. The transmission and solar heat gain of each entered in the "U" column.
0 . .
Table 8
Activity
Classification
Personnel Sensible and Latent Heat Dissipation, ~t$hr
S 75 L
Waiters .................. 350

Persons Eating4.. ........ 280
All Others.. ............. 270
a
510
240
230
ROOM
DRYBULBTEMPERATURE,
Deg F
76
S
320
260
250
540
260
250
290
250
230
30 Btu/hr is allowed for both the sensible and latent heat of food.
78
570
270
270
260
240
200
80
L
600
280
300
MARINE ENGINEERING
I I/I/1
Table 9
ENVIRONMENTAL. CON'TROL
The total heating load is simply the sum of the Hw

column.
Electric Motor Efficiencies
Motor Size, hp
Motor Efficiency
Less than gz..
..........
0.45
342 to %... .............
0.50
% t o 3);. ...............
0.60
% t o g .................
0.65
% to I . . . ...............
0.75
I t 0 5 ...................
0.80
5 and larger. ............
0.85
3.6
6 "TD" denotes the temperature difference across a

boundary and is Ta-T for cooling transmission loads,
equivalent temperature differentials (Table 4) when
computing solar heat gains, and T-To for heating loads.
7 The transmission and solar heat gains through
boundaries, HEin cooling calculations and Hw in heating
calculations, are determined from equation (7), i.e.,
area X U X TD.
8 The lighting sensible cooling load is computed as
3.41 times the lighting wattage load. The data presented
in Tables 6 and 7 may be used for guidance.
9 Equipment cooling loads are usually sensible and
are computed from equation (9) and Table 9; however,
latent loads may also be incurred, particularly in commissary and hospital spaces.
10 The latent and sensible heat dissipated from
persomel is computed from the data given in Table 8.
11 The infiltration heating load is determined from
equation (3), heating TD, and the specified infiltration rate.
After the various individual load components are computed for the space in question, the sensible, HE, and
latent, HL, heat columns are totaled. The space load,
HT, is then determined by summing the sensible and
latent heats and the sensible heat factor is computed for
each space by using equation (6).
Refrigerated
Compartment
Design
individual requirements of the service, and owner's

preference generally preclude the necessity for exacting
calculations. This "phiosophy" is further strengthened
by the fact that refrigeration equipment is selected on
the basis of 18 hr operation per day during the holding
~eriod.
The components comprising refrigerated compartment
loads are basically the same as those forming air-conditioning cooling loads. The load components are classified as follows:
Criteria,'
Refrigerated compartments are assumed to have boundary temperatures as enumerated in Table 10 for merchant construction.
The optimum storage conditions vary with the product
to be preserved [2]. Stores which are compatible with
respect to storage temperature, humidity, odor generation, and contamination sensitivity may be stowed in
the same compartment. common refrigerated stores
compartment designations and design storage (holding)
stores are dven in
temperatures for merchant
1 Transmission (includes allowances for solar heat)

2 Product
3 Container
4 Product respiration heat
5 Ventilation or infiltration
6 Fan, motor, and pump heat
,laulc:
_,,_ ,,
11.
The optimum storage conditions (temperature, humidity, and air motion) for a perishable cargo are not
static, but depend upon many factors [2, 241. Refrigerated cargo is classified according to its condition when
loaded; i.e., frozen, precooled, or hot. As will be seen in
Section 3.7, a product's loading condition appreciably
affects refrigeration capacity requirements. The refrigeration facilities of most general cargo ships are of the
"universal" or "all-purpose" design and are suitable for
most perishable products. Such installations are designed for both frozen cargo and chilled produce; the
former commonly range from minus 10 to 0 17 and the
latter as high as 55 1'. Maritime Administration Standard specifications require three design (holding) temperature conditions; namely, -10, 4-35> and +50 F.
The - 10 F holding temperature is particularly costly
and, therefore, should only be applied where the vessel's
e dshiDJsstores.
trade demands it: this also a ~ ~ l i to
3.7 ~ e f r i ~ e r a t e~do m ~ a r i k e cooling
nt
Loads, The
refrigeration system's capacity must be adequate for
both "pulldown" (cooling the product from the loading
temperature down to the holding temperature) and
"holding" (normal) operation. Shelving and other stowage facilities, the great variety of products handled, other
The respiration (for live products) is comparable to the

personnel load. Personnel and lighting loads, however,
are disregarded since they are negligible and intermittent.
An analysis of loads always should be made to determine
which component (product load, ventilation, etc.) is
controlling; possibly a slight relaxation of this item may
permit a much more economical and efficient installation.
Considerable study is required to obtain the optimum
plant design. The procedure for calculating loads and
selecting refrigeration equipment for naval construction
is fully described in reference [25].
Commonly assumed design temperatures for adjacent
spaces are contained in Table 10. Suggested overall
transmission coefficients are given in Table 12; these
include a margin of safety to cover moisture absorption
and the higher conductivity of materials used for furring
and supports. Equation (7) is used to calculate the
transmission load.
The product load which occurs only during pulldown
is calculated as follows:
H,
WSAt/T
73 1
Table 10 Assumed Boundary Temperatures for Merchant

Ship Refrigerated Compartments
SURFACE
BOUNDARY
Sunexposed weather deck, wood. . . .
Sun-ex~osedweather deck. steel.. ...
TEMPERATURE,
deg F
Cooling
120
1 4--0 0
-
Heating
~ ~ $ ~ ~ ;~
: ~
tg ~
Adjacent refrigerated spaces. .......
Surface exposed to seawater. .......
Adjacent to h a ~ sauares..
h
........
Other interior apace;. ..............
Design
temp.b
85
100
106
...
...
&
...
...
$ ~
10
in
30
-C
Maritime Administration standard is 120 F.

Consider onl if adjacent space maximum design temperature
is higher than t L t of space being calculated; base heat gain on
maximum design (refrigeration) temperature except use 100 F for
refrigerated cargo spaces (for cases when the spaces are unrefrigerated).
Neglect unless adjoining space may be unheated, then use 35 F.
b
Table '1 1
Refrigerated Ship's Stores Temperatures for

Merchant Ships
PRODUCT
OR SPACE
DEBI~NATIONTEMPERATURE,
. deg
-F
Meat0 ................................
Fish. .................................
Frozen foods and ice cream.. ............
Fruits and vegetables. ..................
Dairy .................................
Thaw rooms and vestibules. .............
Scuttlebutt. ...........................
Potatoes. ...................; .........
Flowers. ...............................
Smoked meat. ..........................
Mineral waters, champagne, wkes and
liquors. .............................
Beer ..................................
Bonvoyage ............................
Butcheshop ...............a.e*.......
Morgue ...............................
Ice storage. ............................
minus 10 t o 0
minus 10 to 0
35
35
--
60
0
15
a Some cargo ship operators stow both meat and fish in the same
compartment.
(13)
where
H, = product heat load, Btu/hr
W = weight of product stowed, lb
S = specific heat of product, ~tu/lb-degF
At = cooling range (difference between loading and
holding temperature), deg F
T = time allowed for pulldown, hr (48 for stores and
72 for cargo)
Fig. 9
Air-conditioning load calculations
Table 12 Overall Transmission Coefficients for Merchant

Ship Refrigerated Spaces
CONBTRUCTION
INSULATION
U FACTOR
THICKNEBB,
Btu/q ft-hr-deg F
IN.0
Bulkhead with stiffeners on side

opposite insulation
Bulkhead and deck with stiffenera penetrating insulation
Deck-underfoot; cellular glass
insulation to ped with 2 to 3
in. minforcecl'concrete mastic
Deck underfoot, cellular gWw
(1 in.) and polyurethane insulation topped with 2 to 3 in.
reinforced concrete mastic
Nonmetallic dividing bulkhead
(no steel framing)
{a
0.06
0.04
0.10
0.07
. -
0.09
0.07
0.05
A typical refrigerated compartment is shown in Fig. 10.

The gross volume of a compartment is the volume included between the finished deck underfoot, inside
0.09'
surface of the insulation sheathing overhead, and inside
0.06
insulation sheathing bulkhead to bulkhead (or air cooler
space of cargo compartments). The gross volume ex0.08
0.06
cludes the volume of the air cooler (cold diffuser) space,
Figs. 37 and 38. The net volume equals the gross volume
a Minimum insulation thickness over stiiTeners, beams, and other
r
stor- structural members is 2 in. for compartments 35 F and higher, and
less deductions for space not available f ~ product
for those below 35 F.
age; i.e., that required for access, air circulation, package 4 in.
b Total thickness of cellular glaaa plus polyurethane.
MARINE ENGINEERING
,NruunoN
spacingJ ducts, evaporators (cold diffusers, air cooler~J

and wall coils), gratings, battens, and temperature re
cording and controlling devices. The relationship b e
tween the net and gross volumes of typical refrigerated
---
Table 13
Stowage Densities of Common Refrigerated

Products
DENSITY,
PRODUCT
Apples (in boxes). ...........................

Bacon(inboxes) ............................
B-s
...................................
Beef frozen and packed). ....................
Beef ~ h m gin quarters). .....................
Beef (boned and compressed). ................
Butter (in kegs or cases). ....................
Cheese (in boxes). ...........................
Fish in boxes) ...............................
~ i . 6[frozen). ...............................
Lemons ....................................
Lamb or mutton. ............... ,...........
Oranges. ...................................
Potatoes in bags). ..........................
potatoe. [in b a d ) . ........................
ft/long tono
106
64
120
51
125
67
67
68
70
80
Table 15
Product Load Data for Cargo
Specific heat, Btu/lb-deg F . ..... Chilled

Frozen
0.90
0.45
Stowage density, p d . . ..........

25
Product temperature when loaded, Frozen
25
deg F . . ..................... Precooled
65
Hot
85
Common holding design tempera- frozen
-10
ture, deg F . ................ d . Chilled
30 tot o350 (0
[I/
at055 3
Chilled
Pulldown time, hr.. ............
72
NOTE:Figures in parentheses indicate ventilation air changes per
hour based on &OEM volume. Maritime Administration reqmrement for 35 a n t l a F (chilled) cargo is 2 air changm/hr.
Long ton equals 2240 lb.
Respiration rates vary with the product, its temperature, and other factors [24]. For general PurPoses,
ever, Table 16 may be used to calculate the product
rnspidon heat load. The average of the respiration
rates at loading and holding temperatures 'is used for
calculating pulldown loads. For ship's stores a rate of
0.09 (0.13 at loading, 0.05 at holding) may be usedThe respiration heat load is calculated as follows:
Fig. 10 Typical refrigerated compartment
Table 14
Product Load Data for Stores
MEAT
ITEM
SpecificHeat Btu/lb-deg F . .
Stowage denkty, pcf.. ......
Cooling range, deg F . ......
Pulldown time, hr. .........
AND
FISH
0.45
35
15
FRUIT
AND
VEGETABLES DAIEY
48
H , = respiration heat load, Btu/hr
W
R
= weight of product stowed, lb

= respiration rate, Btu/lb-hr
Mechanical ventilation is provided for the refrigerated

cargo compartments of most modern ships sufficient to
produce the air changes noted in Table 15. For cargo
the ventilation is considered only during holding, except
for bananas, which require ventilation during pulldoand holding. The normal infiltration'from door oper*
tion provides ample ventilation for stores compartments,
and the in6ltration load is included in both pulldown
and holding calculations. Figure 12 shows reasonable
infiltration rates for stores spaces entered from a thaw
room. These rates must be multiplied by 1.5 for spaces
not protected by a thaw room, and by 2.0 for thaw rooms
to allow for heavy door usage. Ventilation and infiltr*
tion loads may be calculated from psychrometric data
and equation (5); however, charts, e.g., reference [25], or
tables, e-g., Table 17, are more practical. Using Table
17 the load, H v (Btu/hr), is determined from the following equation:
H v = VoRAH
(15)
V O = P O S S volume of compartment, cu ft
R = rate of air change (Table 15 for cargo, Fig. 12
for stores)
AH = heat removal, Btu/cu ft (Table 17)
z
sS0
.45
.40
.%
Fig. 12
Avdrage infiltration rates f a ship's stores c m p a h e n t r entared

from a thaw room
Table 16
Product Average Respiration Rates
TEMPERATU~E,
deg F
35
45
55
65
75
85
REBPIRATION
RATE,
Btu/lb-hr
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.11
0.13
0.17
734
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 17 Heat Removed in Cooling Air to Storage Conditions, Btu/cu ft
AMBIENTAIR
STORAGEROOMTEMPERATURE,
Deg F
Values of 100 F and 50-percent RH are commonly specified for the conditions of entering (outside) air.
The Maritime Administration Standard specifications
require that the ventilation load be baaed on 100 F and
80-percent relative humidity outside air, and that pulldown of the entire cargo be accomplished within 72 hr.
Fan and motor heat is introduced into the refrigerated
compartment both by the ventilation and recirculation
fans. The heat equivalent of pump power must also be
included as part of the refrigeration load. (See Section 3.3 for data applicable to fan and motor heat loads.)
The difference between motor nameplate and fan brake
horsepower may be significant; thus, this should be
checked to avoid excessive allowances. Also, since fans
add
. - heat to the air, natural supply ventilation with
mechanical exhaust (fan and mot6; outside the refrigerated space) may be used to avoid this load. Air cooler
fans normally operate at full speed only during pulldown;
therefore, the slow speed, which is usually 50 percent of
maximum, is used during holding and reduces the heat
load to ?4 of the maximum value.
3.8 Drinking Water Cooling and Ice Making. Water
cooling facilities usually are designed to deliver 50 17
water with 90 F entering water. The water cooling
load, H, (Btulhr), is calculated as follows:

H, = 8.33 GR
where
(16)
G = cooling capacity, gal/hr

R = cooling range, deg F
The average cargo ship cooler (scuttlebutt) has a 50gallon storage capacity and a cooling capacity of 10
gallhr. Refrigeration loads for large, extensive drinking-water systems, such as found on a passenger ship,
include circulating pump heat, as well as heat gain
through the distributing piping.
The ice-making load, H i (Btu/hr), is expressed as
follows:
H i = W[144
(tl - 32) 0.5(32 - tz)] (17)
where
= weight of ice made, lblhr
tl = entering water temperature, deg
tz = ice temperature, deg F
The common standard is to consider the entering water

to be 100 F and the ice temperature to be 15 F.
Section 4
Piping Systems
4.1 Steam Heating Systems.
The layout of a
steam heating piping system depends upon the vessel
arrangement. Cargo ships generally have relatively
short fore-and-aft runs of piping; a steam riser in the
machinery casing starts a t a pressure-reducing station
below the lowest, and extends up to the highest$ deck
served. Where areas served are some distance fore and
aft, such as on troopships and passenger ships, the steam
main is run fore and aft, preferably above the bulkhead
deck and on the deck level having the largest height so

as to minimize conflicts with headroom and other services. Risers, taken from the main a t convenient lace
tions, feed short laterals on the various decks. Often a
horizontal steam main can serve two or even three decks
(one or two up and one down). When avoidable, the
longitudinal main is not run on a passenger deck. If
possible, piping is kept out of cargo holds and other inaccessible (locked) spaces, where leaks may be unde-
tected [261. Also, it is kept out of electrical spaces and

is not allowed over electrid equipment. The requixement for a gravity return is a major controlling factor in
locating condenmte piping. To achieve an economical
and efficient layout, the heating system must be, coordinated with the other hotel services. Structural interferences and limitations also must be considered.
The following guidelines are considered to reflect good
practice in the design of shipboard steam heating system:
1 Provide constant steam service for equipment
operating year around (galley, pantry, water heaters,
laundry, converters, air-conditioning reheaters, and filter
cleaning stations). Feed the remaining equipment from
intermittent steam service.
2 Provide either a common or individual reducing
station for each group of units requiring the same operating pressure. Some galley equipment may require lower
pressure than heating equipment; also, some units have
integral reducing and control facilities.
3 Run all piping (steam and condensate) so it may
be drained by gravity.
4 Design condensate piping for gravity return to an
atmospheric or contaminated drain tank. Run independent drains from laundry equipment which operates
at a higher pressure than other equipment. Where lifting of condensate absolutely cannot be avoided, limit the
l i t to one deck height only and fit check valves.
Wherever possible, install horizontal runs of condensate piping level or pitch it in the direction of flow.
Also, provide drips a t all low points in piping, the base
of risers, and ends of mains.
6 Locate drain piping from heating units in exposed
compartments, such as
gear rooms, below the
unit; if located above, the unit can be flooded and damaged by freezing if steam is inadvertently secured in cold
weather.
7 Except for converters, do not provide by-passes for
traps or automatic valves.
provide a
gage in each equipment (fan)
room, and elsewhere as necessary, to determine the actual
working pressure a t heating units. Also, provide
plugged test connections a t several points.
9 Provide all units with a stop valve on supply and a
trap and cutout valve (gate) on the return.
10 For each air and water heater, provide a strainer
and control valve (following stop valve) on the supply
and a dirt pocket before the trap on return.
11 Provide a dirt pocket and strainer ahead of the
steam trap on a unit heater return.
12 In general, use thermostatic traps only for direct
radiation and domestic equipment of low capacity; i.e.,
less than 20 pounds per hour.
13 Provide an air chamber and petcock in returns
from heaters.
735
diameter, in.) are generally accepted and specified. Usually, the steam is slightly superheated and will be dry;
for wet steam (as supplied by a waste-heat boiler,
ordinary heating boiler, or contaminated evaporator),
capacities determined from this equation are reduced
about 25 percent. Condensate return lines commonly
are sized for maximum velocities, fpm, assuming full pipe
flow, derived by the i'ormub V = 30fld. The pressure
loss in return lines of 3Gpsig systems should not exceed
4 psi [27]; veloGties calculated from the preceding equation produce
between
and l psi pef lQO
ft of
straight pipe.
4.2 Hot-Water Systems. The use of hot water for
heating has many advantages, Hot water affordsbetter
control of small heating capacities (frequently 5000
Btu/hr and less) than steam. Also, hot watsr eliminates
numerous problems associated with condensate return,
steam traps, and water hammer. Hobwater heating
permits elimination of (a) condensate return pumps and
associated problems, (b) condensate cooling facilities,
and (c) corrosion of condensate piping. It is to be noted
that corrosion in steam heating boilers, particularly
those of the flash type, is a serious problem which requires careful feedwater analysis and treatment. (See
reference [27] for additional information on the use of
hot water for heating services.)
The present trend is to use medium-temperature hotwater generators in lieu of auxiliary steam boilers. For
various heating services, including distilling plants, ltiundry, and galley equipment, 320 F water replaces 100-psig
steam. Water-to-water and water-to-steam heat exchangers are provided where low-temperature heating
(water Or
is required. This practice has the
1
2
3
4
Less weight and space

Lower installed cost
Safer and easier to operate
Less maintenance and lower operating cost
All hotrwater heating systems on ships have forced

circulation. Single-pipe systems, Fig. 15(q), require
minimum piping, are ideally suited for shipboard applications, and have been successfully used on many large
passenger ships. The true two-pipe reverse-return system is frequently not practical; therefore variations, such
as that illustrated in Fig. 15(b), are adopted which are
most suitable to the arrangement of the spaces served.
(See reference [27] for a further discussion of single and
two-pipe 'yStem designs.)
On large ships, a numbsr of separate heating systems
may be provided with central station equipment, Fig. 14,
located in fan rooms or machinery spaces. Single-pipe
systems are particularly suited for decentralized service.
i.e., service required only in certain portions of t h i
Typical equipment hookups are shown in Figs. 13 vessel. Where central station equipment is located in
and 14.
main or auxiliary machinery spacei, two-pipe arrangeMaximum steam velocities, fpm, in pipes derived from ments are used with two or more pumps and converters
the formula V = 4 8 6 0 d (where d is the pipe h i d e being provided to carry the design load; a stand-by pump
MARINE ENGINEERING
60
3;
83
I0
I-F
do'
I3 LJ
4
I3 0
-5@
262
ggg
=x-'
2gY2
J
Eg
-Irw
a c m
MARINE ENGINEERING
Co's
%a
Lg
P
*
a
y2
U)
I-F
ui+
gz
-5 @
8 ,-z
0 K 3
3;
ax-',
ZiE
acm
=-0
",
a
ow,
zg
g;k" 52
2'
"2
v t
p*
2:
ot
=L
so
2~ aH
r w
Es SE
73 8
MARINE ENGINEERING
cannot be overstressed. Automatic float-type vents

with waste connections usually are applied only at high
points in mains and those heating units at high points of
systems. Systems with open expansion tanks are generally considered to be easier to vent than those with
compression (closed expansion) tanks.
The following equation shows the relationship between
the heating (or cooling) capacity, water temperature
drop, and flow rate:
TYPICAL ZONE CIRCUIT

FLOW FI r t l u E
EaulPnENT
. .....
OTHER
ZONES
(4SINOLE PIPE SYSTEM
where
TYPICAL ZONE CIRCUIT
/TO OTHER
ZONES
L
----
----)
&
CONVECTOR
H
O%ER
ZONES
t/
H
TD
G
= heating (cooling) capacity, Btu/hr

= temperature drop (rise), deg F
= flow rate, gprn
Loads are sometimes expressed in "Mbh". One Mbh is

equivalent to 1000 Btu per hour; therefore
Mbh = 0.5 TD X G
(19)
Plow rates usually are based on temperature drops of 10

to 20 &g F; consequently, it is useful to remember that
1gprn cooled 10 deg F gives up 5000 Btu/hr

1gprn cooled U)deg F gives up 10,000 Btu/hr
Ib) REVERSE RETURN SYSTEM
Fig.
IS .
Hot-water heating systems
is sometimes installed and the equipment i6 cross-connected. Stand:by pumps are not provided for single-pipe
systems since they are relatively small (usually between
40 and 80 gprn); instead, complete pump and motor
assemblies are carried as spares.
It is essential to eliminate air and uncond*nsed eases
from closed-circulation water systems because they impair heat transfer, retard circulation, cause pump cavita
tioh, and create noise. Air must be purged from a
system when it is initially filled; also, air enters with the
makeup water and gases are released when the water is
heated. Equipment is arranged so that the pump discharges to the converter (Fig. 14), which in turn discharges into an air separator. The latter removes both
air introduced with makeup water and that released
during the heating process.
A water velocity of at least 1 fps is required to keep
entrained air and gases moving, and thus prevent air
pockets. Velocities in mains are sufficiently high; however. heating unit loads are often so small that minimum
velocity, racer than load, determines the design water
quantity. It is recommended that at least 1gprn per
aii. heater and 0.5 gprn per convector be provided to
assure adequate velocity in branches (usually of 0.5-in.
pipe size) and units. Air can be confined to the mains;
where the velocity is highest, by connecting supply
branches to the bottom, or at least the lower half, of
mains as indicated in Fig. 16. Accordingly, it is of
advantage to keep mains as high as possible.
Adequate and easily accessible means for venting air
The temperature drop selected for a particular system

depends on the magnitude of the heating load. Of importance is the allowable pressure loss through reheaters.
Large tempekature drops reduee flow rates and pressure
drops, but heat transfer is poor at low water velocities.
Accordingly, a compromise must be made. Considerable judgment is required to "juggle" the various design
variables so as to achieve the optimum design; to be sure,
the design of a shipboard hot-water heating system is not
accomplished on the first attempt. The size and number
of flow fittings required for individual circuits (shunts)
of single-pipe systems (Figs. 15 and 16) depend on their
design and the manufacturer's recommendations. Loads
are seldom large enough to justify branch sizes over
H in. When an appreciable number of larger sizes are
indicated, the use of higher temperature drops and/or
higher velocities in mains should be considered.
Piping arrangements depend largely on the arrangement of spaces served. Where practical, returns from
zone circuits (loops) are run independently to the pump
suction manifold (Fig. 14); thus,- thennometen (for
checking performance) and zone balancing valves are
readily aecessible.
The relationship of the spaces served controls the
number of zone circuits. Where three decks are served,
central station equipment, Fig. 14, is preferably located
near the center of the middle deck, with a zone circuit
serving each deck. The allocation of spaces to zones of
single-pipe systems must be such that adequate capacity
is carried in each loop to generate the required head at
flow fittings; it may be necessary to break up the loops
on one or more decks to reduce the pumpiag head.
A separate heating system is not required for each air-
740
MARINE ENGINEERING
conditioning system; however, to simplify trouble-shooting, only one heating system should serve a particular
air handling system. Also, where practical, each zone
circuit should serve only a single air-conditioning system.
Expansion tanks may be of the open or closed type.
The water temperature in open systems is leas than
212 I?; for closed systems, the use of 220 to 240 P water is
common. Air elimination and the associated corroaion
become greater problems as the temperature increases;
thus low water temperatures are preferred. Obviously,
the less makeup water used the better, since this minimizes corrosion. sediment contamination, and uncondensable gases ih the system.
Converters are selected, from manufacturers' data,
for the heating load required plus about 50 percent excess
capacity to allow for start-up and scaling. The water
pressure drop through converters is seldom critical.
Circulating pumps used in hot-water systems are always of the centrifugal type. Generally, mechanical
seals are provided, suitable for operation well above the
design water temperature. Pump selections should be
made from certified performance curves, not tables.
The pump selected must not have an excessively flat
capacity-head curve. Also, the point of operation
should be at or slightly to the left of the maximum efficiency point. The operating point on the capacity-head
curve is usually specified at least 10 percent below the
peak. Such a selection: (a) provides a margin for errors
in estimating pumping head, (b) accommodates changes
in system rgquirements (head and volume) occurring
during or after construction, and (c) minimizes the possibilitv of motor overload.
cocks or valves are fitted in each zone circuit of a
system to balance one against the other, Fig. 14. Balancing by temperature drop, using permanent thermometers, is most practical; thermometers also serve to
check operation.
Piping of hot-water heating systems is arranged to
facilitate air removal, venting, and draining. Piping
installed to follow the sheer and camber of the ship
usually provides adequate pitch and suitable high points
for venting. Mains are run as straight as possible to
minimize high points (air pockets) requiring automatic
vents. Hot-water piping is normally sized for a maxi(where d is the pipe
mum velocity, fps, equal to
inside diameter, in.), but not in excess of 6 fps.
4.3 Chilled-Water Systems. A typical coolingcoil piping hookup is shown by F5g. 17. Chilled-water
systems are designed for direct return since there are
relatively few units to balance. Generally, 42 F is considered to be the lowest economical chilled-water temperature; 45 F is specified for naval construction. Water
quantities, generally, are based on temperature risos
from 8 to 10 deg F, although temperature rises up to
12 deg F have been used for large system (pmsenger
ships).
Pumping heads of chilled-water systems are estimated
the same as for two-pipe hot-water systems. Higher
maximum water velocities are used because noise is leas
74 1
critical; also, the heat removal per gpm is smaller (the

temperature rise much smaller). Chilled-water piping
is normally designed for a velocity, fps, equal to 5 a
(where d is the pipe inside diameter, in.), but not in
excess of 10 fps.
It is normal practice to circulate water continuously
through chilled-water systems during cold weather; this
tends to overcome the possibility of freezing due to
stratification of preheated air. While not recommended,
antifreeze liquids have been used. It may be noted
that the noncorrosive brine used for other refrigerated
services on ship may also be used for air-conditioning
purposes.
4.4
2"X 2"COPPER
DRAIN TROUGH
Combination Chilled and Hot-Water Systems.
Class E air-conditioning systems, Fig. 7, require twopipe, reverse-return water systems. Facilities for air
removal are the same as provided for water heating
systems. In general, induction units are bulkhead
mounted; thus all p a h (valves, controls, vents, lint
screens, flushing by-pass, etc.) are readily accessible for
service, maintenance, and repair. The chilled water is
first fed through the primary air coil and then is fed, as
"secondary water," to the induction units. On a cargo
ship, a single pump often handles both semices. The
total temperature rise is about 15 deg P (8 deg P primary
and 7 deg 1' secondary) ; thus, while dditional pumping
head is required (primary and secondary coils are in
series), the reduction in water quantity (about 1.6 gpm/
ton of refrigeration) keeps pump horsepower reasonable.
On passenger ships where systems are large, the return
from the primary water system is metered automatically,
as required, into secondary systems serving the induction
units.
Piping w i n g primary cooling coils is designed to the
same criteria as used with chilled-water systems; piping
of secondary circuits use the same criteria as water
heating systems.
Combination water systems serving room fan-coil units
are designed the same as Class E systems, when the primary (replenishment) air is dehumidified and cooled.
When primary air is only preheated, the system is designed the same as for chilled water since fan-coil units
accommodate the entire cooling load, including that of
primary air.
Drains from induction unit and mom fan-coil unit
drain pans usually are N in. IPS. Where a number of
'units are connected to-a common &air?, the size is increased, depending on the number of units served.
When practical, these drains are terminated in the corner
of shower stalls, about 6 in. above the bottom. Drains
direct t o weather are not desired and fortunately are
seldom necessary.
4.5 Refrigeration Piping Systems. figures 18 and 19
delineate typical refrigeration systems. The usual balance between power requirements and installation costs
applies to such systems, since excessive suction and discharge line losses (see Fig. 3) reduce compressor capacity
and increase power requirements.
All compressors lose some lubricating oil to the re-
FLOW METER
SUPPLY
GLOBE VALVE
NOTE: CONNECTIONS TO DRAIN PANS '
I N 0 1 SHOWN1 TO BE I 114"
MINIMUM
STRAlNER
BLOW OFF
Fie. 17
--
Typical hvo-high d i n g coil piping hook-up
frigerant vapor during the compression process.

result, in halogen compound refrigeration systemsAsthea
piping must be carefully designed so as to continuously
return the lost oil to the compressor crankcase. In parts
of the refrigeration cycle, the oil is a mist and the refrigerant is a vapor; here the refrigerant's velocity must
be suEciently high to keep entrained oil moving along
with it. Often, a riser sized for adequate vapor velocity
at minimum load may have a prohibitive pressure drop
at maximum load. In such cases a double riser, as
shown in Fig. 19(b), ia required. At low capacities, oil
collects in the trap and seals off the large riser; thus, the
refrigerant vapor is forced to travel up the small riser at
high velocity and thus carry oil with it. When the vapor
flow increases sufficiently, the oil seal breaks and both
risers are utilized. The small riser is sized for minimum
design capacity, and the large riser is sized so that the
velocity through both is sufficiently high a t maximum
load. Figures 18 and 19 incorporate design features
required to assure oil return.
Liquid refrigeration leaving the condenser is usually
subcooled 2 to 5 deg F. This is advantageous because

the friction and loss in static head between the condenser
and expansion valve reduce the pressure of the refrigerant; thus, unless subcooled, the refrigerant will flash into
a gas to compensate for the pressure drop. Liquid suction heat interchangers are also used to subcool liquid;
they are always provided in ship's stores and cargo
systems. Locating heat interchangers at receivers minimizes liquid line sizea. Also, they protect compressors
by evaporating any liquid mixed in the refrigerant suction vapor. (For complete information regarding refrigeration piping design, including pipe sizing, pressure
drop calculations, and subc~oolingrequirements, see references [2,4].)
Accessories, valves, controls, and safety devices are
shown in Figs. 18 and 19. A comprehensive discussion
of these devices (types, operation, applications, details,
etc.) and various types of oil separators (not shown) is
given in references [2, 281. Materials comprising accessories and valves must be suitable for the refrigerant
handled. References [26, ?9,30,31.] delineate merchant
MARINE ENGINEERING
ENVIRONMENTAL CON'TROL
SOLENOID VALVE CONTROL SW. BULB
BURSTING DISC
(0) Arrangement of comportments
TO COMPARTMENTS
55 F AND ABOVE
Y
I I
COMPRESSOR
TO MOTOR CONTROLLER
(c) Condensing unit oirembly
HOT GAS DEFROSTING
f-
(b) Interconnecting piping
--. .-. J
NOTES
1. Refrigerant liquid lines ond copillory tubing for dial (remotareading)

thennometen and solenoid valve control switches ore run to refrigeront control panels located by the shipyard.
2.
Meat ond flsh room i s similor except thot two independently controlled refrigerant circuits are provided.
3.
Fruit and vegetable room is similar except thot the cold diffuser
hastwo independentlyconholledrefrigerant circuits.
4. Where possible, all freon piping i s bent in lieu of using elbow, to

'n
k
.i
reduce friction and the number of wldered@
5.
All suction line branches are looped into the top of the suction main
to prevent oil accumulation in lines not in sewice.
6. Hanger and aupports are instolled w cis to pennit free expamion

and contraction between anchorages and to minim'ue vibration.
7. Refrigerant auction lines between the compreuor and refrberated

space are insulated with brine thickness insulation. Liquid liner between the heat interchanger and refrigerated space are insulated
with ice water thickness.
Fig. 18 Ship's stores refrigcwation system diagram [Carricwl
POWER
TO SHIP'S
FROZEN FOOD B ICE CREAM RM. INOTE 21

0 F
--
DAIRY (55r1 AND THAW ROOM [&OF1

NOTE 5
(dl Typical pipe coil hook-up
(a) Typical cold diffuser hook-up
Fig. 18 (cd'd)
'
MARINE ENGINEERING
and naval construction requirements for installation,

materials, tests, safety devices, and spare parts. The
last item, spare parts, is particularly important since the
availability of the equipment may depend upon them.
Condenser water regulating valves, Fig. 18(c), may be
readjusted, periodically, to provide a condensing pressure
which is just high enough to balance the operating load.
Thus, the most economical operation will be obtained,
and compressor repairs will be minimized. This is of
particular significance for dual and low-temperature
cargo systems which employ compression ratios a t the
upper limit of the compressor rating.
A dryer is provided in the liquid line near the receiver
outlet, Fig. 18(c), or the condenser of systems without
receivers. Some dryers include filters, and thus perform
a dual function. The type of filter included eliminates
much smaller particles than mesh strainerv. With the
arrangement in Fig. 18(c), the dryer only is used when
(i) charging the system with refrigerant, (ii) adding refrigerant to compensate for the loss through leaks, or
(iii) when the presence of moisture in the system is detected by "freeze-up" a t the expansion valve. On naval
construction, however, full-flow filter-dryers are provided. Since excessive moisture can cause breakdovn
of motor insulation, possibly burnout, and ultimately
contaminate the entire refrigeration system, full-flow
filter-dryers are provided for hermetic systems. The
relief valve in the equalizing line between the condenser
and receiver, Fig. 18(c), prevents excessive pressure
build-up in the receiver during shutdown when the valves
are closed. The condenser relief valve and rupture disk
protect the system in case of fire; note that these do not
vent to the machinery space.
All lines should be plumb and straight, except horizontal suction lines, discharge lines, and those between
condensers and receivers which should pitch in the direction of flow. Valves in vapor lines are installed with
stems horizontal to avoid pockets. Unions and flanged
joints should be minimized, i.e., provided only where
necessary for disconnecting equipment, controls, etc.
Insulated stuffing tubes are fitted a t penetrations of
watertight structures to thermally isolate the cold lines.
Where watertightness is not essential, oversize sleeves
(properly caulked and ratproofed) are provided, and the
insulation and vapor seal are continuous. Sleeves in
decks are of ample height to act as coamings; extra care
is taken to seal the joint between the pipe and sleeve to
COLD DIFFUSER
10) INTERCONNECTING PIPING
prevent entrance of moisture, which can form ice and

crush the pipe.
4.6 Brine (Secondary) Cooling Systems. Brine (secondary) cooling systems are preferred over direct expansion cooling by many operators because of improved
reliability, simplicity of operation, greater flexibility,
better temperature control, ?nd superior cargo turnout.
The small amount of primary refrigerant piping required with brine systems significantly minimizes refrigerant leakaee, oil return problems, and facilities for
the return of oil.
The initial cost of brine cooling is greater than that for
a direct expansion system. The additional heat exchanger, required to produce the necessary secondary
cooling, tends to increase power requirements; however,
this disadvantage may be overcome by more efficient
operation. Generally, brine cooling may be used most
advantageously where (a) there are a large number crf
refrigerated compartments, (b) compartments served are
remote from the refrigeration machinery space, (c) the
diversity of simultaneous, individual compartment temperatures is large, and (d) maximum humidity is required
to minimize moisture removal from products. A strong
conviction of the owner is a t least one, if not the, deciding
factor. Note that the brine may also be used for airconditioning purposes.
Two-temperature closed brine systems are preferred
because they provide optimum control of the supply
brine temperature and minimize air leakage which causes
air binding and accelerates corrasion [2]. On some ships
a primary circulating system provides low-temperature
brine to a number of secondary circulating systems, and
each secondary system serves one compartment. The
primary brine supply to the secondary system is modulated by a space thermostat.
Closed systems are preferred to the open type because
the cost of pumping facilities is less, and the corrosive
effect of aerated brine is greatly reduced. Also, glycols
are organic and with open systems some inhibiter is lost
to the atmosphere, thus necessitating periodic replacement. References [4,27] contain discussions of the
properties of brines and methods of calculating system
pumping requirements.
All materials in the system, including piping, flange
gaskets, valve seats and packing,.pump seals, and other
specialitieg must be compatible with the particular brine
handled to avoid corrosion. Potential problems in this
regard require careful analysis.
Section 5
Air Ha~~dling
System Design
'
LOCATE BULB I N
RETURN AIR STREAM
L-
-2
&
TO SHIPS POWER
IblTYPICAL CARGO COLD DIFFUSER HOOK-UP
Fig. 19 Cargo compartment refrigarcrtion system diagram [Carrier]
5.1 Flow and Fan Pressures. The basic relationship between airflow and the pressure (head) required to
cause the flow (with standard air density of 0.075 lb/
cu ft) can be expressed as:
h = (V/4005)=
(20)
745
where
h = velocity pressure, in. of water
= velocity of air, fpm
There are three interdependent pressures common to
air handling systems; static, velocity, and total. Static
MARINEENGINEERING
SYSTEM P-V CURVE

OPERATING POINT
VOLUME
fig- 21
5.2 System
and Pressure Characteristics.
The relationship between the system Pressures at any
two rates of airflow can be expremed as:
P1/P2 =
references [27, 33, 341.
(Q1/Q2I2
p, = pressure required for airflow &I

p2 ,
pressure required for airflow &z
A system pressure characteristic curve, Fig- 21, thus can
be constructed once the preasure for one capacity is
known, using an arbitrarily selected series of capacities.
DUCT AREA
AIR VELOCITY
YELOCITY PRESSURE.
ST~TICPRESSURE
TOTAL PRESSURE
I FTZ
4000 ~ p n
DUCT AREA
AIR VELOCITY
l.OOn HZo
1.00" H ~ O
2.00n H ~ O
VELOCITY PRESSURE
STATIC PRESSURE
TOTAL PRESSURE
0.251'
1.75" Hz0
2.00" Hz0
la) DUCT PRESSURES
F;~.20 glv,~afion of duct and f an presures
lbl FAN PRESSURES
Determination of system operating point
FAN P-V CURVE
MARINE ENGINEERING
@)
MARINE ENGINEERING
750
RADIUS RAT10 IRR)= R/W
Fig. 26 Location of splitten in elbows of rectangular duch

IMffalo Forgel
Fig. 24 R e c t a ~ l a in-run
r
duct elbow bawa
IBufialo Fwd
RADIUS RATIO lRRl
75 1
thus, a 45deg elbow is assigned a loss equal to M of a

90-deg elbow. The loss itl an elbow consists of (d) ffiction loss and (b) dynamic loss due to compression of air
a t the outside (heel) of the bend. If sufficient straight
duct follows, a regain occurs; however, if the air leaving
the elbow discharges to atmosphere, no regain occurs
and the loss is greater. A straight length of discharge
duct of a t least 4 diameters, or 4 times the duct dimension
in the plane of the bend, is required before "in run"
elbow ldms apply. The straight length of duct required
can be reduced by installing splitters or turning vanes;
the maximum splitter or vane spacing then becomes the
criterion rather than the duct size. Losses for elbows a t
the end of a run, Fig. 27, include one velocity head for
the discharge to atmosphere. To find the loss for an
elbow at the end of a duct with concentric splitter vanes:
(i) deduct one velocity head from the loss shown, (ii)
multiply the remainder by the ratio of losses in Fig. 24
for elbows in run with and without splitters, and (iii) add
one velocity head. To find the loss for an elbow of less
than 90 deg a t the end of a run: (i) deduct one velocity
head from the loss in Fig. 27,
multiply the remainder
add
by the ratio of the elbow's angle and 90 deg, and (3)
one velocity head. Loss* of elbows in run with smallradius turning vanes may be taken as 0.25 and 0.35 for
double and single-thickness types, respectively; for elbows a t the end of run, add one velocity head to these
values.
The pressure losses due to divided flow in round supply
ducts (branches and mains) are given in Fig. 28; lacking
better data, Fig. 25 may also be used for round or rectangular branches with rectangular mains. Losses in
divided-flow exhaust fittings are given in Fig. 29.
Figures 30 and 31 show the losses due to velocity or
area changes, i.e., abrupt expansion, abrupt contraction,
and gradual expansion, in s run of duct. When a connecting duct is less than four diameters downstream of an
abrupt expansion, regain is lost and the loss approximates
that for an open-ended duct; namely, one small duct
velocity head. Abrupt contractions create a vena-con-
tracta st the entrance to the mhder duct; unless there is

straight duct following the contraction (for regaih) the
loss equah that of a square-edge orifice a t the end of a
duct, Fig. 33(a). This point deserves emphasis as it is
frequently overlooked in the mechanical execution of
ealculatiohs.
A loss of 0.05 small duct v~locityhead is sufficient for
circular concentric gradual contractions up to an included angle of 45 deg. The loss allowed for symmetric
transitions from,one rectangular size to another of equal
area is 0.15h+ Where transitions are unsymmetric or
one-sided, the &wed loss should correspond to that for
the largest angle on one side. This also appliw to the
gradual expansion of rectangular ducts.
VELOCITY RATIO-IV DOWNSTREAM- MAIN OR BRANCH / V UPSTREAM1
Fig. 26 Lass-
in divided-flow flltings [ASHRAa
RADIUS WT10. R / W OR R/D
~ g27
.
1
.I0
0
0.1
0.2
0.S
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
CURYE RATIO (CRI
Loues in elbow dischorgiw to ahnosphere
.I
~ g 25
. Round in-run duct elbow ImeS IBvffalom e ]
-2
.S
.4
.5
.6
.7
LOSS COEFFICIENT,K, IBRANCH AN0 MAIN1
Fig. 29 L o w s in divided-flow exhaust fltting~
.8
.9
1.0
MARINE ENGINEERING
LOSS COEFFICIENT,K2. I VELOCITY PRESSURE @ AP
754
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 18
Terminal losses
Table 1 9 Terminal and Equipment Air Velocities
.-Loss Com~rcmm,aKClear 0.5 in. Wire' Insectb

Mesh
Screen
Double gooseneck, entrance
Fig.35(e)]
discharge
Single gooseneck, entrance
Fig. 35(f)]
discharge
Mushroom,
[Fig. 35(c)]
entrance
discharge
ITEM
Louvers. ......................
Mrnhrooms....................
Goosenecks. ...................
Heaters (steam). ...............
Heatera (hot water). ...........
C?o!ing coils.. .................
Dmdioml terminals. ..........
Grilles and regidera. ...........
Bu ly registers (ventilation). ...
~ g 8 e r a......................
.
Ratproof Screens
X 35 in. mesh). ..........
Insect screen (60 percent
clew area). ..................
(x
3.5
4.0
VELOC~TY
RANGE(fpm)
1000 to 1500 (free area)
800 t o 1200 (throat area)
1000 to 1500 ( b t area)
800 to 1200 (face area)
4d0 to 600 (face area)
350 to 500 (face area)
2000 to 3000 (throat area)
500 to 900 (neck area)
500 t o 800 (gross area)
300 t o 500 (gross area)
Weather louverc-d
Losses for the more common terminals and fittings are

given in Figs. 32 and 33 and Table 18. Again it is presupposed that there is ample straight duct at entrances
to obtain reexpansion of the vena-contracts. Catalogs
Door louvern
for exhaust registers and grilles usually show only the
static pressure loss; therefore, additional data are required to determine the total pmsure loss and avoid
misapplication. Catalog losses for registers, diffusers,
Hole in bulkhead
and other purchased supply terminals usually represent
only the pressure imposed by applying the terminal to
an open-ended duct; to approximate the total pressure
loss, add one h, (based on the connecting duct size) to
Short duct in bulkhead
the loss given in the catalog. Terminals for merchant
(re-entrant)
construction are usually sized on a velocity basis (see
Table 19).
Weather terminals are sized for low velocities where
possible, because weatherproof features entail high presOpen end duct
sure losses. The data given in Table 18 for 0.5-in. wire
mesh and insect screen allow for dirt, lint, and painting,
0.90
1.4
2.0
entrance
dAA
discharge
1.10
1.6
2.1
which appreciably reduce the effective area. Pressure
-7
losses through equipment (registers, diffusers, flexible
Duct terminating in plate
ducts, cooling coils, and heaters) are preferably obtained
from
the manufacturers%ertified data.
0.50
' entrance
5.6 Connections to Equipment. The performance
1.10
discharge
3
.
of equipment, including pressure drop, is based on tests
performed
with a uniform inlet (face) velocity. IncorConver&ng taper
rectly designed connecting ducts can invalidate such
performance data. The equipment's resistance cannot
be depended upon to equaliie the inlet velocity. Unfortunately, axial-flow fan literature seldom emphasizes
this point. On shipboaxd, a plgnum with a bellmouth
Bellmouth
(in lieu of an elbow) is frequently fitted at the fan's inlet.
!.zs$
entrance
0.5
- Where elbows are fitted, they are of the small-radius vane
type, and connected to the fan by concentric, gradual
transformers. Integral fixed inlet vanes and bellmouths
NOTES
reduce the effect of poor approach conditions; this is a
a Losses are based on the aree a t "A" or "D".
b Screen losses are baaed on the gross area velocity head, Lo' feature of certain high-quality centrifugal fans 1341.
The loss for 0.5in. wire mesh (75% c!ear area) is 0.50 A,; the
At least one diameter of straight duct is recommended
loss for insect screen (609' clear area) is 1.1 L ;and the loss for
at fan discharges before any elbow, split, offset, or transiboth 0.5-in. wire mesh an8 insect screen is 2.0 Lo.
Includes one velocity head A) for discharge to plenum. deduct tion. Where divided-flow volumes at a fan's outlet vary
0.5 h when the terminal is .irectly connected to a straight duct. during operation, an expanding duct may be used at the
Typically, the totd flow area, A, is 60% 6f the gross area, B.
fan outlet which discharges at low velocity (1000 fpm
or leas) into a plenum (see Fig. 37). A similar plenum
Typically, the total flow area, A, is 50% of the grow area, B.
s t
MARINE ENGINEERING
3000
r FILTER 1.31
32x7 92
FAN, 3.25"T.P.
AIRLIFT
1l-
COOLING COIL 1.61
PREHEATER 1.2)
Fig. 34
Typical duct system
may be used for air-conditioning systems with several

reheaters.
5.7 Fan Total Pressure Calculations. Table 20
contains calculations for the fan total pressure requirement of the typical duct system shown in Fig. 34. The
various data discussed in Section 5.5 are used in Table 20.
Note that sizes which are based on assumed velocities
can be entered directly, but those based on an equal friction loss must be determined from Fig. 23 after an equivalent round size has been selected from Fig. 22. No loss
is assigned to the split, a t point.B, because there is no
velocity change. Path A-D is assumed to be the longest
run (incur the highest loss) in the system. Losses for
fittings are determined by ayplying appropriate K and
h, values in equation (22). Losses for straight ducts are

determined by multiplying the Loss/100 ft column by
the duct length/100. Only the velocity and h, associated with the applicable K factor are shown for
fittings involving velocity changes. The column "Pres.
Avail. " (Pressure Available) is provided to facilitate the
design of submains (those not forming part of the path
of highest loss) and branches. It may be noted that
1.804 is available for the 3000-cfm submain from point
B to the end, including return losses. Similarly, 1.243 in.
is available for the 200-cfm branch from point C to the
end. The column "Loss Source" is usually not provided;
this column is included in Table 20 for illustrative purposes only.
Section 6
Air Handling Equipment
6.1 Fans. Most marine centrifugal fans are of the
backward-curve blade type; generally only small fans
(less than 1000 cfm) have forward-curve blades. The
principal advantage of a backward-curve fan is that both
maximum brake horsepower and fan-set efficiency (at
any speed) occur very close to the same capacity point;
thus, the motor is selected for a horsepower corresponding to the highest efficiency point. Of equal importance
is the fact that if the actual system pressure loss is more
or less than estimated, the mator selected for a specific
fan speed will not overload. Forward-curve fans have a
rising bhp characteristic as the capacity approaches free
delivery; thus, a motor selected for maximum fan-set
efficiency can be overloaded if the actual system opera&
ing pressure is less than estimated. It is common practice to oversize motors driving forward-curve fans; often
small motors are sized to accommodate operation a t

free delivery.
Beltdrives have advantages. Where the fan speed is
less than 1750 rpm, smaller (higher speed) and. cheaper
motors can be used. Also, the adjustability of belt
drives facilitates system balancing; this is particularly
significant for air conditioning, since only very limited
overdelivery can be tolerated. Additionally, quieter and
more efficient operation can be obtained by reducing the
fan speed vice adding resistance iwthe system. Because
of the foregoing, belt drives are usually specified for fans
of air-conditioning systems and !ens of ventilation (supply and exhaust) systems which either must be in balance
with air conditioning or serve other areas requiring quiet
operation.
Except for those in factory-fabricated units (Fig. 37))
centrifugal fans usually are of the single-inlet, singlewidth type, rather than double-inlet, double-width type.
Drive arrangements with bearings outside the airstream
are specified, except where fans are very large.
Axial-flow fans, sometimes called vane-axial fans, have
the advantage of compactness, but this is not always
significant in the smaller sizes. Also, since motors must
be watertight and construction tolerances are smaller,
axial-flow fans sometimes cost more than equivalent
centrifugal fans. Axial-flow fans have a disadvantage
in that motor repair is relatively difficult because of
inaccessibility.
The static pressure-volume curve of axial-flow fans
generally has a dip a t the left of the peak. To ensure
stable operation, specifications for marine applications
require that fans be selected to operate at a point on the
static pressure-volume curve well below, and to the right
of, the peak. Motors are selected with a substantial
power margin, because of the rising brake horsepower
requirements and the reduction in cooling air for the
motor as zero delivery (tight shutoff) is approached.
Particular care is required when selecting fans for use
where quiet operation is essential. While standard code
tests indicate that axial-flow fans can be at least a quiet
as centrifugal fans, the former are more affected I! y poor
duct connections, particularly on the inlet side. Accordingly, bellmouths are fitted a t the fan inlet unless the inlet duct is straight and uniform for some distance ahead
of axial-flow fans. Many designers of merchant construction use axial-flow fans only where quiet operation is
not essential, although on naval ships practically all
fans are of this type.
Propeller fans are "simplified" axial-flow fans ; they
are not built to the close tolerances required for axialflow fans. Usually these fans are used on systems having
static pressures of 0.5 in. of water, or less. Where noise
is not important (resistor and motor generator rooms,
etc.), static pressures up to 0.75 in. are used. Often, the
static pressure-volume curve is such that operation above
0.5 in. is unstable.
Of the various relationships dealing with fan performance, the three most essential in the design of airhandling systems are:
Qi = (Nl/Nz)Qz
(23)
Pi = (Ni/Nz)'Yz
(24)
HP1 = (NiIN2)aHPZ
(25)
Q, P, H P , and N denote fan delivery, pressure, horsepower, and speed respectively; and subscripts 1 and 2
denote two different operating conditions.
There are two commonly used expressions for fan efficiency [32]. One is the mechanical (total) efficiency,
ME, expressed as:
ME = CFM T P
6356 BHP
tind the other is the static efficiency, SE, expressed as:
MESP
SE=-=
TP
CFM SP
6356 B H P
(27)
where:
CFM = air volume flow rate at inlet, cfm
B H P = power output of drive, hp
SP = fan static pressure, in. of water
T P = fan total pressure, in. of water
Comparisons of performance should be based on mechanical efficiency. '
On merchant construction, flexible connections are
provided betwepn fans and ducts to isolate fan vibration
from the ducts and to accommodate slight misalignments. Such connections also prevent distortion of fan
casings, which can occur when directly connected to
heavy coamings, ducts or trunks. This is particularly
important for axial-flow fans, because of their small
wheel-tip clearances. On naval construction, flexible
connections are provided for those fans supported on
resilient mounts; both connections and mounts are of a
special shockproof design.
Fan supports may be rigid or resilient. Where rigid,
the fan base is bolted directly to angle foundations which
are welded to the heaviest structure available, with the
exception of bulkheads adjacent to living spaces or others
requiring low noise level, which are avoided. Fans
within the living areas of merchant ships are customarily
supported on resilient mounts. The fan and motor of
belt-driven centrifugal fans are mounted on a common
base to preserve alignment (Fig. 39). The base is supported on resilient mounts which in turn are bolted to
angles welded to the ship's structure. Flexible duct
connections are always fitted to fans on resilient mounts.
6.2 Filters. Roll-type air filters, with a disposable
media, are built especially for marine service. Their
performance is better than the washable, viscous type.
Also, they can be more easily serviced; i.e., they do not
require cleaning facilities. Roll filters are selected from
the manufacturers' catalogs; about 6 ft-9 in. nominal
height is the largest which can be accommodated. Where
possible, all filters on a particular ship are selected with
the same width.
Panel-type air filters with a dry media, similar to that
of roll filters, may be used in very small systems where
the use of the roll type is not practical or economical.
Washable viscous-type air filters are sometimes used
on merchant construction. The entire filter cell is fabricated of bronze and/or copper; all steel parts of the holding frames are hot-dipped galvanized (after fabrication).
The capacity of a standard 20 by 20 in. unit is 800
to 1050 cfm.
Grease filters are selected for about 600 cfm/20 by 20
in. unit. Their construction is the same as the washable, viscous type.
Air filters should be so installed that they are protected
from the weather and are easily accessible to encourage
proper servicing by operating personnel. Filter cleaning
stations are provided to facilitate the maintenance of
panel air filters. Adequate operating and clqaning instructions, and diagrams showing the location bf filters
(posted a t proper locations), are, an essential part of a
/
?-
MARINE ENGINEERING
good installation. No definite interval of time can be

recommended for servicing filters, because the necessity
for cleaning or renewing the media depends on numerous
individual factors; e.g., port conditions and types of
cargo handled. Filters should always be examined after
dusty bulk cargos have been handled. Pressure gages,
or indicators, are provided to determine the necessity for
cleaning or media replacement. On most passenger
objectionable both from the viewpoint of the damage it

can cause directly and the deleterious effect it has on
the insulation treatment. For these reasons insulation
must be properly installed and sealed to prevent moisture
penetration. While metal foils are inherently impermeable, their fragility, as well as the difficulties encountered sealing joints, leave their practicability as a
vapor (moisture) barrier open to question. Many
6.3 Ducts and Trunks. On most ships main ducts

are located in passageways and branches are run to each
space. Thorough coordination with piping, wireways,
and other hotel services is essential to produce an efficient
design and still maintain satisfactory headroom and accessibility. Ducts are usually constructed independent
of the surrounding structure. However, where advantageous and where the size is large enough to permit
access to the interior for inspection and maintenance,
ducts may be "built-inn as trunks using existing bulkheads, decks, beams, or girders to form one or more sides
of the air passage. Built-in (trunk) construction is not
advocated for air conditioning and other ducts requiring
insulation and/or thermal isolation. Kingposts sometimes are utilized for ventilating purposes; this has disadvantages, however, because condensation occurring inside the kingposts can corrode the structure and also
damage the cargo.
Every effort is made to keep ducts from penetrating
watertight and firescreen bulkheads, and the regulatory
bodies prohibit their penetration except in very special
cases [26, 37, 381. There is seldom a necessity for penetrating such barriers on merchant ships. Fire dampers
are also required at penetrations of fire-protected structurw and at certain other locations.
Ordinary sheet metal ducts are referred to as "nontight" ducts; this differentiation is necessary to avoid
confusion with watertight and gastight structures, which
are subject to pressure tests. On merchant construction, most "nontight" ducts are constructed of sheet steel.
In order to withstand abuse, ducts in cargo spaces are
made of steel plate. Watertight ducts are constructed
of the same material as the associated structure; they
are made strong enough to withstand the applicable test
head requirements [26]. (See references [9, 101 for additional information regarding ducts and trunks.)
The cost of air-handling systems can be materially
reduced by using factory-fabricated ducts and fittings.
These are ordered the same as piping system components;
i.e., pipe (duct), couplings, tees, elbows, reducers, etc.
The ducts are either smooth tubing or spiral-wound,
grooved-seam conduit [4]. The latter is somewhat
lighter since the spiral seam affords stiffening; however,
the tubing is heavier and confines noise better.
6.4 Duct Insulation. Heat transmission to and
from ducts is significant in the design of environmental
control systems. Additionally, condensation forms on
the surfaces of ducts having a temperature below the
ambient air dew point. Condensation can be highly
fie-retardant compounds, reinforced with lagging, have

proven most practical.
Because of the condensation factor, air-conditioning
ducts present a much more difficult insulation problem
than those for heating. There are a number of cellular
insulation materials which do not absorb an appreciable
quantity of moisture; however, those which have the
most desirable characteristics from this viewpoint are
not incombustible. Insulation material selections are
restricted to fibrous glass and mineral wool, which require separate lagging and sealing to prevent vapor
penetration. Flanges and all equipment are completely
insulated and vapor-sealed. Also, supports and structural penetrations are thermally isolated from the ducts.
Any leakage of moisture into the insulation will reduce its
effectiveness;even a small defect is serious, because its
deleteriouseffect willbecomeprogressively larger. Thus,
exceptionally high-quality workmanship is wsential.
6.5 Conditioned-Air Distribution. Shipboard conditioned-air distribution practice is based primarily on
experience and tests in mock-ups of state rooms and
other critical spaces. Architectural considerations, important for one reason or another, must not be permitted
to overrule functional air-distribution requirements.
Acceptable air motion is difficult to define; accordingly,
specifications regarding air motion should also stipulate
the type of measuring instrument to be used. Most
merchant ship specifications limit the air velocity at the
head end of berths to 35 fpm and elsewhere in the zone
of occupancy to 50 fpm, with measurements being made
using an Anemotherm. Since the lack of air motion can
cause both a sensation of discomfort and stratification
(uneven temperatures), a maximum ambient temperature differential of 2 deg F is also stipulated. High
entering air temperature differentials (25 to 35 deg F)
can cause sweat to form on terminals and their mounting
surfaces, particularly during qulldown. Accordingly,
most specifications for air-conditioning supply terminals
require mock-up tests which demonstrate that sweating
will not occur, in addition to demonstrating satisfactory
air motion performance. One criterion that has been
used is that visible condensation is not permitted to
form on the terminals when air is supplied a t the actual
design temperature and the room ambient dew point is
at least 10 deg F above that corresponding to the inside
design conditions.
Diffusers provide satisfactory performance for practically all merchant ship air-conditioning applications.
Experience shows, however, that the data provided in
759
4- TRUNK
101
HOOD
f-- COAMJNG
~ b )COWL
('1 MUSHROOM
(dl ROBERTSON EXHAUSTER

DECK
4
HOUSE
SIDE-
A MINIMUM
INVERTED
(el DOUBLE GOOSENECK
If1SINGLE GOOSENECK
f
Fig. 35 Typical weather terminals
DECK
181 AIRLIFT
MARlNE ENGINEERING
t
returns are located away from sitting areas to prevent

drafts on the feet and legs of occupants. An additional
advantage of locating returns away from sitting areas is
that system noise will not be as noticeable.
6.6 Ventilation Terminals and Dampers. Shipboard ventilation terminals are of either the "weather" or
"interior" types, both of which must meet the ratproofing
regulations [16]. With the exception of cowl ventilators
and natural-exhaust ventilators, weather terminals,
[a) ADJUSTABLE BLAST
I ~ADJUSTABLE
I
BLAST
Fig. 35, are designed and installed to minimize the effect
(DRUM TYPE1
(TYPE E l
of wind and ship's movement. Weather-excluding features invariably increase the pressure drop of terminals
and, therefore, a compromise may be required. Where
possible, terminals are located such that they are shielded
from the weather by bulkheads, overhanging structures,
and similar barriers. Supply and exhaust terminals are
kept well separated in order to prevent contamination
of the supply air. The air-lift type of weather terminal
is generally preferred.
Interior terminals, Fig. 36, are selected to suit their
particular application. While controlled drafts are desirable for summer ventilation (evaporative cooling),
ICI DIFFUSER
[FIXED PATTERNI
they are undesirable during heating operations. Therefore, supply, terminals in ventilated spaces are selected
I ~ REGISTER
I
and so located that the occupants may control both the
!DOUBLE DEFLECTION TYPE)
direction and flow of air. Also, bracket fans are provided in living spaces and certain working spaces.
Fig. 36 Typical interior terminals
"Spot cooling" of personnel is essential in work areas
and watch stations of machinery spaces, galleys, laundries, and other spaces containing large heat sources
(including radiant heat). A continuous curtain of supply
catalogs are generally not applicable to staterooms. air, discharged vertically downward from a slotted duct,
Ceiling berths, soffits, lights, and deck-to-deck furnish- is sometimes employed in front of switchboards and
ings complicate air distribution such that mock-up tests adjacent to turbogeneraton. This arrangement preare required to establish a satisfactory arrangement. vents water from entering through the ventilation system
Directional pattern ceiling diffusers, Fig. 16, are advan- and being directed toward electrical equipment; this is a
tageous, because airflow invariably must be restricted in mandatory requirement for all shipboard terminals.
one or more directions.
76 1
VERTICAL SUITS
l
I
I
CARGO SPACE
VERT. SLOTS HERE

ONLY IF w IS OVER 10'
.!inWIRE MESH
HORIZONTAL SLOT
IDAHPER CLOSED I
SECTION B-B
I
1
762
MARINE ENGINEERING
763
corrosion-resistant steel, and other parts are hot-dip ing air is distributed over the top of the cargo block.
galvanized after fabrication. Liberally sized portable Generally, when frozen cargo is carried, the dampers are
plates are provided for inspection and renewing fusible set to provide more horizontal blow, since the colder air
will fall through the cargo block; the vertical flow is the
links.
6.7 Refrigerated Space Air-Distribution Equipment. minimum required for the transmission load through
Air distribution is a vital part of the refrigeration process. the vertical boundaries and deck underfoot.
Figure 38 shows an air distribution system suitable for
The design of a cooling system entails a compromise between air volume and temperature split (room tempera- fruits and, particularly, cafgos of stemmed bananas. It
ture minus supply air temperature), which are related as was developed prior to the introduction of modern methmay be noted from equation (3). There are numerous ods for proteqting and packaging the latter. This arschools of thought regarding the best method of air dis- rangement js' called a "duct bulkheadJJ or "air-duct
tribution for a particular produce, and many patents bulkhead" system; many variations of this method of air
have been issued relative to this subject. References distribution are patented. While in transit, the duct
[2, 18, 22,391 are particularly instructive in this regard. bulkhead passages also provide access to the slide dampFigure 37 typifies the cooling facilities provided on e n (for adjustment), permit inspection of cargo, and
cargo ships carrying "universal" refrigerated cargo. provide access to side ports and portable bulkhead
Heating facilities and permanent hot-water defrosting sections (for removal). Systems on many foreign ships
are included. The fan motor is two speed to permit low also include facilities for periodically reversing the flow
air motion and reduce fan heat load during holding (nor- of air so as to achieve a uniform temperature during
mal) operations. The drain pan section confines and downpull.
Battens and grating facilitate the distribution of air
disposes of residue from the defrosting process; sectionalized hinge coven allow ready access to the drain pan. through and around the cargo. Battens also provide
The air distribution shown blankets the "hot" surfaces protection for sheathing. Battens are omitted in spaces
with cold air and intercepts all transmitted heat; also, carrying stemmed bananas, since only underdeck air
minimum and uniform air motion is obtained. Adjust- distribution is traditionally used; also, the battens may
mcnt of the air distribution in the compartment is accom- damage the product. Gratings are usually made of
plished by means of sliding dampen. The aidow can wood in cargo spaces and aluminum extrusions in ship's
be modified to suit the requirements of any particular stores. They are made portable to facilitate removal
cargo being carried. The "normalJ' setting of the damp- for cleaning and, in cargo spaces, to allow the use of
an, which is established by the shipbuilder, directs about palletized loadings. It may be noted that the pallets
00 percent of the air vertically downward. The remain- used with forklift trucks function also as gratings.
SecEio~~7
Heating and Cooling Equipment
7.1 General. The advantages of hot-water heat- seldom level, return bends may trap condensate, causing
ing systems were discussed in Section 4; most of these water hammer and, of greater importance for preheaters,
dvantages apply equally to electric heating. Electric freezing. Accordingly, steam coils are preferably of the
heating may be used whenever adequate generator ca- header type; i.e., a header is a t each end of straight tubes
pacity is available. I n general, the power assigned to with no return bends.
Heating elements of electric heaten are usually of the
air-conditioning refrigeration may be used for heating.
Electric heating is particularly advantageous for elec- tubular type and are monel sheathed. Fins, where retronic and other equipment spaces where leakage from quired, itre monel or corrosion-resistant aluminum alloy
wot systems cannot be tolerated. Cost comparisons cast integral with the sheathing. Elements are replacebotween electric and wet heating are so complex that the able without removing the heaters from the ducts.
nubject cannot be generalized. Since modulation of the Sometimes corrosion-resistant materials are used for caskouting effect is a significant cost factor, the quality of ings and flanges of smal1,keaters. porformance must be considered in a true comparison of
Coil selections may be made from catalog data; howthe various forms of heating. Prior to the introduction ever, the coil construction (fin material, fin thickness, and
of ~olid-statecontrols, it was prohibitively expensive to other heat-transfer element details) must be carefully
provide a true modulating control of electric heating checked and compared with that specified. Also, final
except for special applications. Without modulation, selections must be certified by the manufacturer.
ellpacity variation must be accomplished by step control
Most preheaters of air-conditioning systems have very
of multiple-circuit heating elements.
light, or even no, loads at design conditions. However,
7.2 Heating and Cooling Coils. Since a ship is some specifications require a 35 F leaving temperature
MARINE ENGINEERING
765
with 100-percent outside air in order to protect the system. The air pressure drop is between 0.10 and 0.20 in.
of water. Some specifications limit the combined air
pressure drop of preheaters and reheaters in series to
0.50 in. of water.
On merchant ships, steam heaters are installed with the
tubes vertical if possible so as to minimize the possibility
of the condensate freezing. Also, heaters are installed
inside deckhouses; this permits better piping arrangements, protects the equipments from freezing, and facilitates maintenance and repair.
Hot-water coils are of the serpentine type except where
pressure limitations necessitate a header type of construction. The lower tube velocity associated with a
header type is disadvantageous in that it adversely
affects the transfer of heat.
Cooling coils are selected with an even number of rows,
usually 6 to 10, so that both piping connections can be
made from the same end of the coil. Catalog selections
should include a liberal margin; some specifications
require at least 6 rows and 25-percent more rows than
catalog data indicate. This protects against capacity
reduction due to fouling the coil fins. Air pressure drops
vary from 0.5 to 1.0 in. of water.
7.3 Direct Radiation and Unit Heaters. Since the
capacity of steam heating equipment varies directly with
pressure, the high-pressure steam available aboard ship
offersthe opportunity of appreciable reductions in space,
weight, and cost of the heating equipment. However,
small quantities of medium-pressure steam are difficult
to modulate (control). Steam working pressures up to
35 psig have been found to perform satisfactorily on merchant ships.
Convectors of standardized designs are used for both
merchant and naval construction. Fin-pipe elements
are made of copper or steel with the latter being hot-dip
galvanized after assembly. Fin-pipe elements have the
advantages of being low and of diffusing the heating
effect to achieve exceptional temperature equalization.
Hot-water radiators used on many foreign ships are
fabricated of embossed steel plates. They have a superior radiant heating ability combined with compactness, light weight, and simplicity of construction.
Convectors and fin-pipe elements are usually selected
on the basis of laboratory testa rather than vendor's catalogs. A great variety of fin-pipe elements is available.
Convectors and fin-pipe elements are installed on
weather-exposed surfaces as near the deck as possible, Fig. 13. Elevating convectors decreases their capacity (the inlet temperature increases), and results in
stratification due t p insufficient air movement. The
"wall-hung" type, Fig. lg, facilitates cleaning and installation of piping. Heating elements of steam radiation equipmqat are pitched to facilitate drainage;
allowances pre made for camber and sheer as well as for
the list and trim of the ship at various conditions
of loading.
Unit heaters are most commonly used in steering gear
rooms; large shop areas, and machinery spaces of diesel
ships (to prevent freezing when the main machinery is
shut down in port). The capacities listed in catalogs for
unit heaters depend on the inlet steam pressure and the
entering air temperature; the latter is assumed to be the
same as that of the heated space. Where a number of
unit heaters are required, they should be directed to
circulate the air in the space; i.e., they should not oppose
each other. Unit heaters should blow parallel to the
shell and bulkheads; they should not blow heated air
directly on cold surfaces because the transmission loss
will be increased. They are installed about six feet
above the deck or working platform. In machinery
spaces of diesel ships, unit heaters are preferably located
at each end of the space, in diagonally opposite corners;
in large engine rooms four heaters may be used, with one
in each corner. Small engine rooms, e.g., tugboats, can
be heated with a single unit. In working spaces, one
unit heater usually handles up to about 40,000 Btu/hr.
7.4 Factory-Assembled Units. Factory-assembled
air-conditioning units are commonly used. The unit
in Fig. 39 is a special marine high-pressure, highvelocity type for a Class G system as shown by Fig. 8;
integral sound treatment attenuates noise from both the
fan inlet and discharge. It is the first factory-assembled
unit with an integral roll-type filter. In order to prevent injury to personnel and to minimize leakage, it is
im~ortantthat the swine of doors on such units be
arranged to open against pressure; i.e., close with
pressure.
Section 8
Refrigeration Equipment
8.1 General. Marine refrigeration systems and their
individual components are designed to operate with the
angles of pitch, roll, list, and trim normally encountered
by a ship. Design angles are 10-deg pitch, a momentary
roll of 30 deg for merchant construction and 45 for naval,
15-deg permanent list, and 5 deg permanent trim fore
and aft. All rotating equipment is normally installed
with the shafts fore and aft so as to minimize gyroscopic
effects. Condensers, cooTers, drip pans, troughs, tanks,

etc., have their long dimension fore and aft where possible. Swash plates or similar flow retarders are used to
minimize the adverse effect of vessel movement. Also,
drain connections at both ends of equipment provide
free draining regardless of trim. Plans must clearly
define the minimum space required for renewal of tubes
in shell and tube equipment. Construction and installa-
766
MARINE ENGINEERING
tion requirements for equipment are contained in references [lo, 29, 301 for merchant construction and reference [31] for naval construction.
Each component'must be selected to properly interface
with all others and to deliver the required performance
in the same operating time periods during pulldown and
holding. In the past, the procedure was to separately
purchase individual components of condensing and liquid
chilling cycles and assemble them into a system aboard
ship; however, the trend is to purchase these cycles as
"packages," including the base, drives, and all controls.
Generally this reduces costs and provides improved performance. Since "packages" afford less flexibility of
arrangement, space and servicing requirements must be
resolved early in the design stage.
8.2 ReciprocatingCompressors. Reciprocating compressors used in marine work are of the multicylinder,
single-acting, air-cooled type. Also, they usually are of
the open type and are belt- or direct-driven except for
those small ones used in water coolers, ice cube makers,
self-contained air-conditioning units, and reach-in refrigerabrs. These exceptions are of the welded hermetic type. Large size "semi-hermetic" (accessible)
units are not common aboard ship, although greater acceptance may be anticipated for those up to about
20 hp. Small open compressors, 5 tons and less, are of
the vertical type; larger ones have V/W cylinder
arrangements.
Specifications usually require built-in capacity control
(cylinder unloading), positive (forced-feed) lubrication,
and crankcase oil heaters (energized whenever the compressor stops). Compressors for merchant cbnstruction
are selected from manufacturer's data based on standard
code rating methods [40,41] or tests specified for naval
construction [31]. Refrigeration compressors are selected for a suction temperature, under holding (normal)
operation, between 15 and 20 deg 17 below the lowest
refrigerated compartment temperature. Since suction
temperatures below -20 F involve sub-atmospheric
pressures, they are not advocated except during the pulldown of - 10 F compartments. Suction temperatures
for air conditioning usually are between 15 and 20 deg F
below the leaving air dry bulb temperature. Those for
liquid chillers are 7 to 12 deg F below the leaving liquid
temperature. Also, a minimum suction temperature
of 35 F usually is specified for water chillers to avoid
freeze-ups.
8.3 Condensers and Receivers. Refrigeration condensers are of the seawater-cooled type except for very
small capacities (usually 1 hp and less), which are aircooled. Seawater-cooled condensers for merchant construction may have cast iron or fabricated (copper nickel)
heads and water boxes, welded steel shells, serrated (low)
fin or plain tubes (copper nickel or aluminum bronze),
copper nickel or Muntz metal tube sheets, and steel or
Muntz metal tube support plates. Zinc rods, replaceable
without removing the heads, minimize tube corrosion.
Condensers are usually sized for a 105 F condensing temperature and a fouling factor of 0.0005, although the latter
is sometimes 0.0010. Catalogs include specific heat rejection data for packaged units; general data may be obtained from reference [2]. (Refer to Chapter XIV for a
detailed discussion regarding heat exchangers.)
Marine receivers are made of steel, and have sweated
or flanged connections. They may be vertical or horizontal; the vertical type, Fig. 18(c), is preferred because
there is greater assurance that the outlet will always be
sealed with liquid. Horizontal types are level with a
bottom connection near each end, or pitched (5 deg when
fore and aft and 15 deg when athwartship) with a
bottom outlet near the low end. Receivers are fitted
with several sight glasses, or a magnetic-actuated mechanical indicator, for determining the liquid level.
Mechanical indicators, being subject to wear and malfunction, should be easily replaceable. The receiver
must store the full refrigerant charge when the system
is pumped down. The capacity should be a t least 120
percent of refrigerant charge to allow for expansion.
8.4 Evaporators. Marine evaporators may be classified as being of the direct or indirect types. The direct
type cools the treated space directly; whereas the indirect
type cools air or brine, which in turn cools the treated
space or another substance.
Bare and fin-pipe gravity coils generally are used in
merchant ship's stores spaces having temperatures below
35 k', because of frost considerations (see Fig. 18). Embossed and plate coils have been used to a limited extent
for cold tables and in refrigerated stores spaces where
they also serve as shelving. They have many advantages, including versatility and ease of cleaning, which
should make their use much more common in the future.
Overhead gravity coils are not recommended for refrigeration applications; however, they are used in ammunition
spaces requiring a small cooling capacity. Drain pans
sometimes are fitted beneath gravity coils to collect and
drain melted frost; electric strip heaters are installed in
these pans and around the drain pipes to prevent
refreezing.
Bare pipe coils are made of steel or copper pipe; those
of steel are hot-dip galvanized after fabrication and those
of copper are tin-coated, Gravity fin-pipe coils are used
exclusively for ship's stores of naval construction; they
are of a standardized design. The steel fin-pipe coils,
primarily used in merchant construction, consist of 1.25in-OD, 0.083-in-thick seamless tubing on 1.25-in. centers;
the fins are 0.025 in. thick and the tube sheets are 0.074
in. thick. Cooling coils for refnieration applications
require heavier fins (0.015 in. thick) than those for air
conditioning; also all copper surfaces are tin-coated to
avoid contamination [16]. Additionally, fin spacing is
limited to 3 per in. when the compartment temperature
is below 35 F, and 4 per in. for higher temperatures; the
wide fin spacing minimizes the pressure drop (frosted
coil) and facilitates defrosting. An advantage of fewer,
or even no, fins often overlooked is that it necessitates
more prime surface; this in turn ~ e r m i t sa higher evaporator temperature, higher (better) space humidity, and
less frosting.
767
Brine coolers, including water chillers used with reciprocating systems, are of the direct-expansion type;
i.e., the refrigerant is expanded in tubes surrounded by
brine. Such coolers may have several, independently
controlled, refrigerant circuits. Coolers for centrifugal
refrigeration plants are of the flooded type; i.e., the refrigerant surrounds tubes through which brine (water)
circulates. The materials used for coolers depend on
the corrosion characteristics of the brine refrigerant involved as indicated by Table 21.
Unit coolers serve as evaporators primarily in ship's
stores spaces of merchant ships where the holding temperatures exceed 35 l?,Fig. 18(a). Principally because
of automation, unit coolers with time-actuated, electric
defrosting have gained acceptance for applications below
freezing (in lieu of gravity coils). Except for large ships
having brine systems for stores spaces, unit coolers are of
the direct-expansion type. When selecting unit coolers,
care is required to prevent arbitrary criteria from dictating excessively large sizes, which waste storage space; for
the same reason, unit coolers should be carefully located.
Coolers should be arranged to blow toward the door so
as to minimize infiltration.
Cold diffusers fair coolers) may be factory-fabricated
units, Fig. 37, or shipyard assemblies. Yard assemblies
are mandatory for large systems, to obtain optimum
space utilization and because of limited head room.
Permanent compressed-air connections facilitate the
drainage of heating and defrosting facilities; otherwise
trapped water may freeze and cause damage.
8.5 Defrosting Facilities. Moisture forms frost on
evaporator surfaces below the freezing temperature; this
is most prevalent during pulldown. The accumulation
of frost must be removed periodically. "Hot gas" defrosting, which uses the heat of compression to melt the
frost, works well for small evaporators, i.e., in ship's
stores (see Fig. 18). In this process the compressor discharge gas is fed directly to bare or finned pipe coils,
where it releases latent heat and condenses; after this it is
re-evaporated in another evaporator. Hot-gas defrosting has not proven successful for large evaporators (cold
diffusers), i.e., those serving cargo compartments.
Defrosting is very simple for cargo compartments
cooled by brine systems [2]. Hot-gas and hot-brine
methods have an advantage in that the beating medium
is confined to the interior of the evaporator tube; i.e.,
minimum heat escapes into the refrigerated compartment.
The method most commonly used to defrost large
direct-expansion cold diffusers consists of spraying hot
water (sweet or uncontaminated salt) over the evaporator
coils (see Fig. 37). Water is kept below 90 F and the
flow is manually controlled; ample drainage facilities are
essential to quick defrosting. Automatic electric defrosting has been used for cargo air coolers to a limited
extent.
8.6 Centrifugal Liquid Chilling Systems. Centrifugal liquid chilling systems operate on the same basic
refrigeration cycle as those with reciprocating compressors. Also materials comprising the various components
Table 21
Materials Used for Brine Coolers

Calcium
Brine
Ethylene
Brine
Shell. ... . .. . . . Bray or

Welded steel
welded steel
Tubes ..... .. . . Copper
Steel
Tube Sheets. . . Admiralty , Steel
metal Tube Supports. Brass
Steel
Heads. . . . . . . ,.Steel
Cast iron
Welded steel
Cooler Part
Water
Copper
Naval brass
Steel
Steel
are similar. Reference [42] contains an excellent discussion of, and comparison between, reciprocating and
centrifugal system characteristics.
Centrifugal systems are factory assembled and tested.
Except for the larger sizes, they are shipped as single
"package" units, which greatly facilitates installation
and minimizes the possibility of refrigeration contamination and other construction hazards. "Package" type
units are furnished complete, including all interconnecting piping and controls, and are fully automatic.
Refrigerant 11is the most common primary refrigerant,
being suitable for the high-volume, low-head characteristics of centrifugal compressors. Because the volume of
gas is relatively large and the system pressure is below
atmospheric, centrifugal systems have integral purge
recovery units. Intercoolers (economizers) are provided
to increase the efficiency "bf multistage
compressor
systems.
Centrifugal systems are used for air-conditioning and
high-temperature refrigerated cargo installations of the
larger sizes. Until recently, approximately 250 tons of
refrigeration was considered the dividing point below
which it was more economical to use reciprocating
systems. However, the introduction of single-stage
machines and increased production have reduced costs
such that centrifugal systems as small as 100 tons of
refrigeration are common.
Centrifugal compressors may be driven by directconnected steam turbines or by motors and speed increasers; the availability of electrical power often is the
deciding factor. A turbine drive has the advantage of
greater flexibility to meet partial-load operation without
expensit'e controls. Motors are usually single speed and
are generally of the open type although some are of the
hermetic type.
Since capacity reduction cannot be achieved by merely
reducing the speed of @e prime - mover, multispeed
motors are not used. One method of capacity rbduction
employs a butterfly damper built into the compressor
suction inlet. Another method utilizes automatic prerotational vanes in the suction inlet. Suction gas
throttling is inefficient; thus, prerotational vane control
is preferred. Hot-gas by-pass facilities, manually controlled, are provided for loads below the range of the
integral compressor capacity controls.
MARINE ENGINEERING
ENVIR~NMENTALCONTROL
8.7 Steam-Jet
and
Absorption
Liquid
Chilling
Systems. Steam-jet, or steam vacuum refrigeration,

systems have been used to a rather limited extent aboard
ship. Considering the simplicity of the cycle and installation, as well as familiarity of operating personnel
with this type of equipment, it is difficult to understand
why steam-jet refrigeration has not found greater
acceptance.
Absorption refrigeration has been used a t sea primarily
aboard submarines, where very low sound and vibration
are prime requisites. Absorption refrigeration is more
efficient than, and has a weight advantage over, steam-jet
refrigeration. It has not been applied to merchant
vessels because it is not economically competitive and,
also, because manufacturers consider the marine market
too small to absorb the associated development costs.
Exhaust steam and diesel engine jacket cooling water
may be used as a heat source for absorption refrigem
tion systems.
A problem associated with absorption refrigeration is
"crystallization"; i.e., solidifying of absorbent salt (normally a solution) within the unit. It may be caused
by an abrupt and lengthy power failure without the
benefit of shutdown, or a malfunction in the condenser
cooling water control. It occurs first in the heat exchanger, and blocks the normal return of solution to
the absorber. Decrystallizing involves the application
of steam; some machines incorporate automatic decrystallization facilities.
References
1 Handbook of Fundamentals, edited by 'c. W. MacPhee, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air Conditioning Engineers, New York, 1968.
2 Guide and Data Book, Applications, edited by
C. W. MacPhee, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, New York, 1968.
3 S. W. Brown, "Modern Developments in Marine
Refrigeration," Marine Engineering and Shipping Review, June 1948.
4 Carrier Corporation, Handbook of Air Conditioning Design, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965.
5 Union Carbide Corporation, Glycols, New York,
1958.
6 "Thermal Insulation Report," T & R Bulletin
No. 4-7, SNAME, December 1963.
7 "Heat Transfer Coefficients, " NavShips Design
Data Sheet DDS 9390-1, Department of the Navy.
8 "Report on Ship's Stores and Installed Cargo
Refrigerated Boxes," T & R Bulletia No. 4-4, SNAME,
March 1962.
9 D. E. Phillips and John Wiley, Jr., "Environmental Control, " Ship Design and Construction, edited
by A. M. DJArchangelo,SNAME, New York, 1969.
10 "Standard Specifications for Cargo Ship Construction, " Maritime Administration, U. S. Department
of Commerce, Washington, D. C.
11 "Design Criteria Manual for Surface ships, Air
Conditioning,Ventilating, and Heating, )'NavShips 0938018-0010, Department of the Navy, February 1967.
12 "Electrical Engineering Regulations, Subchapter
J," CG-259, U. S. Coast Guard.
13 0. D. Colvin, W. H. E. Hahne, and M. R. Colby,
"Care of Cargo at Sea," Trans. SNAME, 1938.
14 0. D. Colvin and W. H. E. Hahne, "Care of Cargo
a t Sea-11: Interim Report on Dehumidificationin Ships,"
Trans. SNAME, 1941.
15 0. D. Colvin and S. J. Duly, "Control of Humidity in the Cargo Spaces on Board Ship," Northeast
Coast Institute of Engineers and Shipbuilders, February 1947.
16 "Handbook on Sanitation of Vessel Construction14Public Health Service Publication No. 393, U. S.
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
17 "Agricultural Research Service," Title 7-Agriculture, Chapter 111, Part 319, U. S. Department of
, Agriculture.
18 "Protecting Perishable Foods During Transport
by Truck," Agricultural Handbook No. 105, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
19 "Transportation of Hanging Beef by Refrigerated
Rail Cars and Piggyback Trailers," Marketing Research
Report No. 485, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
20 L. A. Harlander, "Engineering Development of a
Container System for the West Coast-Hawaiian Trade,"
Trans. SNA ME, 1960.
21 L. A. Harlander, "Further DeveIopments of a
Container System for the West Coast-Hawaiian Trade,"
Trans. SNAME, 1961.
22 Eric Rath, "Iso-Thermic Unitized Cargo System, "
Trans. SNAME, 1964.
23 J. J. Henry and Henry ICarsch, "Container Ships,"
Trans. SNAME, 1966.
24 "The Commercial Storage of Fruits, Vegetables,
and Florist and Nursery Stock," Agricultural Handbook
No. 66, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Market
Quality Research Division, September 1954.
25 "Refrigeration Equipment for Storage Comparb
ments-Heat Load Calculations and Selections," NavShips Design Data Sheet DDS 9590-1, Department of
the Navy.
26 Rules for Building and Classing Steel Vessels,
American Bureau of Shipping, New York.
27 Guide and Data Book, Systems and Equipment,
edited by C. W. MacPhee, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating, and Air Conditionhg Engineers, New
York, 1969.
28 Handbook of Automatic Controls, Alco Valve Co.,
St. Louis, Mo., 1959.
29 "American Standard, Recommended Practice for
Mechanical Refrigeration Installed on Shipboard," American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers Standard 26-56 (also ASA B591-1958).
30 "Marine Engineering, Subchapter F, U. S. Coast
Guard.
31 "Refrigeration Plant and Systems-Mechanical
and Refrigeration System Components-Naval Ship))
i
board," MILR-16743 (SHIPS), Department of the
Navy.
32 "Test Code for Air Moving Devices," AMCA
Standard 210-67 Air Moving and Conditioning Association, Inc., Park Ridge, Ill., 1967.
33 R. C. Strasser and H. E. Parker, "The Acoustic
HabitaEility of Ships," Trans. SNAME, 1964.
34 Fan Engineering, Buffalo Forge Co., Buffalo,
N.Y., 1961.
35 "A Method for Determining the Size of Ventilation Ducts," NavShips Design Data Sheet DDS 9380-3,
Department of the Navy.
36 "Pressure Losses of Ventilation Fittings," NavShips Design Data Sheet 9380-1, Department of the
Navy.
37 "Rules and Regulations for Passenger Ships,"
Subchapter H, CG-256, U. S. Coast Guard.
769
38 "Rules and Regulations for Cargo and Miscellaneous Vessels," Subchapter I, CG257, U. S. Coast
Guard.
39 "Protection of Rail Shipments of Fruits and
Vegetables, " Agricultural Handbook No. 195, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
40 "Standard for Refrigerant 12 and Refrigerant 22
~
25 Horsepower and
Compressors and ~ o n d e d i nUnits,
Larger," ARI Standard 516-60 Air Conditioning and
Refrigeratio~lnstitute,Arlington, Va., 1960.
41 "Method of Testing for Rating Refrigerant Compressors," ASHRAE Standard 23-59 American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, New York, 1959.
42 "An Introduction to Centrifugal Air Conditioning
Plants," York Corporation, subsidiary of Borg-Warner
Corp., York, Pa.
771
CHAPTER XX
Watt V. Smith
1. M. Gruber
TYPE
OF BEARINO
DESIRED MINIMUM
FILM THICKNESS
WEDOE PROFILE
I Bearings and Lubrication
h, b 0.001'
>
hm
TAPERED-LAND THRUST BEARINO
Section 1
Review of Fundamentals
Fluid-film lubrication
provides the basis for operation of bearings of all types.
Lubricants of primary concern aboard ship are liquids
which are, for the most part, petroleum oils; however,
niany other liquids as well as solids and gases are used as
lubricants in modern bearing technology. Fluid-film
lubrication depends on the generation of sufficient
pressure between adjacent surfaces to transmit most or
all of the load. Fluid pressure may be generated either
hydrostatically or hydrodynamically. Pressure for
hydrostatic bearings is generated externally and is piped
to pockets or recesses in the loaded zone of the bearing.
Hydrodynamic (self-acting) bearings generate pressure
by the relative motion between the surfaces which draws
the fluid lubricant into a wedge-shaped space, thus
compressing its volume, more rapidly than the pressure
can be relieved by leakage. Since virtually all bearings
used aboard ship are hydrodynamic, attention is focused
on this class. However, a comprehensive treatment of
hydrostatic bearing$ is given in references [l-51.'
1.1 Film Pressure Formation. The concept of the
wedge, or more generally lubricant compression, is
basic to lubrication theory. Figure 1depicts a variety of
bearings and the fluid film shapes usually associated with
their lubrication. I n Fig. 1, W indicates the bearing
load, N the speed of rotation, U the relative velocity of
the bearing surfaces, p the pressure in the film, and
h, the minimum film thickness. The first three bearings
(tapered-land thrust bearing, tilting-pad thrusf bearing,
and the journal bearing) are treated analytically as
hydrodynamic. The surfaces are considered to be
smooth, rigid, and perfectly aligned. The fluid is
usually considered to be a totally incompressible liquid
and in most solutions its viscosity is considered constant
even though all the heat is carried off in the lubricant.
The fourth bearing, a rolling-contact bearing, is
treated as being elastohydrodynamic. In elastohydrodynamic analysis, the deformation of the surfaces and
the effect of changes in lubricant viscosity due to pressure
are included in the analysis by solving first the elastic
equations for an approximate pressure distribution, then
the hydrodynamic equations for a pressure distribution
corresponding to the deflected bearing shape with the
1.I
Fluid-Film Lubrication.
Numbers in brackete designate References at end of chapter.
lubricant viscosity adjusted to the local pressure. The

process is then repeated until an acceptably small error
is obtained. It should be noted that fluid films are very
thin in elastohydrodynamic lubrication, approximately
the same 'magnitude as the deflections of the surfaces.
Gear tooth contact and the contact surface of traction
drives are other examples where lubrication is elastohydrodynamic.
I n inverse hydrodynamic lubrication shown in Fig. 1,
the bearing surface is easily deformed many times the
film thickness, and the lubricant properties remain
un&anged a t the pressures involved. Blok, in reference
[3], shows that the pressure profile attains a relatively
constant value over the surface in contrast to the other
lubrication regimes. Water-lubricated main propulsion
shafting bearings are examples of bearings operating
with inverse hydrodynamic lubrication.
I n thermal wedge bearings, the thermal wedges result
'from differential heating or heat conduction through the
bearing wall. Thermal wedges and unintentional mechanical wedges resulting from finishing operations
probably provide much more of the load support than
would usually be imagined. Flabland thrust washers
are examples of bearings which operate with this type of
lubrication.
The pressure generated between the bearing surfaces
is directly proportional to the relative velocities between
the surfaces and to the viscosity of the fluid. The
pressure is also inversely prowrtional to a power of the
film thickness and is a function of the shape of the
film. Figure 1 illustrates some of the pressure profiles
associated with the wedge shapes shown. The maximum
unit pressures in a hydrodynamic bearing are from 3 to 5
times the average unit load. Singe the average unit
loads for oil-lubricated bearings are less than 600 psi in
most cases, the maximum pressures in the film are less
than 3000 psi.
The maximum pressures in elastohydrodynamic bearings are less than the Hertzian contact pressures.
Since the Hertzian pressure in a rolling-contact bearing
may be as much as 300,000 psi in heavily loaded bearings,
the film pressures are still very high. Inverse hydrodynamic pressures are low, of the order of 100 psi. The
ability of thermal wedge thrust bearings to carry load is
considerably less than that of tapered-land or tilting-pad
bearings.
0
L
0
"m
TILTINO
PAD THRUST B E U I N O
-
hm, 0.001"
"m
JOURNAL BEARINO
Fig. 1 Lubrication wedges
h m b P ~ ~ ~ ~ - e m
ROLLINO CONTACT BEARINO

hm b I O O X 10
-hm
RUBBER BEARINO
b,,,bdOxIO
?Y Y:
FB
-''
-6 u
hn
FLAT-LAND THRUST WASHER
1.3 Viscous EfFects. The oil leakage out of the

lubricant film may be determined from an equation of the
form
hZ d p
= -(1)
121.1d z
where
u = mean leakage velocity, ips
h = film thickness, in.
p = viscosity, lb-secLsq in.
dz
= pressure change per unit length, psi&
Table 1 shows the pressure gradient in psi per inch of

length of flow path required to produce a mean out-flow
velocity of 1 inch per second from a unit width of film.
Table 1 illustrates the very large pressure gradients
required to produce a modest flow velocity from the
'
772
Table 1
in.
Pressure
gradient,
psi/in.
0.001
170
SILICONE
DC 500
WATER
hmin = (1
16
7.3
0.69
0.31
0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

15
28
13
, 1.0
Pressure Gradient for Leakage of 1 ips Mean

Velocity
TURBINE
OIL
FLUID
NS 2190 TEP
Temperature,
deg F
Viscosity,
centipoise
98.1
8.75
Film thckness,
773
MARINE EN(
1.2
0.54
film. The values of film thickness given are also

numerically equal to the discharge in cubic inches per
second per inch of film length. Table 1 also shows the
effect of temperature on viscosity and that these effects
depend on the nature of the fluid. The viscosity of
petroleum oil decreases by 11.4: 1over a 100 deg F range
of temperature, whereas the silicone fluid and water
decrease by a ratio of 2.2: 1.
The shear stress in the fluid film for each inch of bearing
length of the bearing is the sum of the product of viscosity
times the ratio of velocity to film thickness and the product of one half the film thickness times the pressure
gradient. For a journal bearing running centered, the
surfaces are parallel and the pressure term becomes zero.
The frictional resistance in this case is entirely viscous.
The analysis of this case was given by Petroff. The
Petroff bearing is of interest because all other fluid-film
bearings have greater friction. For the Petroff bearing
where
= tangential shear force on journal, lb

Z = oil viscosity, centipoise
N = journal angular velocity, rpm
L = bearing length, in.
D = journal diameter, in.
C = bearing clearance (bearing bore - journal diameter), in.
H = bearing power loss, hp
f = bearing coefficient of friction
P = bearing unit load (i.e., bearing load divided by
LD), psi
The oil flow requirements hnd power loss of cylindrical

sleeve bearings may be estimated by the following
simplified and approximate equations [6] :
- n) C2
where
= Sommerfeld number (dimensionless)

j = power loss factor (see Fig. 2)
Q = oil flow, gpm
p = oil density, Ib/gal
C, = oil specific heat, Btu/lbdeg F
AT = oil temperature rise (outlet-inlet), deg F
n = eccentricity ratio (see Fig. 2)
hmi, = minimum oil film thickness, in.
The foregoing expressions are among the many that

have been developed for bearing characteristics. Hersey
developed an analysis of experimental data that showed
friction to be proportional to ZN/P. The Hersey
number, ZN/P, has been shown to yield an important
indication of the region in which bearings pass from
boundary and mixed-film lubrication into a zone of fluidfilm lubrication. Figure 3 is a plot of data taken on a
bearing of 60deg arc, with an L I D of 0.5, a D/C ratio
of 500, and a load of 436 psi using Navy symbol 2190 T
turbine oil as a lubricant. The speed was varied from
25 to 211 rpm.
The zone to the right of the minimum point of the
Hersey curve is the full fluid-film lubrication domain.
The region to the left of the minimum is a zone of mixed
friction with a decreasing portion of the forces being
transferred by hydrodynamic pressure and the balance
by solid-solid contact. Since the marine engineer is
often confronted by mixed and boundary lubrication
regimes, this subject will be discussed further.
Before leaving fluid films, however, several of the more
important references should be mentioned. The theory
of fluid-film lubrication is given its most complete
analytical treatment by Pinkus and Sternlicht [2].
Purdy [7] has developed the theory in a somewhat
simplified manner, but with exceptional clarity in presentation. Hersey has given the most complete record
of the development of lubrication theory in all its
aspects in reference [B]. For bearing design and design
checking, the presentations in refgrence [2], that by
Boyd and Raimondi [3], and Rippel [5,9,10]are especially
recommended. The work of Wilcox and Booser [6] is
based on a large mass of experimental data and thus it
offers the advantage of a verified analysis. Michell's
work [ll] is good on the design of large marine and water
wheel thrust bearings.
1.4 Boundary and Mixed-Film Lubrication. Boundary lubrication processes are difficult to define with
precision since the mechanisms to be included are not well
defined. Generallyyhen the film thickness becomes so
small that the nature of the surface and the chemistry of
the lubricant-surface combination become more impor-
Fig. 2 Eccentricity ratio and power

loss factor versus Sommerfeld number
for split cylindrical bearings
.o 1
I
I
SOMMERFELD
tant than the bulk properties of the fluid, boundary

lubrication processes predominate. Friction wherein
only the properties of the solid surfaces are involved is
usually known as dry friction. Some dry-friction
processes may be involved in boundary lubrication.
Mixed film, as the name implies, is that portion of
bearing operation where both boundary and hydrodynamic lubrication processes are effective.
The requirement for a shearing velocity and an oil
wedge to produce a hydrodynamic pressure was established in the previous section. The time to establish
pressure and the rate a t which pressure decays after
motion stops were not mentioned. The long retention
of low restarting friction for some types of bearings may
be interpreted as the holding of a substantial portion of
the film pressure trapped between the bearing and shaft
surfaces. The squeeze film is known to account for the
operation of many bearing surfaces that have a load
reversal. Diesel engine connecting-rod bearings are
assisted by squeeze film; wrist pin bearings and piston
ring flank lubrication are completely squeeze film.
The significance of the high friction of dry contact and
its accompanying high damage can be appreciated by
consideiing that, during any interruption of motion, the
machine surfaces operate in the boundary regime. The
boundary regime is never quite free of some material
transfer and thus the damage is proportional to the
amount of time spent operating in this regime.
Just as surface roughness can penetrate oil films down
to and through the boundary layer, so too can dirt
particles that circulate with the oil stream. The effects
produced by the passage of dirt through a film can be
1.0
10
NUMBER, S -
HERSEY NUMBER,
Fig. 3
Bearing friction versus Heney number
quite different depending on the circumstances surrounding the event. The least damaging dirt passage occurs
when the dirt is smaller in size than the thickness of the
film. The thinnest part of the film through which the
particle passes determines the damage. If the particle
is too small to contact both solid surfaces, then the force
necessary for damage is not available and the dirt passes
774
.
Additives are used to change some chemical and some
MARINE ENGINEERING
through, leaving the surfaces unchanged. When the

particle size exceeds the film thickness, the least damage
occurs when a ploughed track in the soft bearing material
is the only result. Damage of this type can raise local
temperatures, but the bearing damage is quickly
smeared back to the level of the surrounding surface in
most cases.
The entry of dirt into the bearing has a more serious
result when the dirt particle fails to transit the film but,
instead, embeds in the bearing surface. Embedment
may be complete, in which case the damage is restricted
to that done to the journal in the embedment process.
When the embedment is incomplete, the consequences
may vary from the cutting of a small groove in the shaft,
all the way to a catastrophic machining-type failure. In
machining (or "steel wool") type failures, the steel
surface is continuously cut by particles from the steel
journal surface which are embedded in the bearing
material and those that weld together to form massive
scabs. The articles are hardened bv friction heating
and oil quidching. The probability"of a machinin&
type failure occurring increases with:
dirt size, quantity, and hardness
residual hardenability (difference in journal o r .
thrust surface hardness and the maximum hardness
attainable with the material)
oil film temperature (which is primarily related to
surface speed)
amount of chlorine in the oil (usually an extremepressure additive)
composition of rotor materials; carbide-forming
elements (high-chrome steels can be especially
troublesome)
physical characteristics of an oil. Several additives are

usually blended into a single package suitable for converting a specific base oil into the desired product. The
commonly used types of additives include:
oxidation inhibitors-to reduce the onset and rate
of oil oxidation
corrosion inhibitoreto reduce or prevent oil attack
on alloy bearings and internal rusting of machines
antiwear improvers, oiliness agents, and extreme
pressure (EP) additives-to improve sliding in the
boundary lubrication regime
detergents-to improve the cleanliness of surfaces
dispersants-to keep carbon and other insolubles
dispersed and circulating with the oil; this prevents
malfunctions such as piston ring sticking
alkaline agents-to neutralize acid from oil oxidation
pour depressants-to lower the pour point
antifoam additives-to reduce the persistence of
foam
tackiness agents-to reduce dripping tendencies
thickener additive-to
convert oil to a solid or
semisolid lubricant (grease)
Greases are very important in the lubrication of

bearings and gears, where speeds are low and loads are
high, and in rolling-contact bearings where oil can bleed
rapidly enough from the grease to provide the necessary
amounts of lubricant. Grease properties differ greatly
from the base oil. The amount and type of thickener
additive and the rate of shear of the @pplicationboth
affect the grease properties. Nine softness grades are
recognized in the NLGI (National Lubricating Grease
Institute) system ranging from 000 to 6 in order of
increasing
stiffness. &eases are formed as a gel of the
When designing bearings, consideration must be given
base oil and from 4 to 25 percent of a soap of (in decreasto the demands for stable, fully hydrodynamic operation
in the upper operating range, the ability of the material ing order of quantity manufactured) calcium, lithium,
sodium, aluminum, barium, or other metals or through
and lubricant to provide prolonged operation in the
the use of finely divided inorganic or organic compounds
boundary lubrication regime at slow speed, and the probsuch as modified bentonite, colloidal silica, or arylureas.
ability of encountering some boundary operation at
A
wide range of oils has been used including petroleum,
high speed. The great significance of material factors in animal,
vegetable, and synthetic oils. The wide variety
all
types
of boundary operation cannot be overem- of startine materials and the combinations that have
.
.
.
-a
phasized.
been made have produced lubricants applicable over a
1.5 Lubricants. Lubricants for marine machinery
temperature span from -100 to 450 F.
usually have a petroleum base. Crude petroleum oils
The factors to be considered in selecting the lubricants
are roughly classified as paraffinic, naphthenic, or mixed
to
be used aboard ship are as follow:
base; the differences being associated with the presence
of paraffin wax in the paraffinic crude, asphaltic comThe lubricant in each machine must have sufficient
ponents in the naphthenic, and both in the mixed-base viscosity to meet the most severe anticipated operaoils. An entire range of crudes exists, ranging from the tional requirements.
highly paraffinic to the highly naphthenic; however,
The viscosity of the lubricant in each machine should
advances in refining and in additive chemistry have be held to the minimum to minimize power losses and
greatly reduced the significance of geographic source in cooling requirements.
the final application of the oil. Both the wax and the
The volume and variety of lubricants carried aboard
asphalts are largely removed in the manufacture of the ship should be minimized.
lubricating oil. The specific property levels desired are
From the known loads, speeds, and temperatures of
attained by blending refined, naturally occurring oils and
the power plant bearings and gear teeth, the physical
by the introduction of additive packages.
775
properties of the lubricants satisfying the maintenance

of a safe film thickness can be determined. The lubricant properties of primary concern, the test methods, and
the significance of the results are briefly discussed in the
following paragraphs.
a. Lubricant Viscosity and Viscosity Index. In
1745, Newton measured the torque required to rotate
concentric cylinders in a liquid. He determined that
the force required on the rim of the cylinders was directly
proportional to the speed of rotation and the area of
surface in the liquid and inversely proportional to the
distance between moving surfaces. The relationship
from these results is F = p(AV/h), where p is the proportionality constant. This constant is the absolute
viscosity. When A is the surface area in inches squared,
V is the surface speed in inches per second, h is the oil
film thickness in inches, and F is the force in pounds, the
units of p are lb-sec/sq in. This is a reyn. The corresponding unit of absolute viscosity in the metric system
is a poise. The units of a poise are dynes-sec/sq cm.
The metric unit of absolute viscosity most commonly
used is a centipoise, which is 1/100th of a poise.
For oils, viscosity is usually measured as the time for a
fixed volume to be discharged from a standard container
through a fixed orifice at a specified temperature. The
viscosity of most oils is nearly independent of the rate of
shear and the oils are termed Newtonian fluids. Modern
multigrade engine oils are non-Newtonian. At high
shear rates, multigrade oils show a decrease in viscosity
with increasing rate of shear until the viscosity of the
base oil is approached.
Grease is strongly non-Newtonian. The apparent
viscosity is measured by pumping the grease through
each of a set of eight capillary tubes using two pumping
rates. From the observed pressures, the dimensions of
the capillary tubes, and the pumping rate, the viscosity
and shear stress are computed and viscosity in poises is
plotted against rate of shear in reciprocal seconds on
log-log paper. The viscosity of the base oil at the test
temperature provides a lower bound on the grease
apparent viscosity.
The viscosity index (VI) is a measure of the rate of
change of viscosity with temperature. Oils from a
l'ennsylvania crude, which had the lowest rate of change
of viscosity with temperature existing at the time the
index was established (1929), were arbitrarily assigned
a VI value of 100. Another series of oils from a Gulf
Coast crude with the greatest change were assigned a
value of 0. The viscosities of each series of oil were
determined for 100 F and 210 F. The viscosity index
of an oil is then computed as
VI
-7
L - u
L-H
--- X 100
where
= viscosity at 100 F of the oil whose VI is to be
calculated
100
PO0
100
1) 0
80Q
80
400
40
PO0
100
a0
10
1)
80
40
4
PO
P
10
1)
I
0.1)
0.8
0.4
P
02
I
0.1
100
goo
a00
400
TEMPERATURE, DLORLLS FAHRENHEIT
Fig. 4
Lubricating-oil viscosity-temperature chart
= viscosity at 100 F of an oil of 0 VI having the
same viscosity at 210 F as the oil whose VI is

to be calculated
H = viscosity at 100 F of an oil of 100 VI having the
same viscosity at 210 F as the oil whose VI is
to be calculated
In many cases a sufficiently high viscosity will be
ensured at the maximum temperature by specifying the
minimum acceptable viscosity at each of two temperatures; however, such specifications may permit an
excessive viscosity when operating at intermediate
temperatures. A comparison of the economic value of
lower oil costs for a lower VI oil versus the longer term
value of a reduced low-temperature power loss must be
made to provide a valid decision.
The effectof temperature on oil viscosity is illustrated
in Fig. 4. Mercury and'cwater have been included to
illustrate low-viscosity fluids. The data given in Fig. 4
may be converted to other standards by employing the
following relationships:
To obtain Reyns (lb-sec/sq in.), multiply the
viscosity in centipoises (dynes-sec/sq cm) by 1.45 X lo-'.
To obtain centistokes, divide centipoises by the oil
density in grams/cu cm.
776
MARINE Ek
Above 60 centistokes, the following approximations

may be used:
Saybolt Universal Seconds = 4.62 X centistokes
Redwood No. 1 Seconds = 4.05 X centistokes
Degrees Engler = 0.132 X centistokes
b. Oxidation Stability. Oxidation stability provides

a measure of the lubricant's resistance to oxidation under
an accelerated test. Testing is performed by exposing a
small oil sample (300 ml) contaminated with water
(60ml), and containing a steel-copper wire catalyst coil,
to a flow of 0.5 liters per hour of oxygen at a temperature
of 203 F. Neutralization numbers are determined
periodically during and at the end of the test. Limits
may be set by reaching a maximum neutralization number
or by time. The test provides an indication of the
oxidation-limited life of a lubricant in service.
c. NeutralizationNumber. The neutrdiiation number is a measure of the acidity of an oil. The oil is
extracted or mixed in a solvent and the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize a
gram of oil is reported as the neutralization number. The
neutralization number can provide a usefd indication of
the degree of oxidation of an oil and hence to the need to
replace the oil. Care should be used with additive oils
since the additive may affect the neutralization number.
d. Carbon Residue. Carbon residue is the percentage of carbonaceous material remaining after an oil
sample has been burned. The test is best made in a
small glass container (Ramsbottom Method) by subjecting a weighed sample of oil to a constant temperature of
1020 F for a fixed time period. The test indicates the
carbon-forming tendencies of the oil and is significant for
internal combustion engine oils.
e. Demulsibility. The demulsibility of an oil is a
measure of the separating tendency of oil-water mixtures
or emulsions. Equal volumes (40 rnl) of oil and water
are stirred for five minutes at 130 F. If the volume of
emulsion (unseparated oil and water) remaining is less
than 3 ml when the sample is examined at 5-min intervals,
the mixture is reported as breaking and the time is noted.
If the mixture fails to break after one hour, the volumes of
oil, water, and emulsion remaining are reported. The
maximum time for demulsification is specified for each
particular oil. In used ails, the test is heavily affected
by rust, oxidation products, and other less clearly defined
contaminants. The test provides an indication of the
effectiveness of separators in water removal and of the
probable sludge-forming tendencies of the oil. Heavy
sludges or emulsions can block the flow in oil return lines
and reduce the effectiveness of oil coolers.
f. Foaming. The foaming tendency of a lubricating
oil indicates the stability of air-oil foams. The test is
performed by the formation of a foam by the passage of
94 ml per minute of air for 5 min through a 200-ml oil
sample. Foam volumes are noted as formed and also
after settling for 10 min. Tests are run at 75 F and at
200 F. Lubricating oils having a tendency to foam are
undesired because foam can cause inadequate lubrication,
oil overflow, blockage of oil return lines, loss of cooler

effectiveness, air binding of pumps, etc.
g. Corrosion Inhibition. The corrosion inhibition
capabilities of a lubricating oil or grease are intended to
define either the tendency of the product to corrode a
component of the system being lubricated or to protect
the surfaces in the system from being corroded by fresh
or salt water entering the system. A wide variety of
tests is used on new oils or greases. Each test is closely
related to the intended application. Most of the tests
are for surfaces wetted by the lubricant; however, tests
have been developed also to measure the vapor space
corrosion protection offered by oils that have vapor space
corrosion inhibitors included in their formulation.
All of the corrosion tests are examples of surface
chemistry phenomena and therefore require exceptional
care in the preparation of the test surfaces. The material
of the specimen must be exactly to specification. The
finishing method is critical in each step as to grades and
types of abrasive, speeds of finishing, and scratch
pattern and depth. Each of these items has an effect
on the surface structure and residual stress, and hence
on the corrodability of the surface. Finally, the cleaning
of the specimen must be performed exactly as specified,
if all the ~reviouscare is not to be wasted.
The actual corrosion test methods are numerous.
ASTM, federal, and military specifications cover most
of those tests of concern to the marine engineer. One of
the most frequent tests applied to both oils and greases
is the copper strip test. Copper is easily corroded and is
catalytic to petroleum oils or at least to some of the
constituents. The copper strip after proper finishing
and cleaning is partially immersed in the lubricant and
heated in a bomb pressurized with oxygen for 20 hr at
210 F. After solvent cleaning, the test strip is compared
to a reference strip for evidence of discoloration, etching,
and corrosion. The test will identify lubricants with
sufficient activity to cause corrosion.
The corrosion inhibition test for steam turbine oils
uses a sample of oil (300 ml) contaminated with 30 ml
of seawater for marine turbine oils (or with the same
amount of distilled water for oils to be used with landbased turbines). The resistance to rusting of very
carefully abraded and cleaned low-carbon steel rods that
are suspended in the oil-water mixture for 24 hr at 140 F
is used as the test criterion.
The Underwood corrosion test ig intended for use with
internal combustion engine oil. The test specimehs are
connecting-rod shells of bearing materials known to be
easily corroded. Jets spray oil on the bearings at 375 F
for 30 hr.
None of the corrosion tests are expected to yield
corrosion rate predictions but they do provide general
guidance regarding the corrosive tendency or corrosioninhibiting characteristics of an oil.
h. Flash, Fire, and Autogenous Ignition Points.
These three points refer, respectively, to the temperature
at which the vapor over a heated oil sample will flash
when tested with a small flame; to the temperature at
which sustained burning occurs when similarly tested;

and to the temperature at which ignition occurs without
oxternal flame. These values have no meaning for
lubricating processes but are significant where fire
hazards exist. Marine lubricating oil distribution
systems are generally considered to constitute such a
hazard.
i. Pour Point. The pour point defines the lowest
temperature at which the oil will pour. An oil sample
contained in a tube is cooled in 5-deg F increments. The
tube is tilted after the temperature stabilizes and the oil
behavior is observed. When the sample shows no
motion after 5 sec, it is considered to have become solid.
The previous 5 deg F point is reported as the pour point.
The significance of the pour point in lubrication lies in
the inability of pumps to move the lubricant to the
bearings in time to prevent damage, when starting near
the pour point. Tank heating coils are provided to
avoid difficulties associated with low pour points.
j. Grease Penetration. The grease penetration number is a measure of the consistency of a grease. Penetrat i o is
~ determined on both worked and unworlred samples.
Worked samples are produced by forcing the grease back
and forth through a perforated disk for a specified
number of strokes. Normally only a modest number of
strokes are required; however, a greater number of
strokes can be specified and can reveal shear instability
of some greases. The penetration is measured by
allowing a standard cone to sink into the grease for a
period of 5 sec. The depth of penetration in tenths of a
millimeter is reported as the penetration. Grease
penetration is useful in selecting greases for ball and
roller bearing applications and as a quality control check.
Greases that are too soft tend to excessively flow into
the path of rollers and cause high heat through churning.
Harder greases, especially those displaying channeling
oharacteristics, run much cooler. Hardness alone will
not ensure grease channeling. Channeling is a complex
function of grease hardness, tack, fiber structure and
application factors including temperature, shear rate,
and vibration. Since no single test suffices to predict
channeling, it is often necessary to resort to experiments
in critical applications.
k. Grease Drop Point. The drop point of a grease
is the temperature at which the grease starts to drop out
of the end of an inverted cone. The drop point is the
nearest approximation to a grease melting point. I t does
not provide a safe upper temperature for use of a grease,
but it does identify a temperature above the usable
range.
1. Service Simulation Testing. A wide variety of
service simulation tests has been included in various
specificationsfor lubricants. These tests are intended to
check the overall suitability of a lubricant for a particular
777
service application. The purpose of the tests is to

provide assurance that dervice operation will be free of
trouble from unspecified or unspecifiable lubricant
characteristics. Many different types of engine tests
and the Navy work factor test may be cited as examples
of this type of test. Service simulation tests are often
very arbitrary.
Although petroleum-base$ materials satisfy the great
majority of marine lubrication requirements, a number of
other lubricants,should be mentioned. Synthetic liquids
have been among the most widely used petroleum substitutes. The synthetic fluids in wide use include [3]:
a
a
Dibasic acid ester-for high VI, low volatility, and

low freezing point
Phosphate e s t e r s f o r fire resistance and boundary
lubrication
Silicones-for the highest VI, thermal and oxidation
stability, and low freezing point
Polyglycol e t h e r s f o r high VI, and good boundary
lubrication
For more than a century, water has been used to

lubricate stern tube and strut bearings lined with lignum
vitae wood. Plastic and rubber bearings have also been
used in conjunction with water lubrication. Pump
bearings have of necessity been lubricated with water
when water was the fluid being pumped, as is the case
with the motors and pumps of pressurized water reactors.
Air and other compressible gases and vapors have been
studied extensively for bearing service where rotational
speeds are high or where the space and weight savings of
working fluid machines warrant the added engineering.
These bearings have been employed extensively in gascooled nuclear reactor circulating fan bearings, in turboexpanders for cryogenic work, and in control gyros for
inertial platforms in missiles.
Solid lubricants include the lamellar solids (graphite,
molybdenum disulfide, tungsten disulfide, boron nitride,
etc.); the soft solids, (white lead, talc, clay, etc.); chemical coatings of oxides, sulfides, and phosphates; waxes
(paraffin, beeswax); polymerized olefines (polyethylene,
polytetrafluroethylene); thin metal films of tin, lead,
silver, or indium; and a wide variety of composite
materials. Graphite and molybdenum disulfide are
the most widely used of the solid lubricants. They can
be applied as rubbed films, bonded coatings, or as
dispersions in a carrier such as heavy steam cylinder oil.
A number of the solid lubricants are available in convenient aerosol dispenser packages.
The solid lubricants are characterized in lubrication
technology by requiring feplacement as the films wear
out, by being unable to remove frictionally -generated
heat, and by satisfactory operation at lower Hersey
numbers than any other lubricant system.
778
Section 2
Bearings
Bearings may be of either the slidingcontact type, where the bearing elements are separated
by a film of oil, or of the rolling-contact type such as ball,
roller, or needle bearings. Sliding-contact bearings
include many varieties of sleeve or journal bearings, and
they also include thrust bearings and guide bearings (e.g.,
bearings which guide linear motions such as crosshead
guide bearings in diesel engines). The determination of
the type of bearing to use is based upon a study of
several characteristics relating to the mechanical
requirement, the environmental conditions, and the
relative cost.
Each type of bearing has its peculiar advantages with
respect to each condition of application; Table 2 summarizes the relative advantages of each [6]. 'Generally
speaking, sliding bearings are used in propulsion steam
turbines, main reduction gears, diesels, industrial-type
gas turbines, turbine generator auxiliary power plants,
diesel -electric
emergency
plants, large- - motors
or gener.- ators, boiler feed pumps, large fans and blowers, compressors and refrigeration plants, lineshaft bearings, stern
tube bearings, steering gears, and rudders. Rollingelement bearings are generally used with electric motors
up to 50 hp, aircraft-type gas turbines, small gear sets,
some small auxiliary steam turbines, and small mechanical equipment.
2.2 Pressure-Fed Journal Bearings. Many different
types of journal bearings have been developed over the
years and a rather large variety remains in use. These
be roughly classified into the three differentmethods
of lubrication: namelv, ~ressure-fed.
, nonDressurized.and
externally pressurized bearings.
A number of designs of pressure-fed bearings are in
common use. Variations in journal bearings lie in the
shape and location of the oil grooves and in the geometry
of the bore. Variations of grooving and bores give rise
to the following common types of bearings:
a. Cylindrical Bearing. This bearing, Fig. 5(a), has
a cylindrical bore. It usually has two oil spreader
grooves along the split line. It has a good load-carrying
capacity and is used in heavily loaded gear bearings. In
designs incorporating LID ratios of 0.5 to 1.0, loadings
range from 100 to 500 psi. At light loads (under 100 psi)
and higher speeds (over 3600 rpm) it is very susceptible
to a bearing instability known as oil whip.2
2.1
General.
may
1
'I
1
1
11
I
li
" , A
Any bearing instability, regardless of its nature, is commonly

referred to as 'oil whipn in the marine trade. Actually bearing
instabilities fall into two types, half-frequency whirl and resonant
whip. Half-frequency whlrl is a vibration of a shaft in a fluid film
journal bearing which may occur a t any s eed and a t a frequency
of one-half or near one-half journal speed! A resonant whip is a
resonant vibration of a shaft in a fluid-film journal bearing which
is self-starting a t a shaft speed approximately twice the actual
first system critical and remains at a constant frequency as the
s eed increases. The fre uency of this vibration is equal to the
&st critical frequency of t$e shaft regardle~of running apeed.
2
BEARINGS AND LLlBRlCATlON
MARINE ENGINEERING
SERVICEFACTORS
CHARACTERISTIC
b. Cylindrical Overshot Bearing. This bearing,

Fig. 5(b), is the same as that in Fig. 5(a), except a relief
groove is added in the unloaded half of the bearing.
This is used to reduce the power loss and to provide extra
cooling capacity. Oil is usually admitted a t the trailingedge spreader groove and allowed to flow over the shaft
within the relief. The excess oil over the bearing
requirement is often drained away from the leading-edge
spreader groove.
c. Pressure-Dam Bearing. Fig. 5(c) shows a pressure-dam or "Newkirk" bearing. I n the pressure-dam
bearing a groove over the top half of the bearing is
terminated at a sharp-edged dam about 45 deg beyond
the top vertical line. Stopping the oil flow in the groove
at the dam creates an oil pressure due to viscous pumping
and this pressure increases the load on the bearing 1121.
This design is quite successful in reducing the oil-whip
phenomenon; however, it is not always a cure for bearing
instability and it therefore has a limited use.
d. Multiple-Groovp Bearing. This is another variation of the cylindrical bearing, but instead of two spreader
grooves a t the split line, it has four axial grooves spaced
either 35 or 45 deg from the vertical centerline. It has
been used successfully in steam turbine rotors at loads
of 150 to 250 psi and LID ratios of 0.4 to 0.6. It has
some effectiveness in eliminating oil whip. A fourgroove bearing is shown in Fig. 5(d).
e. Elliptical Bearing. An elliptical bearing has a
bore similar to an ellipse. It is manufactured by machining the bore with shims installed at the split line. After
machining, the shims are removed so that when assembled the bearing bore has a larger clearance horizontally
than vertically. Usually this clearance ratio is 2 to 1.
These bearings are more stable than circular bearings and
are used for loads of 100 to 300 psi in LID ratios of 0.5
to 1.0. They are commonly used as steam turbine,
industrial gas turbine, and generator bearings.
An elliptical-overshot bearing is the same m an elliptical bore bearing but with a relief groove in the upper
half, similar to the cylindrical-overshot bearing. It is
designed for cooler running and for a decreased power
loss. An elliptical-overshot bearing is shown in Fig. 5(e).
f. Three-Lobe Bearing. A three-lobe bearing, shown
in Fig. 5Cf), is very effective in preventing oil whip a t
light-load conditions. Its chief disadvantage is its
manufacturing difficulty and awkwardness in handling.
It is commonly made in three sections with shims in the
joints.
g. Tapered-Bore Bearing. As a variation of the
three-lobe bearing, a three-groove tapered-bore bearing
has 30 deg of arc that is cylindrical and 90 deg of arc
that is tapered to a depth of 0.004 to 0.005 in. Unlike
the three-lobe bearing, the tapered-bore bearing can be
machined in a lathe with a special bore-tapering attach-
Characteristics of Sliding and Rolling Contact Bearings
Table 2
Unidirectional
Cyclic
Starting
Load Unbalance
Shock
Emergency
Good
Good
Poor
Good
Fair
Fair
Speed limited by
Turbulence
Temp. rise.
ROLLING
SLIDING
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excellent
Excelle~t
Fair
,*
Centrifugal loading
Dynamic effects
Poor in ball bearings
except where designed
for a t sacrifice of
!oad capacity. Good
in spherical roller
bearings.
Poor m
9ylindrical roller bearings
Mdsaldgnmenl tolerance
Fair
Starting fr-idion
Poor
Good
Small
'
to 2 times the
shaft dia
Large
to f i the shaft dia
Type of failure
Often permits
limited emergency
operation after
failure
Limited operation may

continue after fatigue
failure but not after
lubricant failure
Damping
Poor
Type of lubricant
Good
Oil or other fluid,.
grease, dry lubricants, air, or gas
hbricatdon, quantity
required
Large, except in lowspeed boundarylubrication types
Very swan, except

where large amounts
of heat must be
removed
Noise
Quiet
May be noisy, depending upon quality of

bearing and resonance
of mounting
Power consumption
N'DaL
Varies as -
Varies
ing upon
widely
type de
of fubriend-
Poor
cation. Varies directly as speed. Usually

!ewer than glider bear1g
Good
Space requiremenis
(Radial beur-ing)
Radial dimension
Axial dimension
ENVIRONMENTAL Lowtemp. starting

CONDITIONS
Highctemp. operation
Maintenance
Oil or grease
Limited by lubricant
Unlimited, except
for cyclic loding
Limited by lubricant
Limited by fatigue
properties of bearing
metal
Clean lubricant
required
Clean lubriesnt
required. Only oc?
sionrtl attention m t h
Very small in massproduction quantities, or simple types
~nt'eh-ediatebut
standardize& varying
little with quantity
Function of design
and installation
Function of t pe of
installation. 6sually
shaft need not be
replaced
780
MARINE EN
(b)
( a ) CYLINDRICAL BEARING
( c ) PRESSURE-DAM BEARING
( 0 ) ELLIPTICAL OVERSHOT BEARING
((I) TAPERED-BORE BEARING
Fig. 5
CYLINDRICAL OVERSHOT
BEARING
( d l MULTIPLE- GROOVE BEARING
( f ) THREE-LOBE BEARING
( h ) TILTING-PAD BEARING
Types of pressure-fed bearings
ment. These bearings can be made in two halves. A

sketch of this bearing is shown in Fig. 5(g).
h. Tilting-Pad Bearing. The most effective bearing
to prevent oil whip and dampen shaft vibration is the
tilting-pad or multiple-shoe bearing as illustrated by
Fig. 5(h). The bearing surface is divided into equal
shoes or pads (3,4, or 5 are the numbers most commonly
used) and each pad is allowed to tilt freely a ; ~the load
and oil-film wedge dictates. Pivot locations are normally centered, but can be shifted downstream to 0.6 the
shoe length for increased load capacity. The tilting-pad
bearing was designed for the light-load bearing instability
problem, but its oil film operates-at a lower temperature
than a comparable full-sleeve journal bearing and it is
capable of withstanding higher unit loads than a fullsleeve bearing.
Tilting-pad bearings are in common use on steam
turbines, high-speed reduction gears, and centrifugal
compressors.
The bearings as listed in items (a) through (h) are
generally in the order of increased rotor damping
properties. The cylindrical bearing offers the least
protection against oil-film whip or rotor unbalance
vibration, while the tilting pad is the most satisfactory
for these types of problems. Even though widely
i
78 1
accepted, the tilting-pad bearing is often used only as a

last resort, because it is more costly than other types of
bearings.
2.3 Nonpressurized Journal Bearings. Nonpressurized bearings include bushings, oil-ring bearings, and disk
bearings. Bushings may be oil, air, grease, or water
lubricated depending upon the application or material
used. Solid bronze bushings. are usually grease lubricated while sintered materials are impregnated with
lubricants, such as oil or teflon. Some bushes are solid
teflon or graphite, or metals coated with molybdenum
disulfide. Other nonpressurized bearings include lineshaft (also called pillow block, tunnel, spring, or plummer
block) bearings. Lineshaft bearings may be of either
the oil-ring type (as in Fig. 13 of Chapter 11) or the disk
type (as in Fig. 12 of Chapter 11).
The number of oil rings in a bearing should be such
that no ring is required to distribute oil for an axial
distance greater than 7 in. on either side of the ring. The
ratio of the inside ring diameter to the diameter of the
shaft should be 1.5 to 1.25, decreasing with increasing
shaft diameter. The ring cross section should be such
as to have sufficient weight and area to deliver the
required flow a t the given speeds and oil viscosities and
the oil ring should be submerged a minimum of 1 in.
below the oil in the sump under extreme pitch and roll
conditions. For low-speed operations, rings for large
shafts should be 1 in. wide or more and should be
grooved a t the I D for increased oil delivery.
There are several disadvantages to oil rings. At low
speeds, such as 0.1 rpm while on turning gear, oil
delivery is uncertain. Also, rings may tend to hold up
on the ring guides and thereby impair oil delivery. I n
addition, the oil delivery from rings is proportional to
viscosity so that, as a bearing overheats and the oil
temperature rises in the sump, the oil delivered to the
bearing is decreased a t the very time when more oil is
needed.
Disk bearings are lubricated by a plate clamped to the
shaft a t one end of the bearing. At the OD of the plate
a cylindrical section forming a part of the disk rubs
against a brass scraper which removes and directs oil
into the bearing, generally a t the top centerline of the
bearing (as in Fig. 12 of Chapter 11). The cylindrical
section of the disk is submerged below the oil sump
level, and rotates with the shaft at shaft speed. Disk
bearings have a greater and more positive oil flow a t all
speeds. Disk oil flow exceeds ?ing oil flow in a given
bearing anywhere from 1.5 to 7 times depending on the
speed.
Tests with disk-lubricated bearings show that a t low
speeds the oil delivery can be expressed as:
where
Q = oil flow from disk, gal/hr
b = disk width, in.
D = disk diameter, in.
Fig. 7
SOMMERFELD NUMBER. S.
I
I
Rg. 6
=
p =
TZ N( FD)
Friction wefflcient versus Sommerfeld number for a 13-in. lineshaft bearing
disk mm
oil viscosity, r e p s
Sliding bearings of the oil-film type operate on a hydrodynamic film after the surface speed is sufficient to carry
the load. Under these conditions an oil-film bearing is
extremely efficient and reliable. The problem arises
when the speed is too low to maintain a hydrodynamic
film. Because steam turbine rotors require a coolingdown period of several hours under turning gear operation, the lineshaft bearings during this period operate on
boundary films or metal-to-metal contact even with
extremely low loadings (the lineshaft speeds are in the
range of so to % rpm). Tests on a 13 in. disk-lubricated lineshaft bearing with 300 SSU oil show that
mixed-film lubrication (i.e., the onset of boundary film
lubrication) exists a t a Sommerfeld number of about
0.008 (see Fig. 6). It is standard marine practice to
limit loadings and rely on large LID'S because of the
limitations resulting from continuous operation at turning
gear speed.
Some thrust bearings and journal bearings of large
low-speed shafts have externally pressurized pockets in
the bearings as shown in Figs. 7 and 8 for starting and
stopping under hydrostatic pressure [I]. The hydrostatic lift in thrust bearings consists of a pocket a t the
center of each pad of approximately 2 to 4 in. dia
(Fig. 7). The pads are drilled from the pad OD to the
center. An orifice and check valve are mounted on the
pad OD which in turn is connected to a high-pressure
manifold supplied with oil from a high-pressure pump.
Figure 8 illustrates a hydrostatic lift arrangement for a
journal bearing. The oil pocket at the bottom center2.4
Hydrostatically lubricated thrust bearing
Externally Pressurized Journal Bearings.
Fig. 8
Schematic diagram
of a hydrostatic lift
line has a total area of from 2 to 5 percent of the total

projected area. Generally, 1 to 2 gpm of oil is supplied
at a pressure of about 1000 psi; however, each application
must be designed for the specific flow and pressure
required to lift the load free of the bearing. Starting
friction with hydrostatic lifts is reduced by a factor of
about 10 to 1. For thrust bearings on deep submergence
vessels, whIch have large breakaway thrust on starting, a
hydrostatic lift may be required in cases where the available starting torque is limited.
2.5 Thrust Bearings. As in the case of journal
bearings, there is a variety of thrust bearing designs
which have been in use to meet various application
requirements. The various types can be classed as
follows: flat land, tapered land, tilting pad, step, and
pocket thrust. The first three types are in common use
and are therefore covered in detail.
a. Flat-Land Thrust Bearings. The flat-land bearing
is the simplest form of thrust bearing. It consists of an
annular flat surface with or without oil grooves, running
MARINE ENGINEERING
Fig. 9
Self-equalizing main thrust bearing
against a rotating thrust collar or shoulder. The loadcarrying ability is derived from the proper number and
radiusing of the oil grooves on the flat face. Theoretically the flat-land bearing has no load-carrying capacity.
However, experience has shown that a well-designed
flat-land bearing will operate successfully a t a unit
loading of 100 psi. Their normal application is in the
range of 50 to 100 psi. This type of bearing is used on
pumps and compressors on the inactive face (or idle
side) of the thrust collar, where the reverse load is
momentary. Where steady, heavy-thrust loads exist, a
tapered-land or tilting-pad bearing is used.
The power loss for a flat-land bearing can be determined by the use of empirical data such as presented in
reference 161.
b. Tapered-Land Thrust Bearings. The taperedlalid thrust bearing has the general appearance of the
flat-land thrust bearing. Its surface is divided into a
number of pads separated by an equal number of radial
oil-feed grooves. I n the tapered-land bearing, each pad
is tapered in the circumferential direction so that the
motion of the runner will wipe oil into the wedge area to
build up load-carrying oil pressures. The taper can be
either single, that is, the same amount at the I D and OD,
or compound, where the taper a t the I D is larger than
that a t the OD. For optimum load-carrying capacity,
compound tapers are used. The taper usually extends
for 80 to 90 percent of the pad with the rest of the pad
remaining flat. For convenience of manufacture and to
accommodate splitting in two halves, an even number
of pads is always used. The ratio of pad length to pad

height is kept near 1.0 for optimum load capacity. The
oil groove width amounts to about 20 percent of the pad
length. Pad tapers range from 0.005 to 0.009 in. a t the
I D and from 0.003 to 0.006 in. a t the OD, depending on
the pad size. As the pad increases in size, the amount
of cooling oil required increases and thus tapers are
increased to pass a sufficient amount of cooling oil.
Detail calculations can be made for this type of bearing
by employing the procedure outlined in reference [6] or
[131.
c. Tilting-Pad Thrust Bearings. The tilting-pad
thrust bearing of the Kingsbury or Michell types (both
held patents concurrently dating from 1910) differ from
the tapered-land bearing in that each pad is an individual
shoe that is free to pivot as the oil film dictates. The
pivots can be a radial line as in the Michell type or a
radiused button support as in the Kingsbury type. It
has become common practice in American marine
applications for tilting-pad bearings to have plates,
known as leveling links, which equalize the load between
pads. In Europe and Japan, most marine thrust
bearings are built with thrust pads supported directly
in housings without leveling linlm. A conventional
marine ma& thrust bearing ofthe self-equalizing type is
shown in Fig. 9.
A standard thrust bearing has 6 pads with the OD
equal to twice the ID. The pads, with 51-deg arc,
have a length to radial height ratio of 1.33. Bearings
of this design have an area equal to one half the square
of the bearing OD. They are capable of carrying loads
of 300 to 500 psi, depending on the bearing size, speed,
and the type of oil.
Larger bearings for main propulsion shafting usually
have restrictions on the bearing OD; therefore, in order
to minimize the bearing size, these bearings quite often
have 8,10, or 12 pads. One conventional marine thrust
bearing has 16 pads. The most common marine
propeller thrust bearing for cargo ships and tankers is
an 8-pad bearing ranging in OD from 41 to 61 in. There
is no hydrodynamic or manufacturing limit on the size
of thrust bearings:
The spherically radiused button supports of tiltingpad bearings are generally placed at the center of the pad
in the circumferential direction. This is to accommodate
ahead and astern rotation. A study by Raimondi and
Boyd [14] showed that in theorfa flat pad with a center
pivot had no load capacity. In actual practice the pad
crowns due to the load over the center pivot and from
thermal gradients in the pad itself. Thrust bearings
for unidirectional rotation can be designed with a pivot
a t 0.58 the shoe length for optimum load-carrying
capacity.
Navy practice is to apply self-equalizing main thrust
bearings at loads of about 500 psi, while the merchant
marine practice is to size the bearing at 350 to 400 psi 1151.
Most propulsion steam turbines employ self-equalizing
pad bearings loaded a t 400 to 500 psi. Nonequalizing
BEARINGS AND L~BRICAT~ON
bearings should be limited to a maximum loading of

about 300 psi.
Tilting-pad thrust bearings quite often have the same
bearing elements ahead and astern for interchangeability
purposes; a full set of bearing elements may be installed
on both the ahead and astern sides or a reduced number
may be provided on the astern side (in exceptional
cases). Also in exceptional cases, bearings of smaller
size may be provided on the astern side than on the ahead
side.
The bearing design variables of film thickness, power
loss, oil flow, and temperature rise can be determined by
the hydrodynamic relations given in reference [6].
d. Resonance Changers. An interesting modifica
tion to the leveling link (hard) main propeller shaft
thrust bearing is the resonance changer or soft thrust
bearing. Instead of leveling link supports behind the
thrust pads, a piston and bushing is placed beneath each
pad, Fig. 10. The pistons are connected to oil manifolds
and piped to a high-pressure (2000-3000 psi) oil supply.
By varying the quantity of gas in an accumulator, the
longitudinal resonant frequency of the shafting system
can be changed. This bearing modification has proven
extremely useful in multiple-screw ships where excessive
longitudinal shaft vibrations are experienced when the
ship is in a hard turn [16].
e. Thrust Meters. Electronic thrust meters were
first used by the Navy for standardization trials on new
ships; however, electronic thrust meters have subsequently been frequently used in pumps, turbines, compressors, and as permanently installed equipment to
measure propeller thrust. An electronic thrust meter
consists of a standard tilting-pad bearing with strain
gage type load cells added to the shoes or leveling links;
see Fig. 11. In an &pad leveling-link bearing, load cells
can be used in quantities of 2, 4, 6, or 8 depending on
the accuracy and reliability desired. Two or four are
common for tankers or cargo ships.
Standard load cells have been manufactured to fit all
thrust bearings from 5 to 65 in., ranging in unit load cell
ratings of 1000 to 100,000 lb each. Load cells can be
fitted to existing machinery installations. The thrust
signal from the load cell is an electronic one, and can be
read or recorded from any one of a large variety of
instruments ranging from a single readout of strain to a
multichannel recorder, which can record directly any
number of cells simultaneously. These devices are
extremely responsive to thrust variations.
2.6
Rolling-Contact Bearings
a. General. Rolling-contact bearings are distinguished by the use of a series of rolling elements to
position the shaft with respect to the housing of the
machine. The rolling elements most frequently employed include; balls, needles, and cylindrical, tapered,
and convex rollers. The rolling elements of rollingcontact bearings provide much closer positioning of
shafts than can be achieved with the use of self-acting
sliding bearings. In addition to the close positioning,
Fig. 10 Resonance changer

'
Fig. 1 1
Electronic thrust meter
rolling-contact bearings provide a radially (or axially)

stiff bearing that permits heavy loading of machine
components with minimum deflection. The lubrication
system is usually simpler for rolling-contact bearings,
e~pecially~where
the size, load, and speed are such that
grease lubrication can be used. Rolling-contact bearings
have much lower starting friction coefficients (0.002 to
0.006) than self-acting sliding-contact bearings (0.15 to
0.25).
The load capacity of rd@ng-contact bearings is fairly
well-defined in terms of the cycles of operation to obtain
a fatigue failure in a definite percentage of a given
population at a single load level. This fatigue failure
mode is the normal basis for sizing rolling-contact
bearings to satisfy the requirements of a given application. Equations have also been developed to compute
the static load to cause surface indentation of a size
known to cause rough running. The static load capacity
784
MARINE EN(
provides a design limit for slow-speed, high-load applications.

The contact areas in rolling-contact bearings are very
small and the cyclic stresses in the load zone are quite
large. Useful fatigue lives are achieved by using very
hard (Rockwell "C" Scale 58 to 65) high-yield material.
The majority of bearings are manufactured from SAE
52100 steel containing 13 percent chromium and 1percent carbon. Heavy-duty bearings, which are used
in applications where shock is likely; employ casecarburizing grades Qf steel. Instrument bearings are
made from higher alloy steel such as AISI 440C (17percent chromium, l-percent carbon) ; the lower hardness
attainable with this grade of steel is more than compensated for by the increase in atmospheric corrosion
resistance. Nearly all the steel used in bearings is
vacuum-melted or vacuum-degassed to reduce nonmetallic inclusions in the steel. The nonmetallic inclusions act as nucleation sites or stress raisers in the steel
that are responsible for many of the fatigue failures in
bearings.
The size variation of rolling-contact bearing elements
must be ltept to very small values. Size variations
within an element or between elements in a bearing
must be minimized to provide a uniform distribution of
load between the elements. Any lack of internal uniformity must be compensated for by compression of the
rolls and deflection of the rings arid supporting structure.
Rem&kable advances have been made in achieving
uniformity of rolling-element diameters. Size variations
of from 50 to 300 microin. were not, uncommon less than
a decade ago. At least one military specification,
MIL-B-17931, restricts ball size variation within a
single bearing to 10 microin. Balls with only 3-microin.
diametrical variation are available.
Unevenness in mounting surfaces also imposes an unequal load distribution on the bearing components and
probably accounts for many of the premature bearing
failures.
b. Mounting. The highly desirable rigidity and
close-positioning capability of rolling-contact bearings
have implications in the incorporation of these bearings
into machinery designs. Careful analysis of the starting
and operating temperature gradients of the machine
design should be made to prevent internal loading of the
bearings as a result of thermal expansion forces. A
number of mounting designs have been developed to
accommodatethe most frequently encountered situations.
Two basic alternative principles underlie most of
the mounting arrangements; i.e., fixed-free mounting
or opposed-shoulder mounting. These arrangements
assume that the shaft will be supported by two bearings,
one near each end of the shaft. Axial positioning will
be determined by either imposing the constraint at one
end, as in the fixed-free mounting, or allowing the shaft
to float between the opposed shoulders of the shaft and
housing. The free-end play provided in a fixed-free
mounting must exceed the sum of the thermal and
elastic differential motion between the shaft and the
BEARINGS A N D LLlBRlCATlON
housing. In cases where the free-end bearing is to be

preloaded to provide a quieter installation, the spring
force should be applied so that it is reduced by differential
thermal expansion within the machine.
Opposed-shoulder mountings tend to be less expensive
than fixed-free mounting in manufacture; however, the
axial location is not as close as may be obtained in fixedfree mounting. Some opposed-shoulder mounts are
designed to allow adjustmetit of the free play through
the use of shims between the cap shoulder and the housing
to obtain the degree of axial control sought.
c. Ball Bearings. Ball bearings consist of one or two
rows of balls contained in grooves having a circular
cross section. The grooves form raceways and are
normally cut into rings that confine the balls. The
radius of the raceway cross section is slightly larger than
that of the ball. The largest ball possible, consistent
with the other design features of the bearing, is normally
used since this gives the largest load capacity. The
sphericity of balls is defined by the ball grade, the
variation becoming smaller as the grade number becomes
smaller. Since the cost of the smaller grade number
balls increases sharply as the number decreases below
grade 50, the largest grade number consistent with the
required performance should normally be used. Ball
bearings accept either radial or bidirectional thrust
loading. Angular-contact ball bearings provide a very
high axial load capacity in one direction. Duplex pairs
of angular-contact ball bearings are used for very high
bidirectional axial loadings.
Ball thrust bearings are designed with a row of balls
running in grooved washers placed perpendicular to the
axis of rotation. The bearing will accept virtually no
radial load and thrust load is liinited to one direction.
Two-direction thrust capacity is obtained by adding a
second row of balls and a third washer.
d. Cylindrical Roller Bearings. Roller bearings are
classed as line-contact bearings in contrast to the pointcontact designation of ball bearings. Cylindrical roller
bearings consist of right-circular cylindrical rollers
between rings of cylindrical inside and outside diameters.
The roller length is less than four times its diameter.
Rolls are separated by retainers that may be positioned
radially by the rolls or by either of the two rings. Tho
rolls are restrained in an axial direction by ribs on either
of the two rings. The cylindrical roller bearing has very
little thrust capacity, and for this reason it is frequently
used to provide longitudinal freedom in fixed-free shaft
mountings. The fixed-end bearing may be any bearirig
providing axial location. Cylindrical roller bearing^
with solid rolls usually have a somewhat larger radial
play than ball bearings of the same bore size. By tho
use of hollow rollers, cylindrical roller bearings may ba
given an internal radial preload. The cylindrical roller
bearing has a very high radial load capacity and low
friction.
e. Needle Bearings. Needle bearings differ from
cylindrical roller bearings in having their roll length
more than four times the roll diameter. The needlu
bearing is normally restricted to shafts less than three

inches in diameter and speeds below 3600 rpm. The
needle bearing is qyailable as a full complement of
needles and as a bearing with the needles separated by a
oage. The cage-type bearing is less subject to skewing
of the needles than the full-complement bearing. The
noedle bearing occupies the least radial space of any
roller bearihg. Both needle and cylindrical roller
bearings may be used without an inner race; in such a
aese the shaft must be hardened to a Rockwell C hardness of 58-65 and given a fine grind.
f. Tapered Roller Bearings. Tapered roller bearings
use frustums of a cone as a rolling element. The races
have a mating taper. The apex of the tapers on both
rings and rolls meet at a single point on the axis of rotation. Cages are used to separate the rollers and a rib is
provided on the inner ring to accept the roll thrust
oomponent resulting from the small angle of divergence
of the conical roller. The large end of the roll and its
mating rib are shaped to provide a converging loadcarrying wedge. Pairs of tapered roller bearings used
as fked-end locating bearings provide a very rigid highload capacity unit.
g. Roller Thrust Bearings. Roller thrust bearings
have no radial load capacity and must be used in conjunction with a radial bedring. The radial bearing
must be positioned very carefully if internal loading
between the radjtL1 and thrust bearing is to be avoided.
Roller thrust bearings have a very high thrust capacity.
Their speed limits are much lower than radial bearings
and more viscous oil is usually employed to prevent
smearing of the surfaces. The supporting structure
must be very rigid to develop the full capacity of roller
thrust bearings. Care must be taken regarding the oil
circulatian in large roller thrust bearings to avoid thermal
distortions.
Section 3
Lubrication Systems
3.1 Obiectives. Lubrication systems have a number

of objectives: these objectives mav be:
To deliver the required amount of lubricant to each
rubbing surface under controlled levels of temperature
and contamination.
To provide operator assurance that delivery is being
accomplished and to provide timely warning of system
malfunction.
To provide the capability of coping with reasonable
contingencies.
In many cases, to provide oil to the speed control
and to the low oil pressure shutdown device.
not be repeated here; instead, the present chapter will

concentrate on the geared steam turbine lubrication
system. Reference fig], a publication of the joint
ASTM-MEMA-ASME committee on turbine lubrication,
provides the most detailed guidance available for marine
geared-turbine systems. Related references [20-261
provide additional recommended practices.
There are two basic types of lubricating systems:
gravity systems and pressure systems. In addition,
however, there are two typgs of lubricating systems
which combine features of both gravity and pressure
systems; these are high-head pressure/gravity systems
and low-head ~ressure/mavitv
,
" svstems.
"
A gravity system uses one or more head tanks to supply
oil to the propulsion plant. This system requires a high
head room; reference 1271 suggests a minimum elevation
of 30 ft above the machinery. It is the most reliable
type of system, if adequate capacity is built into the head
tanks. Reference [19] recommends a minimum of four
minutes of, oil supply in each tank. The lubricating-oil
pumps supply the head tanlts directly in the gravity
system. Figure 14 of Chapter 18 illustrates a piping
diagram of a typical gravity system.
The pressure system supply is direct from the lubricating-oil pump. This system eliminates the space and
weight'requirements of the gravity system's head tanks;
however, the reserve oil supply must be foregone in order
to utilize direct pumping. Two pumps, each capable
of supplying the full requirement, are required by
reference [17]. Automatic switching of the supply from
one pump to the other is required.
A gravity/pressure system is a pressure system with
one or more head tanks floating on the line to provide a
u
1
'
Marine lubricating systems are distihguished by the

necessity of including list, trim, roll, and pitch as
design criteria. The American Bureau of Shipping
1171 requires satisfactory functisning of lubricating
~ystemswhen the vessel is permanently inclined to an
angle of 15-deg athwartship and 5-deg fore and aft. In
addition, reference [17] requires that the bearings not
epill oil under a momentary roll of 223 deg, for electrical
generators. Military vessels are required to accept
larger trim, list, roll, and pitch requirements. Reference
[18] cites the same permanent trim and list of 5 and 15
deg for surface ships, but adds 45-deg roll and 10-deg
pitch requirements. For submarines, reference [18]
imposes a requirement of 30-deg trim, 15-deg list, 60deg
roll, and l0deg pitch.
3.2 Syslem Types. The lubrication system selection
is determined in part by the prime mover selected and,
in part, by the layout of the machinery space. The
systems for diesels and gas turbines have been covered
in the chapters dealing with these prime movers and will
786
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 3
CONTAMINANT
,-----AIR-?
Temperature, deg F
70
140
Contaminant
density lb/cu. in. 0.000043 0.000038
Contaminant
Diameter
mlcron8 mib
Rising Velocity, ips
BEARINGS AND 'LUBRICATION
-- --
Contaminant Settling Rates in Turbine Oil
--
WATER
70
140
0.03603
SAND
70
140
0.03552
0.094
-.
0.094
sf temperature is recognized in reference [28] by recom- the emergency generator is started automnticnlly niid
IRONOXIDE7,-IRON,
70
140
70
140
0.206
0.206
0.2M
0.284
1.3wk
2.lhr
1.3 m
0.8sec
2.4mo
17.5hr
10.5 m
6 sec
0.9wk
1.5hr
53 sec
0 . 5 sec
Settling Velocitv. ~ D S
Contaminant
Diameter
mlcrons mils T Time to Rise 12 in. -,
,
2
0.08
19 mo
1 . 7 m o 157mo
11.2mo
9.8mo
20
0.80
5.7 d
12 hr
1.6mo
3.4d
3.0d
200
8.0
1 . 4 hr
7.3m
11.4 hr , 4 9 m
43m
2000 80.0
49 sec
4 sec
411 sec
29 sec
26 sec
mo = months; wk = weeks; d = days; m = minutes; sec = seconds
fi
reserve supply of oil. The high-head version is designed

to provide full flow a t rated pressure for four minutes.
The low-head system supplies oil for the same period
but at a reduced pressure.
The various types of lubricating systems have most of
the functional elements in common. The recommendations on their design, location, and capacity are
virtually the same. Oil is supplied to the ship through a
fill line to the storage or settling tank, run by navitv to
the main lubricating-oil sum6
up iy
suction, and discharged through filters and lubricatingoil coolers to the head tanks or to the bearings, depending
on the specific system in use.
3.3 Tanks. The design of storage, settling, sump,
and head tanks is largelv based on the same desim
criteria. The material recommended for use is restricted
to clean steel plate. Nonferrous metals have catalytic
effects on the oil which tend to promote oxidation.
Many coatings have been attempted for the interior
of oil tanks; however, the lack of total success and the
high hazard associated with coating failure have led to
the recommendation that interior coatings not be used.
Tank inlets should be arranged to prevent the introduction of air below the surface by the impingement of
oil jets on the surface. At the same time, it is of substantial benefit to introduce oil as near the free surface as
possible to minimize the distance that the air entrained
in the oil must rise to reach the surface and be released.
Suction intakes in lubricating-oil tanks should be maintained a minimum of 10 in. above the tank bottom to
avoid picking up solid contaminants from the bottom.
The distance from the inlet to the outlet should be
arranged to maximize the distance traveled by the oil in
passing through the tank. The greater the transit
time, the more the particulate matter will settle out; in
order to increase the transit time of the oil, baffles are
sometimes provided in tanks to good advantage.
--
Time to Settle 12 in.

4
0.8mo
5.9hr
3.6 m
2 sec
3.5mo
1.ld
15.2m
9 sec
Guidance with regard to the necessary transit time (or

settling time) of an oil in a tank can be obtained by
investigating tbe terminal settling (or rising) velocity of
the anticipated contaminants. Stokes showed that the
viscous resistance, f, of a small sphere of radius 1.traveling
through a fluid, gas or liquid, of viscosity p with a
velocity u was given by the equation
6?rrpu
For a sphere acting under the force of gravity, the

gravitational force is (4/3)?rr3(w - w') where w is the
weight density of the sphere, and w' is the weight density
of the fluid. At the terminal velocity, the gravity and
viscous forces are equal; therefore,
(4/3)?rr3(w - w') = 61rrpu
and thue
U =
2r2(w - w')
9~
(10)
where
u = terminal velocity of sphere, ips
r = sphere radius, in.
w = sphere weight density, 1b/cu in.
w' = liquid weight density, ib/cu in.
p = liquid viscosity, lb-sec/sq in.
Table 3 gives the settling rates of the more common
contaminants in turbine oil which is presumed to have a
viscosity of 47 microreyns at 70 F and 4 microreyns at
140 F with a specific gravity of 0.9 at 60 F. The tablo
shows clearly that any chemical agent capable of increasing the size of foreign particles can accelerate
corltaminant removal; chemical agents are the responsibility of the oil supplier.
No very exhaustive treatment of tank desigp is
recognized as being authoritative. The favorable effect
1
I
mording the provinion of heaters in settling tanks.

Houters arc dso suggested for sumps but only for heating
tho oil to a temperature near that of operation. Referonce [20] contains some explicit warnings on the danger
of heating coils with an excessive surface temperature.
hmaximum surface temperature of 250P isrecommended
with a flow rate of 2-3 fps. If steam is used for heating,
the pressure should not exceed 5 psig. Electric heater
limitations of 12 watts per square inch for moving
l y ~ t e mor
s 6 watts per square inch for static systems are
recommended.
Tanks must be provided with adequately sized vent
lines and overflows. Vents must be so located that
direct impingement of cold air on the vents is avoided;
otherwise, the breathing of the tanks under normal
operation may bring moist warm air into contact with
the cold metal and result in condensation and rusting.
Cure should also be taken to prevent the possibly
combustible vapor in the vent lines from coming into
contact with hot surfaces. The safe handling of the
overflow should be considered for each tank. Every
taxik should be provided with a drain system, preferably
from a well at the lowest point of a sloping bottom. A
oonnection to the oil purifying system should be located
to take suction above the top of the well. Oil drained
from the well is normally waste oil, too heavily contaminated to be cleaned with a reasonable effort.
Tanks should be designed with the necessity of initially
cleaning the lubricating oil system and the possibility of
subsequent cleaning taken into account. Baffles, dams,
t~ndthe like will always make cleaning more difficult but
good design practice can relieve this difficulty to some
extent.
Tank capacity is based on the maximum oil requirement per unit time, and on the minimum allowable
residence time in oil return lines and tanks. The oil
defoaming requirement exerts considerable influence on
the desired ratio of tank capacity to3flow rate. Head
tanks in gravity systems are specified to have fourminutes capacity by reference [19]. Sump tanks must
be able to accept at least one overhead tank, in gravity
systems. Military ships with pressure systems may use
sump tanks having as little as one-minute flow capacity.
Storage and settling tanks should be designed to accept
a complete oil change.
3.4 Pumps. Lubricating-oil pumps may be of either
the positive-displacement or centrifugal types. Reference 11'71 requires two pumps, each capable of meeting
the full system requirement. Reference [19] recommends that each pump have a capacity equal to 125
percent of the full flow requirement for the system. The
use of different types of drives for the two pumps is
preferred; if the primary pump or its power source fails,
then the resulting low discharge pressure brings the idle
pump on the line. However, this arrangemknt is not
common in commercial practice. I n commercial practice, both drives are usually electric and come off the
emergency switchboard. If the main generator fails,
provides continuity of electric power. Pumps driven

by shaft takeoff gearing (usually from the reductioli
gears) have been used and are satisfactory if properly
applied. I t should be apparent, however, that meeting
the oil requirement at very low speeds and at jacking
speeds with a ~haft~drive?pump is not practical.
Auxiliary motor-driven pumps are installed for lowvspeed and turning-gear operation.
Check valve+'inust be provided on pump suctions to
prevent pumping through the standby pump to thesump.
Pump isolating valves should be provided to permit
underway repair of either pump.
3.5 Strainers. Duplex lubricating-oil strainers are
customarily installed after the pump discharge. These
strainers, equipped with 80- to 100-mesh screens, are
capable of passing 150-micron particles [19]. I t should
be noted that 150 microns equals 0.006 in., a much larger
size than the designed minimum film thickness in marine
bearings at the lower speeds of operation. Finer
filtration imposes severe penalties in the form of much
larger filters and higher pressure drops across the filter.
The lubricating oil is provided with its fine filtration by
means of a bypass cycle to the purifier system. That
portion of the oil used for turbine speed control may be
given supplementary filtration. This higher degree of
filtration is restricted to the much smaller quantity of
control oil.
Strainers should be provided with pressure-drop
indicators to provide warning of the necessity for cleaning
the strainers. Various recommendations have been
made for an allowable change in pressure drop across a
strainer before shifting and cleaning. "Any noticeable
increase, " "5-psi increase, " and "25-percent increase
over normal" have been recommended. I n a constanthead system, the pressure increase across the strainer
represents a reduction of oil flow and the allowable
increase should be related to the system pressure drop.
Where head tanks are employed, the allowable pressure
drop should be less than that required to overflow the
head tank. I n a pressure system, the pressure drop
should be less than that required to produce a low-oilpressure alarm at the most remote bearing. Where positivedisplacement pumps are employed, the allowable
pressure drop is more dependent upon the effects of overpressure don the filter medium. The strainer collapse
pressure is an undesirably high limit since strainer openings are enlarged by pressure, ~frmittinglarger particles
to pass. Allowable pressure hmits should be selected
that will not endanger the balance of the lubrication
'.
Te
system.
Strainer shifting valves should be so arranged that
there will be no flow interruption when shifting strainers.
Valves should be provided to vent and drain each section
of the strainer. Each strainer compartment should be
provided with a removable bar magnet system to collect
iron s articles in the strainer. Regular observation of
the strainer basket and magnets can provide one of the
earliest waxnings of trouble in the system.
788
MARINE ENGINEERING
Coolers are provided to remove heat header, some means must be provided to prevent oil
from the oil; normally seawater is the cooling medium. starvation of any single point either as the result of
The cooler is designed to cool the oil a t full-power excessive design clearance or a bearing casualty allowing
operation and at maximum seawater temperature and excessive oil flow to occur. The details of orifice design
maximum tube fouling. Single-screw ships are recom- are thoroughly covered in reference [29]. Virtually all
mended to have two coolers and multiple-screw ships of the precautions cited as being significant in tho
should have one cooler per shaft. Two separate means application of orifices as measuring devices are applicable
of circulating water through the coolers are required to their use as flow controls.
by reference [17]. Drains, vents, and isolating valves
Generally, the pump capacity is about 25 percent in
are needed in both the oil and watersides of the coolers to excess of the bearing requirements to allow for changes in
permit cleaning, leak detection, and repair.
flow and other contingencies. In systems pressurized
The coolers are usually operated on a bypass with by a pump, the pressure in the system is controlled by
sufficient oil being passed through the cooler to maintain recirculating the oil flow excess back to the sump through
the oil supply temperature within the design range. The a back-pressure control valve. This bacl+pressurc
temperature-regulating valves should be arranged so that control valve is connected to the system downstream of
the oil flow to the system cannot be shut off. Tempera- strainers and filters so that the system pressure a t the
ture monitoring should be provided a t the inlet and outlet bearings is maintained at the desired pressure irrespectiuc
of the oil cooler. Provisions should be made for supply- of strainer and lube-oil-cooler pressure drops. An excesing steam at 5-psi maximum to the waterside of the cooler sive pressure buildup at the pump is avoided by the usc
in order to heat lubricating or cleaning oil for initial or of a pressure relief valve a t the pump.
subsequent cleaning of the lubricating-oil system.
Suction piping for pumps should be sized to prevent
The oil pressure in the cooler should be maintained a t a cavitation at the pump inlet. The oil requirements of
higher pressure than the water pressure to minimize bearings increase rapidly at startup and this sudden
saltwater intrusion into the lubricating-oil system in the demand can upset the balance of the system.
Even
event a leak occurs. Corrosion protection to the water- positive-displacement pumps can temporarily disrupt
side of the cooler should be provided by the inclusion of a submerged suction supply a t startup if the suctiori
zincs or other electrolytic protection.
piping has been made too small. Pump suction piping
The allowance for pressure drop through both the and pump suctions should be submerged in oil to ensura
water and oil sides of the cooler must be established for that the pump will immediately take suction upon
the full range of design conditions. The water pressure startup. If the pump suction and piping cannot bo
drop should be established for clean and for maximum submerged in oil, an oil bleed from the oil header, that
allowable fouling conditions. Oilside losses must be is provided with a check valve, should be installed to
known to establish overall system pressure drops at the ensure that the suction piping is maintained full of oil a t
maximum and minimum operating oil temperatures. a pressure above atmospheric.
See Chapter 14 for additional discussion regarding
Drain piping is sized on a different basis than supply
coolers.
piping. Drain lines are designed to run only about
3.7 Piping and Valves. The lubricating-oil piping one-half full in order to help separate air from the oil.
system must be designed to deliver the required amount Booser and Smeaton [3] give the following formula for
of lubricant under all reasonable conditions with the the minimum slope of a drain line running half full.
minimum available head. In addition the piping should
be designed with the 6bjectives of providing some
separation of entrained air in the drain piping, simplifying
the initial cleaning and subsequent cleaning, preventing
the cracking of piping due to the vibration of unsupported where
lengths, and preventing inadvertent maloperation of the
s = slope of drain line, in./ft
system through errors in valve operation.
Q = oil flow, gpm
The objective of securing the required quantity of oil
r = oil kinematic viscosity, Centistokes
with the minimum head can only be obtained by the
d = pipe inside diameter, in.
most careful study of system pressure drops over the full
required operating range. Lubrication piping systems
3.8 Lubricating-Oil Purifler Subsystem. The lubriconsist of a number of series and parallel flows through cating-oil purifier subsystem employs the centrifugal
pipes of varying diameter and throttling valves that are force in the purifier to remove very small particles [tho
changed to meet the required conditions of operation. duplex strainer is expected to pass particles up to 150
The pressure-drop analysis starts from the pressure and
microns (0.006in.)] from the lubricating oil. The actual
flow required through each bearing and gear spray for particle size passing through a purifier depends on tho
the maximum speed conditions. Orifices are usually thickness, longitudinal velocity, and viscosity of the oil
provided to restrict flow to that needed at the machine layer containing the particle, the magnitude of the cenelement to be lubricated. Where a number of parallel trifugal force, and the mass difference between tho
points are to be supplied with lubricant from a single particle and the oil volume displaced.
3.6 Coolers.
789
A purifier capacity of a t least 10 percent per hour of head requirements and in elevation between the most
the in4ervice oil charge is recommended by reference remote bearing and other bearings in the system.
L
I
[21]. Operation a t reduced capacity will take out finer

pmticles than operation a t design values. Since the rate
of oil deterioration is much higher for turbogenerators
than for the main turbine, the purifier is arranged to
take suction and discharge to each of the main tanks and
auxiliary sumps in such a way that the possibility of cross
oontamination is virtually eliminated. Separate supply
8nd return connections are located on the tanks to
maximize the flow distance within the tank between
purified and dirty oil to prevent recycling of pursed oil.
The heaters must have the capacity of maintaining the
lubricating-oil inlet temperature to the purifier between
160 and 180 F when operating a t a normal rate. The
purifier oil heater requires the same precautions to limit
mrface temperatures as were noted for the main lubrioating oil heater.
3.9 Condition Monitoring. Condition monitoring of
a lubrication system provides information regarding the
functional status of the system components, the lubrioant, and the bearings serviced by the system. Information should be supplied a t a rate and in sufficient depth
that reliable performance is ensured. Since the condition of the lubrication system is essential to $he avail*
bility of the main propulsion plant, an indication of
aystem performance should be provided to the ships
oommand and control system. Where staf3ng is not a
problem, the report of the watch stander may provide
sufficient assurance to meet command needs. Where
the manning of the engineering space is reduced, an
increased depth and sophistication of the condition
monitoring input to the command and control system
are required.
In designing the condition monitoring system, there is
a basic selection of passive and active systems. Passive
systems present data for visual observation either a t the
point sensed or a t a remote point; recorded data (manual
or machine) belong in the class of passive systems.
Active systems compare the data to some limits and
provide an alarm or a change in operating conditions or
both in the event that the data exceed the specified
limits. Both passive and active systems may be
designed to either continuously monitor the data or
intermittently scan the data a t a prescribed rate; the
sampling rate is chosen to be compatible with the datahandling response rates.
Lubricating-oil pressures and temperatures are the
characteristics most widely monitored to obtain an
indication of eystem performance. By monitoring the
pressure at the most remote bearing, assurance is obtained
that the system head is being maintained; however, it is
recognized that the proper pressure a t the most remote
bearing does not necessarily ensure that oil is flowing to
all bearings. If the pressure a t the most remote bearing
drops below a preset limit, an alarm sounds and, in
addition, the low-pressure signal may start the standby
lubricating-oil pump.
Low-pressure alm settings
ahodd be made taking into &ccount the dieerence in
A pressure measurement a t each pump confirms pump

performance. Low pressure a t a pump may indicate an
excessive oil temperature, piping leakage, suction difficulties, or internal pump wear. An abnormally high pump
pressure may indicate a !ow oil temperature or an
obstruction downstream of the pump. A simultaneous
measurement of both oil pressure and temperature aids
greatly in defigng the true problem.
A measurement of the differential pressure across
strainers is used to monitor the increase of resistance as
deposits of dirt are built up, and such measurements
indicate the need to shift strainers. An excessive
pressure drop across the waterside of coolers usually
indicates excessive fouling and the need to clean the tubes
a t the eext convenience.
Positive assurance that oil is reaching a bearing is
~rovidedby the use of a sight-flow fitting, often called a
bubbler. The oil supply to the sight-flow fitting is taken
from the bearing discharge; through a g l window
~
in the
sight-flow fitting, the watch stander can observe the
stream of oil being discharged from the bearing. Where
the bubbler is fitted on top of a turbine or gear bearing it
is often necessary to bypass enough oil from the bearing
inlet to provide the head necessary to raise the oil to the
top of the bearing cap. Sight-flow fittings operating on
bypass oil indicate the excess of inlet oil over that being
discharged through a bearing. The flow is thus a
maximum when the bearing fipw is at its minimum and
decreases as the bearing flow increases. The requirement for sighting of the bubbler by the operator, the
absence of a quantitative relationship between the oil
flowing in the bearing and the flow in the sight flow, and
the absence of a remote alarm capability are other
disadvantages of this system. Sight-flow fittings are
frequently fitted with thermometers to provide an
indication of bearing discharge temperature.
Temperature is one, if not the best, condition indicator.
Temperatures are usually measured in the lubricating-oil
sump, a t the outlet of the oil cooler, and a t the discharge
of each bearing. Sudden changes in temperature usually
indicate a situation that requires investigation to ensure
that the cause will not result in system damage. Since
the success of a monitoring system depends to a large
degree on the amount of time provided to take corrective
action, the rate of response of the sensor is of critical
importance. The rate of response of a sensor can be
measured on the basis of the time to respond to a step
increase. The characteristic time of a sensor is defined
as the time required for %be sensor t o rise to 63 percent
of the amplitude of a step increase. In a period of three
times the characteristic time, the sensor will indicate
more than 95 percent of the true amplitude of the step
increase. Typical characteristic times are from milliseconds to seconds for thermocouples, from three to
ten seconds for resistance thermometer elements and
thermistors, and t n to thirty seconds for glass thermometem. Glass [herrnorneters amd many metal ther-
790
MARINE ENGINEERING
CHAPTER XXI
mometers are installed in thermometer wells that
greatly slow down their response.
Thermocouples
and resistance elements may be installed in the babbitt
layer of the bearing to shorten response by locating the
sensor close to the source of heat. Alarm points are set
about 25 deg F above the normal operating temperature
measured by the sensor during maximum-power operation.
There is no clearly optimum type of temperature
sensor. Thermocouples, resistance thermometer elements, thermistors, and glass and metal thermometers
have all been used as lubricating-oil temperature sensors.
Surface Profile on the Load Capacity of Thrust Bearings

with Centrally Pivoted Pads," Trans. ASME, vol. 77,
1955.
15 B. Sternlicht, J. C. Reid, and E. B. Arwas,
"Review of Propeller Shaft Thrust Bearings," ASNE
Journal, May. 1959.
16 A. J. H. Goodwin, "The Design of a Resonance
Changer to Overcome Excessive Axial Vibration of
Propeller Shafting," Trans. IME, vol. 72, 1960.
17 Rules for Building and C l a s h Steel Vessele,
18 "Turbines, Steam, Propulsion, Naval Shipboard, "
Military
Specification MIL-T-17600.
References
19 "Recommended Practices for the Design of Marine
1 Dudley D. Fuller, Theory and Practice of Lubri- Propulsion Turbine Lubricating Systems, " Joint ASTMcationfor Engineers, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, NEMA-ASME Committee on Turbine Lubrication,
1956.
ASME Standard 111, New York, ASME, 1960.
2 0. Pinkus and B. Sternlicht, Theory of Hydro20 "ASTM-ASME Recommended Practices for the
dynamic Lubrication, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, Flushing and Cleaning of Marine Propulsion Turbine
1961.
Lubricating Systems, " Joint ASTM-ASME-NEMA
3 Standard Handbook of Lubrication Engineememng,Committee on Turbine Lubricating Systems, ASME
J. J. O'Connor and John Boyd eds., McGraw-Hill Book Standard 113, New York, ASME, 1964.
Co., New York, 1968.
21 "Recommended Practices for the Purification of
4 Proceedings International Symposium on Lubri- Marine Propulsion Turbine Lubricating Oil," ASME
cation and Wear, D. Muster and B. Sternlicht eds., Standard 114, New York, ASME, 1964.
University of Houston, 1965.
22 "Recommended Practice for the Design, Opera5 H. C. Rippel, Cast Bronze Hydrostatic Bearing tion, and Maintenance of Marine Auxiliary Machinery
Design Manual, second edition, Cleveland, Cast Bronze Lubricating Systems," ASME Standard 115, New York,
Bearing Institute, 1965.
ASME, 1968.
6 D. F. Wilcock and E. R. Booser, Bearing Design
23 "Recommended Practices for the Design of Steam
and Application, McGraw-Hill Book CO., ~ e ~wo i k , Turbine Generator Oil Systems," ASME Standard 116,
1957.
New York, ASME, 1968.
7 H. F. P. Purdy, StreamlineFlow, Constable & Co.,
24 "Recommended Practices for the Cleaning of
London, 1949.
Steam Turbine Generator Oil Systems," ASME Standard
8 Mayo D. Hersey, Theory and Research in Lubri- 117, New York, ASME, 1968.
cation, John Wiley and Som, Inc., New York, 1966.
25 "Recommended Practices for the Purification of
9 H. C. Rippel, Cast Bronze Bearing Design Manual, Steam Turbine Generator Oil," ASME Standard 118,
Cast Bronze Bearing Institute, Cleveland, 1965.
New York, ASME, 1968.
10 H. C. Rippel, Cast Bronze Thrust Beaping Design
26 "Recommended Practices for the Flushing and
Manual, Cast Bronze Bearing Institute, Cleveland, 1967. Cleaning of Marine Auxiliary Machinery Lubricating
11 A. G. M. Mitchell, Lubrication: Its Principles and Systems," ASME Standard 119, New York, ASME,
Practice, Blakie, London, 1950.
1968.
12 B. L. Newkirk and L. P. Grobel, "Oil Film Whirl
27 "Marine Machinery Lubrication, " The Texas
-A Non-Whirling Bearing," Trans. ASME, vol. 56, Company, 1959.
1934.
28 J. B. Poole and D. Doyle, Solid-Liquid Separation,
13 0. Pinkus, "Solution of ~a~ered-p and Sector Ministry of Technology, Her Majesty's Stationary
Thrust Bearing," ASME Paper 57-A-152, December Office, London, 1966.
1957.
29 Fluid Metere, ASME Research Committee on
14 A. Raimondi and J. Boyd, "The Influence of Fluid Meters, ASME, New York, 1959.
i
W. 0. Nichols
1 Automation
Section 1
Auton~alior~Systenls
1.1 Introduction. Controls are defined as those
variously designed devices provided to direct, govern,
or influence the operation of machines. The control device is therefore the interconnection between man and
the machine. The interface between man and the control/machine complex is the point where man exercises
the commanding direction or influence upon the maohine's activities. The progress of technical achievements has permitted this interface to become more and
more remote from the basic machine. Control systems
have increased in complexity and extent to the point
where they are recognized under a separate broad cat*
pry termed "automation."
In the broad sense the "automation packageu on a
vesseL consists of all controls that are installed regardless of whether they are for propulsion, cargo handling,
navigational control, et al. In this case the entire ship
is the control/machine complex and the degree of automation depends upon the extent to which human judgment and effort are used in the control process. For the
aake of simplicity, the ship may be subdivided into its
various functional systems; however, it is important to
retain recognition that each system is a part of the total
complex and its relation to the whole must be considered
if the degree of automation applied is to be effective.
To be effective the applied automation must accomplish a worthwhile objective. It is common to
think that reduction of operating personnel is the prime
objective of automation. Actually this is only one of
the many possible purposes for automation. Operability is another. Some functions could not be acwmplished without it; a good example is the control of
an electric generating set. Automation may also provide increased efficiency and safety. All of these factors
ultimately affect overall operating costs; so, as in the
case for so many endeavors, economics becomes the
primary motive force directing the desire and controlling
the extent of automation.
The determination of the functions to be accomplished
through automation and the coordination of subsystem
control into a total system concept is the work of the
marine engineer. He must provide the lcnowledge
peculiar to the marine environment, establish the basic
design parameters, and exercise the selective action (both
technical and economic) that will serve to produce the
practical installation desired. In these days when
/'
technical capability provides little or no restriction, the

selective function takes on paramount importance if
"overdesign," excessive cost, and undue complication are
to be avoided. Reliability and maintainability are essential determinations in the evaluating process.
The overall success of an automated system or plant
depends on more than merely the control system itself.
The substitution of mechanization for the manual function can be accomplished through several approaches.
In one approach, the function may be eliminated through
component or system design; this means simplification
and with simplification increased reliability usually
follows. Alternatively, the frequency of the manual
function may be reduced to the point where the usage of
mahpower is not objectionable, thus again eliminating the
need for automatic controls. The provision of automated
features should proceed after consideration has been
given to the preceding approaches. In summary, control system design cannot be divorced from overall
system or plant design.
For the accomplishment of a specific task, the knowledge of the marine engineer should overlap that of the
control designer and supplier. It is essential that a
common ground of understanding exist between the
two ~ a r t i e sconcerning desired functions, operational
demands, machine limitations and performance characteristics and control characteristics. This is desirable
whether the control is a simple automatic valve or a
complex subsystem.
1.2 Control System Types. A control system is a
system which measures the condition of some entity
and, with this information, governs the state of a variable; i.e., speed, temperature pressure, position, etc.
Control eystems may be classified by four major characteristics:
1 System configuration (open or closed loop)
2 Type of operation (manual or automatic)
3 Type of copmand,input (constant or variable)
Type of primary control medium @neumatic,
electronic, etc.)
The open-loop system is the simplest form a control
system may assume. It is distinguished from the closedloop system by the lack of an input which measures the
state of the controlled variable; such an input is called,
a feedback.
79 1
792
MARINE ENGINEERING
CONDENSATE PUMP
CONDENSER
FLUID OUTPUT AT
DESIRED TEMPERATURE
FLUIW
TEMPERATURE
SENSOR
FEED BACK (1 AND 5 )

CAPILLARY TUBE
HEATED FLUID
CONTROL-LED
VARIABLE
HEATING
MEDIUM
ERROR SIGNAL(3)
DIAPHRAGM POSITION
HEAT
EXCHANGER
Fig. 1
VALVE ACTUATING
MECHANlSM(4)
(STEM)
Diagram of open-loop system
\HEATING MEDIUM
L CONTROL
:."i."T
FLUID
VALVE
Figure 1 is a diagram of an open-loop concept. It deFig. 2 Diagram of closed-loop control system

picts a feedwater control system that was popular in the
days when Scotch boilers were used. The flow of water
to the boiler was controlled bv adjustine the volume
output of the feed pump in reiatioh to ;he change in
The diagram of a simple temperature regulating dewater level in the feed tank. A rise in the tank water vice shown in Fig. 2 illustrates the closed-loop concept.
level was an indication of a greater condensate return
In this example, function 1is accomplished by the sensor
and therefore also indicated a higher steam and feed(thermostatic element) in the heat exchanger discharge
water demand. The float-actuated feed pump control
varying
the force on a diaphragm through the capillary
utilized this input information to increase pump speed
tube. The command input, function 2, is introduced as a
and thus compensate for the increased steam demand. spring position transmitting a force to the opposite side
Although the prime controlled variable was the drum
water level, this information was not fed back to the of the diaphragm. If these two forces are equal (zero
error) the system is in equilibrium and no motion is imcontrol system. The system worked satisfactorily beparted to the valve. However, if the sensor detects a
cause the ratio of water volume in the boiler to feed flow change in temperature, the pressure in the diaphragm
was high.
chamber will also change. This difference is the error
The open-loop system can be made to work effectively
signal, function 3. This signal is transmitted to the
provided it is properly applied. The controlled equip- valve through the stem, adjusting the flow of the heating
ment must be such that its inherent characteristics promedium as required, function 4. The effected change is
vide the balance needed to maintain operation within
sensed at the exchanger discharge, function 5, and thus
-acceptable limits. In the modern ship the open-loop
the loop has been closed.
system has practically disappeared. Generally, modern
The described system operates automatically; howmachinery requires that the controlled variable be mainever, a system does not have to be automatic in its oper*
tained at a tolerance closer than that possible with an
tion to be classified as a closed-loop system. A manually
open-loop system.
operated valve and thermometer could serve the same
In contrast to the open-loop system, the closed-loop
fundamental purpose. Here man provides the logic
system works directly with the controlled variable.
mechanism to make the comparison between actual and
The basic functions performed 'by a closed-loop system
desired conditions as well as the force to activate the
are:
valve. Thus it can be seen that the term "closed-loop
system" designates a broad category that can be further
1 Detect actual condition
2 Provide reference for desired condition (command divided into manual and automatic systems.
A manual system is .distinguished by the fact that the
input)
3 Compare actual and desired condition (error signal) control action (output) is obtained only when man
4 Activate control mechanism to reduce error (out- recognizes a deviation from the desired condition and
activates the control mechanism. The system being
put)
dependent on man is therefore subject to his limitations.
5 Detect effect of control action (feedback)
The degree of control obtained depends upon the individual's ability to recognize and respond to off-normal
oonditions as detected by the instrumentation. Man's
ability to sense and respond to a change is generally
poor, therefore system stability should be high and response to a change in output should be slow in order for
manual operation to be effective. Man is not constituted
to be continuously on the alert; this factor further limits
the effectiveness of manual operation. Manual control
can be applied only where the demand for control action
occurs at a low frequency when considered over an extended time frame. There is no physical limitation regarding the relative location of the command input and
aontrolled variable since various mechanisms can be used
to provide motion and instrumentation from any distance. These remote manually operated mechanisms are
an integral part of the "automation package"; the
~ystemelements do not have to be "automatic" to be a
part of the automation package.
Examples of manual control systems in marine use are
ehip's steering (nonautomatic), bridge and engine room
throttle controls (positioning type), and fuel-oil tank
filling and transfer systems. In many cases manual
systems fulfill an important need in that they are inatalled to provide redundancy for automatic systems.
Automatic systems, as the term implies, are those
which function without manual action. Of course, man
must set the desired command input and initially
activate the system. The system must do the same
things that the man would do if it were a manual system.
However, since control devices can respond more rapidly,
with greater consistency, and without fatigue, they have
a great advantage over the manual system. Automatic
Bystems are required where one or more of the following
conditions exist :
1 Rapid and/or precise response is essential.
2 Continuous surveillance is required.
3 Manpower is qot available t,o serve the function.
Examples of automatic systems in common use in
marine applications are boiler combustiop and feed
regulation, steering by gyro pilot, electric generator
frequency and voltage controls, and the many varied
fluid flow regulating devices for controlling temperature,
pressure, levels, etc.
Systems that attempt to maintain the controlled
variable qt a substantially constant value (constant
command input) are defined as regulating systems. The
temperature regulator shown in Fig. 2 is such a system.
In this type of system, the controlled variable will
deviate from the command input (set point) us the demand changes across the operating range. This comes
about by the fact that the control mechanism is activated
by an error signal. Since t,he set point remains constant
the error signal will vary in direct proportion to a change
in the controlled variable. I t follows that although the
set point remains constant, the controlled variable will
deviate from this set point in direct proportion to the
demand (i.e., an error must exist in order for there to
be a response). This deviation from the set point

across the operating range is called the proportional band.
Some controls have a means for adjusting this proportional band. Control stability is affected by the
band; if it becomes too narrow (large change in error
signal for a small change in demand), hunting may occur.
On the other hand, if ,it is too narrow (small change in
error signal for a large chaLge in demand), adequate
control may not be provided. The actual deviation
from the set p e t can be reduced through the use of
relays where #the output signal can be amplified and
varied proportionately to the input.
Where the command input is a variable and a corresponding proportionate change in the controlled
variable is desired, positioner systems are used. As in
the regulator system, a feedback supplies the comparison
to obtain an error signal. However, in this case, the
mechanism is caused to be motivated until the error
signal is reduced to zero. The ship's steering gear is a
classic example of the positioner type system. The
variable input is introduced through the steering wheel
or gyro pilot, and the rudder position is fed back to the
operating mechanism. The difference between the two
signals is the error and the steering gear turns the rudder
until this error signal is cancelled.
The fourth classification (type ~f primary control
medium) reflects the type of hardware involved. This
classification is perhaps the one most commonly employed; the terms mechanical, pneumatic, electric,
electronic, hydraulic, etc. are"prevalent1y used. Each
of these types of systems has its advantages and disadvantages and there is a degree of overlap between the
various system types. This usually results in the necessity for compromise when the system evaluation and
seleation are made.
The transmission of motion is required in almost
every control system and, provided the distance is
limited, the mechanical mechanism has an advantage.
It is simple, direct, and precise provided backlash is
minimized. Transmission of motion over an extended
distance introduces the problem of hysteresis-type distortion from bending or torsional deflections. The
centrifugal (fly ball) governor with direct operation of
a steam valve as shown in Fig. 45 of Chapter 5 is perhaps one of the best examples of a purely mechanical
control system. Most control systems have some
mechanical action even though the primary control
medium is of a different nature.
Pneumatic systems are used extensively for fluid flow
control. They permit a higher degree of freedom in the
location of input and outpw-t than the direct mechanical
system. One important advantage is the ability to store
the energy in tanks to permit continued control action
through temporary power losses. The ability to exhaust
the used air directly into the ambient space allows simplification relative to other fluids.
Pneumatic systems do, however, have disadvantages.
There is a practical limitation in the power output
available and transmission losses must be considered
MARINE ElMGINEERING
where extended distances are involved. The compression

of large volumes of air a t high pressures involves high
energy input and costly equipment. For this reason
(and also to permit transmission through relatively
simple low-pressure tubing) 125 psig is the maximum
control air design pressure recommended. The use of
air also presents other problems; it must be properly
treated since dirt, oil, and moisture are detrimental to
control action. The use of pneumatic equipment in
the weather and unheated areas is generally avoided due
to the potential problem of freezing moisture.
The electrical and electronic fields are closely related;
as a matter of fact, the division between the two is quite
often not easily established. These two fields combine
to provide the greatest range of application both in control and information systems. The degree of sophistication possible defies the imagination; however, it also
often leads to a system that is in excess of that actually
required to accomplish the desired task. For example,
an off-limit condition may be alarmed simply by a relayoperated bell responding to the closing of a contact. On
the other hand the condition may be sensed by a voltage
variation and converted electronically to sound the bell,
display the value digitally, print it out by teleprinter,
introduce it to a computer to initiate corrective action or
store it for future reference. There would obviouslv be
a considerably disparity between the cost of the foimer
and latter.
Advantages provided by electrical/electronic systems
include the capability of long-distance transmission and
adequate "muscle" for most control operations. The
components are small and a great deal can be accomplished within a limited space. A high degree of precision
is possible if demanded by the application.
Electrical/electronic systems also have disadvantages
however. It is generally essential to protect electronic
components from voltage surges (spikes) that are likely
to occur in most ship electrical supply systems. Additionally, some care must be taken to ensure that
electrical and electronic parts are in a proper environment, particularly from a heat and humidity standpoint.
This is especially important in th'at the loss of electrical
power results in an immediate loss of control. The
system design must recognize this disadvantage and react
to maintain a safe condition. The application of batteries to store potential energy for such an occasion is
limited in practicality. Furthermore, experience has
shown that- systems containing storage batteries are
prone to be neglected for extended periods as a result of
their infrequent use, and consequently when required to
perform, they are incapable of doing so. The repair and
maintenance of electrical and electronic systems usually
requires special skills not always found in operating
engineers; however, the "plug-in-replacement" component concept has proven to be an effective means of
alleviating this problem.
Hydraulic systems may be used to both control and
power a system. This is perhaps a primary advantage of
hydraulic systems. Hydraulic fluid can be used where
AUTOM
the explosion hazards of electrical equipment or the

moisture problems of penumatic systems preclude their
use. In general, hydraulic equipment requires a degree
of system cleanliness that is in excess of that required for
the majority of shipboard systems. The pressures involved are usually high and therefore the components are
of heavy construction and require a high level of inspection and test.
1.3 Control System Design. The design of a system and its components to perform a specified control
function is a specialized field. The problems involved
are peculiar to each type of system and to the particular
purpose it serves. The field is broad and much has been
written concerning the design fundamentals and procedures involved. For these reasons, the following discussion is confined to the considerationswhich the marine
engineer must entertain when applying control systems.
The marine engineer must recognize that the systems
are dynamic in nature and subject to analysis through
application of the laws of motion. A'lathematical models
can be developed to approximate control system operation and predict response, stability, etc.; the mathe
matics involved parallels that, associated with other
motion studies such as vibrations. Differential equations, set up to represent the motion, may be solved
generally through the use of transforms. A detailed
treatment of the various analytical techniques involved
is contained in texts such as reference [I].' For a comprehensive treatment of the terminology used with automatic control systems, see reference [2].
The marine engineer must specify the system environment, characteristics of the controlled machine, and tho
desired response. Tabulated below are representative
particulars that should be specified.
System Environment
1 Operator (crew) capability for operation, maintenance and repair activities.
2 Operator (crew) availability (number, location,
duties).
3 Ambient conditions (temperature, humidity, cleanliness, corrosion and explosion hazards, etc.).
4 Relative location of control system components.
System (Machine) Characteristics
1 Interrelationship of controlled events.
(a) dependent and independent operations (safety
2
interlocks, etc.)
(b) requirement for logic sequencing
(c) requirement for computed outputs
2 Characteristics of controlled variable.
(a) number and characteristics of inputs
(b) system response (time factors, stability, etc.)
(c) permissible deviation from ideal conditions (pregsure, temperature, force limitations, etc.)
3 Effect of failurc.
Numbers in brackets designate Refererices at end of chapter.
Desired Response
1 Operator participation.
(a) manual or adtomatic
(b) performance monitoring
2 Control reliability. .
(a) redundancy
(b) test facilities
(c) effect of failure
3 Number and characteristics of outputs.
1.4 Information Systems. Automation not only
oonsists of control systems but also includes information
nystems which serve the parallel function of monitoring
rystem or plant performance. The monitoring function
may serve a number of purposes; specifically it may
1 Indicate values of controlled variables to guide
remote manual control operations.
2 Indicate values of controlled variables under automatic control.
3 Warn of off-limit conditions.
4 Warn of incorrect operating set up.
5 Provide information for trouble-shooting.
6 Provide record of performance.
The instruments required to guide remote control
operations should be of the continuous reading type in
order that response may be immediately recognized.
Instruments which reflect long-term trends (recording
units) are not generally suitable for manual control.
Where automatic control is involved, a continuous
display may not be required; however, in many cases a
redundant manual control is provided which may require limited continuous display. In this case a visual
and audible alarm may be provided to warn of off-limit
conditions and, associated with this, an instrument which
will provide the value of the controlled variable upon
demand. The latter is normally arranged to indicate a
number of different variables through selective switching
arrangements.
The warning of off-limit conditions or an incorrect
operating setup is normally announced by both visual and
audible means. The visual signal is usually a flashing
light which converts to a steady light when the alarm is
acknowledged by the engineer. This acknowledgment
also serves to cancel the audible signal. There are two
ways in which the results of corrective action may be
handled. With one method, the indication of an offlimit conditioli automatically cancels when the condition
returns to normal; alternatively, the indication may be
designed to persist until the fault is both cleared and
recognized by the operator. Note that the latter may
require two actions on the part of the engineer: one to
acknowledge that the fault exists and silence the audible
signal; and another to cancel the indication after corrective action has been taken. The question of which
method to apply is somewhat controversial and its
selection depends largely on the personal opinion of the
operator and the manning a t the control station.
The indication of an alarm condition serves to direct
operating personnel to the problem area but does not
serve further in the trouble-shooting action. Corrective

action must be accomplished through analysis of the instrument indication and visual inspection by the operator
in the normal manner. However, where the control
station is unmanned, assistance can be given by recording
the off-limit condition or conditions and the s quence of
their occurrence.
An information system should be arranged, where
practicable, to be self-monitoring. This requires that a
failure in the syatem produce readily recognizable results.
In the case *here alarms are involved, this is generally
accomplished by sounding an alarm.
Recorded performance conditions may be presented
either by digital or analog display. ,Where the recording
instrument serves a number of varied inputs, it is referred to as a data logger; where only a few inputs are
involved it may be called a recorder. The digital display
must, by its nature, be intermittent and record either on
an automatic time cycle or upon specific demand. The
recorded information is the instantaneous value at the
time of recording; and operating trends must be obtained
by an evaluation of a series of readings. The analog
instrument provides a continuous graphical display and
therefore variations in the controlled variable are more
easily detected. However, under relatively steady-state
conditions they may have the disadvantage of excessive
paper usage, in which event the recorded data may have
limited value. As noted in the foregoing, neither of these
two types' of instruments is generally suited to provide
information for direct contro,l.,-The manner employed to present the information to
the operating personnel is an important consideration in
automation. The reduction of personnel associated with
automation generally means that the plant or system is
operated by no more than one or two individuals. It is
therefore necessary to centralize the information and remote controls a t a single location.
The location of the control center will depend upon the
manning arrangement and type and layout of the system
(propulsion, liquid cargo handling, etc.). If the center
is to be normally unattended during operation, it is
desirable that it be in a location that is readily accessible
since, except for routine checks, attendance will only
occur under off-limit conditions. I t is also desirable that
where possible the center be adjacent to the controlled
machinery to permit direct surveillance. Direct surveillance is, of course, also desirable if the center is to be
manned during operation. It is generally recognized
that direct observation is desirable where certain hazards,
such as fire, exist. The fiying aisle in a steam power plant
or the deck of a tanker foT cargo control are eximplea of
cases in which visibility is desirable.
The design of a control center should follow the principles of human engineering [3-51. These principles define
the criteria essential to establish the environmental conditions under which man will function most efficiently
and consistently. Those conditions which serve to keep
him alert, such as freedom from excessive vibration.
proper illumination, low noise level, and good ventilation,
MARINE ENGINEERING
Fig. 3
AUTOMATION
Fig. 4
Vessel 0--control center console
are prime requisites. Without these conditions fatigue

soon takes over, resulting in deterioration of the decisionmaking capability which is the one major function man
can provide in a manner superior to the machine.
Man normally utilizes all the senses of sight, feel,
smell, and sound to evaluate the performance of machinery. When he is removed from direct use of these
senses, substitutions may be necessary. For example,
where control stations are remote from the operating
machinery, devices sensitive to rate of temperature rise
or excessive vibration may be required to assist in the
evaluation of the operating condition.
Information. presentation should provide a logical
display and permit rapid assessment of the operating
condition. Sectionalizing and subsystem grouping are
important. Continuously displayed performance information can best be surveyed when mounted on a
vertical surface; this permits a general assessment of the
situation to be made from a position some distance from
the board. Remote control actuators may be located on
Vessel 0-mimic
display
a sloping surface since, here, a specific rather than overall

view is required. Control-actuating devices performing
similar functions should operate in the same manner;
they should also be readily distinguishable from purely
indicating devices. Rapid assessment of operating
conditions can be assisted if the instruments are arranged
to form a specific pattern under normal conditions (e.g.,
lights form a straight line, pointers are all in the same
general direction). Instrumentation may also be arranged in the form of a diagram (mimic) representing
the system. A mimic diagram is shown on a console in
Fig. 3 and is shown in detail in Fig. 4. This arrangement
requires more console space but is particularly advant*
geous in complex systems involving the transfer of fluids
from a variety of sources to a variety of discharges.
The presentation of the information should be aN
simple and logical as possible. The time required to
understand the control function should be minimized;
this is particularly important in the marine field whero
rapid crew turnover is sometimes the case.
Section 2
Applications
2.1 General. The techniques of automation can be
applied to almost any phase of ship operation. The
extent to which they are applied is a matter of judgment
primarily made by the owner/operator of the vessel.
The economic gain pbtained through manning reduction
and increased efficiency must be balanced against the factors of first costs, plant reliability, maintainability, and
operating costs. The solution is quite complex since
the factors of efficiency, reliability, and maintainability
are often difficult to assess and quantify.
This situation naturally leads to a wide variation in not,

only the extent of automation applied but also in tho
type of equipment used in automatic control systems.
All of the various systems and types of control and information components used are not discussed in t h i ~
chapter; instead, the discussion is limited to certain
examples of the shipboard systems which have been
automated and the general principles involved. The
propulsion plant is probably the system that has received
the greatest attention; also, the automation of the pro-
pulsion plant has had a major effect on ship operation.

However, cargo handling, mooring, food handling, fuel
transfer, and many other shipboard systems have been
automated to some degree and have also made a contribution to the reduction of the operating burden.
All ship installations have, to some extent, control and
information systems to assist their operation. Therefore
a good question is: "When does automation begin?"
Obviously it is a purely arbitrary point which may depend to some extent upon the installation in question.
If one were forced to establish such a point, one criterion
might be when the operation of a major component is
made sufficiently automatic to no longer require operating
personnel. Another might be when operating functions
are centralized. These two criteria seem to fit most installations; no doubt there are others that can be applied.
2.2 Regulatory Body Requirements. Many regulatory bodies associated with the marine field have
established recommendations for the midance of designers in develo~ingautomated installations 16-11].
~irthermore,the au6mation of a propulsion machinery
installation is sufficiently important for classification
societies to establish minimum reauirements for class
record and designation. Although ihe numerous bodies
have varied interests which to some extent are reflected in
their recommendations, the feature of safety appears to
be a common denominator. The safetv features encomand safety
pass the safety of the ship, safety of
of the property within the influence of the ship's presence.
Safety is approached in several different ways. Integrity of the control is perhaps one of the most important.
Reliability is stressed through good component design
and redundancy of vital elements to insure continuity of
the control function. The desirability for self-monitoring features in control and information systems and the
ability for rapid correction of faults are recommended
features.
I n view of the limited manpower on an automated
vessel. safetv considerations cannot be limited to the
controlled machinery alone. Fire detection is an important feature and the methods used, as well as the extent
of the system, vary depending upon the arrangement and
manning level. The detection methods available include sGtems which have sensors sensitive to smoke, rate
of temperature rise, and ionized particles. Each type
has its limitations, and location of the sensing element is
particularly important. In an installation intended to
operate under unattended watch, it may be necessary to
provide a detecting system which utilizes all three methods.
Another auxiliary system required for safety is flooding control. A high water level in ,the bilge may be
simply alarmed; or, the bilge pump may be arranged
for automatic operation. Of course the system can be
further sophisticated to w a n of excessive frequency or
extended periods of pump operation; however, such
refinements are not usually considered essential.
To insure that all systems are in working order and
properly maintained, test procedures are established and
periodic inspections are made. These further serve to

prevent unsafe operating conditions.
2.3 Steam Propulsion Plant. It has been generally
accepted that where the control and information systems
of a steam propulsion plant are sufficient to reduce the
watch standing personnel to two or less, the plant is to
some degree automated. Thus three levels of engine
room automation (two men, one man, and unattended)
are open to consideration. Only the general aspects of
these alternathe considerations can be discussed since
system detafls depend upon the specific plant/llesign, of
which there are many.
A reduction in manning is one of the objectives of
automation, and the degree of automation, is often expressed in terms of the number of watch standing personnel; however, the actual number of crew members
does not decrease in proportion to the number of watch
standers. As the number of watch standers decreases,
it may be emected that there will be an increase in the
numbkr of personnel assigned to daily tasks. The ultimate, of course, is the unattended watch where the crew is
on duty for an eight-hour period during the day. The
machinery space is unattended for the intervening sixteen hours; however, a licensed officer usually is assigned the responsibility of each "watch" and responds to
alarms which sound during his assigned period. The
daily workers' tasks become primarily that of mainte
nance rather than operation. It therefore becomes evident that automation not only affects the design of the
machinery but also the type of personnel and the underlying philosophy of the ship operational procedure.
As a general consideration, the propulsion plant control
system should be designed so that the engineer retains
responsibility for the satisfactory operation of the machinery and the watch officer on the bridge remains free
from machinery performance considerations. The complications involved in starting a cold plant have dictated
that the starting procedure be accomplished under direct
manual control with gradual transfer to the automatic
features.
First, consider the steam generating plant since its
automation is generally common to all three manning
levels. Control systems of the nonautomated plant
have included combustion controls, feedwater regulation,
and to some extent power-actuated soot blowers. Informatioh systems have been limited to water level indication and a set of direct-reading gages to indicate
steam, oil, and air/gas conditions. The major features
that have been added for the automated boiler are widerange burner capability, steam temperature control, and
safety shutdowns and albrins.
Wide-rahge burners are used with two major variations
in control concept. One system depends upon the vari*
tion in fuel flow only and all burners are in continuous
use. The other system involves the automatic lightingoff and securing of burners as well as utilizing the wide
range capability of the burners. The latter arrangement
provides for a wider range by reducing the minimum fuel
flow capability to that of one burner. It does, of course,
798
AUTOM
MARINE ENGINEERING
STATUS
INDICATION
READY
TO
START
procedure stops and sounds an alarm. Indication may

also be given that the failure to start was caused by low
oil pressure.
The gland seal control valve is likewise given a specific
time in which to open. If the position sensor faas to
detect an open valve in the allotted time, the sequence
stops and the alarm is sounded as in the case of low oil
pressure. If the sensor detects that the gland seal control valve is open, the sequence continues and the pump
suction valve is opened. In this case both position and
pressure are checked before the system is cleared for the
next and final step of opening the steam supply valve.
The described system is a relatively simple one; however, complexity is easily achieved if the desire for automatic operation is extended. In this case the system was
kept reasonably simple by requiring manual setup for
certain valves and power supplies, and the starting sequence was manually initiated. Where an unattended
watch is required, the additional feature of automatic
start-up of the standby unit in the event of operating
unit failure would be provided. Such a feature would
have to possess the ability to determine which of the
installed units will operate and which will serve as
standby.
For an unattended boiler, additional protective features are also required to monitor the critical conditions.
To substitute for the fireman's eye, each burner is
equipped with a flame detector. The detectors are sensitive to the ultraviolet emission from the flame and autornatically shut off the fuel in event of a flameout. The
condition is, of course, alarmed.
Off-normal water levels are also alarmed. If the level
gets below a safe limit, the flames are automatically
extinguished. A high level may cause damage to the
machinery by water carry-over into the steam lines;
therefore, protection may be provided' by shutting the
feed valve. In addition, closing the main throttle or
extinguishing the fires may prove beneficial by causing a
"shrinkJ' in the drum water level. 'Alarms may also be
provided for such off-normal conditions as low steam
pressure, high steam temperature, and low level in fueloil tanks.
The main propulsion turbine and gear unit on an
automated vessel will have the following features not
provided on a nonautomated vessel:
- VALVE ACTUATINO POWER I
MANUAL VALVE SET-UP

LOCAL CONTROL ON'REMOTE~
PUMP NOT RUNNlNQ 1
MASTER
AUXlLl ARY.
LUBE OIL
PUMP
LUBE OIL
SENSOR
Fig. 5 Logic diagram, boiler feed

pump remote start-up
POSITION SENSOR
PUMP RUNNINO
require additional control equipment to operate air

registers, control fluid flows, and provide ignition.
Either system is generally suitable for port conditions
because the minimum fuel range capability of the burners
is lower than that required under port standby conditions.
However, the continuous-use type may generate excess
steam during a transient reduction in power. To prevent
the safety valve from popping, a feature may be provided
to artificially increase steam demand by dumping steam
to the condenser.
To maintain satisfactory combustion throughout the
full range of fuel flow, refinements have been required in
the systems controlling both air flow and fuel flow. Inlet
vanes on forced-draft blowers have been supplemented
with discharge vane control and with automatic speed
changing to minimize excess air a t low flows. Fuelpump discharge pressure is programmed to maintain a
constant differential pressure across the flow-control
valve which permits good control characteristics even a t
low flows.
The boiler feed pump is a vital auxiliary and in most
cases is located remote from the control station. Plants
FAILURE TO START
equipped for a one-man watch may be provided with

means for remotely starting the pumps. Adost marine
plants have steam turbine-driven feed pumps and their
starting requires a control system that provides the
sequential steps necessary. Such systems are usually
referred to as logic systems since they contain the intelligence required to initiate each step in proper order
and to check if each step is accomplished satisfactorily.
Figure 5 is a logic diagram showing the steps that might
be required; obviously the system will vary depending
upon the particular feed pump and driver installed.
Figure 4 shows such a system installed on a console.
In this example there are four inputs to the system to
indicate that the power and piping are set up in such a
manner that the system is in a ready state. With these
1 tpermissivesJJin proper array the start switch may be
manually actuated to initiate the starting cycle, which
begins with the running of an auxiliary oil pump. The
establishment of normal oil pressure permits the sequence
to continue and energize a gland seal control valve motor
operator. Note that in the event that pressure is not
obtained within a specified time (time delay unit) the
1 Remote operation of the ahead and astern throttle

valves.
2 Automatic operation of astern guardian and bleeder
valves.
3 Extensive monitoring systems.
4 Remote emergency shutdown.
!
The throttle remote-operating system is the major

addition. Usually there are two remote-control stations,
one a t the control center and one in the wheelhouse.
Dependingupon its design, various means may be utilized
to actuate the valve. Electro-hydraulic servo mechanisms have been used to the largest extent because they not
only have sufficient force to move the valve but they can
accurately position the valve. This is important since
at low power levels very little valve movement is required to obtain a significant change in propeller revolutions. The throttle valves may be either the globe or barlift type; usually the ahead valve is of the bar-lift type
since it provides a ' single mechanism to give the full
range of power with minimal throttling losses.
There are two basic concepts for the control of propeller revolutions : one permits sqbstantially infinite
variation; " the other commands speci5 increments,
generally following what might be equivalent to tele
graph commands. A feedback system is employed to
accurately position the valve. The feedback input may
be simply valve position, in which case the command
signal represents strictly a valve position. Valve position is, of course, related to power, assuming standard
conditions. The command unit may be characterized to
approximate propeller revolutions.
Variations in sea conditions, displacement, hull fouling,
etc. affect the relationship between propeller revolutiqns
and power. A positioning system may be refined to
correct for this by introducing a feedback signal proportional to propeller revolutions. This signal serves to
bias the position signal, resulting in a command for
propeller revolutions rather than a specific power. Speed
feedback is generally made effective in the maneuvering
range only; speed feedback is usually not employed at
the higher revolutions associated with free route at sea
because the motion of the "vessel due to sea conditions
mav result in rDm variations (such as under conditions
where the
broaches' the water). The corresponding variation in propeller rpm would cause unnecessary movement of the throttle mechanism in an
attempt to hold constant rpm and therefore increase
wear.
Variations of speed feedback have been used to increase
the speed of response by opening or closing the valve to
Table 1
Automated Features Provided for Various

Manning Levels
--MANNING LEVELUnat2 Men
1 Man tended
AUTOM.~T~:D
FEATURE
Steam generating plant. . . . . . . . . x
Bridge propulsion control . . . . . . .
Propulsion auxiliaries:
console start.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
automatic stadby, start. . . . . .
Fire detection system+&larm. . . . Fire extinguishing
system-console control. . . . . . .
Bilge system:
level alarm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
console
automatic
c6ntrol..
control.
.. . . . . . . . . . . .
Data logging-off limit. . . . . . . . .
Alarm system:
location-control center. . . . . . . x
location-Engrs. quarters. . . . .
'
x
x
x
x
x
x
AUTOMATION
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 2
VESSEL"A"
(2 Men)
A.
Table 2 (cont'd)
Control Systems Provided for Vessels A, 8, and C

VESSELliC"
(Unattended)
C.
Stmm Ornuding Pknl
1. Combustion Control.. ........... Siigle Element

(Boiler Pressure)
5. Fuel-Oil Pumps.. ............... Remote Start/Stop
Remote Start/Stop
6. Forced-Draft Blowers. . . . . . . . . . . Remote Start/Stop
Remote Start/Stop
7. Feed Pumps..
..................
10. Superheated Steam

Temperature Control. ...........
11. Boiler Sgteguards
Steam Dum ...............
~ e e dshot
...............
Fuel-Oil Shut Off. . . . . . . . . . . . .
8f :
Local Start/Stop
Three Element
(Boiler Pressure, Steam
Flow, Rate of Throttle
Movement)
Two Elemeqt
Automatic Sequencing
Automatic Analyzer
Automatic Treatment
& Blow Down
Remote St?rt/Stop, &
Automatic Transfer
Remote Start/Stop &

Automatic Transfer
Motorized
(High-Level Shut)
Local-Manual
\*4.
Eiuhic P o w r Oenemting Units
...................
S eed Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arbine Safeguards. . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Start/Stop..
Local Stmt/Stop
2
3:
At Switchboard
Low Oil Tri
overspeechrip
Synchronization.. .............. Manual

5. Generator Safeguards.. . . . . . . . . . . Low Voltage Tri
6. Emergency D i d Generator.
Aubomatic
overcurrent
Start,
8!p
....
Local Stop
7. Standby Lube-0.il Pump
(Mam Unit Dlrect Dr~ven)..... None
8. Auxiliary Circulating Pump. ..... None
9. Auxiliary Condensate Pump.. .... None
10. Auxiliary Air Ejector.. . . . . . . . . . . None

11. Remote Controlled Valves.. ...... None
Local/Manual
Automatic
Automatic
High Pressure
~ i g Level
h
Forced Draft Fan
Failure, Flame
Failure, Low Water
High Pressure
High Level
Forced Draft Fan
Failure, Flame
Failure Low Water
High l$ater
Remote Mechanical
Not Installed
High Level
Forced Draft Fan
Falure, Flame
Failure, Low Water
Remote Electric from

Bridge/Engine Room
Console.

Bridge/Engine Room
Console.
Safety Valve Easing Gear. . . . . Remote Mechanical
VESSEL"C"
(Unattended)
VESBEL"A"
(2 Men)
Main Local Start/Stop,
Standby Remote Start/Stop
At Switchboard
Low Oil Tri
~ v e r s p e ehf i p
Local Start
Automatic
r"
voltage,+ri
Automatic
~vercurrent
Start,
&p
Zip
LOW
Local Stop
Remote Stop
Remote Start/Stop
Automatic Start
Remote Start/Stop
Remote Start/Stop
Remote Start/Stop
Automatic Start
Remote Start/stop
Remote Start/Stop
Automatic Tiansfer
Remote Start
Automatic Lube Oil
Cooler Water In%,
Remote Control of:
Exhaust V ~ V W
~uxiliar ~ i r c u i ~ t i n ~
~uction~~iarge,
and Auxiliary Condensate Sucbon/Dis-
Local Start/Stop
Exhaust from Main
Unit, Steam to
Standby Unit
Motorized
B. Main hpuirion Turbinw
1. Throttle Control
(a) Type.
....................

Bridgemngine Room
Console.
Valve position above
Opening Rate Limited
2. Feed Make-U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Deaerator S $. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Machinery #pace Vent Fans. .....
5. Engine Room Saltwater
Service Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Fire Pumps. ... :. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
AutomaticAutomatic
Remote Start/Stop
Local Start/Stop
Local Start/Stop
7. General Services Pumps

(Bilge, Ballast, etc.). .......... Local Start/Stop
8. Fuel-Oil Transfer Pumps.. . . . . . . . Local Start/Stop

4.
Bearing Oil Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . Maintains Constant

Pressure to Most
Maintains Constant
Pressure to Most
6. Motorized Astern
Guardian Valve.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Remote Close, Automatic Open
7. Emergency Stop. ............... Engine Room Console
Remote Close, Automatic

Open
Engme Room Console
8. Auto Rotation.. ................ Ahead-2 min afkq

Shaft Stopped
Ahead-2 min after

Shaft Stopped
Local EngagelDisengage
Pressure to Header
Automatic Open & Close

Bridge/Engine Room
&mole
Alternate Ahead and
Astern 3 min
after Shaft Stopped
Local Engage/Dlsengage
9. Remote Controlled Valves

(Motorized). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Boiler Feed Sto

Astern ~uard%n,
Turbine Bleeder
!G%!c%oard
Low O
i
l Trip,
Overspeed Tri
Rotor I n t e r n 2
Clearance
Semi-Automatic
Low Voltage Tri
Overcurrent
Automatic
Start,
High ~alinit:
Automatic
Automatic
Remote Start/Stop
, ,--
Remote Start/Stop
Remote Start Stop,
(One Unit nlv)
Local Start/Stop,
Remote klltop
Local Start/Stop
Remote Stop
Boiler Feed Sto
Astern ~ u a r c k n ,
Turbine Bleeder,
Main Sea Suctions
(High $ Low),
M a n Clrculatlna
~ystein,
Condensate Pump Discharge,
Fuel Oil Pump Suction
&
Emergency
Discharge,Fire
andPump
Suction & Discharge
Local Control, Automatic Dumpin When

Maneuvering !t On
High Salinity
Automabc
Automatic
Remote Start/Stop
Remote start/stop
Replote Stiut/Stop
(One Unit from Bridge)
Remote Start/Stop,
i Biige Unit Automabc Start/Stop &
Stop on Oily Overboard
Discharge
-Local StartJStop,
Auto matic Stop High
Level
Boiler Feed Sto
Astern ~uarcfkn,
Turbine Bleeder,
Main See Suctions
(Hip, Low &Scoop)
Mam Clrculatlng
S stem,
Set Erhayt,
r Ejector
g~
Settlin T p k
High &cbon,
Auxiliary Condenser
Distiller ~ e e Heater
Recirculating
d
iary Condenser),
(Main & Auxiland
Drain
L.P. Turbine Emergency Mmeuvering
12. Main Condensate Pump.
........
Local Start/Stop
Remote Start/Stop
802
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 3 Information Systems Provided for
Vessels A, B, and C
VESSEL VESSEL VESSEL
"C"
"A"
'IB1l
None
60.ppin t Off-limit
Digital
D i ~ t a l Analog
None
None
Yes
Data Logger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bell Logger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fire detection system. . . . . . .
Off-watch personnel call
system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pressure indications
(all systems). . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tem erature indications
(aRsystems), . . . . . . . . . . . .
Liquid level indications. . . . .
Auxiliary running indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Valve position indications. ..
Off-limit alarms:
(a) pressures.. ..........
(b) temperatures.. . . . . . .
(c) hquid levels. . . . . . . . .
(4 incorrect set-up. . . . . .
(e) miscellaneous.. ......
Smoke indicator.. . . . . . . . . . .
Flame detector voltage.. . . . .
Throttle valve position.. ....
Bridge command lever position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Engine order telegraph.. . . . .
Shaft revolution indicator
and counter.. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Horsepower meter. . . . . . . . . .
Generator voltage, current,
load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Generator frequency. . . . . . . . . .
Generator power factor.. ......
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
9
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
None
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
13
positions beyond that required for steady-state conditions. The speed of response is also affected by the rate
of valve movement (which corresponds to a rate of change
of power). It is important that this rate be compatible
with the ability of the steam generating plant to change
its rate of output. Shrink and swell in the boiler drum
Must stay within acceptable limits and combustion controls should change the rate of firing with acceptable
pressure variations and smoking. A time of 20 to 40 sec
from fully open to fully closed appears to work well for
the average plant. The incentive to decrease this time
is low because during the first 20 to 40 sec of a fuH-power
quick reversal, the hydrodynamic resistance of the hull
provides the major braking form to slow the ship. Furthermore, the propeller cavitates heavily if reverse power
is applied too abruptly; consequently the propeller has
limited effectiveness until the ship has reduced speed
IR
appreciably.
The throttle control system may be arranged to accomplish allied functions, such as :
1 Automatic closing of extraction and opening of
astern guardian valves upon reduction in power.
2 Automatic intermittent rotation of the turbine when
under a stopped-shaft condition.
3 Throttle closure or modulation upon loss of boiler
fires, low steam pressure, overspeed, etc.
Auxiliary automatic controls may be provided for
starf up of standby condensate and lubricating-oil pumps,

gland seal pressure control, condensate recirculation for
air ejector condenser, lubricating-oil temperature controll etc. as may be desired depending
the plant
- upon
design and the desired manning level.
The operation of steam turbines has always required
instrumentation for monitoring and control purposes.
It is therefore not surprising that the additional information systems required on the automated vessel are not
extensive. Typically, they may include alarms to warn
of a high bearing temperature, low condenser vacuum,
or loss of throttle control power.
The electric generating plant is a prime auxiliary
associated with the propulsion plant. The automatic
control of voltage and frequency is essential for proper
performance of the electric plant and, therefore, such
control is commonplace. The automated vessel, however, may be equipped for remote start-up and automatic
synchronization of the standby unit from a remote
station.
The control and monitoring provided for other auxiliary
systems depend upon the manning level, type of machinery, and machinery arrangement. I n general the
watch stander's normal duties must be made consistent
with his available time; in many cases this means the
elimination of a function or its assignment to a dav worker.
The extent to which automatic z r remote operation is
applied is limited only by economics. Table 1 gives the
general features to which automation might be applied
in a steam propulsion plant depending upon the manning
level. These may be considered as basic requirements;
actual installations will vary considerably in scbpe and
detail.
The focal point of all control and information systems
in the engine room is the control center. This center is
usually located in or adjacent to the machinery space such
that there is ditect vision of the boiler firing aisle (this is a
preference but not a necessity). Minimum require
ments for the instrumentation are established by the
regulatory bodies [6-111 and depend upon the manning
level desired; actual installations vary to suit not only
the specific plant but also operator's and designer's
preferences.
Three ships, designated as vessels "A," "B," and
"C," have been selected for illustration and are tabulated
in Tables 2 and 3. It will be noted that there is considerable difference in-scope and arrwgement even though
each center serves to control a single-sci-ew geared-turbine plant with two boilers. These diffetences represent
variations in regulatory body requirements and the
owners' particular interests and operating practices.
Vessel A is intended for a two-man watch. The control center, Fig. 6, is located on a flat open to the machinery space and adjacent to the firing aisle. The main
generator switchboard forms a part of the station. The
console, Fig. 7, faces athwartship and is high since sight
over it is not required. The height permits the use of
conventional instruments without requiring excessive
length. This vessel is equipped with bridge throttle
-.--
COMBUSTION
CONTROL
CHAMB
ON LOWER L E V E L
BOILER
LIQUID LEVEL
INDICATORS
FEED WATER
T E S T FACILITY 7
DRINKING
SALINITY
PANEL
PCNl
ENGINE ALARMS
CONTROL RELAY
-STOP VALVE
Fig. 6
Vessel A-trol
control which is in excess of regulatory body minimum

requirements. The operators, in this cape, considered
the feature desirable to permit the watch standers to
assume duties other than throttle operation. The r e
cording of data is limited to a strip chart recorder for
command location, throttle command, and shaft revolu-
center arrangement
tions plotted against time. Note that the vertical portion

of the console contains the information display which
can be readily observed from the deck area in front of the
console. Control systems are located on the lower portion of the console where they are convenient for manual
manipulation.
Fig. 7
Vessel A-control center console
Vessel B is intended for a one-man watch. The control center is located in the open machinery space just
forward of the firing aisle, Fig. 8. Propulsion and
auxiliary remote control instrumentation is located on a
console, Fig. 3, which faces aft. The engineer views the
boiler burner area from over each end of the console. In
this case the main generator control and distribution
switchboard is located on the same level but somewhat
remote from the console. Although normal control of
the electric plant is at the switchboard, the console is
equipped for remote start and automatic synchronization
of the standby unit. A rather extensive analog type
data logger is provided to record plant performance.
The large mimic covers the information and control
systems required for remote start-up of the standby
turbine generator set. This display covers condenser
circulating water, steam, and condensate systems as well
as automatic synchronization of the generator. This
equipment is shown in more detail in Fig. 4. Other
features of Vessel B include remote start of the boiler
feed pumps and more extensive monitoring.
Vessel C is intended for eventual unattended operation
when underway at sea. The control center, Fig. 9, is
located in a separate air-conditioned compartment with
easy access from the quarters and also direct access to
the machinery space. This has been made possible
through the use of top-fired boilers, the firing aisles of
which are visible from the control station through shatterproof glass windows. The generator control and distribution switchboard is also located in the control center,
thus eliminating the need for duplicate instrumentation.
The generators are installed directly below the switchboard, minimizing the length of unprotected cable.
The console, Fig. 10, has extensive control and information systems. Automatic start of vital propulsion auxiliary standbys is provided. The size of the console has
been minimized by arranging the occasionally read data
to appear on an electronically actuated digital display

device called a demand readout. Each data point is
identified by number, the number is set up on a selective
dial and the value is read on the indicator. Continuous
display is provided for vital information. Indicators
located on the console are electric instruments; a sensor
at the measuring point sets up a voltage proportional to
the actual value which is transmitted to the console
instrument. Instruments which would be required to
operate in the event of a power failure are directly actuated. These are located in a separate enclosure to
prevent damage from leakage of the actuating fluid.
One of the special features of this installation is the improper setup alarms; these are arranged to indicate that
circuitry, valves, etc. are in their proper relation prior to
system activation.
Control of the propulsion plant from the bridge is an
important and essential feature of the automated marine
power plant. The ability of the deck officer to directly
control speed and direction decreases response time and
frees the engineer to concentrate on assuring availability
of power. The installation should be kept as simple as
possible and the deck officer should be reasonably free of
monitoring machinery performance. The control system should automatically handle all response limitations.
Figure 11shows a bridge console. The throttle is a lever arranged so that forward motion from stop position is
ahead, thereby minimizing the possibility of an incorrect
command input. Lights indicate the location of control.
Alarms indicate the transfer of control and the loss of
control power. Direct telephone communication is
provided to assist the transfer of control. The remaining
instrumentation is navigational and interior communication.
Figure 12 shows the propulsion control portion of the
console. Note the long arc through which the throttle
command lever passes. The long arc helps to minimize
sensitivity in positioning the lever for small changes in
propeller revolutions. It also serves to improve accuracy
in rapid handling because a variation from desired command will be less. This can be a vital factor in areas
where navigation requires careful maneuvering and the
watch officer must concentrate on ship movements and
not lever position.
The duty of maintaining a bell log may be handled by
an automatic alpha-numeric printer (digital data logger).
This unit is electronically controlled and receives inputs
from a master clock, throttle cornsand, actual propeller
rpm, and location of control (bridge or engine room).
The printout is initiated by a change in command and is
repeated two or three times at 30-sec intervals to record
c
engine response.
2.4 Diesel Propulsion Plant. The basic concepts described for the steam propulsion plant are equally applicable to a diesel installation. The specific instrumentation will of course differ considerably. As in the
steam plant, there are many varied combinations of engines, drives and associated auxiliaries; each has its own
requirements for control and information systems.
805
AUTOMATION
MARINE ENGINEERING
GROUP CONTROL " C n

NON- VITAL a R E ~ R I G .
'
CENTRALIZED
CONTROL PANEL
E L E C T R I C A L CENTRALIZED
CONTROL EQUIPMENT
I.
i
I
I
MAIN \SWITCHBOARD
N TURBO-GENERATOR
115V E M E R G . PANE
H E A T E R PANEL
Fig. 8
/ L.O. P ~ M PCONTROLLERS
Vessel B-contrpl center arrangement
806
MARINE ENGINEERING
rangements were simply remotely controlled means to

manipulate the usual fuel setting and reversing levers on
the engine. Automated systems, however, are more
sophisticated and operate through sequencing devices
and interlocks for maximum engine protection while
permitting bridge personnel to maneuver the vessel
without concern for engine operation.
For example, one directly reversible engine control
system accomplishes the following sequential steps when
the control mechanism is given an astern command from
an ahead position:
q
Fig.
eclRculT
T BREAKER
o
u
9 Veuel C--control center arrangement
I
I
The diesel engine may be considered a self-contained

power generator, provided fuel, air, and a cooling medium
are supplied. It therefore may be somewhat simpler
than steam from the standpoint of controls. In view of
this it is not surprising that diesel-propelled ships have
operated with two watch-standing personnel (one less
8 07
AUTOMATION
than steam) prior to the general acceptance of the term

"automation." Thus in the case of diesels the automatod
power plant considers only two levels of watch manning
(i.e., one man and unattended).
The throttle ~ontrolis the prime element in the diesol
control system. Pilothouse control has existed for somu
Fig. 12 . Bridge console-propulsion
control
1 Fire in the scavenge belt

2 Excessive vibration
3 Turbocharger failure
4 Low lube-oil pressure or high temperature
5 High cooling water temperature
Emergency controls are provided to override the shut1 Move the fuel control to stop, shutting off fuel and down features if necessary, The control system also
removing a blocking device from the reversing
contains provisions for avoiding operation at critical
mechanism.
speed points, below 25-percent rated speed, and limiting
2 Move the reversing mechanism to astern, blocking
the fuel control from the fuel position and position- fuel increase during propeller freewheeling.
Where controllable-pitch propellers are provided, a
ing the starting air distributor and camshaft brake
programmed
relationship between engine rpm and propilot.
peller pitch may be provged to obtain maximum pro3 Move the fuel control to air start, applying starting
air, verifying rotation and direction of rotation, pulsion efficiency.
Multiple engine installations are usually fitted with
and removing the fuel block.
clutches whieh may be remotely controlled. Automatic
4 Move the fuel control to fuel position, setting the
governor, and then controlling acceleration in controls must also be considered for the various auxiliary
systems, including fuel oil, lubricating oil, and jacket
accordance with a torque limitation program.
water systems, steam generating plant (waste heat and
Additional protection is provided for the engine by oil-fired boilers), and the electric generating plant, in
order to obtain the desired manning level.
automatic shutdown or slowdown in the event of:
'
MARINE ENGINEERING
808
LUBE OIL COOL
TURBINES FOR
GAS TURBINES FOR
F. W. GENERATOR
Fig. 13
Diesel propulsion-control
Fig. 14
center arrangement
Diesel propulrio~controlcenter cowole
The acoustic characteristics of the engine generally

dictate a separate sound-proofed enclosure for the engine
room control center. The information systems will
naturally vary to suit the machinery installation; however, the method of display will parallel that of the steam
plant. Fig. 13 illustrates a typical direct-drive diesel
plant arrangement, and Fig. 14 shows a typical control
center console. For additional discussion regarding the
automation of large slow-speed diesel engines, see Chapter 8.
2.5 Gas Turbine Propulsion Plant. The gas turbine, like the diesel engine, is a self-contained prime
mover, and the engine requires certain automatic controls in order to function properly (see Chapter 6).
These control systems are an integral part of the engine
and are normally provided as part of the engine package.
Adaptation of these controls to suit marine automation
naturally depends upon the method selected to transmit
the power to the propeller. However, as in the diesel
installation, it involves the provision of remote (engine
room and bridge) control systems to transmit the command input to the engine control system.
Starting cycles are automatically sequenced. Remote
start therefore involves primarily the decision as to
where the engineer and the information systems to

monitor the procedure should be located. This selection
may depend to some-extent on the degree of automation
provided for the auxiliary systems such as fuel handling,
lubrication, cooling, and compressed air systems. These
systems must be placed in operation to support the prime
mover and the complexity of automating these systems
for remote start may not be economically feasible.
2.6 Cargo-Oil Pumping System. The handling of
cargo oil on tankers presents an interesting opportunity
to gain advantages of not only reduced manpower but
also increased safety through better surveillance of the
process through applied automation. The cargo system
usually consists of piping systems leading from the tanks
to a pump room in which several pumping units, usuallv
driven by steam turbines, are located; &owever, whe;
deep-well pumps are employed, the pumps are individually located on deck and there is no central pump room.
The pumping units provide the power to discharge the
cargo to shore facilities through deck lines and hose connections. These same lines are used in part or in whole
for the loading operation.
Great care must be exercised when loading and discharging cargo. The loading and unloading procedure
must be controlled to prevent undue stresses occurring in
the hull structure. Also, the rate of flow must be adjusted to coincide with shoreside facilities; and in the
loading cycle, care must be taken to prevent overfilling,
which results in spilling cargo on deck and into the harbor waters with attendant
fire and pollution hazards.
-.
.
'I'he mammoth tanker has stimulated the application of
central control systems 'to ease the burdens of these
operations. The very size of these large vessels has made
the direct manual operation dificult and to a degree
impractical.
The control systems for cargo-oil service consist of
both remote controls and information systems. Remote
controls are applied to both the piping system valves
and the pumps. The ever-present explosive hazard
limits the selection of control components. Electrical
systems, if used, must be intrinsically safe; i.e., they
must have a sufficiently low energy level such that a
short circuit will not result in a discharge that is capable
of initiating a fire or an explosion. This means that the
power level must be maintained at a low value, and therefore the application of electrical equipment ialimited to
information-type systems. Hydzaulic and pneumatic
systems have been used most extensively.
Many of the cargo valves are located in the tanks, and
hydraulic systems have been most extensively applied
for operating these valves. In some cases the valves
are actuated by hydraulic pistons located directly on
the valve; deck-mounted hydraulic motors which drive
the valve through extended shafts have also been applied.
Where valves are accessible, such as in a pump room,
pneumatic systems have been provided. In either case,
the control station not only provides the means for commanding valve movement, but also provides an indication
of the valve position. Quite often such a system will bo
AUTOMATION
diuplayed in the form of a mimic depicting diagrammutically the location of the valves in the system.
Pump controls praent an interesting operating problem. The initial starting of a unit is customarily handled
by the ship's engineers; however, the actual control af
the pumping cycle is controlled by the pumpman, who is
a member of the deck crew. Controls are therefore
provided for adjusting pump speed and stopping the unit
at the control station. Information systems include an
indication of pump speeds and discharge pressures.
The central control would not be complete without an
information system indicating the liquid level in the
various tanks. This is particularly important at the
high and low levels to prevent overfilling or pumps running dry. Communication is also an important part of
such an installation and direct communication is provided with such locations as the deck loading station,
bridge engine room, and in many cases, shoreside facilities.
2.7 Other Applications. There are few systems
aboard ship that have not been affected, at least to some
degree, by automation. The complexity of the modern
vessel would not be possible without it. No one gives a
second thought to the air-conditioning system operating
completely automatically. ks in the case for propulsion
equipment, the application of automation principles is a
matter of coordinating the man, machine, and control
system complex to result in an application which accomplishes one or more objectives such as reduced manning,
improved efficiency, safety, and operability.
The diversity of break-bulk cargo handled made the
application of automation difficult until the concept of
containerization was established. The establishment of
"standard" container dimensions subsequently made a
control system feasible. I t is interesting to note, however, that many container vessels have the material
handling equipment ashore rather than on shipboard in
order to gain greater utility from the investment.
The tending of mooring lines to compensate for changes
in ship position relative to the dock has been relieved by
the automatic mooring winch. The winches have been
fitted with devices that sense the line tension, and the
control system uses this input to maintain the line tension within a selected range by directing the winch to
809
pay out or haul in the line. The benefits accruing from

such an installation are more than merely manpower
reduction. The vessel is maintained in a more stable
position at the dock, thus assisting in the more efficient
handling of cargo.
Navigational control is another area that is receiving
atteqtion. The "automatic pilot" designed to control
the steering mechanism to hofd a fixed course has long
since been perfected. However, careful observance and
course :tdjustmen),to avoid collision remains the direct
duty of man. Bere the problem of constant surveillance
becomes the stimulus to develop an automatic waaning
and course adjustment system.
References
1 H. L. Harrison and J. G. Bollinger, Introduction

to Automatic Controls, International Textbook Company,
1968.
2 "Terminology for Automatic Control," The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ASA C85.1-1963.
3 Ernest J. McCormick, Human Factors Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964.
4 Wesley E. Woodson, Human Engineering Guide
for Equipment Designers, University of California Press,
Berkeley, 1960.
5 "Human Engineering Design Criteria for Wfilitary
Systems, Equipment, and Facilities," Military Standard
53
MIL-STD-1472.
6 "Guide for Shipboard Centra zed Control and
Automation," American Bureau of Shipping, December
1965.
7 "Automation in Ships," Lloyd's Register of
Shipping, 1963, London.
8 "Automated Main and Auxiliary Machinery,"
Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular No. 1-69,
United States Coast Guard.
9 "Rules for Equipment of Unattended Engine
Plant in Motor Ships," Danish Ship Research Institute,
October 1967, Report No. DSF-15E.
10 "Regulations for Automatic or Remote Controlled
Installations in Seagoing Ships," Germanischer Lloyd,
1965.
11 "General Technical Conditions Concerning the
Automation of Ships," Bureau Veritas, Guidance Note.
'I
t
1
I
I
1
i
I
CONSTRUCTKI N MATERIALS
CHAPTER XXll
W. 1. Williams
M. R. Gross
I Construction Materials
Seetion 1
Prefacing Remarks
A single chapter on construction materials must be
limited in scope and restricted to items of greatest general
interest. Therefore, this chapter is confined to discus
sion of metals for marine engineering applications. It is
recognized that nonmetallic materials, such as plastics,
elastomers, and ceramics, have their places of usefulness.
However, metals have been and will continue to be the
principal materials of construction for nearly all vital
shipboard machinery and equipment. The large number
of metallic materials and the complexities involved in
their selection for various
applications
dictate that metals
.
receive primary consideration.
Material selection involves considerations of cost,
fabricabiiity, maintenance, life, and freedom from
failure. Failure may range from simple malfunction to
catastrophic destruction. Inasmuch as shipboard equipments are constructed principally of metals, the marine
engineer is concerned about "why" and "how" metals
fail in service.
The complete fracture of metal compbnents from gross
overstress (e.g., overtorqued bolts or accidental overloads) is easily understood and is not of primary concern.
The vast majority of metal failures are more subtle and
aTe attributable to wear, seizure, repeated stressing
(fatigue), mechanical shock (impact), crkep, stress
rupture, embrittlement, corrosion, or the combined action
of stress and corrosion (stress corrosion, corrosion
fatigue). Because of the chainlike reaction that can
occur when one part fails in a complex piece of machinery,
it is not always easy to identify the source of failure.
I n contrast to a critical problem faced by the naval

architect in selecting materials for hull structures, the
marine engineer is not so concerned with "brittle"
fracture of materials which normally behave in a ductile
manner; therefore, this chapter does not devote special
attention to this mode of failure, except for brief mention
in Section 5 under inaterials for low-temperature and
cryogenic equipment. Failures caused by corrosion,
fatigue, and high-temperature creep are of particular
importance, however, and receive special discussion in
Sections 2. 3. and 4.
Section'5 'considers the selection and application of
metallic materials in some of the more critical equip
ments of concern to the marine engineer. The uses and
types of materials for these equipments normally are
covered by regulatiohs and specifications developed by
regulatory bodies and technical societies. These regulations and specifications are updated periodically, and
contain a large amount of detailed information which
should be available to the practicing marine engineer.
References [I-1211 are typical examples.
A glossary of selected metallurgihal terms is included
a t the end of the text for the convenience of the
reader.
Finally, a selected list of key references appears a t the
end of the chapter. The references discuss certain subjects in greater detail, and many of them contain extensive bibliographies for those who may wish to explore
further.
I
Corrosion of Metals
2.1 Infroduction. Much vital equipment aboard
ship must perform srttisfactorily in the presence of corrosive environmente. Therefore, the control of corrosion
deterioration is an important consideration in marine
engineering. Control does not neceesarily mean complete elimination of corrosion. More commonly it
involves careful selection of materials for particular
design and operating parameters to optimize cost,
maintenance, reliability, and equipment life.
It is not expected that the marine engineer have a

complete understanding of complex corrosion theories
and corrosion-engineering practices.
However, the
marine engineer should be aware of the general types of
corrosion and some of the material and environmental
circumstances under which they occur. He can then
Numbere in brrrckets designate References st end of chapter.
recognize when problems exist and when to consult a

corrosion specialist.
References [13-221 are suggested for additional detailed
discussion with regard to general corrosion theory.
2.2 Types of Corrosion. Corrosion in the form'of
direct chemical attack, without the presence of an electrolyte, is one general type of corrosion. It can occur from
reaction with certain chemicals, such as chlorine and
sulfur. In such cases solution of the problem involves
elimination of the corrodant or selection of a material
with inherent resistance to the corrodant. Direct
chemical attack also can occur from hot gases such as
those encountered on firesides of boilers and in gas
turbines. These cases may result from fuel constituents
such as sulfur or vanadium, or from salt contamination
in the fuel and/or combustion air; and reducing the
corrosive constituents, lowering of operating temperatures, and selecting more resistant materials are the
cures most frequently employed, as noted in Section 5.
Another general type of corrosion occurs by electrochemical atlack in the presence of an electrolyte. Seawater is the most common electrolyte encountered aboard
ship, and is responsible for the most complicated and
troublesome corrosion problems. The reasons for this
are the great chemical activity of seawater as compared
to other electrolytes such as fresh water, the wide
assortment of environmental and material variables
which affect seawater corrosion of metals, and the wide
variety of forms in which deterioration can occur. Other
electrolytes leading to electrochemical attack aboard
ship usually involve rather specific environmental
circumstances and materials of construction, and are
mentioned in Section 5 as appropriate.
2.3 Seawater Corrosion. The nature and extent
of seawater corrosion depend on the alloy and its compositional and heat-treatment variations. Of equal
importance are environmental variations such as degree
of aeration, alternate wetting and drying, fouling,
dissimilar-metal couples, velocity, turbulence, cavitationerosion, temperature, and crevices. The various types
of corrosion which can occur in a seawater environment
are as follows:
a. General Corrosion (Uniform Attack). With rare
exceptions, the important forms of electrochemical
degradation occur by severe local attack rather than by
excessive rates of general corrosion. When general
corrosion is of concern, it usually can be controlled with
paints, metallic coatings, sacrificial anodes, impressedcurrent systems, or by selection of more resistant
materials.
b. Galvanic corrosion can occur when two dissimilar
metals are electrically coupled in the presence of an
electrolyte such as seawater. Current will flow through
the electrolyte from the anodic material to the cathodic
material. The corrosion resulting from this "battery
effect" is known as galvanic corrosion. Usually, corrosion of the anode is accelerated, and corrosion of the
cathode is decelerated.
The potentials of metals in the electrolyte, as might be
81 1
measured with a saturated calomel half cell, determine

which metals will be anodic to others. Table 1is such a
listing of metals in seawater, arranged in approximate
order from the most anodic in behavior (magnesium
alloys) to the most cathodic in behavior (graphite,
graphitized cast iron). The listing is actually not exact,
as relative positions may change due to variations in
water velocity, temperature, oxygen content, and so
forth [23]. Furthermore, the listing is based on opencircuit
When current begins to flow between
two metals inta closed circuit, polarization effects occur
due to reactions at the metal-liquid interfaces. The
polarization reduces the potential difference between the
coupled metals and tends to reduce the galvanic current
and corrosion.
The suibbiiity of a dissimilar-metal couple in practice
may depend on the relative areas of the anode and
cathode. If the anode is small and the cathode large,
the anode may suffer an unacceptable rate of deterioration. On the other hand, if the cathode is small and the
anode large, the corrosion and average penetration rate
of the anode may remain a t a tolerable level.- For
example, Monel rivets in a large steel plate might be
acceptable, whereas steel rivets in large Monel plate
would not be acceptable.
Occasionally, circumstances may dictate that dissimilar
metals be coupled with an undesirable cathode/anode
area ratio. In such cases it may be possible to reduce
corrosion of the anode with paint. However, the paint
should not be applied to the @node,because exposure of
the anode a t any imperfection in the paint film would
result in an even more unfavorable cathode/anode area
ratio and concentration of the galvanic current a t the
point of imperfection in the paint. Although the cathode
is not the metal requiring protection, painting of the
cathode would provide a more favorable cathode/anode
area ratio and a reduction of galvanic current; and any
corrosion of the anode woqld be distributed instead of
concentrated a t one place [20].
The same line of reasoning leads to a warning against
the application of noble-metal coatings on a less noble
base metal: for example, chromium plating on carbon
steel. If $he coating contains any imperfection or
holiday, the large cathode/anode area ratio can cause
severe and rapid corrosion of the base metal in the
localized area of the imperfection [24].
Table 1represents an endeavor to rate the acceptability
of various metal couples in seawater a t 40 to 80 F as a
function of relative cathode/anode area ratio. The table
is useful only as a qualitative guide. The ratings tend
to be conservative so that any uncertainties will be in the
safe direction. However, due to variations in oxygen
content, temperature, velocity, and turbulence, the
indications can apply only in a broad sense. This is
particularly so for the couples marked with "X" and "C".
Those marked with "U" should certainly be avoided.
c. Pitting corrosion is a form of attack that may
occur from local cells (potential diierencee) which develop
on the eurface of a single material [14, 20, 211. The cells
MARINE ENGINEERING
Fig. 3
Impingement attack of a Mawoter pipe in the turbulent area downstream of a globe valve
Fig. 4
Fig. 1
Seawater crevice corrosion d an austenitic stainless steel (attack

within crevice)
arise from local environmental differences in oxygen,

temperature, liquid velocity, and so forth. Oxygenconcentration cells are the most frequently encountered
in marine environments. Pitting on boldly exposed
surfaces is usually associated with quiet or stagnant
environments which permit environmental heterogeneities to exist.
Severe pitting of aluminum alloys in seawater is often
associated with local cells resulting from the anodic
behavior of the aluminum matrix and the cathodic
behavior of heavy-metal alloying elements such as copper,
nickel, and iron. For this reason, the aluminum alloys
with lower heavy-metal contents, such as some of those
in the 5000 series, generally have the best resistance to
mwhter corrosion. However, even these alloys may
suffer accelerated attack if the water contains heavymetal ions: for example, copper leached from antifouling paints.
Noble metals such as stainless steels are often more
susceptible to severe pitting than less noble metals such
as carbon steel. This is because the nobility of the
stainless steel is associated with a protective passive
oxide film, and any local breakdown of the film exposes a
loeal active area of less noble character. If the film
cannot reform for any reason, the potential difference
then ca&s accelerated attack a t the point of film breakdown. The chloride ion in seawater is especially
aggressive in penetrating the passive film on these
materials.
d. Crevice corrosion is an especially severe form of
pitting from concentration-cell effects. It can oecur on
susceptible materials where the corroding liquid is
trapped between two surfacewhence the name "crevice. "
It is often studied in the laboratory by using a crevice
created by bolting together two pieces of the same alloy,
Fig. 2
Seawater crevice corrosion of a copper-base alloy (attack outside

crevice)
or by bolting a piece of plastic to the alloy surface.

The localized corrosion may be in either of two locations [13, 251. Crevice corrosion of some metals, such aH
austellitic stainless steels and many of the nickel-baso
alloys, occurs within the crevice area. The chloride ion
in seawater will penetrate the protective oxide film, and
this creates an active surface which attempts to repassivate by combining with the oxygen dissolved in tho
entrapped water. When the oxygen in the crevice in
depleted, film repair is no longer possible and a galvanic
cell results between the active surface in the crevice and'
the passive surface on the outside. A second cell result^
from the difference in oxygen content inside and outsido
the crevice. Both cells tend to accelerate corrosion of
the alloy in the crevice area. An example of corrosioli
inside a crevice is shown in Fig. 1.
Crevice corrosion of other metals, such as some of tho
copper-base alloys, may occur just outside the crevica
area. I n this case, corrosion in the crevice caust:n
saturation of the entrapped water with copper ions which
stifles further corrosion in the crevice area. The difference in copper ion concentration inside and outside tho
crevice results in a local cell tending to accelerate corrosion around the outside edges of the crevice. An
example of corrosion outside a crevice is shown in Fig. 2.
Marine organisms such as barnacles can attach themselves to a surface and create effective crevices. Many of
the copper-base alloys combine antifouling characteristics with good resistance to pittingand crevice corrosio~~.
This has been one of the important reasons for the widespread use of copper alloys in seawater systems.
e. Velocity effects are important in systems handling
seawater. As the water velocity increases beyond 2 or
3 fps, fouling tendencies diminish and pitting of the moro
noble metals decreases or disappears if mecha~~ical
crevices capable of entrapping stagnant water are not

designed into the system. Thus, the austenitic stainless
steels and many nickel-base alloys that pit under lowveloeity conditions remain inert and passive a t higher
velocities [251. Tihnium and certah nickel-base alloys
are outstanding in that they remain essentially passive
m d free of $tt2ng under both stagnant and movingwater conditions.
As the water velocity incteases, the copper-base alloys
begin t o lose their protective films with a resulting
increase in general rate of corrosion [20]. The "critical
velocityn for copper is approximately 3 fps, and increases
to i 5 fps or more as one goes from copper to Admiralty
metal, aluminum brass, aluminum bronze, 90/10 Cu-Ni
(1.5% Fe), and finally 70/30 Cu-Ni (0.5% Fe). Thus,
water velocity is an important criterion in material
selection for tubes and pipes carrying seawater. Copper
alloys, nevertheless, are often used a t velocities in excess
of their "critical velocity"; examples &re pump casings,
impelIers, and propellers where the wall thicknesses are
such that moderate corrosion rates can be tolerated.
Under severe mnditions, however, the point is finally
reached where more noble materials must be selected.
f. Impingement and Cavitation-Erosion. Insofar as
material d e g r h t i o n is concerned, water veloeity alone
is not necessarily the mo& important limiting factor.
More frequently, seriok degradation occurs locally by
impingement and cavitationerosion attack associated
with turbulent areas in moving-water system$ [26]. For
example, the effects of excessive water velocity first
become apparent a t inlet ends of condenser tubes or in
pipes immediately downstream of fittings where turbulence exists and smooth-flow conditions have not
become established. I n these turbulent areas the
protective films can be "scourednaway, leaving a n rtctive
surface on which corrosion may be accelerated from
galvanic currents set up by the surrounding passive
surfaces.
Poorly fitted gaskets, elbows, valves, or anything else
that creates turbulence can lead to accelerated attack of
piping when the water velocity is approaching the
Graphithatioh corraion i a a grey cast iron seawater pipe
smooth-flow tolerance of the alloy [q.

Thus, designing
for streamlined flow can be advantageous. However,
this is seldom possible throughout a system, so the alloy
n
selection remains important.
Globe valves are particularly bad from the standpoint
of turbulence, a s may be noted from Fig. 3 which
illustrates typical downstream deterioration resulting
from an excessive water velocity with such a valve.
The perforation damage in Fig. 3 occurred after 1.3 years
at 15 fps water velocity in a pipe made of 70/30 Cu-Ni
alIoy containing less than 0.1% iron. If the alloy had
contained about 0.5y0 iron, the pipe would have suffe~ed
very little damage after several years of operation.
The higher iron content would provide a much better
protective corrosion film; this illustrates the importance
of care in the selection and specification of materials.
g. Intergranular corrosion and/or selective-phase
corrosion may take several forms:
Graphitization corrosion is a type of corrosion common
to gray cast irons, although not to austenitic nickel cast
irons [20]. An example is shown in Fig. 4. The iron
corrodes away, leaving a residue of the free carbon
(graphite) that gives gray cast irons their name. The
residue retains the original shape of the part, but has no
significant mechanical strength.
Dezim$cation is another type of selective corrosion
common to brasses and bronzes containing more than
15% zinc [14]. The damage is thought to occur by
solution of the alloy folIowed by redeposition in situ of
the copper. The result is a part retaining its original
shape but containing a porous, reddish-copper deposit
of little strength. Muntz metal, naval brass, Admiralty
metal, and aluminum brass Me subject& dezincification
in seawater unless "inhibited" grades are specified.
Dealuminiua6ion is a type of selective-phase attack
occurring in some aluminum bronzes, particularly cast
alloys 124, 281. An example is shown in Fig. 5. The
attack is associated with selective corrosion of a fine
network of aluminum-rich " g a m phase" in the microstructure of the alloy. Control of the composition,
especially the copper and iron contents, and the addition
816
MARINE ENGINEERING
Fig. 5
Seawater dealuminization of a cast aluminum bronze
of 4% nickel leads to a suitable alloy for seawater

service. Dealuminization can be particularly insidious,
because the corroded gamma phase can occupy such a '
minor part of the alloy's volume that there may be no
outward appearance of corrosion. The attack is
evident only on fractured surfaces, yet the alloy may
have suffered drastic loss of strength and ductility.
Intergranular corrosion of austenitic stainless steels is
yet another form of selective attack. The carbides in
steels sensitive to this form of deterioration tend to
precipitate a t grain boundaries when the steels in the
annealed condition are reheated into the 800 to 1600 F
range. Such temperatures are reached in the heataffected zones adjacent to welds. Preferential corrosion
can then occur along the grain boundaries. This type of
attack can be avoided by using low-carbon (0.03%
maximum) varieties of the alloys, using stabilized grades
(containing titanium or columbium), or putting 'the
precipitated carbides back into solution by quench
cooling (annealing) from above 1950 F [20].
Exfoliation (delamination) is a special form of selectivephase attack in which the corroding phase occurs in a
highly preferred orientation because of rolling or other
forming operations. An example is shown in Fig. 6.
If it is necessary to use an alloy with this susceptibility,
it is desirable to prevent exposure of the cross section to
the corrodant. Sometimes this can be accomplished by
"buttering" the edge with weld metal. On the other
hand, pitting of the surface eventually may cause
penetration to the nonresistant phase. When this
occurs, the corrosion can proceed rapidly beneath the
surface by a tunneling effect. If corrosion products are
voluminous, internal pressure may cause blistering of the
external surface.
h. Stress corrosion is a form of local deterioration
be dangerous to design on this basis, because the' degree

of residual stress is seldom known, and because local
corrosion pits or other discontinuities can serve as sources
of unanticipated stress concentration.
Stress corrosion of a particular material usually occurs
only in specific environments, and these environments
may be essentially noncorrosive or only mildly corrosive
in the absence of stress. Thus, the affected part may
appear perfect except for the appearance of a crack.
Examples are the cracking of hardened martensitic
stainless steels in hot high-purity water [30] and the
"season cracking" of brasses in environments containing
a few parts per million of ammonia [31].
Pi-actically all low-alloy and high-alloy steels can
stress corrode in the marine environment if they are
heat treated or otherwise produced to a yield strength in
excess of 150,000 psi [32]. The dangerous yield-strength
range does vary with the alloy, however. With many
of the steels, electrochemical processes seem to predominate when stress corrosion occurs a t the lower end
of the susceptible yield-strength range. It is sometime^
possible, therefore, to extend the useful strength rango
by cathodic protection to stop electrochemical attack,
However, cathodic protection can cause generation of
hydrogen on the surface of the steel, and this can result in
failure from hydrogen crackingJ331. Indeed, a t high
enough yield-strength ranges, the steels can suffer
hydrogen cracking from the hydrogen generated solely by
natural corrosion processes. It is wise to examine tho
circumstances very carefully whenever a steel in excess of
150,000 psi yield strength is to be used in the mari~lo
environment.
Numerous high-strength aluminum alloys, particularly
in the 2000 and 7000 series of alloys, are susceptible to
stress corrosion in seawater. The direction and rate of
crack propagation can be highly dependent on tlio
direction of the applied stress in relation to directio~lal
microstructural variations or "texturing" associated with
CONSTRUCI'ION MATERIALS
817
rolling operations 1341 (see the preceding discussion of 150 F, and then the problem is usually associated with
conditions leading to the concentration of salts on
sxfoliation).
Some titanium alloys can stress corrode in seawater. evaporating surfaces [37]. (See Section 5 regarding the
An examp1e.i~Ti-7Al-2Cb-1Ta alloy, in which the stress- use of austenitic steel in nuclear power plants.)
i. Corrosion fatigue, which results from the combined
corrosion susceptibility is associated with tendencies
action
of a corrosive environment and cyclic stresses, is
toward formation of submicroscopic Ti3A1 precipitates
in the structure [24, 351. Immunity to stress corrosion covered in Section 3.
2.4 Cathodic protection. eathodic protection somein this alloy can be accomplished by lowering the
aluminum to 6% and adding 1% molybdenum to times is used to provide partial or .complete corltrol of
electrochemical cyrosion problems [13]. One method
suppress the formation of Ti3AI.
Titanium alloys that do stress corrode in seawater involves the ipdtallation of sacrificial anodes (zinc,
usually will not do so in the absence of a stress concen- magnesium, or iron), thereby setting up a galvanic
tration such as a crack or corrosion pit. Since titanium couple which reduces corrosion of the protected material
alloys are practically immune to all forms of marine by making it the cathode. Another method involves
corrosion, including pitting, the existence of stress the use of an impressed-current system with an external
corrosion tendencies was not recognized for many years; power source; the anode is usually an inert material,
it was noted only when sharply notched specimens were such as platinum, to prevent consumption. Impressedexposed to seawater and found to support smaller loads current systems are not often used for the protection of
machinery and auxiliary equipment handling seawater
than similar specimens exposed to air [36].
The common grades of austenitic stainless steels do not aboard ship, because of difficulties in voltage corltrol and
pose stress-corrosion problems in seawater except above current distribution on protected surfaces.
Section 3
Fatigue
3.1 Introduction. The term "fatigue" as used herein
refers to the failure of a component under the action of
repeated stress. Fatigue is probably responsible for as
many as SO percent of all machine part failures. Of
these, failures due to bending forces are the most
prevalent type, with the torsion type next and the axial
type seldom occurring. Although service conditions
usually involve combinations of variable and steadystate stresses, and sometimes both bending and torsion,
usually a dominant type of failure is found.
3.2 Fatigue Fracture. Figure 7 shows a typical
fatigue fracture. I n many instances these failures are
easy to recognize because of distinctive characteristics
associated with fracture appearance. These are a "flat,
brittle" appearance of a large portion of the fracture, and
"beach marlis" or "oyster shell" marliings which focus
on the origin or nucleus of failure. However, the
absence of such marliings does not necessarily eliminate
fatigue as a cause of failure inasmuch as the level and
kind of loading, temperature, and e~lvironment can
affect fracture appearance greatly and may malie
diagnosis on the basis of appearance alone impossible. I n
such cases the use of an electron microscope to examine
the fracture surfaces a t high magnifications may be
helpful.
Fatigue failures are progressive, beginning as minute
craclts that grow under the action of the fluctuating
stress. Failure usually consists of three distinct stages,
namely: cracli initiation, slow craclt propagation, and
rapid terminal fracture. If a cracli is not present
initially, a certain number of stress cycles \\-ill be con-
sumed in generating a crack from a "stress raiser" to a

size sufficient to be visible to the unaided eye or to be
detectable by nondestructive inspection. The crack
will continue to grow in size with each stress cycle,
usually a t an increasirlg rate, until the remair~ir~g
section
is no longer able to support the load. Complete fracture
then occurs instantaneously. The terminal fracture
may be ductile or brittle depending on the material and
surrounding conditions.
3.3 Cyclic Stress and Strain. lcigure 8 shows the
stress-strain relationships liliely to develop under cyclic
loading conditions. The relationship in Fig. S(a) occurs
when the applied force or moment is completely reversed
Fig. 7
Fatigue failure of a manganese bronze propeller blade
MARINE ENGINEERING
819
CYCLE
+s
ALTERNATING
STRESS AMPLITUDE, S,
MEAN
STRESS, 5,
MAXIMUM
STRESS. S,
'I
MINIMUM
STRESS. S,;
10'
lo5
lob
10'
LOG N. NUMBER (X CYCLES TO WURE
Fig. 10 Typical high-cycle S-N dlagram
TIME
(01
Fig. 9
{b)
Fatigue cycle nomencloture
Fig. 8 Stmu-strain relationships under cyclic loading
but within the elastic region. St is the total stress

range and et is the total strain range. Figure 8(b) shows
the relationship that develops under reversed loading
into the plastic region. The stress-strain relationship is
no longer linear, but follows the hytfteresis loop BCDEB
during each cycle aftm initial loading along OAB.
3.4 Fatigue Testing. Over 95 percent of our knowledge of the fatigue behavior of materials has developed
from laboratory tests of relatively simple specimens.
Some 200 laboratories in the United States are engaged
in fatigue studies. The number outside the United
States is estimated to be even larger. It can be assumed
that nearly all of these laboratories are generating
specimen data of one form or another. In spite of all the
information developed, the fatigue behavior of materials
is not completely understood. As will be seen, the
subject is highly complex and to a great extent continues
to remain empirical in nature.
Until the middle 1950's, practically all the fatigue
information was in the so-called hi&-c~ele region. That
is, design and test data were concerned with the failure
of materiab aftermany millions of stresscycles. such
information continues to have direct applicability to the
majority of fatigue problems in marine engineering. It
was recogxibed, however, that some structures and
equipments were failing by fatigue because of a liniited
number of high-stress cycles. One of the principal
causes of such failures was thermal gradients produced
by periodic heating rand cooling of heavy-&ion pressure
vessels and machinery components such as turbine
casings. It is now recognized that other types of equipment are subject to this type of failure because of other
factors, such as periodic high-pressure excursions.
Failure by fatigue a t finite numbers of stress cycles,
i.e., less than 5 X lo6, is called low-cycle fatigue. There
is general agreement among investigators that the highcycle fatigue performance of metallic materials is related
to tensile strength, whereas low-cycle fatigue performance is related to tensile ductility. Accordingly, the
amount of cyclic strain that a material undergoes becomes
the dominant factor in low-cycle fatigue. Although

subsequent sections may discuss high- and low-cycle
fatigue separately, it is desirable in evaluating materials
to consider the broad spectrum of fatigue behavior
ranging from about loe to lo8 cycles.
There are several methods of applying the load in
fatigue testing. The specimen may be subjected to
direct tension or compression, to bending, to torsion, or
to a combination of these. The simplest and most
frequently used method for high-cycle fatigue testing is
the rotating beam test [38-401. The specimen may be
loaded either as a simple 4point loaded beam or as a
cantilever beam. The specimen is usually dead-weight
loaded and rotated a t a constant speed, thereby creating
fully reversed bending stresses with each revolution. In
low-cycle fatigue testing, both axial and flexural loading
have been used with success [41].
3.5 Fatigue Data Presentation. I n presenting or
orgadsing high-cycle fatigue data, the following nomenclature, depicted in Fig. 9, is used:
Stress cycle. The smallest section of the stress-time
function which is repeated periodically and identically.
N~minalstress, 8. The dress Calculated by simple
theory without taking into account variations in
stress caused by geometrical discontinuities, such arr
holes, grooves, and fillets.
Maximum stress, Smm. The highest algebraic value of
stress in the cycle.
Minimum stress, Sm&. The lowest algebraic value of
stress in the cycle.
Stress range, ST. The algebraic difference between tho
maximum and minimum stresses in one cyclo,
Sr = Smm - Smc.
Alternating stress amplitude, S.. One half the strestl
range, S , = Sr/2.
Mean stress, S,. The algebraic mean of the maximum
and minimum stresses in one cycle, Sm = (S,..
Smin)/2*
asymptotic thereto.
,200 KS1 STEEL. SMOOTH SURFACE AIR ENVIRONMENT
100
MARINE ENGINEERING
though the measured parameter is strain. The disadvantage is that unrealistically high stress values are
obtained in the very-low-cycle region.
Figure 11 shows the broad-spectrum fatigue behavior
of two steels with markedly different yield strengths.
The solid lines compare the steels under ideal conditions,
i.e., a smooth surface in a noncorrosive environment. As
mentioned previously, the high-cycle fatigue life under
these conditions is related to the strength properties of
the steels. Thus, the fatigue limit of the 200,000-psi
steel is considerably higher than that of the 40,000-psi
steel. However, the curves cross each other in the lowcycle region. The higher tensile ductility of the 40,000psi steel is conducive to higher fatigue strengths in the
very-low-cycle region where strain deformation is the
principal controlling factor.
The dashed curves in Fig. 11 depict the performance of
the two steels under adverse conditions, i.e., a stress
raiser in a corrosive environment. Behavior of the two
steels is similar despite the large difference in static
strength properties. Under such conditions, there
would be no advantage in selecting the more expensive,
higher-strength steel.
3.7 Factors Affecting Fatigue Life. The following
paragraphs briefly describe the effects of various factors
on the fatigue behavior of metals [43-491.
a. Stress Raisers. Practically all fatigue failures
start a t a stress raiser (stress concentration) on the surface
of a machine part. The majority of stress raisers fall into
one of the following broad groups:
Those caused by changes in the geometry of a part,
such as steps a t changes in diameter, abrupt corners,
holes, keyways, threads, press or shrink fits, junction of
bolt shanks and heads, and so forth.
Surface discontinuities such as nicks, notches,
machining marks, pitting, and corrosion.
Defects inherent in the material such as nonmetallic inclusions, local discontinuities, minute cracks,
and voids.
The ability of a discontinuity to concentrate stress is
dependent upon its shape and size. Cracks have the
highest stress-concentrating effect, whereas generous
fillets with a smooth, polished surface have the lowest.
Analytical methods have been developed for calculating
the stress-concentrating effects of discontinuities based
on geometry, dimensions, and assumed elastic behavior.
The effect arrived a t in this manner is called the theoretical stress concentration factor K t [38, 501. However,
the actual effect of a given stress concentration may vary
both within and among materials. By means of tests it
is possible to establish the reduction in fatigue strength
caused by a particular stress-concentration factor for a
particular material a t a particular strength level. By
comparing these data with unnotched (smooth) test
data, one can arrive a t the so-called fatigue notch factor
Kf. From K t and Kf the notch sensitivity index, q, of
the material can be calculated as follows:
For most metals the notch sensitivity tends to increase

with increasing strength. Thus, in the presence of
sharp notches (Kt 1 3), it is not unusual to find little or
no advantage for higher-strength materials.
b. Maximum and Mean Stresses. The maximum
tension stress or strain developed in the cycle has an
important bearing on fatigue life. The results discussed
thus far have been based on completely reversed (equal
tension and compression) cyclic stress or strain independent of any steady-state conditions. This is the
exception rather than the rule. Most practical applications result in stress-time patterns of the type shown in
Fig. 9. It is apparent that if the maximum and minimum
stresses are known, then all constant stress amplitude
problems can be resolved into mean stress and alternating
stress components. I n general, in the high-cycle region,
the permissible alternating stress decreases with increasing mean stress. Through the use of mathematical or
diagrammatical relationships, such as the Goodman
diagram or the Haigh-Soderberg diagram, it is possible to
convert the stress conditions shown in Fig. 9 to an
equivalent, completely reversed stress condition.
It is important to recognize that maximum stress
controls the whole course of events. If the maximum
stress exceeds the elastic limit, the mean stress is
decreased and a new set of conditions comes into play.
Factors most likely to alter the mean stress are stress
raisers and residual stresses.
The influence of mean stress decreases with decreasing
fatigue life, and when the alternating stress equals or
exceeds the yield strength, the mean stress becomes zero.
Accordingly, whether or not mean stress is an important
factor in low-cycle fatigue depends upon the yield
strength of the material. In high-strength materials, it
may be necessary to consider mean-stress effects a t
fatigue lives ranging down to 100 cycles.
c. Residual Stresses. Residual stresses may bo
either favorable or unfavorable insofar as fatigue life i~
concerned [48]. Fatigue cracks initiate and/or propagab
only in a tensile-stress field. Therefore, tensile residual
stresses are usually detrimental to fatigue life whereu~
compressive residual stresses are beneficial. Nearly all
fatigue failures initiate a t the surface. Accordingly,
processes that introduce compressive stresses in tho
surface layers of a machine part can be effective in
improving fatigue performance.
The most commonly used metallurgical processes for
increasing fatigue resistance are case carburizing,
nitriding, or carbonitriding. In these processes, carboll
and/or nitrogen is diffused into the surface layers of tho
part. When properly applied and heat treated, tho
resultant metallurgical structure in the diffused laycr
occupies a greater volume than that of the parent metal.
The greater volume causes compressive residual stresaw.
Compressive residual stresses can also be introduced
by cold working the surface material by such techniques
82 1
as hammer peening, shot peening, and cold rolling. To

produce the desired effects, it is necessary that the stressing technique plastically deform the surface layers of the
metal. It is estimated that 80 percent of the improvement in fatigue resistance is due to favorable residual
stress development and 20 percent to physical change of
the surface metal.
The benefits in fatigue of surface cold working tend to
decrease with (a) increasing yield strength and (b)
decreasing fatigue life. There are probably three
reasons for the decrease with increasing yield strength:
the higher forces required to deform the surface metal
result in a shallower layer; the notch sensitivity of both
the deformed and undeformed metal is higher; and the
lower ductility of the high-strength material is conducive
to cracking induced by some stressing techniques.
Unfavorable residual stresses, i.e., surface tensile
stresses, originate principally from heat treatment,
welding, misfits, and cold forming. It is possible to
relieve unfavorable residual stresses in metals by a socalled stress-relieving heat treatment and thus improve
fatigue resistance. This treatment requires that the
materials be heated to elevated temperatures. The
applicability of the stress-relieving treatment is limited
by facilities for handling large structures and by the fact
that the temperature required for stress relief may have
a detrimental effect on other properties such as yield
strength and impact resistance.
d. Corrosion. The combined effect of a corrosive

environment (such as salt water) and cyclic stressing is
called corrosion fatigue and can be highly detrimental to
the life of metals. This is particularly true in the case
of carbon and low-alloy steels wherein the high-cycle,
corrosion-fatigue strength in salt water is about the
same regardless of composition or strength level (see Fig.
11). As might be expec%d, metals that are either
partially or completely resistant to the corrosive environment will be less affected. For example, the fatigue
behavior of cups6nickel and nickel-copper alloys normally
used for salt%ater equipment is not greatly different
whether exposed to salt water or to air. Many titanium
alloys are exceptionally resistant to corrosion fatigue in
salt water.
Protection of susceptible materials against corrosion
fatigue is similar to that taken against general corrosion,
i.e., the use of protective coatings that are both resistant
and impervious to the environment, and cathodic protection. Both of these methods are simple in principle
but often difficu t to put in practice.
e. Other actors. The foregoing sections have
discussed four of the most important factors that affect
fatigue life. Other factors that may be of importance
are cumulative damage, prestressing, metallurgical
structures, weldments, creep, temperature, surface finish,
size, and stress state.
Section 4
Behavior at Elevated Temperatures
4.1 Introduction. An elevated temperature can be
defined as any temperature a t which mechanical behavior
is affected by time a t temperature. I n the broadest
sense it can include such things as the change in tensile
. properties by aging of certain aluminum alloys (including
a few that age a t room temperature), the change in
tensile properties and hardness by heat treatment of
precipitation-hardening alloys, the release of residual
stresses by stress-relief heat treatment of weldments, and
the loss of ductility by temper embrittlement of steels.
However, a more restricted definition of elevated temperature is applied herein,
I n the context of this discussion, an elevated temperature is any temperature a t which strain and load-carrying
ability are time dependent. Below the elevatedtemperature range, design for any life can be based on
properties measured in "short-time" tests such as the conventional tensile test. Within the elevated-temperature
range, however, mechanical properties must be measured
by means which account for a change of properties with
time.
Elevated-temperature behavior occurs over different
temperature ranges for different materials. For example,
the mechanical properties of lead can be time dependent
a t room temperature and above, whereas for low-alloy

steels they are time dependent only above about 700 F.
Accepted practice dictates that, insofar as possible, a
metallic material be used in a condition of metallurgical
stability a t the operating temperature. For example, a
quenched and tempered steel normally would not be
used unless the tempering temperature were a t least
100 deg F higher than the intended operating temperature; otherwise, the strength obtained by the temper
would be reduced on heating to the operating temperature.
4.2 Time-Dependent Properties. When a metal is
subjected to a static load a t an elevated temperature, an
immediate elastic strain occurs followed by a timedependent permanent plastic strain called creep. A
typical strain-versus-time curve is shown in Fig. 12.
The creep occurring a t a diminishing rate a t the initial
part of the curve is called primary creep. This is followed
by seconhrg creep, characterized by a relatively constant
rate of strain. The creep rate may ultimately accelerate
and lead to rupture in a stage called tertiary creep. It is
rather obvious that stress-temperature combinations
leading to tertiary creep within the life of the equipment
should be avoided.
822
MARINE ENGINEERING
IN MATERIALS
RUPTW
PRIMARY
SECONDARY CREEP
I
I
' " """
' " ""'I
lo2
10'
TIME
10'
' ' ' "'
' " ""'I

10'
10'
RUPTURE TIME, HOURS
Fig. 12 Typical strain-time relationship of an alloy undergoing creep

Bg. 1 4 Typical presentation of strescrupture data (see Section 4.2d for
line extrapolation4
31 ""1
0.01
0.1
MINIMUM SECONDARY CREEP RATE.% PER 1000 HOURS
Fig. 13 Typical presentation of secondary aeep rate data
Allowable stresses for high-temperature design are

often set by regulatory bodies such as ASME 151. For
example, the allowable stresses for each material included
in the ASME's code dealihg with power boilers were
arrived a t by using the lowest of the following criteria a t
each design temperature in the creep range [51]:
putting static tensile loads on specimens and measuring

the timedependent strain with sensitive extensometers.
The tests are made a t several stresses for each temperature of interest. Each test must be conducted long
enough (usually several thousand hours) to establish the
minimum strain rate in the secondary stage of creep.
A conservative average stress for a secondary creep The data from such tests commonly are plotted as shown
in Fig. 13, from which the stress to produce a particular
rate of 0.01 percent per 1000 hours.
creep
rate can be estimated.
60 percent of the average stress for rupture in
b.
Stress-Rupture Tests. These tests are also called
100,000 hours.
80 percent of the minimum stress for rupture in creep-rupture tests, and are conducted by static tensile
loading of specimens a t stresses high enough to cause
100,000 hours.
failure. The tests are made at several stresses for each
The use of average and minimum values assumes scatter temperature of interest. The rupture time is measured,
in the rupture data from tests of many lots of materials. and strain-time curves also can be obtained if it be
The designer must also apply additional safety factors if desired to extend creep-rate curves to higher rates of
he must accommodate unusual conditions of instability, strain. The stress versus rupture-time data are plotted
corrosion, possible overstresses, and the like.
on semilog or log-log graphs. A typical example is
European practice often bases allowable stresses on shown in Fii. 14.
total creep (primary plus secondary) rather than the rate
c. CreepRelaxation Tests. These tests are also
of secondary creep. This has an advantage if close called relaxation tests. They are similar to creep tests,
dimensional tolerances must be maintained. Data on except that stress is the variable rather than strain.
primary creep are not commonly available for American After the specimen is loaded, the gage length of the
alloys.
specimen is held constant by reductions in stress so that
a. Creep Tests. Creep data usually are obtained by elastic contractions will exactly balance any extensions
due to creep. The data from such a test commonly are

plotted as shown in Fig. 15.
The similarity between the relaxation test and bolting
applications is apparent. Upon tightening to an initial
stress, a high-temperature bolt retains its dimensions,
but there is a fall-off of the stress as a function of time
and temperature. The stress indicated by the asymptotic part of the relaxation curve is related to the ultimate
"holding power" of the bolt. However, the asymptotic
stress can vary as a function of initial stress on loading,
and may also be different after a second loading, such as
might occur by retightening of a bolt [52-541.
Residual stresses can be introduced in a material by
welding, cold forming, and other processes. The
reduction of these stresses by stress-relief heat treatments
can be said to occur largely by the creeprelaxation
process. If the stress-relief temperature be restricted
for any reason (such as not exceeding the tempering
temperature of a quenched and tempered steel), the
relaxation test is a useful means of estimating the level
to which residual stresses can be reduced within a
particular time a t a given temperature 154-551.
d. Data Extrapolation. It is apparent that hightemperature creep and stress-rupture tests are expensive
and time consuming, and the luxury seldom can be
afforded of conducting tests over the full design life of
equipment. Nevertheless, knowledge of long-time properties is necessary. For example, it is important to
know that tertiary creep will not occur during long
equipment life if a design stress be based on a secondary
creep rate measured in a test lasting only a few thousand
hours. Another example would be the 100,000-hr
(11.4-year) rupture-stress criterion used by ASME in
setting allowable stresses for boilers and unfired pressure
vessels.
A common method of obtaining long-life rupture-stress
properties is to use a straight-line extrapolation of data
such as shown by the dashed extensions of the lines in
Fig. 14. There is debate as to whether the lines are
actually linear or somewhat curvilinear, even for a
metallurgically stable structure. Of greater concern is
the possibility of temperature-induced and/or straininduced microstructural changes which are known to
produce slope changes in some alloys. This circumstance is illustrated by the dotted lines in Fig. 14. The
microstructural changes normally occqr in shorter times
a t higher temperatures. This is also illustrated in Fig.
14 by the shorter time for the "break" in the curve a t
temperature T2 than a t T1 (T2 being higher than TI).
The concept that time and temperature bear an equivalence in the creep process, and that which occurs in a
40
823
I
TIME; HOURS
Fig. 15 Creoprelaxation cunes for a quenched and tempered carbonmolybdenum botting stpel
long time a t one temperature will occur in a shorter time

a t a higher temperature, has been the basis for several
parameter methods to estimate long-time properties from
short-time tests. No single parameter works best for all
materials, apd indeed the validity and accuracy of
parameter methods is the subject of much debate.
Reference [56] is an excellent critical review of timetemperature parameter methods and their usefulness.
Although there is uncertainty about the actual longtime strength properties of many materials, it remkins
an engineering necessity to make a best estimate for
design purposes. The matter becomes critical if design
safety factors are to be low. The problems associated
with data analysis and e&mation of long-life hightemperature properties are described in references [57]
and [58].
Different finishing heat treatments during manufacture
are sometimes permitted by a material specification, and
these may be reflected by differences in short-time
rupture-strength properties.
However, the higher
strengths associated with some manufacturing processes
may disappear after a very long time a t service temperature. Therefore, it is common practice to set allowable
design stresses for long-life equipment on the basis of the
"weakest" condition under which a material will be
marketed [51, 571.
4.3 Other Considerations. Notches, biaxial and
triaxial stresses, cyclic loading, environmental effects,
and temperature "over-shoots" are additional factors
isfluencing creqp and rupture behavior. Also, the
temperature and strain history of a material undergoing
creep may have an effect on other properties such as loss
of fracture ductility. This is known as creep damage.
References [42] and [59-611 are suggested as sources
of
.
additional information regmding the& factors.
MARINE ENGINEERING
Section 5
Applicatio~~sof Materials
5.1 Introduction. The design, construction, and
operation of modern shipboard machinery and auxiliary
equipment are usually the result of years of experiment
and experience. The wealth of information so gained is
documented, and up-dated occasionally, in general
specifications available for the guidance of the marine
engineer. References [I-51 are typical examples. I n
addition, certain of the military specifications contain
general guidelines for specific items of naval machinery
(e.g.1 MIL-B-18381 for Naval High Pressure Steam
Boilers, and MIL-T-17600 for Naval Steam Propulsion
Turbines). These general specifications refer in turn
to a variety of specific material specificationscontaining
details of the materials acceptable for particular components and operating conditions. Several organizations publish material specifications, with those of the
American Society for Testing and Materials being the
ones to which reference is most often made.
Examples of typical materials used in critical applications, with some rationale as to why they are used, and
the limitations under which they will provide satisfactory service are given in the following sections.
5.2 Boilers and Superheaters. The materials used
in critical components of modern marine boilers have
evolved over many years into a series of standardized
alloys which optimize cost and mechanical properties.
I n addition, they include where necessary other attributes
such as castabilit~,v~eldabiity, forgeability, and/or
sufficient ductility to permit forming operations such as
tube bending and flaring.
Most of the boiler components are made of carbon and
low-alloy steels. However, their suitability in service
is highly dependent on proper boiler design, construction,
and operation. This is particularly important in marine
boilers, and especially naval boilers, which are more
compact and subjected to greater and more frequent
changes in load demand than land-based plants.
The design must incorporate adequate provision for
flexibility to accommodate expansion and contraction
fromtemperature cycling without development of stresses
high enough to cause fatigue failure. Particular
attention must be given to joint designs, such as a t tubeheader connections and tube
that
stresses are not concentrated excessively a t these
locations. Proper placement and operation of burners
are also helpful.
The materials in boilers have limited tolerance for
temperature, so design and opelation must guard against
overheating. Burner placement and operation are
important in this regard, as is proper circulation of hot
gases and placement and maintenance of refractories.
Good fireside maintenance is critical, so that deposits do
not accumulate and interfere with circulation and heat
he water and steam side is also important from the
heat standpoint, because heat removal by water and

steam circulation is necessary to keep tube temperatures
within tolerable limits. The design must provide for
circulation under all steaming conditions, and operators
must not allow low water to occur. The watersides
must be kept clean and free of deposits which can
interfere with proper heat transfer.
Corrosion also must be prevented. This is accomplished on the water and steam side by several means.
Deaeration of makeup water prevents corrosion and
pitting from oxygen. An alkaline-phosphate treatment
of the boiler water provides an optimum pH for rninimiZing corrosion, and also controls damaging scale-forming
salts by producing insoluble phosphates which can be
removed by blowdotvn or easy mechanical cleaning.
Proper water treatment and blowdown also prevent
damage by foaming and excessive carry-over of solids
into the superheater. Volatile amines may be used to
control corrosion in condensers and return lines, and to
prevent deposition of copper in boiler tubes.
Caustic embrittlement, especially of boiler drums, is
not the common problem today that it was in the past.
Proper water treatment has helped. Of equal importance has been the use of fusion-welded construction in
lieu of riveted construction. This has eliminated many
of the crevices within which waterside chemicals could
concentrate.
Fireside corrosion from fuel-combustion products can
be controlled adequately with good boiler design,
established fireside cleaning procedures, and use of morc
refined fuels. There are, however, certain parts such
as superheater support members which must tolerate
high temperatures and severe corrosive conditions.
These parts are especially vulnerable when vanadiumbearing fuels are used and temperatures are reached a t
which vanadium-bearing molten slags can form and
accumulate [62]. The best material known to resist this
attack is a cast 60Cr-40Ni alloy.
ASTM
A351 grade CH20 has been used successfully in
commercial boilers; this alloy
about 24Cr and
13.5Ni.
Another type of firesidecorrosion has been encountered

occasionally, especially in cold boilers. This has beer,
traced to acids formed when the fireside is not kept dry.
Rain entering the stack has been a source of trouble ~ I I
Some cases. The obvious solution is to keep the firesido
dq.
If conditions leading to failure by fatigue, overheating,
and corrosion are kept under control, the primary
considerations in material selection then reduce to
product form, fabricability, cost, and the use of standard
grades of alloys in accordance with regulations for
temperature and allowable stress. The most common
guide is that of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Veswl
825
Code, wvhich sets allo~vabledesign stresses as a function

of temperature for each commonly used alloy.
For the low-alloy steels, the tempekature and stress
tolerances tend to increase progressively in the series of
carbon, carbon-XMo, 1xCr-XMo, and 2xCr-IMo
grades. There are, of course, other competing alloys,
but these four are the most frequently employed.
The useful temperature ranges for these alloys can
overlap if suitable adjustment of the design stress is
made. Holvever, carbon steel is seldom used above
750 F because of its low strength. If it is used a t higher
temperatures, it is advisable that the steel be a grade
deoxidized \vith silicon instead of aluminum. Alurninum-killed carbon steels have a greater tendency to
become embrittled by decomposition of iron carbide
(graphitization) after prolonged high-temperature exposure. Graphitization occurs most readily near welds.
Molybdenum and particularly chromium are strong
carbide-forming elements and inhibit graphitization
tendencies in alloys containing these elements.
Typical applications of carbon steels (including
minor modifications in chemistry for welding, etc.)
include steam and water drums, water-wall headers,
generating tubes, downcomers, and economizer tubes and
headers. Depending on applicable specifications, either
or seamless tubes can be used. Inspection for
are not subject to this danger if the steam passing through

them is already dry.
There are places in boilers where special metals may be
employed. Mention has already been made of cast
60Cr-40Ni alloy for superheater support members.
Alloys such as Inconel may be used for oxidationresistant brick bolts; desuperheater parts are often made
of a 16Cr-lNi alloy; and cBsings or other parts exposed
to corrosive flue gases, particularly a t temperatures over
700 F, may be,mde of stainless steel.
5.3 Main and Auxiliary Sfeam Piping Systems. 1n
general, the guideli~lesfor main and a w i l i a r ~steam
piping systems on merchant vessels are set by applicable
sections of the American National standards ~nstitute
Code, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code [5, 101,
and U.S. Coast Guard Marine Engineering Regulations
[I]. Navy practice follo~vsthe same pattern, differing
only in details.
As in the case of boilers and supeclleaters, the rationale
for choosing between carbon and alloy steels for steam
lines is largely a matter of service temperature and
pressure. However, in contrast to certain parts in
boilers which are exposed to hot combustion gases,
steam lines are not exposed to temperatures beyond
those of the contained steam.
The carbon and low-alloy ferritic steels can be used
alloy for tube metal temperatures up to 1100 $' and a

columbium or titanium stabilized lgCr-CJNi austenitic
stainless steel for metal temperatures between 1100 and
material muat have good hobforming properties.

Both hot bending and cold bending are used in pipe
Beyond 1050 to 1100 F the high-temperature strength

and oxidation resistance of the ferritic steels fall off
rapidly. Hence, it is necessary to go to the more
expensive austenitic stainless steels in high-temperature
superheaters. It 'is common practice to u* ferritic
steel tubes in the beginning of the superheater Pass1 and
to restrict the austenitic steel tubes to the final portion
of the pass. Economy is not the only reason for this.
If stainless steel were used in the initial portion of the
pass, the stainless would be exposed to wet steam
entering the superheater. Any boiler-water solids
carried over would concentrate on the tube surfaces and
could lead to stress-corrosion cracking. Stainless tubes
fabrication.
1850 F with Hot
the pipe
bending
packed
is with sand
done
to at
help retain
to
shape apd circularity. A somewhat higher temperature
may be used for 2xCr-1Mo pipe. Cooling the outside
of the bend may be employed to prevent excessive
thinning in this area. A bending mchine with a
mandrel is used for cold bending, and a minimum bend
radius of 5 diameters
is ,g8ually recommended. ,
After hot bending, carbon steels are usually annealed
at about 1200 I?. The Mo arid Cr-Mo alloy steels are
usually normalized from 1650 F and then drawn a t
1200 F. Both a r b o n and alloy steel piping are generally
annealed after cold bending.
Seamless pipe is used for the more critical applications,
especially for the higher temperatures and pressures.
Welded pipe is permitted for many other applications.
I/ I
I1
82 6
'
bN MATERIALS
MARINE ENGINEERING
Copper or copper-alloy pipes with brazed joints can be

used in noncritical, low-temperature, low-pressure service. For example, fabricated copper systems are permitted for steam and steam drain service on merchant
ships up to 320 F and 75 psi [2].
Cast or forged valves are used in steam lines. For all
practical purposes, cast steel valves can be considered as
cast versions of the wrought alloys used for the piping.
Minor compositional variations are mostly associated
with the need to enhance the "castabilityn of the alloy to
assure high casting quality.
The seats and disks in steam valves require special
attention because of tendencies to erode-a condition
commonly known as "wire drawing." The tendency
increases when valves are used for throttling service, and
can be especially severe with wet, saturated steam.
Austenitic stainless steels are quite resistant to wire
drawing, but are not ushlly employed for valve trim
because of poor resistance to galling and because of a
difference in thermal expansion coefficients between the
ferritic steel valve body and the austenitic steel trim.
Nitrided steel has been used for valve trim on occasions,
but nitriding has lost favor because of poor performance
in comparison with other materials.
The best trim material for resisting wire drawing
is a weld-deposited, tungsten-cobalt-molybdenum hardfacing alloy known commercially as Stellite. Stellite to
Stellite and Stellite to 13% Cr stainless steel are suitable
combinations for the mating surfaces of disks and seats,
although Stellite on both parts is preferred for the more
critical systems. The Stellite facing of the seat can be
applied by direct welding to the valve. However,
welding procedures can be controlled better, and seat
repair can be facilitated, if the Stellite is applied to a
separate seat ring which can then be shrunk or screwed
into place in the valve body.
Steam line gaskets are made mostly of thin spirally
wound metal ribbons spaced with asbestos. The metal
must be "soft" so that it will deform during joint tightening and sealing. Soft iron and Monel have been used
with success, but modern practice calls for stainless steel
for high-temperature and high-ppssure services. Less
costly gaskets, such as asbestos-metallic cloth and
asbestos composition, can be used in low-temperature,
low-pressure applications.
Carbon or alloy steels are used for bolts on steam line
joints. Carbon steel bolts are used a t lower temperatures. As the temperature increases, and depending on
the temperature, one of the alloy steels must be used.
The alloys most frequently utilized are Grades B6
(12% Cr), B7 (Cr-Mo), and B16 (Cr-Mo-V) of ASTM
Specification A193.
Alloy steel bolting normally is used in the quenched
and tempered or normalized and tempered condition to
enhance strength properties and to assure the highest
possible elastic limit. Minimum tempering temperatures are specified to be well above the intended operating
temperature, and for metallurgical reasons are usually
within the range of 1100 to 1200 F.
Reference [2] is an excellent guide to materials for

steam piping systems for merchant vessels. It contains
a tabulated breakdown of material specifications for
pipes, joints, bolts, gaskets, valves, and fittings for each
of the various service systems aboard ship. Temperature and pressure limitations and other explanatory
information are arrapged for convenient use.
5.4 Nuclear Reactor Plants. The nuclear reactor
plants most often considered for merchant vessels aru
the pressurized-water reactor (PWR) type. This mearltr
that the reactor core is cooled by water kept undcr
pressure to prevent boiling. Current practice is to barn
the design of PWR pressure vessels on conditions of
650 F and 2500 psig. These levels provide a margin lor
operational maneuvering, transients, and set-point
ranges for relief and safety valves.
The selection of the materials used in the reactor coro
itself (fuel and fuel containment) is a highly specializcd
field that is not normally under the direct control of tho
marine engineer. I n somewhat the same category aro
the mechanical devices used to manipulate the reactor
control mechanisms which operate in the pressurizedwater environment. Corrosion and wear resistance arc)
important considerations for these devices [30]. Reference [63] is a good source of general information on fuol
elements and reactor controls in PWR plants.
The pressurized water used to cool the reactor corc i~
contained in the primary coolant system. America~t
practice to date is to make the primary system or
corrosion-resistant materials (mostly austenitic stainlonn
steels) to minimize the formation of corrosion productn.
Control of corrosion products is important, as they t c ! ~ ~ t l
to deposit preferentially in the core.
Water circulation in the primary system is provided by
a "canned rotor" pump so that only corrosion-resbtu~~b
material is in contact with the water. Parts not math of
austenitic stainless steel, such as springs and a few olllclr
parts in the control devices, must be selected carefully uo
as to be immune to stress-corrosion cracking, hydroac311
cracking, or other forms of deterioration. Austonibic?
stainless steel cladding is used to isolate the low-rtll~~y
steel from which the reactor pressure vessel is made.
The primary coolant water is a high-purity deminoralized water with the oxygen maintained below 0.1 ppnl.
Lithium hydroxide or ammonium hydroxide is addccl for
pH control. Boric acid is added, as the boron car1 IIR
used for fine control of reactivity "(known as chernio~d
shimming). Reference [64] is recommended for furtl~crr
details on primary water chemistry. With proper W I L ~ . ( + ~
maintenance, corrosion has not been a particlrlsr
problem on the primary side, except for the threat of
stress corrosion of specialty items made of q)ri~lg=
tempered materials [30].
The stainless-clad reactor pressure vessels are wvcrrul
inches thick and therefore pose special consideratiorln of
cost, fabricability, and freedom from possible "brit41tln1'
failure. A cautious approach has been used in ma1,cwLI
selection [65]. Some early reactor vessels were matlcr of
carbon-silicon steel (ASTM A212, Grade B). 'I'o
improve fracture toughneslg, later vessels were made of

a nickel-modified version of ASTM A302, Grade B, a
quenched and tempered Mn-Mo steel now designated
ASTM A533. Other steels considered for possible use
include 2%Cr-lMo (ASTM A542) and 3Ni-l%Cr-%Mo
(ASTM A543).
The selection of pressure-vessel steels has emphasized
the development of uniform properties throughout the
thick sections used, with particular attention to good lowtemperature notch toughness. An important consideration has been the change in mechanical properties
brought about by bombardment with highenergy
nuclear radiation. The most important change is the
tendency toward progressive embrittlement, including
a shift in the brittle-to-ductile fracture transition
temperature. References [65-671 cover these aspects in
detail.
Since the primary coolant system is made of austenitic
stainless steel, the same material must be used for the
steam generator. This poses a special problem not
encountered in conventional boilers made of low-alloy
ferritic steels. The problem is associated with caustic
and chloride stress-corrosion tendencies on steamgenerating surfaces made of austenitic stainless steel
[68, 691.
The primary water circulates inside the generator
tubes, and on the secondary side there is a tendency for
boiler water solids to concentrate, particularly in "hideout" areas such as tube-to-tube-sheet crevices. Even a
few parts per million of chloride in the boiler water can
be concentrated in the crevices to the extent that stainless
tubes can fail rapidly by stress-corrosion cracking.
There is evidence to indicate, however, that chloride
cracking will not occur in the absence of oxygen. If
there is no oxygen, high chloride contents can be
accommodated temporarily from accidental in-leakage,
such as from a condenser leak [30,68].
For these reasons, the secondary (boiler water-steam)
side of a reactor plant must be maintained with extremely
low chloride and oxygen contents, aiming a t less than 1
ppm and 0.5 ppm, respectively. I n view of the rapidity
with which stress corrosion can occur above 170 to 200 P,
it is necessary that the oxygen be removed before plant
start-up. An oxygen scavenger such as sodium sulfite is
commonly employed.
Alkaline-phosphate treatment of the boiler water must
be kept a t the proper pH-phosphate concentration, so
that phosphate rather than free caustic residues will
occur on evaporating surfaces. If free caustic residues
occur, the stainless steel tubes can fail from caustic stress
corrosion. Details of secondary-system water chemistry
are covered in reference [MI.
Some effort has been directed toward use of nickel
alloys (such as Monel and particularly Inconel) to reduce
chloride stress-corrosion hazards in steam generators.
The secondary side of a PWR plant operates on
saturated steam, so turbine blades must be resmtant to
w e t - s h m erosion. Wet-steam conditions have also
prompted use of cast 12% Cr steel turbine casings (in
827
lieu of the cast low-alloy steel in conventional plants) to

improve corrosion and erosion resistance.
5.5 Fresh- and Saltwater Piping Systems. Carbon
steel pipe (ASTM A53) commonly is used for miscellaneous non-saltwater applications such as boiler feed
piping, low-pressure drains, auxiliary machinery piping,
and engine cooling. The particular application may
influence whether welded or qamless, or plain or galvanized pipe is chosen [2]. Copper pipe may be used in
condensate systems. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic
pipe (ASTM D1785) also is used for freshwater systems
for auxiliary machinery and engine cooling. Cold and
hot freshwater systems for domestic, sanitary, heating,
and air conditioning services normally are made of PVC
plastic pipe or seamless copper tubing (ASTM B88).
The main and auxiliary saltwater piping systems
present far greater difficulties than freshwater systems
because of the severe corrosion problems which are
encountered (see Section 2). Experience has shown that
it is false economy to select cheap materials for initial
construction if these materials will lead to costly shutdowns, repairs, and replacements.
Water velocity and pipeline configuration are the most
important variables (other than material) influencing
the performance of a shipboard saltwater piping system.
Most metallic materials of interest for saltwater systems
have low corrosion rates in quiescent water because of
the formation of corrosion films which protect the underlying metal. As the water velocity is increased, a
velocity may be reached a t which erosion will begin.
That is, the protective film will be swept away such that
fresh metal will be exposed constantly to the water, and
corrosion will be accelerated.
I n general, the water velocity in piping systems is
seldom high enough to bring about general corrosionerosion of the pipe material. However, velocities
commonly are experienced that lead to damage in
localized areas. This action occurs in areas of water
turbulence. Because of its impinging effect, turbulent
flow can sweep away protective corrosion films in local
areas a t wate; velocities that are not destructive where
flow is more or less streamlined.
The rate of impingement attack in turbulent areas is a
function of both the water velocity and the configuration
of the piping system. The attack nearly always occurs
just downstream of fittings and joints. Knowledge of
this fact peranits a n easy inspection of a piping system,
since the critical areas can be observed simply by breaking the joints. I t is seldom necessary to know the
condition of a pipe beyond the area that can be seen
readilv a t the inlet end.
pipe bends do not mu&- significant impingement
attack if the bend radius is generous enough to prevent
wrinkling of the pipe or more than a moderate collapse of
the ~ros~section,
- ~ l b o w son
, the other hand, can &use
damaging turbulence if the nominal water velocity is
fairly high. Long-radius elbows cause less damage than
short-radius elbows.
Other fittings, such as tees, reducers, and valves, also
11 I I
I.
828
3N MATERIALS
MARINE ENGINEERING
thickness of the zinc and the water velocity, and may

vary from as little as 3 months to 2 or 3 years.
Other types of protection for steel pipe (lining with
enamel, paint, rubber, lead, and so on) have been tried
and generally abandoned because of cost and difficulty of
installation, and maintenance of coating integrity.
Stainless steel piping is not suitable for shipboard
saltwater piping because of local pitting and crevicecorrosion tendencies.
Aluminum is attractive because of its low cost and light
weight, and certain alloys have good resistance to high
water velocities; however, it has serious disadvantagen.
One is its poor antifouling characteristics. Another in
the tendency to pit from heavy-metal ions which may bo
contained in the water from upstream equipment or
other sources. But the most serious drawback is undoubtedly the susceptibility to rapid galvanic corrosior~
when coupled to heavier metals such as steels and coppcr.
Use of 70/30 Cu-Ni welds for fabricating 90/10 base alloys.
The use of bronze valves and fittings in a n alumirium
Cu-Ni alloy.
piping system, or the coupling of copper-alloy pipes Lo
Use of Monel trim in a tin-bronze valve.
aluminum pipes, would be intolerable. Any sucl~
The general considerations described in the foregoing combination would require completely insulated jointn,
are applicable to any saltwater piping system almost including assurance against accidental coupling of tho
regardless of the material from which it is made. The dissimilar metal components through the hull structurn.
following paragraphs now discuss the performance Experience indicates that this complete isolation in
characteristics of specific materials which have been used difficult, although not impossible, to achieve undor
or proposed for use in saltwater systems. References practical shipboard conditions.
Copper pipe can be used with some success in saltwater
[20, 21, 23, 27, and 70-721 are suggested sources for
lines. The principal drawback is its poor resistance to
further elaboration.
Experiments have demonstrated little diierence in the erosion and impingement attack a t more than moderatnr
performance of plain steel, low-alloy steel, and wrought water velocities. I t also tends to corrode excessively by
iron in seawater pipelines. Therefore, the term "steel" concentration-cell effects under stagnant water conditions. Between these extremes, copper can give good
will be used to cover these materials as a group.
Steel has fair resistance to impingement corrosion, but service, but in most piping systems it is difficult to
poor resistance to cold salt water and very poor resistance guarantee that tolerable water-flow conditions can ho
to hot aerated salt water. It is most useful in closed maintained.
Aluminum brass and aluminum bronze alloys ( c . ~ . ,
systems where there is no continuous supply of oxygen.
Steel has no antifouling properties, and marine growth 76/22/2 Cu-Zn-Al, 95/5 Cu-All or 90.5/2/7.5 Cu-Fe-Al)
can accumulate under stagnant water conditions such as have better resistance than copper to erosion atit1
in dead-end lines. This can be a serious problem when impingement attack. However, some of these a1lo.y~
the ship is operating in shallow tropical or semitropical suffer from local forms of corrosion such as pitting, arltl
also tend to be more difficult to solder or braze.
waters.
The cupronickel alloys are the best from the stantlThe corrosion products of steel may create serious rust
point
of all-around performance in shipboard saltwahw
problems with small pipes. It is probable that steel
systems.
Their resistance to general corrosion, crevic!tr
pipes under 1% in. or 2 in. in size would be unsuitable
corrosion, and pitting is good, and these forms of atl;aalc
because of rusting and fouling.
seldom need consideration. The cupronickel alloys aro
For various reasons, it would be desirable to use bronze easy to form, weld, and braze. They have good antivalves even if a piping system were made of steel; fouling characteristics. Additionally, of all the copyarhowever, such a combination would introduce a galvanic base alloys, the cupronickels have the best resistance to
corrosion problem owing to accelerated corrosion of the high water velocity and impingement attack.
steel in the vicinity of the valves. Installation of waster
Two cupronickel alloys are commonly used: 70/:10
pieces between the valves and pipes would be desirable. Cu-Ni and 90/10 Cu-Ni (ASTM B467). If nomirlr~l
Protective coatings are desirable for steel pipelines in pipe water velocities are held within conservative limibri,
seawater service. Galvanizing has been tried in both these alloys will give long, essentially troublefree lira.
service and experimental systems, and the zinc coating The 90/10 alloy should give 15 to 25 years of servico if
is effective, but it also corrodes away after a time. The velocities do not exceed 8 to 10 fps. The 70/30 alloy
extra pipe life gained by galvanizing depends on .the will provide in excess of 20 years of service a t velocit~ion
cause turbulence. Globe valves used for throttling
service probably lead to more pipe damage than any
other type of fitting (see Fig. 3). Properly designed and
installed unions are perhaps the least damaging.
If a piping system is designed adequately from the
standpoint of material selection and water velocity, there
should be no major deterioration from standard fittings.
An occasional failure may occur, but frequent failures
should be an indication that the system is inadequately
designed or is being used improperly.
Whatever piping material is used, good design practice
dictates that fittings, welds, and connections be made of
compatible materials from the galvanic-corrosion standpoint. I n areas where dissimilar metals must be used,
it is important thah insofar as possible, a favorable
cathode/anode area ratio be provided and that the key
components be made of the more noble material [20].
Examples would be:
up to 12 fps. The long life and generally satisfactory

service provided by these alloys make them costeffective despite their high initial cost.
The outstanding performance of modern cupronickel
alloys is partly dependent on the addition of iron as a n
alloying element (see Section 2.3). The 70/30 alloy
requires a nominal 0.5% iron content, and t h e severe
damage illustrated in Fig. 3 would not have occurred if
this iron content had been provided. The 90/10 alloy
requires a nominal iron content of 1.5% to provide
maximum corrosion resistance.
The 90/10 Cu-Ni alloy is the one most frequently
used in the construction of merchant ships. It is also
used in Navy surface ships. Because of its somewhat
superior properties and reliability, the 70/30 alloy is
used in sea-connected systems of Navy submarines.
Titanium may find use for saltwater piping in special
circumstances [73]. For example, the high strength-toweight ratio of titanium might be attractive for systems
aboard weight-critical vessels such as hydrofoils, surfaceeffect ships, and deep-ocean submersibles. Pipe walls
can be thin because of high strength, and because there
is no need for a corrosion allowance in wall thickness
calculations. Furthermore, pipe sizes can be smaller
because high water velocities (over 20 fps) can be tolerated
without damage. However, there are a t least three
disadvantages of titanium. First, it is difficult to fabricate and repair in the field, and operating personnel
cannot use simple techniques such as brazing. Second,
galvanic corrosion must be talten into account wherever
there is a connection to less noble metals. Third,
titanium has no antifouling characteristics.
Polyvinyl chloride plastic can be used for some salb
water piping applications [2]. It is limited to lowpressure and low-temperature applications, and safety
must be considered if the consequences of loss of the
piping from fire damage would constitute a hazard.
Valves, fittings, and pumps in saltwater systems should
be compatible with the piping material. With cupronickel piping, it is common practice to use cupronickel
or bronze flanges, and cast-bronze silver-braze unions.
Valves for saltwater systems can be made of a variety
of materials. Cast tin bronzes set the standard for highperformance valve bodies on both merchant and naval
vessels. However, ductile iron and galvanized cast
steel are commonly used, especially in systems of large
pipe sizes. Alloys such as austenitic nickel cast iron,
stainless 20, Monel, and 70/30 Cu-Ni may be used on
special occasions.
The seats in bronze valves can be cast as a part of the
valve body, but this would be suitable only for very mild
service. Otherwise, the seats would erode in turbulent
water. The more common practice for high performance is to use seats and disks of Monel. This alloy has
greater inherent erosion resistance, and the surrounding
bronze body enhances performance by providing cathodic
protection to the trim. Titanium, certain stainless
alloys, and plastics have been used for trim in experi-
829
mental valves and have shown promise for applications

involving severe erosion problems.
Water-circulating pumps may be made of a variety of
materials. Pumps for hot water heating systems
frequently are made with a cast iron casing, brass or
bronze impeller, and a stainless or nickel alloy shaft.
Sometimes both the casing and impeller are of cast bronze.
The best performance for saltwater circulation is
obtained when the impeller alloy is not only resistant to
erosion and impingement attack, but also is more noble
than the casing $aterial so that cathodic protection of
the impeller is obtained. One common combination is a
cast iron casing with a bronze impeller and shaft. Better
service is obtained with a cast bronze casing and Monel
impeller and shaft. This combination is frequently used
on merchant and naval ships. Monel impellers provide
better erosion resistance than bronze impellers.
All-titanium pumps have been tried experimentally
and show promise of extended life with little or no sign of
deterioration. Titanium pumps may be used in the
future as a means of resisting severe conditions of
corrosion, erosion, and cavitation damage. However,
provisions would have to be made to control galvanic
corrosion damage to less noble metals in connecting
systems.
5.6 Condensers, Heat Exchangers, and Distillation
Units. The tubes are the most critical components in
steam condensers. They must have thin walls for

effective heat transfer, yet must provide isolation of the
steam from the salt water used for cooling. Therefore,
a prime consideration is resistance to tube deterioration
on the saltwater side.
Waterside deterioration can be considered from two
aspects: how resistant a tube material is to the water
velocity within the tube, and how resistant it is to erosion
from turbulence and impingement a t the inlet end.
Fortunately, the tube materials of greatest interest for
shipboard service tend to rank themselves in the same
order on both counts.
Admiralty metal is the least resistant, and its use
should be restricted to very low water velocities, preferably not over 3 to 4 fps. If Admiralty metal is used,
a n inhibited grade should be selected to prevent dezincification. An inhibited aluminum brass (77Cu, 21Zn,
2A1, As) would be next in rank for resisting velocity and
turbulence. This alloy is also resistant to brackish and
polluted wpters, and is widely used in marine service.
The highest performance standards among the copper
alloys are obtained with the cupronickels. The 90/10
Cu-Ni (1.5% Fe) alloy is the one most frequently
employed and has been used by the Navy in recent
years for all main condensey on surfam vessels. Somewhat better performance and reliability can be obtained
with the 70/30 Cu-Ni (0.5% Fe) alloy, but its higher
cost favors its use only for special applications. The
90/10 and 70/30 alloys give good performance up to
water velocities of 10 and 12 fps, respectively [74],
although conservatism usually dictates somewhat lower
limits in actual design.
830
MARINE ENGINEERING
In older practice, Muntz metal and naval brass were

often used for tube sheets; however, the trend now is to
use the same material for the tubes and tube sheets, and
this is preferred. In any case, the tube sheet alloy must
be resistant to saltwater corrosion, and should not be
more noble than the tube alloy so as to prevent galvanic
corrosion of the tubes.
Excessive inlet-end erosion of condenser tubes sometimes has been a problem, even with cupronickel tubes
in the earlier years of their use before iron additions to the
alloys were made. Inlet-end erosion can be controlled
in several ways. Waterboxes can be designed so as to
minimize turbulence, impingement, and velocity gradients across the tube banks. I n some cases, plastic
ferrules are inserted in the inlet ends to carry the water
through the first few inches of the tubes where the water
is most turbulent. In other cases, galvanic protection of
the tube ends is provided by installing sacrificial zinc or
iron anodes in the waterbox, or by making the waterbox
itself of steel or cast iron. Monel waterboxes frequently
are used with 70/30 Cu-Ni tubes; when this is done, the
Monel is solder-wiped to reduce adverse galvanic effects.
If design water velocities are maintained conservatively
low, the modern iron-modified cupronickel alloy tubes
require little or no supplemental protection for a satisfactorily long-life service. Tubes of 90/10 Cu-Ni work
well with 90/10 alloy sheets and waterboxes. Tubes
of 70/30 Cu-Ni work well with 70/30 sheets and either
70130 or 90/10 waterboxes. Other combinations are
possible if their use does not lead to galvanic corrosion of
the tubes.
Navy practice in material selection for surface steam
condensers is outlined in Military Specification MIL-C15430. This covers both the primary component8 as
well as the miscellaneous hardware and attachments.
Several materials other than copper-base alloys
occasionally have been considered for condenser tube
applications. These have included certain austenitic
stainless steels and nickel-base alloys [20,74]. However, .
titanium probably offers the most interesting potential
for future shipboard conde~lserapplications [73]. Titanium condensers and heat exchangers can be used to
advantage where weight is critical, such as on hydrofoils,
surface-effect ships, and deep submersibles. The weight
advantage arises from more than just a substitution of
titanium for heavier metals. Thinner tubes can be
used, as no corrosion allowance is required.
High heat-transfer rates can be obtained with titanium
despite its lower coefficient of thermal conductivity in
comparison with conventional copper-base alloys. This
is so for =era1 reasons. First, thin tubes can be used.
Second, heat transfer is not stifled by a build-up of
insulating corrosion films. Third, higher cooling water
velocities (above 243 fps) can be tolerated, the limit
being primarily a matter of the power costs for the
circulating pumps. In addition, wet steam impingement is sometimes a problem on the outer surfaces of
condenser tubes. The usual practice is to install baffles
to prevent direct tube impingement. Titanium tubes

would be highly resistant to this form of damage.
The miscellaneous auxiliary heat exchangers using
salt water as the cooling medium require the same
rationale for material selection as steam condensers.
However, the services are usually not as critical, and
design water velocities normally are quite low.
Distillation units for making fresh water aboard ship
present a severe material selection problem. Water
temperatures tend to be high, and concentrated brine
and scale are encountered, all of which aggravate corrosion attack. The removal of scale from evaporating
surfaces also places heavy demands on constructio~l
materials. The scale is often broken away by means
such as cold shocking, and, as in the case of the vertical
corrugated basket type, also by mechanical flexure.
These scale removal procedures cause a fatiguing action.
Occasionally the units may have to be cleaned with acid
uyashes. It is not surprising, therefore, that distillation
units demand the best materials.
Distillation units are made in a variety of sizes and
configurations. Possibilities include vapor compression,
thin film, submerged tube, Aash, and vertical basket
types, as well as combinations of these. Low-pressure
steam or hot fresh water are used as heat sources.
Military Specification MIL-D-18641 contains detaih
of the material selection for all components of all type^
of distillation units acceptable for naval shipboard
applications. The compositions of the basic component^
are 70/30 Cu-Ni, 90/10 Cu-Ni, or Composition 5
aluminum bronze (approximately 9 1Cu-7A1-2Fe). However, Monel is specified for the corrugated baskets and
shells in the basket-type units. The selection of othcr
materials for distillation units on merchant vessels may,
of course, be different.
Titanium tubes have been used successfully in landbased desalination plants [75] and probably will find uuu
in future shipboard distillation units. Titanium secmn
to be unaffected by corrosion, except for a tendency
toward crevice corrosion under gaskets, etc., if brirla
temperatures exceed 250 F. Alloy development work
indicates that 2% Mo, 2% Ni or 0.2% Pd additiorrn
may alleviate. this problem.
5.7 Steam Turbines. Turbine rotors can be made
from a variety of materials depending on stress ant1
temperature conditions. Carbon steel (usually about;
0.30 to 0.40% carbon) is commonly used a t temperaturon
up to about 600 to 650 F. Low.-alloy steels of tho
Ni-Mo-V and Cr-Ni-Mo-V types are used a t somewhat
higher temperatures. For extreme temperatures (alch
as between 750 and 1050 F), it is common practice to utu, s
1gCr-1xMo-XV alloy steel. If corrosion and erosio~l
resistance is a major design consideration, as in saturatotl
steam plants, the turbine rotor may be made of 12% (Ir
steel for service up to 750 F.
Because of high stress conditions, turbine rotors mu#C
be of high-quality steel, free of injurious defects such sn
seams, scale, porosity, and excessive nonmetallic inc111sions. To obtain a desirable metallurgical structuro, u,
254 to 1 and preferably 3 to 1 reduction in area should

be used in converting the cast ingot into a forged rotor.
It is necessary to avoid hydrogen "&kingn of the rotor
forging by assuring that the forging is not cooled to room
temperature until there has been time for hydrogen t o
diffuse out. This can be accomplished by interrupting
the cooling a t about 400 to 600 F, and holding a t this
temperature for a prolonged period. Alternatively, a
common practice to avoid hydroge~flaking is to use
vacuum degassing techniques dqring the steelmaking
process.
The deaired rnicrost~cturesand properties in rotor
forgings are obtained by quenching and tempering or
normaling and tempering. A tempering temperature
of 1100 F is recommknded (1200 F for 12% Cr steel).
After the rotors have been rough machined, they &re
stress relieved a t 50 to 100 F below the tempering
temperature. This provides for maximum dimensional
stability after final machining.
Alloys such as Monel and brass have been used for
turbine blades, but steam turbine blading is now made
almost exclusively from one of the quenched and
tempered chromium stainless steels. AISI Types 403
and 410 are the most common. These are ertsily
machined and forged, have good corrosion and moderately good webateam erosion resistance, have good
mechanical properties a t opew,ting temperatures, and
show good resistance tofatigue. Of equal importance is
the unusually high specific damping capacity of these
steels 176, 771. This can be used t o advantage in
reducing fatigue stresses arising from blade vibration.
It is a particularly important characteristic while passing
through speed ranges that might produce resonant
vibrations in the blades.
Types 403 and 410 steels may not have sufficient creep
strength a t the highest temperatures and stresses
encountered in some marine turbines. When this is so,
a more highly alloyed steel can be used, such as AISI
Type 422 (13Cfli-W-Mo-V). The added strength in
this steel is accompanied by a reduction in specific
damping capacity.
If wet-steam erosion is too severe in any stage of the
turbine, it is sometimes the practice to apply Stellite
inserts on %heblades to enhance erosion resistance.
Titanium has been tried experimentally for stertm
turbine blades and may see considerable use in the future,
particularly in the iow-temperature stages of turbines.
Titanium has good wet-steam erosion resistance.
Furthermore, since its density is only about 57-percent
that of steel, titanium blades develop lower stresses from
centrifugal forces.
Turbipe casings and steam chests are generally cast,
using a variety of materials depending on the temperature and pressure conditions. Carbon, carbon-Wo,
1XCr-%Mo, and 2%Cr-lMo are the most common
grades. A 12%Cr steel is occasionally used in saturated
steam plants for better corrosion and erosion resistance
(particularly in nuclear plants; see Se~tion5.4).
5.8 G a s Turbines. The widespread use of gas
83 1
turbines in aircraft engines has provided the major

incentive to develop special mate~ialsfor gas turbines,
especially the cobalt-base and nickel-base superalloys
used in hot-section components. It is understitndable,
therefore, that the materials developed for aircraft
engines have also been used widely in marine versions of
gas turbines. This applies to both main propulsion and
auxiliary drive units. Nevertheless, the adaptation of
gas turbines to shipboard applications has led to certain
problems which are not of primary concern to the
aircraft indust@. Two materials-related problems in
particular have been encountered in marine turbines:
vanadium corrosion and sulfidation corrosion, both of
which can result in rapid deterioration of critical hotsection components such as guide vanes and turbine
bMm. Each of these forms of corrosion is discussed
briefly.
Early gas turbine5 suffered accelerated oxidation
attack of hot-section components when turbines were
operated on residual fuels. The attack was associated
with vanadium and sodium in the fuels which combined
during combustion to form ash or slag deposits. Sulfated-vanadium/alkali-metal slags were typical. There
appeared to be a threshold temperature, dependent on
the slag composition, above which the slag promoted
catastrophic oxidation. The threshold temperature
varied from abouf 1200 t o 1560 F for many of the slags
studied.
No completely acceptable solution to this problem has
been found. Alloys vary in their resistance to attack,
but none combine the necessarf mechanical properties
and long life required for marine gas turbine service.
Fuel additives such as calcium or magnesium compounds
are effective in inhibiting vanadium corrosion, particularly when combined with desalting to remove any salt
present. The resulting deposits are hygroscopic and
nonadherent; consequently, they are easily removed.
Proper fuel treatment along these lines has enabled
many gas turbines to operate wtisfactorily on residual
fuel.
Much literature har~appeared on the problem of
vanadium corrosion. Referenoea {62] and 178-801 are
prticulxrrly m m m e n d e d for further details. I n spite
of the possibilities of fuel-treatment systems to control
corrosion, most marine gas turbines have been operated
on essentially vanadium-free distillate fuels.
Trends iri world petroleum production have indicated
that "multipurpose" distillate fuels, suitable for boilers,
diesel engines, and gm turbines, may be~omeavailable
at prices attractive for marine use. These particular
distillates qmy contain traeeszf vanadium (under 2 ppm).
It is not yet certain how low the vanadium must-be kept
to avoid destructive attack of turbine components
during reasonably long periods between overhauls.
Sulfidation corrosion (commonly called hot corrosion)
is a catastrophic type of oxidation which can be particularly harmful to hot-section components of marine
turbines. The attack disrupts the normally protective
oxides on superalloys, and sulfides may form deep into
832
MARINE ENGINEERING
Fig. 16 Sultldation attack on a blade from a marine gar turbine
grain boundaries causing serious degradation of the

structural integrity of the alloy. Figure 16 is an
example of a marine gas turbine blade damaged by
sulfidation. ,
The immediate agent responsible for sulfidation is
Na2S04, which can form during combustion from
reactions between NaCl in sea air and sulfur in the fuel.
However, the use of sulfur-free fuel will not eliminate the
problem, because Na2S04 is also present in sea air.
There is evidence that NaC1-NanSO4 mixtures are more
corrosive than NazS04 alone. The sulfate must be
present on the alloy in a condensed phase for attack to
take place. At pressures near atmospheric, the accelerated attack may occur over the temperature range of
1400 to 1900 F. The results of research on sulfidation
mechanisms are reviewed in references [81, 821.
Several approaches can be used to combat sulfidation
attack [83]. One is the use of fuel additives to promote
formation of slags with melting points above turbine
operating temperatures. Another approach is the use
of metal-diffusion coatings such as the NiAl type. A
third is the use of demisters or salt separators to remove

as much of the sea salt from the intake air as possible.
Still another is the use of cooled components to lower the
metal temperature. Finally, the inlet gas temperature
can be limited to keep component temperatures within
tolerable limits.
Fortunately, new alloys have been developed which
combine both high strength and sulfidation resistance.
These probably will permit marine turbines to operate a t
high inlet gas temperatures (-1750 F) for several
thousand hours between overhauls. Indeed, these new
alloys, helped by blade cooling, coatings, and/or
demisters, hold much promise in promoting the widespread use of gas turbines aboard ship [81].
Other material problems in marine versions of aircraft,
turbines have not been so difficult to overcome. Somc
changes have been needed to make components resistant
to the marine environment. These have included tha
coating of some components, the substitution of stainles~
alloys for some miscellaneous parts, and the substitutiorl
of aluminum alloys for magnesium alloys. Stainlcs~
steel or titanium should be used for compressor blading,
both for stators and rotors. References [84-881 aro
typical papers dealing with the marinization of gaH
turbines.
5.9 Main Propulsion Shafting. Propulsion s h a h
constitute one of the critical components in singltrscrew ships. Although there have been periods in which
propeller losses caused by tailshaft failures have beon
epidemic (1946-1950), such disabling casualties are now
infrequent. However, lesser casualties in the form of
surface deterioration and/or penetrating cracks do occur
frequently [89]. These are of serious concern to bot,l~
ship owners and underwriters.
~ r o ~ u l s i oshaft
n casualties are caused principally hy
corrosion, fatigue, and fretting corrosion [40]. Steps aro
usually taken to protect the shaft from seawater corrosion by applying protective coatings or covering^.
However, complete integrity against the ingress of H(!ILwater cannot be assured. The junctions between tho
covering and metallic components, such as bearing
sleeves and propeller hubs, are particularly vulnerahl(!.
Unfortunately, these are the areas where the nectl for
protection is greatest.
When seawater contacts the shaft surface, it invariul)ly
causes general corrosion and pitting. Corrosio~i I)y
itself is not serious, inasmuch as it rarely affects the ovtrrall strength of the shaft. I n most cases pits r ~ r ~ t l
corroded areas can be ground smooth, filled with a put,Oy
compound, and the protective covering reapplied. If
the pits are unusually deep, they are ground out and t t r t r r ~
built up by welding. However, corrosion pits can sat I ~ H
local sites for the initiation of fatigue cracks. Corro~ionfatigue cracks commonly occur in shafts a t the aft t r t ~ t l
of the bearing sleeve and at the forward end of illlo
propeller hub. This is a region of maximum fluctual,irly
bending stresses produced by propeller weight antl/or
off-center thrust. The amplitude of the bending s t r o ~ ~ t ~ u
may be greatly increased when the ship is travclli~~y
light. Complete failure of the shaft in this region

means the loss of the propeller and perhaps total disablement of the ship. Fortunately, fatigue cracks normally
progress slowly enough to be detected during overhaul.
Fatigue cracks initiating in tailshaft lteyways con:
stitute another source of casualties. As discussed in
Section 3.7, geometric discontinuities raise the local stress
level and thus decrease fatigue life. It has been shown
that detrimental effects can be reduced significantly
by contouring the keyway ends [40, 891.
Fretting corrosion is caused by minute movements
between mating parts. Because of the microscopic
welding and tearing actions which take place between
the mating surfaces, small microcracks which act as sites
for fatigue crack initiation readily form. Fretting in
tailshafts generally occurs under the ends of the bearing
sleeve and under the forward end of the propeller hub.
Accordingly, fatigue cracks formed in these areas
cannot be detected without cutting away the ends of the
sleeve or removing the propeller.
Experience has shown that the fatigue life of tailshafts
subjected to fretting can be improved greatly by cold
rolling the surface of the shaft [40, 901. Cold rolling
may not eliminate the formation of microcracks; it does,
however, produce residual compressive stresses in the
surface layers of the shaft, and this retards the propagation of fatigue cracks if they, do form. The U.S.
Navy generally cold rolls tailshafts that are 6 in. and
over in diameter. Rolling is usually restricted to about
one diameter on each side of the point where the propeller taper begins. The practice is also followed in the
design of some merchant ships but has not been generally
adopted by private ship designers, presumably because
of the expense involved.
Propulsion shafts for merchant ships usually are made
from normalized and tempered plain carbon steel
forgings conforming to the requirements of ABS Grade 2
steel [3]. Military ships usually employ higher strength,
quenched and tempered alloy steel shafts conforming to
Specification MIL-S-23284.
High-strength steels such as Class 1 of MILS-23284
are not generally used for outboard shafting where the
possibility of contact with seawater exists. In instances
where they are used, the higher strength is not considered
in the determination of the shaft size. The reason is that
the corrosion-fatigue properties of the higher-strength
steel are no better than those of a lower-strength steel
(see Fig. 11). However, high-strength steels are used
for inboard shafting to reduce the weight of the -shafting
and to increase its flexibility.
Weldability is an important characteristic of shafting
materials as shafting is vulnerable to damage that can
only be repaired by welding. For example, the removal
of a corrosion-fatigue crack by grinding, with a subsequent build-up of material by welding, can greatly
extend the life of many shafts.
5.10 Main Propulsion Gears. Although gears of
all types are used aboard ship, the main propulsion gears
are of greatest interest and concern to the marine
833
engineer. Gears generally fail from tooth breakage or

deterioration of the tooth contact surfaces. Tooth
breakage is caused by fatigue cracks which normally
initiate in the root of the tooth. Accordingly, such
factors as material strength, root radius, surface finish,
surface treatment, and bending stresses may greatly
affect the life and performance of the gears.
Deterioration of the ' contact surfaces is normally
caused by "pitting" a t or near the pitch line. Pitting is
a fatigue-type failyre generated by compressive rolling
loads when the tketh are meshing. This failure may
originate from 'either surface or subsurface fatigue,
depending on the circumstances. Once a crack appears
a t the surface, the hydrodynamic action of the lubricating oil assists in its propagation. Eventually a piece of
metal pops out, leaving a pit in the surface of the tooth.
Pitting problems can arise in a properly designed gear
from misalignment, helix-angle errors, tooth-spacing
errors, and improper lubrication. It is not uncommon
to have light pitting on the contact surfaces during the
first few months of service. This pitting usually ceases
after a brief period, and no further trouble is experienced.
Pitting of this type is sometimes called "corrective" or
"incipient" pitting. On the other hand, "heavy" or
"destructive" pitting is extremely serious and normally
requires immediate attention to prevent total destruction
of the gear.
From a fatigue standpoint, it is desirable to use steels
having high tensile strength for the gear elements.
However, the strength that can be developed in a steel
frequently is limited by section size and available heattreating facilities. The rims of large bull gears usually
are made from high-quality forgings that are either
normalized and tempered or quenched and tempered to
improve their strength and toughness. Both carbon and
alloy steels-are used. Typical steels in current use for
slow-speed gears are AISI-1030, 1035, 1050, 4137, and
4337. Higher hardness and strength can be developed
in pinions because of their smaller size. Normalized and
tempered AISI-1042 and quenched and tempered AISI4140 and 4340 are typical steels for pinion applications.
5.1 1 Propellers. The following properties and characteristics must be given consideration in selecting a
propeller material :
Castability
Strength and Ductility
Corrosion-Erosion Resistance
Cavitation Resistance
Weldability
Cost
Most propellers are casti&s made by pouring molten
metal into intricate molds. The propellers are cast close
to the required dimensions because their size and shape
preclude extensive machining. To meet these demanding requirements, it is important that the metal have
excellent castability, i.e., the ability to flow freely into
mold cavities and to solidify into sound metal.
The strength and ductility of the metal are important
834
MARINE ENGINEERING
in establishing the design and ,serviceability of a propeller.

High strength is necessary to resist the applied forces and
t o provide fatigue resistance. Blade loss, although
infrequent, usually can be attributed to.fatigue caused
by vibration or unsymmetrical loading (see Fig. 7). On
the other hand, blade damage frequently occurs from
striking submerged or floating objects. It is important
in these circumstances that the propeller material have
sufficient ductility, not only t o bend rather than break,
but to undergo subsequent straightening and repair.
Water and entrained debris move across the faces of
~ r o ~ e l lblades
er
a t high velocities. This action tends to
scour away protective films and expose bare metal to
corrosion. Thus, high corrosion-erosion resistance is
required in propeller applications. Also, the metal must
be resistant to cavitation damage should conditions
conducive to this phenomenon arise. The steel hull of a
ship, and protective zincs attached thereto, provide a
degree of galvanic protection which helps to reduce
propeller deterioration.
It is desirable, if not mandatory, that the metal be
weldable. Good weldability is required not only to
repair damage incurred during service, but also to
repair casting imperfections on the surface of the blades
during manufacture. The weld metal must be compatible with the base metal from the standpoint of corrosion
to prevent undesirable galvanic couples.
Copper-base alloys are the most widely used metals for
marine propellers. Certain of these alloys exhibit unique
combinations of the desirable features mentioned in the
foregoing, plus a built-in resistance to fouling produced
by the dissolution of copper. Manganese bronze,
similar to that specified in MIL-B-16443, was used
almost exclusively for marine propellers until about 1957.
Since then there has been a n increasing trend toward the
use of higher strength nickel-aluminum bronze and
manganese-nickel-aluminum bronze similar to alloys 1
and 2 of MILB-21230.
From time to time other types of alloys, such as 12y0
chromium stainless steel and titanium alloys, have been
used for marine propellers itl special applications. B y
and large, however, the copper-base alloys wiIl continue
to find the most widespread usage as marine propeller
materials.
5.12 Low-Temperature and Cryogenic Equipmen!.
The use of merchant ships to transport refrigerated cargo
and liquefied gases poses special material requirements.
The materials for storage tanks, pressure vessels, piping,
etc., must be capable of providing safe handling a t the
low temperatures encountered. I n addition, the equipment must be resistant to chemical attack by the cargo
being handed.
Two areas of material-application technology are
recognized. These are "low-temperature" a n d "cryogenics," which involve materials for applications to
-150 F and -459 I?, respectively. The low-temperature materials are those especially suited for handling
relatively "warmn liquefied gases such as propane,
anhydrous ammonia, carbon dioxide, and ethane.
The cryogenic inaterials are capable of handling liquefied methane, oxygen, nitrogen, argon, hydrogen, and
helium.
Because of their relatively low cost and ease of fabrication, steels have been widely used for low-temperature
and cryogenic applications [911. Not all steels, however,
are suitable for these applications. Many of the lowalloy ferritic steels are susceptible to '%rittlen fracture
a t low temperatures, and their so-called "notch toughness" must be thoroughly evaluated before use.
Notch toughness is the ability of a metal containing a
notch or crack to yield plastically under constraint and
high local stress. This property is a prime requisite of
metals for low-temperature applications and is vital to
the selection of materials for the handling, transportation,
and storage of liquefied gases. Methods of determining
this property are given in reference [ll.].
The notch toughness of most ferritic steels decreases
with decreasing temperature. Ferritic steels usually
undergo a sharp transition from ductile to brittle fracture
[92]. This does not preclude their use if great care ia
exercised in selecting an alloy for a specific application.
The ferritic 9yo Ni steel, ASTM A353, was developed
specifically for cryogenic applications down to liquid
nitrogen temperatures (-320 F).
The austenitic Cr-Ni stainless steels of the AISI 300
series show no marked decrease in toughness with
decreasing temperature. Furthermore, they are highly
corrosion resistant. Accordingly, they find wide um
over the entire range of cryogenic applications. Ferritic
and martensitic stainless steels generally are not recommended for cryogenic use.
The toughness of most nonferrous alloys is unaffected
by cryogenic temperatures. Aluminum alloys have bee11
used extensively, because of their fabricability and low
coat [93]. I n particular, the non-heat-treatable aluminum-magnesium alloys of the 5000 s&ies are umd widely
for cryogenic tankage.
Sectba 6
Glossary of Metallurgical T e n s UsEd in Matefirls Engineering2

reference electrode of the composition: Pt/Hg-HgzClz/KCl
solution. For one normal KC1 solution its potential versus
hydrogen at 25 f= and one atmosphere is +0.280 volts.
Carbide. A compound of carbon'with one or more metallic
elements.
Carbonitriding. Introducing carbon and nitrogen into a solid
ferrous alloy by' holding above Acl (see transformation
temperature) in an atmosphere that contains suitable gases
such as hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and ammonia.
The carbonitrided alloy is usually quench hardened.
Carburizing. Introducing carbon into a solid ferrous alloy
by holding above Acl (see transformation temperature) in
contact with a suitable carbonaceous material, which may
be a solid, liquid, or gas. The carburised alloy is usually
quench hardened.
Carbon Steel. Steel containing carbon up to about 2% and
only residual quantities of other elements except those
added for deoxidation, with silicon usually limited to
0.60% and manganese to about 1.65%. Also termed
"plain carbon steel," "ordinary steel,'' and "straight
carbon steel."
Case Hardening. Hardening a ferrous alloy so that the outer
portion, or case, is made substantially harder than the
inner portion or core. Typical processes used for case
hardening are carburizing, cyaniding, carbonitriding,
nitriding, induction hardening, and flame hardening.
Cast Iron. An iron containing carbon in escess of the
solubility in the austenite that exists in the alloy at the
eutectic temperature. For the various forms of gray cast
iron, white cast iron, malleable cast iron, and nodular cast
iron, the word "cast" is often left out, resulting in "gray
iron," "white iron," "malleable iron," and "nodular iron,"
respectively.
Cathode. The electrode where electrons enter (current
leaves) an operating system such as a battery or an eleetrolytic cell. In a battery or electrolytic cell, it is the
electrode where reduction occurs. Contrast with anode.
Cathodic Protection. Partial or complete protection of a
metal from corrosion by making it a cathode, using either
a galvanic or impressed current.
Cation. A positively charged ion; it flows to the cathode in
electrolysis.
Cavitation. The formation and instantaneous collapse of
innumerable tiny voids or cavities within a liquid subjected
to rapid and intense pressure changes. Cavitation produced by ultrasonic radiation is sometimes used to give
violent localized agitation. That caused by severe turbulent flow often leads to cavitation damage.
Cavitation Damage. Wearing away of metal through the
formation and collapse of cavities in a liquid.
Cavitation Erosion. See preferred term, cavitation damage.
Charpy Test. A pendulum-tyfie single-blow impact test in
which the specimen, usually notched, is supported at both
ends as a simple beam and broken by a falling pendulum.
The energy absorbed, as determined by the subsequent
rise of the pendulum, is a measure of impact strength or
notch toughness.
Clad Metal. A composite metal containing two or three
layen that have been bonded together. The bonding
Selected from thelist ofdefinitionspublishedinMet& Handbook,
may have been accomplished by co-rolling, welding,
8th Ed., Vol. 1, 1961, by the American Society for Metals.
Acid Embrittlement. A form of hydrogen embrittlemat whicK

may be induced in some metals by acid treatment.
Age Hardening. Hardening by aging, usually after rapid
cooling or cold working. See aging.
Aging. In a metal or alloy, a change in properties that
generally occurs slowly at room temperature and more
rapidly at higher temperatures.
Air-Hardening Steel. A steel containing sufficient carbon
and other alloying elements to harden fully during cooling
in air or other gaseous medium from a temperature above
its transformation range.
Alloy. A substance having metallic properties and being
composed of two or more chemical elements of which a t
least one is an elemental metal.
Alloying Element. An element added to a metal to effect
changes in properties, and which remains within the metal.
Alloy Steel. Steel containing significant quantities of
alloying elements (other than carbon and the commonly
accepted amounts of manganese, silicon, sulfur and
phosphorus) added to effect changes in the mechanical or
physical properties.
Anion. A negatively charged ion; it flows to the anode in
electrolysis.
Annealing. Heating to and holding at a suitable temperature and then cooling at a suitable rate, for such purposes
as reducing hardness, improving mchinability, facilitating
cold working, producing a desired microstruc.ture, or obtaining desired mechanical, physical, or other properties.
Anode. The electrode where electrons leave (current enters)
an operating system such as a battery or an electrolytic
cell. In a battery or electrolytic cell, it is the electrode
where oxidation occurs. Contrast with cathode.
Anode Corrosion. The dissolution of a metal acting as an
anode.
Austenite. A solid solution of one or more elements in facecentered cubic iron. Unless otherwise designated (such as
nickel austenite), the solute is generally assumed to be
carbon.
Austenitic Steel. An alloy steel whose structure is normally
austenitic at room temperature.
Austenitizing. Forming austenite by heating a ferrous alloy
into the transformation range (partial austenitising) or
above the transformation range (complete austenitising).
Bainite. A decomposition product of austenite consisting of
an aggregate of ferrite and carbide. In general, it forms at
temperatures lower than those where very fine pearlite
forms and higher than that where martensite begins to
form on cooling. Its appearance is feathery if formed in
the upper part of the temperature range and acicular,
resembling tempered martensite, if formed in the lower part.
Brazing. Joining metals by flowing a thin layer, capillary
thickness, of nonferrous filler metal into the space between
them.
Brittle Fracture. Fracture with little or no plastic deformation.
Calomel Electrode (Calomel Half Cell). A secondary
836
3N MATERIALS
MARINE EN
casting, heavy chemical deposition, or heavy electroplating:

Cleavage Fracture. A fracture, usually of a polycrystalline
metal, in which most of the grains have failed by cleavage,
resulting in bright reflecting facets. I t is one type of
crystalline fracture. Contrast with shear fracture.
Controlled Cooling. Cooling from an elevated temperature in
a redetermined manner to avoid hardening, cracking, or
iniernal damage or to produce a desired microstructure.
This cooling usually follows a hot-forming operation.
Cooling Stresses. Residual stresses resulting from nonuniform distribution of temperature during cooling.
Corrosion. The deterioration of a metal by chemical or
electrochemical reaction with its environment.
Corrosion Embrittlement. The severe loss of ductility of a
metal resulting from corrosive attack, usually intergranular
and often not visually apparent.
Corrosion Fatigue. Effect of the application of repeated or
fluctuating stresses in a corrosive environment characterized
by shorter life thanwould beencountered as a result of either
the repeated or fluctuating stresses alone or the corrosive
environment alone.
Creep. Time-dependent strain occurring under stress. The
creep strain occurring a t a diminishing rate is called
primary creep; that occurring a t a minimum and almost
constant rate, secondary creep; that occurring at an
accelerating rate, tertiary creep.
Creep Limit. (I) The maximum stress that will cause less
than a specified quantity of creep in a given time. (2) The
maximum nominal stress under which the creep strain rate
decreases continuously with time under constant load and
a t constant temperature. Sometimes used synonymously
with creep strength.
Creep Recovery. Time-dependent strain after release of
load in a creep test.
Creep-Rupture Test. Same as stress-rupture test.
Creep Strength. (I) The constant nominal stress that will
cause a specified quantity of creep in a given time at constant temperature. (2) The constant nominal stress that
will cause a specified creep rate a t constant temperature.
Crevice Corrosion. A type of concentration-cell corrosion;
corrosion of a metal that is caused by the concentration of
dissolved salts, metal ions, oxygen or other gases, and such,
in crevices or pockets remote from the principal fluid
stream, with a resultant building up of differential cells that
ultimately cause deep pitting.
Crystalline Fracture. A fracture of a polycrystallime metal
characterized by a grainy appearance. Contrast with
jibrous fracture.
Damping Capacity. The ability of a metal to absorb
vibration (cyclical stresses) by internal friction, converting
the mechanical energy into heat.
Decarburization. The loss of carbon from the surface of a
ferrous alloy as a result of heating in a medium that reacts
with the carbon at the surface.
Deoxidizer. A substance that can be added to molten metal
t o remove either free or combined oxygen.
Dezincification. Corrosion of some copper-zinc alloys
involving loss of zinc and the formation of a spongy
porous copper.
Ductile Iron. See nodular cast iron.
Ductility. The ability of a material to deform plastically
without fracturing. Measured by elongation or reduction
of area in a tensile test, by height of cupping in an Erichsen
test, or by other means.
837
*
Electrolyte. (1) An ionic conductor. (2) A liquid, most
often a solution, that will conduct an electric current.
Electromotive Series. A list of elements arranged according
to their standard electrode potentials. In corrosion
studies the analogous but more practical galvanic series of
metals is generally used. The relative position of a given
metal is not necessarily the same in the two series.
Embrittlement. Reduction in the normal ductility of a metal
due to a physical or chemical change.
Endurance Limit. Same as fatigue limit.
Erosion. Destruction of metals or other materials by the
abrasive action of moving fluids, usually accelerated by the
presence of solid particles or matter in suspension. When
corrosion occurs simultaneously, the term erosion-corrosion
is often used.
Exfoliation. A type of corrosion that progresses approximately parallel to the outer surface of the metal, causing
layers of the metal to be elevated by the formation of
corrosion product.
Fatigue. The phenomenon leading to fracture under repeated
or fluctuating stresses having a maximum value less than
the tensile strength of the material. Fatigue fractures aro
progressive, beginning as minute cracks that grow under
the action of the fluctuating stress.
Fatigue Life. The number of cycles of stress that can ba
sustained prior to failure for a stated test condition.
Fatigue Limit. The maximum stress below which a material
can presumably endure an infinite number of stress cycloti.
If the stress is not completely reversed, the value of t l ~ o
mean stress, the minimum stress, or the stress ratio shoultl
be stated.
Fatigue Strength. The maximum stress that can be sustaincd
for a specified number of cycles without failure, the stress
being completely reversed within each cycle unless otherwise stated.
Fatigue-Strength Reduction Factor (Kj). The ratio of llitr
fatigue strength of a member or specimen with no strortn
concentration to the fatigue strength with stress concerltration. Kj has no meaning unless the geometry, size, ant1
material of the member or specimen and stress range ~ ~ r o
stated.
Ferrite. A solid solution of one or more elements in bodycentered cubic iron. Unless otherwise designated (for
instance, as chromium ferrite), the solute is generally
assumed to be carbon. On some equilibrium diagr:~lnrt
there are two ferrite regions separated by an austenittr
area. The lower area is alpha ferrite; the upper, dcllr~
ferrite. If there is no designation, alpha ferrite is assumod.
Fibrous Fracture. A fracture where the surface is charactorized by a dull gray or silky appearance. Contrast wild^
crystalline fracture.
Flakes. Short discontinuous internal fissures in ferro~ln
metals attributed to stresses produced by localized trannformation and decreased solubility of hydrogen duri~lg
cooling after hot working. In a fractured surface, flakon
appear as bright silvery areas; on an etched surface thoy
appear as short discontinuous cracks. Also called "shntlor
cracks" and "snowflakes."
Flame Hardening. Quench hardening in which the heat in
applied directly by a flame.
Fretting (Fretting Corrosion). Action that results in surfnt:tr
damage, especially in a corrosive environment, when thoroo
is relative motion between solid surfaces in contact uniIols
pressure.
Galling. A condition developed on the rubbing surface of

one or both mating parts where excessive friction between
high spots results in localized welding with subsequent
spalling and a further roughening of the surface.
Galvanic Cell. A cell in which chemical change is the source
of electrical energy. I t usually consists of two dissimilar
conductors in contact with each other and with an electrolyte, or of two similar conductors in contact with each
other and with dissimilar electrolytes.
Galvanic Corrosion. Corrosion associated with the current
of a galvanic cell consisting of two dissimilar conductors in
an electrolyte or two similar conductors in dissimilar
electrolytes. Where the two dissimilar metals are in
contact, the resulting reaction is referred to as "couple
action."
Galvanic Series. A series of metals and alloys arranged
according to their relative electrode potentials in a specified
environment. Compare with electromotive series.
Grain. An individual crystal in a polycrystalline metal or
a110y.
Grain Growth (Coarsening). An increase in the size of
grains in polycrystalliie metal, usually effected during
heating a t elevated temperatures. The increase may be
gradual or abrupt, resulting in either uniform or nonuniform grains after growth has ceased.
Grain Size. For metals, a measure of the areas or volumes
of grains in a polycrystalline material, usually expressed as
an average when the individual sizes are fairly uniform.
Grain sizes are reported in terms of number of grains per
unit area or volume, average diameter, or as a grain-size
number derived from area measurements.
Graphitization. Formation of graphite in iron or steel.
Where graphite is formed during solidification, the phenomenon is called "primary graphitization"; where formed
later by heat treatment, "secondary g~aphitization."
Gray Cast Iron. A cast iron that gives a gray fracture due
to the presence of flake graphite. Often called gray iron.
Half Cell. An electrode immersed in a suitable electrolyte,
designed for measurements of electrode potential.
Hard Drawn. Temper of copper or copper alloy tubing
drawn in excess of 25% reduction in area.
Hardenability. In a ferrous alloy, the property that determines the depth and distribution of hardness induced by
quenching.
Hardness. Resistance of metal to plastic deformation
usually by indentation. However, the term may also
refer to stiffness or temper, or to resistance to scratching,
abrasion, or cutting, Indentation hardness may be measured by various hardness tests, such as Brinell, Rockwell,
and Vickers.
Heat-Affected Zone. That portion of the base metal which
was not melted during brazing, cutting, or welding, but
whose microstructure and physical properties were altered
by the heat.
Hydrogen Embrittlement. A condition of low ductility in
metals resulting from the absorption of hydrogen.
Impact Energy (Impact Value). The amount of energy
required to fracture a material, usually measured by means
of an Izod or Charpy test. The type of specimen and
testing conditions affect the values and therefore should be
specified.
Induction Hardening. Quench hardening in which the heat
is generated by electrical induction.
Intercrystalline. Between the crystals, or grains, of a metal.
Intergranular Corrosion. Corrosion occurring preferentially

at grain boundaries.
Intracrystalline. Within or across the crystals or grains of a
metal; same as transcrystalline and transgranular.
-Killed Steel. Steel deoxidized with a strong deoxidizing
agent such as silicon or aluminum in order to reduce the
oxygen content to such a level that no reaction occurs
between carbon and oxygen during solidification.
Local Cell. A galvanic cell resulting from inhomogeneities
between areas on a metal surface in an electrolyte. The
inhomogeneities mg+ be of physical or chemical nature in
either the metal m its environment.
Macrograph. A graphic reproduction of the surface of a
prepared specimen at a magnification not exceeding ten
diameters. When photographed, the reproduction is
known as a photomacrograph.
Macroscopic. Visible at magnifications from one to ten
diameters.
Macrostructure. The structure of metals as revealed by
examination of the etched surface of a polished specimen a t
a magnification not exceeding ten diameters.
Malleable Cast Iron. A cast iron made by a prolonged
anneal of white cast iron in which decarburization or
graphitization, or both, take place to eliminate some or all
of the cementite. The graphite is in the form of temper
carbon. If decarburization is the predominant reaction
the product will have a light fracture, hence, "whiteheart
malleable"; otherwise, the fracture will be dark, hence,
"blackheart malleable." "Pearlitic malleable" is a blackheart variety having a pearlitic matrix along with perhaps
some free ferrite.
Martensite. A metastable phase of steel, formed by a transformation of austenite below the M , (or Ar") transformation temperature. I t is an interstitial supersaturated
solid solution of carbon in iron having a body-centered
tetragonal lattice. Its microstructure is characterized by
an acicular, or needle-like, pattern.
Martempering. Quenching an austenitized ferrous alloy in
a medium a t a temperature in the upper part of the martensite range, or slightly above that range, and holding it in
the medium until the temperature throughout the alloy is
substantially uniform. The alloy is then allowed to cool
in air through the martensite range.
Mechanical Hysteresis. Energy absorbed in a complete
cycle of loading and unloading within the, elastic limit and
represented by the closed loop of the stress-strain curves
for loading and unloading. Sometimes referred to as
elastic, but more properly, mechanical.
Micrograph. A graphic reproduction of the surface of a
prepared specimen, usually etched, a t a magnification
greater than ten diameters. If produced by photographic
means it is called a photomicrograph (not a microphotograph).
Nitridiig. Introducing nitrogen, into a solid ferrous alloy by
holding a t a suitable tempergture (below ACI transformation temperature for ferritic steels) in contact with a
nitrogenous material, usually ammonia or molten cyanide
of appropriate composition. Quenching is not required
to produce a hard case.
Nodular Cast Iron. A cast iron tha't has been treated while
molten with a master alloy containing an element such as
magnesium or cerium to give primary graphite in the
spherulitic form.
MARINE ENGINEERING
3Tonnatizing. Heating a ferrous alloy to a suitable temperature above the transformation range and then cooling in
Sacrificial Protection. Redding the extent of corrosion of a

metal in an electrolyte by coupling it to another metal that
fracture at points of stress concentration. For example,

in a notch tensile test, the material is said to be "notch
brittle" if the notch strength is less than the tensile
strength. Otherwise, it is said to be "notch ductile."
Notch Rupture Strength. The ratio of applied load to original
area of the minimum cross section in a stress-rupture test
of a notched specimen.
Notch Sensitivity. A measure of the reduction in strength
of a metal caused by the presence of stress concentration.
Values can be obtained from static, impact, or fatigue tests.
Overaging. Aging under conditions of time and temperature
greater than those required to obtain maximum change in a
certain property, so that the property is altered in the
direction of the initial value. See aging.
Passivation. The changing of the chemically active surface
of a metal to a much less reactive state.
Passivity. A condition in which a piece of metal, because of
applied to stress-corrosion cracking of brass.

Shot Peening. Cold working the surface of a metal by metalshot impingement.
Silver Brazing. Brazing with silver-base alloys as the filler
metal.
Size Effect. Effect of the dimensions of a piece of metal
upon its mechanical and other properties and upon manufacturing variables such as forging reduction and heat
treatment. In general, the mechanical properties ara
lower for a larger size.
Slack Quenching. The process of hardening steel by quenching from the austenitizing temperature at a rate slower than
the critical cooling rate for the particular steel, resulting in
incomplete hardening and the formation of one or mom
transformation products in addition to or instead sf
martensite.
Solution Heat Treatment. Heating an alloy to a suitablo
The temperature a t which austenite transforms to
delta ferrite during heating.
Ae,,, Ael, Aer, Ae4. The temperatures of phase changes
a t equilibnum.
AT,,. In hypereutectoid steel, the temperature at which
precipitation of cementite starts during coolmg.
Arl. The temperature a t which transformation of austenite to ferrite or to ferrite plus cementite is completed
/
during cooling.
Ar3. The temperature a t which austenite begins to transform to ferrite dudng cooling.
Ar4. The temperature a t which delta ferrite transforms to
austenite during cooling.
1M,(or AT"). The temperature at which transformation of
austenite to martensite starts during cooling.
Mf. The temperature a t which martensite formation
finishes during cooling.
stressJ' denotes the stress where force and area are measured
at the same time. "Conventional stress," aer applied to tension and compression tests, is force divided by the original
area. "Nomind stress" is the stress computed by simple
elasticity formulas, ignoring stress raisers and disregarding plastic flow; in a notch bend test, for example, it is bending
moment divided by minimum section modulus.
Stress Concentration Factor, Kt. The ratio of the greatest
stress, in the region of a notch or other stress raiser as
determined by advanced theory, photoelasticity or direct
measurement of elastic strain, to the corresponding
nominal stress.
Stress-Gorrosion Cracking. Failure by cracking under
combined action of corrosion and stress either external
(applied) or internal (residual). Cracking may be intergranular and/or transgranular, depending on metal and
corrosive medium.
or electrochemical reaction.
Radiography. A nondestructive method of internal examinaa t least 0.25%; ingot iron contains considerably less.
tion in which metal or other objects are exposed to a beam Strain. A measure of the change in the size or shape of IL
of x-ray or gamma radiation. Differences in thickness,
body, referred to its original size or shape. "Linear straia"
density or absorption, caused by internal discontinuities,
is the change per unit length of a linear dimension. "'J'ruc~
are apparent in the shadow image either on a fluorescent
strain" (or "natural strainJJ) is the natural logarithm of
screen or on photographic film placed behind the object.
tlie ratio of the length at the momerit of observation to thn
Recrystallization. (1) The change from one crystal structure
original gage length. "Conventional strain" is the lino~rr.
to another, as occurs on heating or cooling through a
strain referred to the original gage length. "Shearing
critical temperature. (2) The formation of a new, strainstrain" (or "shear strain") is the change in angle (exprn~ucttl
free grain structure from that existing in cold-worked
in radians) between two limes originally a t right an~loa.
metal, usually accomplished by heating,
When the term strain is used alone, it usually refers to t 1 1 ~
Refractorg Alloy. (1) A heat-resistant alloy. (2) An alloy
linear strain in the direction of the applied stress.
having an extremely high meltiqg point. (3) An alloy Strain Hardening. An increase in hardness and strongldr
difficult to work at elevated temperatures.
caused by plastic deformation a t temperatures lower ~ I I I L I I
Relaxation. Relief of stress by creep. Some types of tests
the recrystallization range.
are designed to provide diminution of stress by relaxation Stress. Force per unit area, often thought of as force ao0i11~
a t constant strain, as frequently occurs in service.
through a small area within a plane. It can be divhlcvl
Residual Stress. Stress present in a body that is free of
into components, normal and parallel to the plane, cellatl
external forces or thermal gradients.
"normal stress" and "shear stress," respectively. "'J'~IIo
during cold working.

Temper Brittleness. Brittleness that results when certain
steels are held within, or are cooled slowly through, a
certain range of tempemture below the transformation
range. The brittleness is revealed by notched-bar impact
tests at or below room temperature.
Tempering. Reheating a quench-hardened or normalized
ferrous alloy to a temperature below the transformation
range and then cooling a t any rate desired.
Thermal Fatigue. Fracture resulting from the presence of
temperature gradients which vary with time in such a
manner as to produce cyclic stresses in a structure.
Toughness. Ability of a metal to absorb energy and deform
plastically before fracturing. It is usually measured by
the energy absorbed in a notch impact test, but the area
under the strewtrain curve in tensile testing is also a
measure of toughness.
Transformation Temperature. The temperature a t which a
change in phase occurs. The term is sometimes used to
denote the limiting temperature of a transformation range.
The following symbols are used for iron and steels:
Ac,,.
In hypereutectoid steel, the temperature a t which
the solution of cementite in austenite is completed during
to austenite is completed during heating.
include brazing.
White Metal. A general term covering a group of whitecolored metals of relatively low melting points (lead,
antimony, bismuth, tin, cadmium, and zinc) and of the
alloys based on these metals.
Work Hardening. Same as strain hardening.
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~ U.S. Coast
i
~
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27 W. L. Williams, "Shipboard Salt Water PipingInfluence of Material and Design on Performance,"
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1964.
34 D. 0. Sprowls and R. H. Brown, "What Every
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35 I. R. Lane, J. L. Cavallaro, and A. G. S. Morton,
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36 B. F. Brown, "A New Stress-Corrosion Cracking
Test for High Strength Alloys," Materials Research and
Standards, March, 1966.
37 Report on Stress Corrosion Cracking of Austenitic
Chromium-Niclcel Stainless Steels, ASTM Special Technical Publication 264, 1960.
38 Manual on Fatigue Testing, ASTM Special
Technical ~ublication91, 1949.
39 A Guide for Fatigue Testing and the Statistical
Analysis of- Fatigue Data, ASTM Special Technical
Publication 9 1 4 , 1963.
40 Large Fatigue Testing Machines and Their Results,
ASTM Special Technical Publication 216, 1957.
41 Manual on Low-Cycle Fatigue Testing, ASTM
Special Technical Publication 465, 1970.
43 G. Sines and J. L. Waisman, Metal Fatigue,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1959.
44 J. J. Burke, et al., Fatigue-An Interdisciplinary
Approach, Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, N.Y.,
1964.
45 A. F. Madayag, Metal Fatigue: Theory and Design,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1969.
46 T. R. Gurney, Fat.igue of Welded Structures,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1968.
47 Fatigue Design Handbook, Society of Automotive
Engineers, 1968.
48 J . 0. Almen and P. H. Black, Residual Stresses
and Fatigue in Metals, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, 1963.
49 R. C. Schwab and E. J. Czyr~ca,Eflecls of
Environment and Complex Load History on Fatigue Life,
50 R. E. Peterson, Stress Concentration Design
Factors, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1953.
51 P. M. Brister and W. E. Leyda, Proc.-Vol. I:
Joint Interfiational Conference on Creep, ASME-ASTMIME, London, 1963.
52 E. L. Robinson, "The ~esis6inceto Relaxation of
Materials a t High Temperature," Trans. ASME, 1939.
53 E. L. Robinson, "High-Temperature Bolting
Materials," Proc. ASTM, 1945.
54 Relaxation Properties of Steels and Super-Strength
Alloys at Elevated Temperatures, ASTM Special Technical
Publication 187, 1956, and Data Series. Publication 14,
1961.
55 A. H. Rosenstein and W. H. Asche, Temper
Embrittlement in Steel, ASTM Special Technical Publication 407, 1965.
56 S. S. Manson, Proc.-Vol. 11:Joint International
84 1
Conference on Creep, ASME-ASTM-IME, London, 1963.

57 G. V. Smith, "Evaluation of Elevated Temperature Strength Data," Journal of Materials, ASTM,
December, 1969.
58 An Evaluation of the Yield, Tensile, Creep and
Rupture Strengths of Wrought 304, 316, 391 and 347
Stainless Steels at Elevated Temperatures, ASTM Data
Series Publication DS5S2, 1969.
58 Symposium on Eflect of Cyclic Heating and Stressing on Metals at Elevated Temperatures, ASTM Special
for Seawater Service," Journal of Engineering for Power,

Trans. ASME, October, 1966,
75 N. G. Feige and R. L. Kane, "The Application of
Titanium for Desalination Plants," Metals Engineering
Quarterly, August, 1967.
76 W. H. Hatfield, G. Stanfield, and L. Rotherham,
"The Damping Capacity of Engineering Materials,"
Engineering, June, 1942. '
..'
77 D. W. James, "High Damping Metals for Engineering Applications,:' Materials Science and Engineering,
Temperatures and Effect of NowSteady Load and Temperature Conditions on the Creep of Metals, ASTM Special
61 Literature Survey on Creep Damage in Metals,
62 W. J. Greenert, "High Temperature Slag Corrosion of Metallic Materials," Corrosion, February and
Physical Factors on the Formation of Deposits from

Residual Fuels," Trans. ASME, 1955.
79 B. 0. Buckland and D. G. Sanders, "Modified
Residual Fuel for Gas Turbines," Trans. ASME, 1955.
80 H. W. Schab, "A Bibliography of a Decade of
R e s e a r ~ ~ oOil-Gas
n
Corrosion by Heavy Fuels, " Journal
ASNE, November, 1958.
Potential of Light Water Reactors, AEC Publication

WASH 1082, 1968.
64 P. Cohen, Coolant Chemical Technolugy of Aqueous
Heterogeneous Reactor Systems, Gordon and Breach
Science Publishers, Inc., New York, 1969.
65 G. D. Whitman, G. C. Robinson, and A. W.
Savolainen, Technology of Steel Pressure Vesselsfor WaterCooled Nuclear Reactors, Nuclear Safety Information
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66 The Eflecls of Radiation on Structural Metals,
67 L. E. Steele, "Neutron Irradiation Embrittlement
of Reactor Pressure-Vessel Steels," Atomic Energy
Review, Vienna, 1969.
68 W. L. Williams, "Chloride and Caustic Stress
82 Hot Corrosion Problems Associated with Gas

Turbines,ASTM Special Technical Publication 421,1967.
83 G. J. Danek, Jr., "State-of-the-Art Survey on Hot
Corrosion in Marine Gas Turbine Engines," Naval
Engineers Journal, December, 1965.
84 R. W. Stuart Mitchell, "The Influence of Current
Research and Development on the Application of the
Open-Cycle Gas Turbine as a Propulsion Unit for
Merchant Ships, " ASME Paper 66-GT/M33, 1966.
85 E. E. Stoeckly, "Development of the General
Electric LM-1500 Gas Turbine as a Marine Power Plant, "
Journal of Engineering for Power, Trans. ASME, April,
1966.
86 N. K. Bowers, "Gas Turbines in the Royal Navy, "
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73 W.
Williams, The Science, Technology and
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1967.
93 Aluminum, edited by K. R. Van Horn, American
Society for Metals, Metals Park, 1967.
1
,
I
r
PETROLEUM FUELS
CHAPTER X X l l l
I
VAPOR FEED
GAS PLUS
LIQUID FEED
LIGHT FUEL OIL
Section 1
Fuel Manufacture and Characteristics
1.1 Scope. This chapter deals with fuels which are
used in main and auxiliary internal combustion engines
and boilers aboard ship. Since wood- and coal-burning
ships have virtually disappeared from the w s , these
fuels are not discussed. On the other hand, nuclear
fuels are a subject in themselves and a discussion of this
source of energy, and the means employed to harness it,
are presented in Chapter 4. This chapter, therefore, is
devoted to petroleum fuels and covers the source and
manufacture of the various types in use, the means
employed to define their ~ r o ~ e r t i ethe
s , relation of these
properties to power-plant requirements, and lastly a
digest of the worldwide bunkering system and fuel
availability picture.
1.2 Distillation Processes. The source of petroleum
fuels is crude oil, which consists of hydrocarbons ranging
from very light volatile gases to heavy residues such as
the familiar asphalt used in road paving. The refining
process by which a host of products is produced can be
considered essentially as a series of steps aimed a t separating hydrocarbons, rearranging certain types to
produce more desirable hydrocarbons, treating to remove
undesirable constituents, arad introducing additives to
accentuate existing properties and/or impart totally new
The first basic step in petroleum refining is the

separation of the crude oil into desired components or
fractions. This is called atmospheric distillation and
can be likened to boiling water in a tea kettle and
condensing the steam on a cold surface which returns the
steam tc liquid again. Water, of course, has a single
boiling point. Crude oil, on the other hand, consists of
thousands of compounds of different boiling points and,
therefore, a more elaborate distillation and condensation
process is involved. During the distillation process, the
crude oil is heated in a pipe still to a temperature sufficient
to produce the desired degree of vaporization, after
which it paases into a fractioning column as illustrated by
Fig. 1. There is a gradation of temperature in the
fractioning column from top to bottom; therefore, a t any
location in the tower, lighter materials remain in a vapor
state and rise to the top, whereas the higher-boiling
materials condense and fall to the bottom. On each
fractionating tray there is continuous boiling and condensation which forms an equilibrium mixture of a given
boiling range. The trays and drawoffs are located a t
FRACTIONATING
Fig. 2 Air-lift h m f w catalytic ua&ing process
HEATER
"
CR,'DE
STRIPPING
STREAM
Fig. I Atmospheric distillation process
points in the column which yield cuts of the desired

boiling range.
At atmospheric pressures, a pipe-still distillation is
limited to about 700 F, since higher temperatures result
in cracking of some of the heavy hydrocarbons and the
formation of materials which are not desired a t this stage
of refining. If higher-boiling frac~ionsare ulanted, a
"vacuum tower" is used, which is essentially the same
type of equipment except that it is operate,d under
reduced pressures. This, of course, results in the hydrocarbons boiling a t lower temperatures and eliminates the
high-temperature cracking condition. The heavy hydrocarbons which are recovered in the vacuum tower are
unchanged from their composition in the original crude.
Other refining processes follow either of these primary
distillation steps and are aimed a t cracking and rearranging hydrocarbons to produce products with various
properties. One such process is called "visbreaking"
where the charge stock, usually a residuum from the
atmospheric distillation process, is subjected to high

temperatures (856 F) and pressures in excess of 1000 psi.
The hrge molecules of the heavy hydrocarbons break
up under these conditions, and the resulting lighter
materials are separated in a fractionating column. The
remaining residuum is lighter in nature and less viscous,
thus the name of the process "visbreaking. "
I n order to gain a higher proportionate yield of light
products such as gasoline and kerosine, various processes
utilize the heavy distillate from the primary atmospheric
distillation as charging stock which is then subjected to
cracking and reforming. The objective is to rearrange
various hydrocarbons to those having more desirable
properties for the intended product. The processes
which first were developed were named after their
inventors, i.e., Dubbs and Cross Thermal Cracking
Units. The furnaces in these units operate a t temperatures of 950 F and pressures of 800 psi. The volatile
fractions are separated in a fractionating column and the
residuum from these processes is a heavy tar material.
Such units have largely been replaced by catalytic
cracking units in which lower temperatures and pressures
can be employed because of the action of catalyst
materials. (A catalyst is a material which accelerates
a chemical reaction without itself entering into the
design, largely centering on methods for continuously

introducing active catalyst and removing spent catalyst
to be regenerated. In a process called TCC (Thermofor
Catalytic Cracking) the catalyst in bead form is carried
by an air lift to the top of the structure where it flows
down through a reactor vessel and then to a regenerator
kiln to begin the cycle all over again; the TCC process
is illustrated by Fig. 2. PreE&ted oil enters the reactor
catalyst near the top to flow downward with the catalyst.
The cracked products leaving the reactor are separated
in a fractionating column.
Another process called the Fluid Catalyst Process
utiliaes a catalyst in a powdered form as compared to
beads in the TCC process. The powdered catalyst is
circulated by oil, steam, or air pressure and arranged to
feed into the reactor vessel with tlie feed stock to be
cracked.
Great advances have been made in catalyst chemistry
such that materials are available which provide high
activity, .long durability, and of most importance,
selectivity to produce desirable end products. Through
the proper use of catalysts, it has been possible to
significs~tlyincrease the yield of products in great
demand, such as gasoline and light fuel oil, and, a t the
same time, reduce the portion of less-desirable materials
such as coke, fuel gas, and heavy fuel oil.
Various types of catalytic cracking units are employed;
Reforming is another process by which hydrocarbons
their names generally denote the method for introducing may be rearranged to ob_tain more desirable properties.
and regenerating the catalyst. The first process was Low-boiling naphtha may be fed to a furnace where it is
developed by Eugene Houdry and was called a "fixed heated to 1100 F under pressures of 1500 psi. By
bed" unit. With a fixed bed unit, preheated oil vapors introducing quench oil a t the proper time, reactions are
pass through the bed until coke formation on the catalyst stopped thereby yielding the desired products. The
reduces its activity. The oil stream then is switched to reactions which take place break up large molecules, as
another case while the bed of catalyst in the spent case is well as joining smaller ones together, yielding a stock of
regenerated by blowing air through it to burn off the higher octane number than the original feed stock.
coke. Improvements have been made over the original
Thermal reforming has largely been replaced by the
844
MARINE ENGINEERING
'
PBROLEUM FUELS
Table 1
Fuel Test Methods
'I'EBT
METHODO m a UED TO CHAIUCTEWE F ~ FOR
L
HIGH MEDIUM-AND
GAS SPEED LOW-SPEED
T~BINE
DIESEL DIEBEL BOILER
Combustion:
- cetane number. ........... ASTM D-613
diesel index. .............. IP 21
cetane index. .............ASTM D-976
luminometer.. ............ ASTM Dl740
heat of combustion. ....... ASTM D-240
Conradson carbon residue ASTM D-189
Rambottom carbon residue ASTM D-524
Volatility-Density:
distillation.. .............. ASTM D-86
gravity.. ..........,...... ASTM D-287
-
TREATER
RECYCLE
c.,
..
STRIPPER
PARA
2ND
S T B E FEED
PRODUCT
I
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-a
@
X
X
'
X
X
' X ,
X
X
X
X
Fluidity:
pour point.. .............. ASTM D-97
X
X
X
viscosity.. ................ASTM D-445
X
X
X
X
Safety:
flash point.. .............. ASTM IT56
X
X
X
X
or D-93
CledhewPurity:
water..
ASTM D-95
X
X
X
X
ash.. ....................ASTM D-482
X
X
X
X
sediment. ................ASTM D-473
X
X
X
water and sediment.. ...... ASTM 1796
X
Corrosiveness:
.............
co per strip.. ............. ASTM Dl30
X
X
s ur.. ..................ASTM Dl29
X
X
X
X
or 1%6
vanadium.
Note 1 below
X
X
X
X
sodium..
Note 1 below
X
potassium.. .............. Note 1 below
X
X
calcium..
Note 1 below
X
Note 1 below
lead..
Note 1: Them am no industry-wide standard methods; these are determined by,-eemical
or spectrographic analytical procedures.
..................
UE
Fig. 3 Hydrowadring flow rhwt
, catalytic reforming process which produces greater
yields of high octane fractions. I n the catalytic reforming process, light naphtha and hydrogen are pumped
through a furnace a t temperatures of about 950 F and
pressures of 200-600 psi. The mixture then passes
through a series of reactors containing a platinum or
alumina catalyst.
Hydrocracking, which is illustrated by Fig. 3, is
another process for hydrocarbon conversion. I n this
process, a mixture of hydrocarbon feed and recycle gas a t
500-800 I? and 500-3000 psi is contacted with a catalyst
in reactors. Hydrogen-rich gas and unconverted hydrocarbons are recycled to complete the desired reactions.
This process may be used to convert a wide variety of
feed stocks to products of lower molecular weight, e.g.,
gasoline and light fuels.
Coking is a thermal process in which heavy residuum
is converted to nearly pure carbon. While the other
processes described in the foregoing are operated to
minimize coke formation, this process is designed to
manufacture coke a t a high temperature (900 F) but low
pressure: The coke is formed in drums and light
volatile fractions flow to a fractionating column for
separation. The coke is removed from the drums as a
solid.
Polymerization processes are designed to join light
hydrocarbons to form heavier ones. This is opposite to
the cracking processes. The light hydrocarbons in the
gas from catalytic cracking are joined in the presence of
specific catalysts to produce high-octane-number gasoline
blending stocks. Alkylation is a similar process in which

slightly heavier hydrocarbons are combined, in the
presence of a catalyst, to form high-octane-number
gasoline blending stocks.
Many other miscellaneous processes are used in lightproducts refining. One other process of particular
interest is catalytic hydrodesulfurization for treating
kerosines, gasolines, and diesel fuels. I n this process,
the oil to be desulfurized plus hydrogen is heated to
600-700 F under pressuFs of 250-800 psi. The stream
flows through a catalyst in a reactor, where the sulfur is
converted to hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen and light ends
are stripped from the oil and the effluent hydrogen sulfide
is absorbed in a diethanolamine solution.
F i l refining ateps include stabilization of gasolines
to maintain the required volatility, gas recovery processes, "sweetening" processes to convert foul-smelling
sulfur compounds, and caustic washes to control the
phenolic content of the finished product.
The various stocks and cuts from the processes
described are blel'ded to produce finished products
having the desired properties for the intended applications. Additives are employed to enhance existing
properties and/or impart new ones, e.g., ethyl fluid to
increase gasoline octane number, oxidation inhibitors to
impart storage stability, and others.
1.3 Fuel Properties. The fuel products obtained
by refining crude oil range from the lightest LPG
(petroleum gases liquefied by pressure or refrigeration)
through aviation and automotive gasolines (90 F to
...............
.................
................
...................
430 F boiling range), kerosine and jet fuel (300 to 550 F

boiling range), household heating oils (400 to 650 F
boiling range), diesel fuels (400 to 750 F boiling range),
down to residual fuels (600 to 1200 F boiling range).
Each of the fuel products must have certain properties
to malie it suitable for its intended application. These
properties are defined by certain tests of a chemical and
physical nature. The American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) and British Institute of Petroleum
(IP) methods for testing petroleum products are most
generally used and recognized over the world. There are
other societies which also issue test methods, but to treat
all of these would become repetitious.
The test methods in common and widespread use are
indicated in Table 1. Note that the test methods are
grouped in categories broadly denoting the performance
property with which they are associated. A brief
description is given in the following of each of these test
methods together with the significance of the values
obtained.
a. Gravity ASTM D-1298. By use of a glass
hydrometer, the density, specific gravity, or API
gravity may be determined. Values are measured on
the scale of a hydrometer a t convenient temperatures,
with readings of density being reduced to 15 C, and
readings of specific gravity and API gravity to 60 F by

means of international standard tables [I].' By means
of these tables, values in one system are readily converted
to either of the other two. It is, of course, necessary to
know the density of a fuel to compute the weight of fuel
in a tank of known volume.
Since API gravity bears a known relationship to water,
i t is useful in estimating the water separation characteristics of a fuel. For example, since water has an API
gravity of 10 deg, lighter fuels (greater than 10 deg) will
sepa~ateeasily. Heavier fuels (lower than 10 deg) will
separate only after heating, which raises the API gravity
of the oil and reduces its viscosity.
The specific gravity of a fuel is a broad indicator of the
fuel composition; therefore, it is used as a parameter in
various empirical relations, such as diesel index and heat
of combustion.
b. Pour Point ASTM- D-97. The pour point test is
used to determine the temperature a t which a fuel can
be poured under closely prescribed conditions. A fuel
sample is placed in a cylindrical jar; after preliminary
heating, the sample is cooled a t a specified rate. At
Numbera in brackets designate Referencee at end of chapter.
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 2
PETROLEUM FUELS
Approximate Viscosity Equivalents at the Same Temperature
(For conversion of viscosities at the same temperature. Actual equivalents vary sli htly
with temperature. Values in this table are average equivalents and ma be use8 for
conversion within the uaual temperature range of viscosity memurement o?fYeh without
significant error. Values in italics are.extrapolatlorn beyond the normal working range of
the particular instrument used in determining viscosity.)
Saybolt
Sa bolt
Redwood
Redwood
Kinematic
Umved
&l
No. 1
No. 2
Engler
(centistokes) (seconds)
(seconds)
(seconds)
(seconds)
(degrees)
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
141
150
159
168
177
186
195
204
213
223
232
255
278
301
324
347
370
393
417
19
19
90
U
9l
98
83
94
2
26
28
30
33
35
37
40
42
44
124
132
140
148
156
164
172
180
188
197
205
225
245
266
286
306
327
347
367
16
16
17
17
18
19
90
rn
dl
93
$6
97
89
31
33
36
37
4.07
4.32
4.57
4.82
5.08
5.34
5.59
5.84
6.10
6.36
6.63
7.24
7.90
8.55
9.21
9.87
10.5
11.2
11.8
5-deg-F increments, an examination of flow character- equivalent values can be obtained from conversion tables
istics is made and the lowest temperature at which for determinations made at the same temperature, as
movement of the oil is observed is recorded as the pour indicated in Table 2.
The ASTM D-445 method of assessing viecosity
point. As a guide, bunker fuels in mme areas of the
(kinematic viscosity) involves measuring the time
world have pour points of about 80 F.
The pour point is important in that the fuel must be required for a fixed volume of fuel a t a given temperature
Table 2 (continued)
Kinematic
(centistokes)
200
220
240
260
280
Saybolt
Universal
(seconds)
926
'1018
1111
1204
1296
Saybolt
Furol
(seconds)
95
104 *
113
123
132
Redwood
No. 1
(seconds)
816
898
980
**lo61
1143
Redwood
No. 2
(seconds)
88
90
98
106
114
Engler
(degrees)
26
29
32
34
37
380
1760
179
1551
155
50
400
1852
188
1633
163
53
420
1944
197
1714
171
55
440
2037
207
1796
180
58
61
460
2129
216
1877
188
480
2222
226
1960
196
63
500
2314
235
2041
204
66
225
72
2245
550
2546
258 .
245
79
600
2777
282
650
3008
306
265
86
700
3240
329
2857
286
92
750
3472
352
3062
306
99
800
3703
376
3266
327
105
850
3935
400
3470
347
112
900
4166
423
3674
367
118
446
3878
388
125
950
4398
408
132
1000
4629
470
4082
517
4490
449
145
1100
5092
564
4898
490
158
1200
5555
611
5307
531
171
1300
6018
658
5715
572
184
1400
6481
705
6123
612
197
1500
6944
752
6531
663
211
1600
7406
790
6939
694
224
7869
1700
846
7348
735
237
1800
8332
1900
893
7756
776
250
8795
2000
9258
940
8164
816
883
For viscosities greater than 1000 sec the Furol instrument is usually em loyed.
** For viscositiesgreater than 1000aec the Redwood NO.2instrumentis uaudy employed.
23
for the most part, require a maximum viscosity of 90

SUS at the nozzle for proper spray. Figure 4 shows the
viscosity-temperature relationships for typical bunker
fuels as applied to boiler usage [3].
I t should be noted that fuel oil preheaters should be
placed on the discharge side of supply pumps so that the
fuel is heated under pressure, thereby avoiding the
f.lashiig of entrained water or light components with a
consequent vapor lock.
d. Distillation ASTM D-86. A distillation test is
used to determine the volatility characteristics, or
boiling range, of a fuel. A measured sample is heated
in a flaskand the vapors are condensed and jreclaimed in
a graduated cylinder. The temperature of initial boiling, incremental percents of liquid recovery, and final
boiling points are recorded. Measurements are also
made of the nonvaporiaed residue and losses. The
temperature curve depicts the boiling points of the
multitude of hydrocarbons of which the fuel is composed.
While the test can be applied to all fuels, it is primarily
used to characterize the lighter products (i.e., jet fuel,
light diesel oil, and light fuel oils).
The initial boiling point and the 10-percent recovery
point are commonly associated with the cold-starting

characteristics of high-speed diesel engines and the
ignition properties of jet engine fuels and light boiler
fuels. The h a 1 boiling point and the last 10-percent
recovery point are related to smoking in diesels and
boilers. As mentioned later, the 5Gpercent recovery
temperature is used as a parameter in calculating the
cetane number [2,3].
Many other relations in petroleum manufacture and
blendin4 utilize distillation data. SufEce it to say that
engine and boiler manufacturers state volatility require
ments for their equipment on the basis of this simple yet
extremely meaningful test.
. e. Flash Point ASTM D-56 and D-93. Two methods
are commonly employed to deterrnipe the flash point of
fuels; one is the D-56 tagclosed flash-point test for fuels
with a flash point less than 175 F, and the other is the
D-93 Pensky-Martens closed cup test. In both tests
the fuel sample is heated in a closed cup and a test flame
is periodically passed through the vapors above the liquid
level. The lowest temperature a t which the vapors
ignite is the flash point. The value determined is
indicative of the maximum temperature a t which the fuel
MARINE ENGINEERING
PErROLEUM FUELS
Table 3 Specific Gravity and Heating Values of Fuel Oils
HIGHER
HEATING
VALUE LOWER
HEATING
VALUE
GEAVXTY
AT 60/60 F
UPPER RANGE OF VISCOSITY FOR

BUNKER FUELS
Deg API
>
70
Specific
Gravitv
(at conatant volume)

Btu per
Btu
Gal st
~ e Lb
r
60F
(at comtmit preeaure)

Btu per
Btu
Gal at
~ e Lb
r
60 F
60
55
--
50
45
40
NOTE: CURVES SHOW AVERAGE VALUES ONLY
10
30
70
90
110nLL130
150
170
190
210
230
250
270
290
TEMPERATURE, DEGREES FAHRENHEIT

Fig. 4 Viieasitptempcrature characbrtrtio for a range of typical bunker fuel oils
can be stored or handled without the risk of explosive

vapors.
A 150 F minimum flash point is the generally accepted
minimum value for fuels used aboard ship. While this
minimum is specified by the various European classification societies, the U.S. Coast Guard has revised
coastal shipboard requirements to permit fuels having a
minimum flash point of 140 F.
f. Luminometer Number ASTM D-1740. A luminometer test is used to measure the flame radiation
characteristicsof a fuel and, therefore, is indicative of the
combustion quality of jet or distillate products used in
gas turbines. Fuel flame radiation characteristics are
determined by burning the fuel in a particular lamp and
measuring the flame radiation through optical and photocell equipment.
The burning process in gas turbine combustors is
primarily determined by various factors of design.
However, the lufinometer number is an indication of the
amount of energy in the form of thermal radiation and is,
therefore, a specification requirement usually stipulated
by manufacturers of aircraft-type gas turbines to avoid

engine overheating and combustor daniage.
g. Heat of Combustion ASTM D-240. A heat of
combustion test is conducted to determine the heat
generated during the combustion of a fuel under rigidly
controlled conditions. A weighed sample of fuel is
'8iurned in an oxygen bomb calorimeter and the heat of
combustion is computed from temperature observa%ions
before, during, and after combustian. Corrections are
made for thermochemical and heat-transfer effects. The
results. are reported either in calories per gram or Btu
(British thermal units) per pound. The total heat of
combustion (also called gross, or higher, heating value)
includes the latent heat of the water vapor formed
during the combustion of hydrogen. The net heat of
combustion (also known as the lower heating value) is
the total heat of combustion minus the latent heat of the
water vapor formed during combustion. Use of the latter
value is sometimes preferred (in Europe) because it is
reasoned that the latent heat of the water formed during
combustion is unrecoverable in practical applications.
For example, a diesel engine's exhaust is a t temperatures

well above the boiling point of water. While the use of
the net heating value can be justified, thermal efficiencies
in the United States are customarily based on the higher
heating value for two reasons: (1) fuel higher heating
values may .be determined by means of a calorimeter to
an accuracy of 0.5 percent, whereas net heating values
must be calculated fram the gross value and the amount
of hydrogen in the fuel oil, and (2) it has become
customary in the petroleum industry to quote higher
heating values.
Higher and lower heating values of fuels ranging in
gravity from 5 deg to 49 deg API are approximately as
shown in Table 3 [4]. For improved accuracy the
heating values shown in Table 3 should be reduced by a
percentage equal to the sum of the percentage of sulfur,
water, and sediment actually in the fuel in question.
h. Cetane Number ASTM D-613. The cetane

number of a diesel fuel is a measure of its ignition quality.
The test is performed in a specially constructed singlecylinder,diesel engine arranged so that the compression
ratio can be altered while it is in operation. In essence,
the test consists of varying the compression ratio for the
sample fuel, and blends of known reference fuels, to
obtain the same ignition delay period, i.e., the time
interval between injectim and ignition. The reference
fuels are normal cetane, which has an arbitrary value
of 100, and alpha-methylnaphthalene which has a
value of zero. The blend matching the sample fuel is
reported as the cetane number of the sample fuel.
Higher cetane numbers denote shorter ignition delay
periods. This has particular significance in high-speed
diesel engines where shorter ignition delay periods are
necessary to complete the combustion cycle. Slow-speed,
MARINE ENGINEERING
large-bore engines, on the other hand, can utilize fuels of

longer ignition delay characteristics (i.e., lower cetane
number) because of the greater combustion time available. The cetane number required for a fuel is a design
placed in a furnace that is maintained a t 1020 F. After

a specified period, the bulb containing the residue is
cooled and weighed. The results are reported in the
same manner as above; however, the values obtained
Since the special engine for this test is expensive and

the test requires a skilled operator, other means (as
described in the following) are commonly employed to
estimate the cetane number.
i. Diesel Index IP-21. The diesel index is a method
%hatis used to approximate the cetane number through
the determination of two properties which have a correlation with the cetane number. These two properties are
the aniline point and the API gravity.
The aniline point (ASTM D-1012) is the temperature
in degrees F a t which specified quantities of aniline and
the test sample separate after first being heated and put
into the solution. The temperature of solution is indicative of the paraffinic composition of the fuel which in turn
is related to the cetane number. Generally speaking,
the more paraffinic the fuel, the higher thecetanenumber.
The aniline point and the API gravity are used to
classify the composition of a fuel by means of the diesel
index. The following equation is used to calculate the
given in the test descriptions in the ASTM manual.

m. Ash Content ASTM D-482. The ash content
test is used to obtain an assessment of the incombustibles
in a fuel. The residue or ash remaining after test consists of rust, noncombustible dirt, and also small amounts
of constituents such as vanadium, calcium, sodium, and
potassium. Excessive ash constituents in a fuel can
result in the clogging of fuel nozzles or injectors, cylinder
and piston ring wear in diesel engines, blade abrasion or
corrosion in gas turbines, slagging in boilers, or corrosion
of tubes in superheaters. The fuel should be treated by
either centrifuging, filtration, or both to minimize the
amount of ash in the fuel before it is burned in diesel
engines or gas turbines; the fuel ash content is generally
not as critical with boilers of proper design.
Vanadium and sodium form corrosive compounds a t
high temperatures (i.e., approximately 1250 F) which can
rapidly attack gas turbine blades, diesel engine valve
faces and piston heads, and high-temperature areas in
boilers. Vanadium exists in soluble form in petroleum.
Sodium generally is the result of saltwater contamination
either during delivery or by residual salt water in bunker
tanks. Unfortunately, certain combinations of sodium
and vanadium form eutectic compounds which have
relatively low melting points; consequently, in cases
where eutectic compounds are formed, corrosion occurs
a t lowered temperatures. The mechanism for this
corrosive attack has been discussed extensively in the
literature [5, 61.
Many crude oils contain significant amounts of vanadium; therefore, the international ship operator cannot
avoid obtaining residual fuels with a high vanadium content a t some ports in the world. Generally, corrosion is
controlled by the diesel engine designer through metallurgy, exhaust valve cooling, exhaust valve rotation, and
piston cooling. In boilers, ash corrosion is also controlled
by design, metallurgy, and temperature control. Some
fuel-oil additives have been reported to offer a degre'e of
protection against ash corrosion. The control of
vanadium/sodium corrosion in gas turbines is critical
because of the high turbine bladg temperatures. Aircraft-type turbines require very low concentrations of
such materials as indicated in Table 4. Industrial-type
turbines can utilize fuels with somewhat higher vanadium/sodium content by operating a t lower blade
temperatures but a t a penalty in the thermal efficiency
of the cycle.
n. Water ASTM D-95. Water contamination in
storage, transportation, or ship tanks is determined by a
distillation test utilizing a water-immiscible, volatile
solvent. The fuel is heated under a reflux condenser
, with a water-immiscible solvent which co-distills with
diesel index
(aniline point OF)(OAPI gravity)

100
j. Cetane Index ASTM D-976- The

citane index is another method for estimating the cetane
number of diesel fuels based on physical properties- It
makes use of the API gravity and the mid-boiling-point
temperature for 50 percent recovered in the ASTM
Distillation D-86. The equation includes a number of
complex factors which can be reduced to the alignment
chart illustrated by Fig. 5.
k. Carbon Residue ASTM D-189. The carbon
residue test is used to determine the amount of carbon
residue left after evaporation and pyrolysis of a fuel oil.
A weighed sample is placed in a crucible and subjected
to severe heating during a fixed period. After cooling,
the crucible is reweighed and the remaining residue is
calculated as a percentage of the original sample. For
light fuels and diesel fuels, the carbon residue is run on
the 10 percent heavy-end fraction obtained from a
distillation of the sample; the results are expressed in
weight percent, specifying whether the test was made on
ti whole sample or a 10 percent distillation fraction.
The carbon residue is an indication of the tendency of
a fuel to form deposits in 'burners or in diesel engine
combustion chambers.
1. Ramsbottom Carbon Residue ASTM D-524. A
Ramsbottom carbon residue test may also be used to
determine the amount of carbon residue left after
evaporation and pyrolysis of a fuel oil. A weighed
sample, contained in a special open-end glass bulb, is
85 1
I'ErRVLtUM tUtLS
- OC
BASED ON E0UAtK)MS :
CALC. C.I. = 0.49083 + 1.06577 (XI

-0.001os~t ( x )*
X 97.833 [LOG M1O.B P T . ' , ~ F ) ~ + P ~ O ( W
IAPI) lLOGMIPBPl.,DFl +0.01247 UPI)~
423.51 (LOG MID. B PT.,'FI -4.7800 [API) +419.59
MID*F
a. PT.
TEMP.RANGE
374-410
410-446
44s 482
48z-sle
51 8- 554
554-590
5 9 0 - 626
626-662
862-698
CORRECTION@
EACH lo MU DIFF.
FDR
IN PRESSURE
1.19
1.24
I .28
1.32
1.37
TEMPERATURE FOR 50% RECOVERED AT

760 M Y ~ p B A R O Y ETRIC PRESSURE.
TO BE ADDED FOR PRESSURES BELOW
760
MY H g OR
SUBTRACTED FOR
PRESSURES ABOVE 760 Y Y
ng
EXAMPLE:
MID
API B.PT.
GRAVITY
SSO*F
33.0AT 700 MM
HQ
CORRECTION FOR MID B.PT=I.IS x e rn 7.14

CORRECTED MID B PT.550DF 7.14.F 557.144.
CALC. CETANE INDEX (NOMOGRAPH)
m51.4
CALC.CETANE INDEX (FORMULA)=II.~!I
5 Calculated Wan0 index (ASTM)
OF
852
MARINE ENGINEERING
rnpe!efi
'(W)
pse?
'BPI
rnpXq mdd '(q

mnpp3
)
PETROLEUM FUELS
,,
In
In
I*Xq mad '(X

*N) mnrssslod mid mn!Pos
I@eM
Xq mdd '(A) arn!+wg
IdV %P 'XI!At=D
xsgq
El
El
0,
=w i
OD
'BYU:
09
u)
am
9
El
'BW
09
=W i
U!rI
'9
El
%
I
the water in the sample. Condensed solvent and water

are continuously separated in a trap, the water settling
in the graduated section of the trap and the solvent
returning to the still. The volume of water is read
directly from the graduations etched on the trap. ,
Water should be removed from the fuel before being
supplied to either diesel or gas turbine engines. This
applies particularly to salt water which could cause
injector clogging and corrosion in diesels and blade
deposits and corrosion in gas turbines. Steam boilers are
more tolerant but excessive saltwater contamination in
the fuel results in sodium slag in the boiler. The water
can be removed by proper centrifuging or filtration
procedures.
o. Sediment ASTM D-473. The fuel can contain
sediment, which is insoluble suspended matter and tarry
polymerized hydrocarbons which are borderline in
solubility. The amount of such material is determined
by employing a solvent which selectively dissolves the
unchanged hydrocarbons leaving the sediment in a device
for measurement. In this test the fuel sample is placed
in a refractory thimble which is suspended in a flask.
Toluene in the flask is heated and condensed so that it
drips through the thimble until all the oil has been
extracted. The sediment remaining in the thimble is
weighed and the result reported as a weight percent of
the original sample.
Diesel injectors and gas turbine nozzles havk little
tolerance for sediment in a fuel. Moreover, polymerized
materials break down under heat, forming lacquer and
tarry deposits which impair movement of parts or
interfere with spray patterns. Centrifuging or the use
of filters is necessary to remove such materials.
p. Water and Sediment ASTM D-17%. This test
measures both water content and sediment and is often
used as a substitute procedure for the two tests described
in the foregoing. Two equal samples of the fuel are
placed in special centrifuge tubes which are inserted in a
laboratory centrifuge. The centrifuge is then operated
under specified conditions of temperature, centrifugal
force, and time. A solvent is also employed to facilitate
the separation of water and sediment from the fuel. The
tube is designed with calibrations so that the amount of
853
water and sediment can be read directly a t the conclusion

of the centrifuge test.
q. Copper Strip Corrosion ASTM D-130. A copper
strip corrosion test entails pouring a fuel sample in a
tube in which a polished copper strip is immersed. The
test tube assembly is placed in the water bath a t 212 F
for three hours. At the end of the test period, the copper
strip is compared with stafidard strips to evaluate the
amount of corrosive attack.
The significa~ceof the data is, of course, related to the
corrosive rqterials in the fuel which may attack metal
parts in fuel storage, handling, or combustion systems [6].
r. Sulfur Content ASTM D-129. To determine the
sulfur content of a fuel, a sample of the fuel is placed in a
test bomb pressurized with oxygen. After ignition, the
interior of the bomb and sample cup, etc., are rinsed
with distilled water and the drainings are collected in a
beaker. After the addition of bromine water and
hydrochloric acid, the contents are evaporated to a given
residue. During this evaporation, barium chloride is
added to convert the sulfuric acid to barium sulphate.
The solution is then passed through a special filter paper
which traps the barium sulphate. Then the filter paper
is placed in a crucible, ignited, and weighed to determine
the weight of barium sulphate remaining. Through
calculation, the sulfur content of the original fuel i s
finally determined and expressed as a percentage by
weieht.
since sulfur forms corrosive oxides and acids, it can
cause accelerated cylinder wear in diesel engines,
corrosion of boiler tubes and surfaces, as well as attack
gas turbine blades and interiors. I n boilers, it is essential
to maintain the stack gas temperature above the dew
point (approximately 250 F) to prevent the formation of
sulfuric acid and the attendant violent corrosive attack
on metals. Control of corrosive wear in diesel cylinders
is obtained by the use of lubricating oils containing
alkaline additive materials which neutralize the acids
formed [2, 61.
The sulfur content of fuels is subject to regulation
insofar as land use is concerned, since it plays a part in
atmospheric pollution. However, international ships
have been exempted from landside regulations, in view
of the relatively small pollution effect they have.
Section 2
~ u e Procurement
l
2.1 Fuel Requirements. It should be evident that
a degree of judgment must be exercised in relating the
significance of the fuel tests previously described to
engine or boiler performance. For example, the same,
amount of ash-forming material in a fuel may be of no
consequence in a boiler, of little significance in a lowspeed large-bore diesel, injurious in a high-speed diesel,
and disastrous in some types of gas turbines. Conse-
quently, the ash content test is only a means of assessing

the quantity of ash-forming material that is present in a
fuel as determined by the rigorously defined procedure
of the test method. The other fuel tests, by and large,
provide empirical data of similar usefulness.
I n order to define the kind of fuel an engine or boiler
can use, it is necessary to relate these fuel properties to
the design and performance requirements of the power
11
854
MARINE ENGINEERING
Table 5 Limiting Requirements for Diesel Fuel Oilsa (ASTM)
Pour
Water
Csrbon
Flaah
Point
and
hidue
Point,
deg' Bediment, on 10
Anh,
deg
F
percent
percent
percent
F
(deg
by
Residuum,
by
(deg C)
C)
volume
percent
weight
Grade of Diesel Fuel Oil
No.
A volatile distillate fuel oil

for engine8 in service requuling frequent opeed m d Iondl
Lchanges.
el oil of lower
engines in inheavy mobile
A fuel oil for low- and meNo' 4-D (dium-epeed engines.
Min
100 o r
legal
(37.8)
125 or
legel
(51.7)
Max
b
+,.F2",";fiBB,
~ i s ~ ~at~100
i tFy
d e g y ( d e g C)
(37'8 I'
sulfur,
90 percent point
copper ~ e t m
Kinematic, centi- percent Stnp Numstokes (or Saybolt
by
Cqrro- bed
Universal, eec)
weight
slon
Max
Tr808
Max
0.15
Max
0.01
Min
...
Max
550
(287.8)
Min
1.4
Max
2.5
(34.4)
Max
0.50
Max
No.3
Min
0.10
0.35
0.02
640c
(282.2)
(338)
640
2
(32.6)
4.3
(40.1)
1.0
No.3
40.
408
'1".",r?
(54.4)
a To meet special operating conditione modifications of individual limiting requirements may be agreed upon between purchaeer seller and sup lier.
b For cold-weather o eration, the pou;point should be specified 10 deg F (5.6 deg C) below the ambient temperature a t which {he en&ne is t o i e operated
except
where fuel oil heating h i t i e n are provided.
F e n pour point less than 0 F (-17.8 C) is specified, the minimum visconity ahall be 1.8 cs (32.0 sec, Saybolt Universal) and the minimum 90 percent point shall
be waived.
d Where cetane number by Method D 613 Test for Ignition Quality of Diesel Fuels by the Cetane Method, is not available, Calculated Cetane Index may be used BB
an approximation. Where there is disagre&nent, Method D 613 shall be the referee method.
* Low-atmoepheric temperaturea se well as engine opemtion a t high altitude8 may require use of fuels with higher cetane ratings.
plant. The power-plant designer should design the

plant such that the fuel burned represents the best
compromise between fuel costs, initial costs, operating
costs, and maintenance costs. The more expensive fuels
are the light distillates (i.e., similar to kerosine and home
heating oil), while the cheapest is heavy residual fuel.
The latter is jokingly described as "liquid road paving."
Obviously, a power plant operating on residual fuel
would have a marked advantage over one requiring a
light distillate fuel, provided all other costs were the same.
Power-plant designers have established fuel requirements which may be very detailed in some cases and broad
in others. Furthermore, requirements may be different
for the same power plant in one type of service versus
another. For the most part, power plants are designed
to employ the fuels available in the intended areas of
application. For example, high-speed diesels in inland
rivers or coastal fishing service can make use of landside
automotive-quality diesel fuel. On the other hand,
ships in international service will not find such fuels
available a t most ports. Even if potentially available a t
some ports, the low-volume storage and delivery expenses
plus customs duties for nonbonded fuel would make the
cost to the ship operator prohibitively high.
2.2 Fuel Speciflcations. Considering the large number of power-plant builders in the world, the multitude
of types (and models) produced, and the fact that fuel
requirements may differ according to service conditions,
it is quite understandable that there are no universally
accepted fuel specifications. However, to provide
guidance to power-plant builders and users, the American
Society for Testing and Materials has published classifications for diesel, heating/industrial, and marine gas
turbine fuels [I]. The ASTM D-975 classification of
diesel fuels, Table 5, lists three classes of diesel fuels
ranging from a light volatile distillate or kerosinetype
fuel (No. 1-D), through a heavier distillate (No. %D),
to an even heavier distillate or distillate-residual blend
(No. 4-D). The test limits are intended to portray the
maximum (or minimum) acceptable value for each

characteristic. It would be highly unlikely that any
commercial fuel would possess the maximum (or
minimum) limits for all characteristics. The classification limits, therefore, are extremes and should be
considered as the minimum-quality fuel in each class.
The ASTM D-396 classification of heating or fuel oils,
Table 6, lists six classes of fuel oils ranging from kerosine
to heavy residual. Note that No. 1, 2, and 4 are quite
close in their characteristics to No. 1-D, 2-D, and 4-D
diesel fuels.
The ASTM tentative classification for gas turbine
fuels (non-aircraft) lists four classes of fuels as shown in
Table 4. Note that a specific limit is imposed on the
content of vanadium, calcium, lead, and combined
sodium+andpotassium since these are related to blade
corrosion in some engines operating a t high inlet gas
temperatures [5, 61.
Other societies, associations, and government agencies
have published standards and specificationswhich largely
apply to inland services in the countries where they were
originated. However, bonded supplies of ships' bunker
fuels are free of most "local" regulations. Large volume
buyers, such as the U.S. Navy, have established their
own specifications in order to obtain the optimum fuels
meeting their particular operating and storage requirements. I n most cases, deliveries tqe made ex refinery
into a fleet oiler, or in commercial tanker loads, to fleet
storage. Obviously, particular specification requirements can be met under such conditions of purchase
[7-111.
2.3 Fuel Distribution System. Over the years a
fuel distribution system has developed for ships in
international trade which essentially provides three
basic fuels plus blends of two of the three to comply with
any intermediate viscosity level desired. The fuel
distribution system has evolved as a natural solution to
the problem of supplying adequatequality fuel a t
minimum cost a t all the ports of the world where ships
856
PETROLEUM FUELS
MARINE ENGINEERING
require bunkers. The cost of fuel is a major ship

operating expense; therefore, a major emphasis is placed
on economy. Large-volume bunkerings are also involved; the average ship takes on about 3300 barrels
(42 gal. each) of fuel a t a time. Bunkering, therefore, is
performed a t refineries or bulk s t o ~ g terminals,
e
or by
fuel barges shuttling between vessels in port and storage
terminals. By these means, transportation, storage,
and delivery costs are minimized to the benefit of the
ship operator [4].
Since each type of fuel requires separate transportation,
storage, and delivery facilities, it is obvious that the
fewer types of fuel handled by the fuel suppliers, the
greater the economieswhich can be achieved to the benefit
of the ship owner. As mentioned in the foregoing, the
general practice of major fuel suppliers is to offer three
basic grades of fuel oils, and a range of different viscosity
blends produced by blending two of these basic grades in
the required proportions. The three basic fuels are:
a. Gas Oil, In general, gas oil is a light distillate
with a 45 or higher cetane number, 150 F flash point
minimum, contains no residual (it is, therefore, very low
in carbon residue), and is virtually free of ash-forming
s ASTM classifications
materials. It a ~ ~ r o x i m a t ethe
for No. 2-D (~iesel),No. 2 (Fuel), and No. ZGT
(Gas Turbine).
b. Marine Diesel. I n most areas west of Suez the
product known as marine diesel is a 100-percent distillate
of higher boiling range than gas oil, cetane number of 40
or higher, and 150 F flash point minimum. It has a low
carbon residue and very little ash-forming material.
While this product leaves the refinery as a distillate, it is
carried in "dirty bottoms" to achieve minimum transportation and delivery costs. "Dirty bottoms" is a
term applying to tankers or barges which carry residual
fuels as well as distillates. Since their tanks may contain some remnants of the previous delivery (below
pump suction), residual fuel contamination results and
the distillate becomes dark or black in color. The fuel
shows some carbon residue and ash content as a result
of this "handing" contamination. This fuel approximates the ASTM classifications for No. 2-D (Diesel),
No. 2 (Fuel), and No. 2-GT (Gas Turbine).
I n the Middle and Far East the product known as
marine diesel fuel generally contains 5 to 10 percent
residual fuel blended a t the refinery. This practice
resulted from past regulations in a number of countries
requiring industrial and marine fuel to be black in color
to differentiate it from automotive fuels for tax and
customs purposes. The presence of the residual component results in higher carbon residue and ash values
than found in marine diesel fuels originating west of the
Suez. Other properties are not affected to any appreciable extent. Marine diesel fuels originating in the
Middle and Far East approximate the ASTM classifications for No. 4-D (Diesel), No. 4 (Fuel), and No.
3-GT (Gas Turbine).
c. Residual Fuel. The third basic fuel is commonly
known as residual fuel (or Bunker C) and is blended
Table 7 Common Names for Petroleum Fuels

MOSTCOMMON
NAMF,
OTHERN ~ E B
Gas Oil
Light Diesel Oil
Light M+ne Di-1 Fuel
Marine I h w l Light
Marine Diesel Medium
Marine Diesel Medium Fuel Oil
Marine Diesel
Heavy Di&l Oil
Marine Diesel Fuel Oil
Marine Diesel Heavy
Marine Diesel O
i
l
Blended Fuel
Heavy Fuel Oil
High Viscosity Fuel Oil
(followed by a number,
Intermediate Bunker Fuel Oil
e.g., 400, 1000, 2000,
Intermediate Fuel MD 400,600, etc.
etc. inhoating
Light Fuel Oil 200, 400, etc.
+dwPod No. 1
Thin Fuel
v~scoslt of blend
0100
Thin Fuel Oil
Residual Fuel
Bunlccir Fuel
Bunker
.
- Fuel
.
.Oil
- .
Bunker C Fuel
Bunker C, P8400
Bunker C.
Boiler Fuel
Boiler Fuel Oil
Heavy Fuel Oil
Heavy Fuel, PS-400
Heavy No. 2 Fuel Oil
Marine Fuel Oil
No. 5 Fuel 011
Number 6
Number 6 Fuel Oil
- -
from residuum left from the various processes in a

refinery and distillate to a viscosity suitable for pumping
and handing aboard ship. This product is a black,
viscous material, with a gravity in some cases heavier
than water. Carbon residue and ash content are
considerably greater than for the other fuels described
in the foregoing. This fuel approximates the ASTM
classifications for No. 6 (fuel) and No. 4 G T (Gas
Turbine).
A series of fuels may be made by blending the second
and third basic fuels (marine diesel and residual fuel),
and these blends are available a t many world ports to
accommodate the large low-speed diesel ship. The
operator specifies the viscosity desired and in-line
blenders mix the two basic fuels during the bunkering
operation. Viscosities of the blends range from 200
seconds to 3500 seconds Redwood No. 1 a t 100 F. At
bunkering ports which do not have in-line blenders,.
batch blends are made in tanks ordelivery barges, or
several viscosity blends are carried in storage. The
supplier carefully selects components in making these
blends to avoid incompatible mixtures. The price of
the blended fuel varies according to the amount of the
more costly marine diesel fuel used in the blend. Various
considerations, such as fuel heating, pumping, fuel
treatment, injection equipment, and engine design,
have an influence in determining the most economical
blend for a ship. Ships driven by large low-speed
diesels generally use a fuel of 1000-1500 seconds Redwood
No. 1 viscosity a t 100 F.
The characteristics of a blend will reflect for the most
part those of each component but not necessarily in

direct relation to the blend proportions. For example,
the sulfur content will be a linear proportion while the
viscosity is nonlinear. Except for broad approximations,
blend curves for each property are used to determine-the
desired ratios. This type of information can be readily
obtained from petroleum suppliers.
Just as there are no universally accepted specifications
for marine fuels, marine fuels are known by a variety of
names throughout the world. This is an understandable
result of language and usage, but often causes misunderstanding; not to mention deliveries of the wrong product.
Competition between petroleum suppliers adds to the
problem, since each company promotes "brand names"
for its products as part of its sales program. Table 7
is a listing of the more common names used for marine
fuels; it is interesting to note the diversity of names which
the same fuel product can have [4].
References
2 Burning a Wide Range of Fuels in Diesel EnginesVol. 11, Society of Automotive Engineers, Progress in
Technology Series, 1967.
3 "Diesel Fuel Oils, " Special Technical Publication
No. 413, ASTM, 1967.
4 Technical Bulletins supplied by major oil companies; e.g., Esso, Gqf, Mobil, Shell.
5 K. A. Troth, "SymIfosium on Diesel Fuel Oil,"
Tram. ASTM, 1966.
6 "Hot Cgrrosion Problems Amckted with Gas
Turbines," 8pecia1 Technical Publication No. 421,
ASTM, 1967.
7 "Fuel Oil, Burner," Military Specification M I L
F-859, (NATO Symbol F-77).
8 "Fuel Oil, Diesel, Marine," Military Specification
MILF-16884, (NATO Symbol F-75).
9 "Fuel Oil, Burner," Federal Specification W-F815.
10 Tuel, Navy Distillate, " Military Specification
MIGF-24397.
- --- 11 "Fuel, Reference, and Standard Distillate, "
Military Specification MILF-24376.
-
1 Petroleum Products-Fuels, Solvents, Lubricating

Oils, Cutting Oils, Gease, ASTM Standards, part 17.
INDEX
Acidic solutions, 559

Active fin stabilizers
automatic controls, 602
design calculations, 600
fin tilting gear, 602
location, 601
types of units, 601
Air conditioning
defined, 710
objectives, 710, 711
Air conditioning systems
air handling systems; see Air handling systems
controls, 725
cooling coil load, 727
cooling coils, 763
design criteria, 726
factory assembled units, 765
internal cooling loads, 726
load calculations, 729
overall considerations, 23
refrigeration equipment; see Refrigeration equipment
types, 718-721
Air ejectors; see Ejectors
Air handling systems
air distribution, 758
air flow, 745
dampers, 760
duct design criteria, 746
duct design methods, 746
duct elbow losses, 749-751
duct fitting losses, 749
Anchor windlasses (continued)

powering calculations, 587
requirements, 578
special design considerations, 581
types, 579
Assurance engineering, 5
Attemperators, 111
Automation
applications, 796,809
boilers, 94, 797, 800
cargooil systems, 808
console, 621
control center, 621, 795, 802, 807
control consoles, 804, 807
control system characteristics, 800
defined, 791
design considerations, 24
diesel propulsion plants, 276, 307, 804
gas turbine propulsion plants, 808
information systems, 795, 802, 807, 808
logic diagram, 798
manning levels, 799
mimic diagrams, 796, 808
regulatory body requirements, 797
safety, 797
steam propulsion plant, 797
systems, 791
Auxiliary turbines, 59, 201, 203
efficiency,59
steam rate, 59, 201
'
fan pressure, 745-747

fan pressure calculations, 755, 756
refrigerated space air distribution, 763
system pressure calculations, 755,756
a
ventilation terminals, 754, 759, 760

Air heaters, 85,108
Anchor windlasses
brake design, 582
brake design calculations, 583
brake test data, 583-585
power units, 586
Boilers (continued)
attemperators, 111
automation, 94, 797, 800
bent-tube, 79
burner clearances, 100
burner selection, 99
burners, 116,797
care, 127
casing design, 115
circulation, 93, 112
cleaning, 127
combustion air, 97
combustion systems, 21
construction, 114
controls, 120
definitions, 86
design criteria, 91, 92, 94
design problem, 120-125
desuperheaters, 111
drums, 114
duty cycle, 93
economizers, 22, 85, 108, 109, 125
efficiency, 98, 100
example calculations, 120-125
feed pumps, 22, 28, 403,417, 688
feedwater test sample cooler, 491, 517
feedwater treatment, 126
firing methods, 90
flue, 78
forced circulation, 82
fuel analysis, 97
fuel combustion, 92, 95
fuel-oil piping systems, 694
fuels, 90
furnace calculations, 121-123
furnace design, 43, 101
furnace design limitations, 103
furnace exit gas temperature, 43, 101, 122-123
furnace heat absorption rates, 102
heat recovery equipment, 48
heat transfer in furnaces, 43
heat transfer in tube banks, 46
heating surface calculations, 123
high-temperature corrosion, 107
history of, 78
Basic solutions, 559

Batteries, storage, 634, 835
Bearings
diesel engine, 292
friction coefficient, 772
hydrostatic, 781
journal, 197, 239, 325, 379
characteristics, 778
externally pressurized, 781
nonpressurized, 780
pressure fed, 778-780
machining-type failures, 774
power loss, 772
pressure gradients, 771
rolling contact, 239, 779, 783-785
thrust; see Thrust bearings
types, 770
viscous effects, 771
Boilers
air heaters, 85, 108
arrangement, 20, 671
instrumentation,
layout, 121
120
main feed pumps, 22,28,403,417,688
main feed system, 688
materials of construction, 824
mountings, 117
number of, 20
oil burners, 116
once-through, 84
operation, 127
physical requirements, 114
piping, 682-690
pressure
drops,
93
radiant heat
absorbing
surface, 102
Boilers (continued)
regulations, 92
reheat, 81
reheaters, 108
safety valves, 118
Scotch, 78
sectional header, 78, 104
d
selection of, 90
slagging, 107
smoke indicflor, 119
space requirements, 91
steam conditions, 19, 90
steam drum b d e s , 112, 114
storage, 128
supercharged, 84
superheaters, 105-108
terms, 86
tube banks, 104
tube metal temperatures, 102, 106
two-drum, 80
waste heat, 84
water level indicators, 118
water treatment, 125-127
weight, 91
Boiling-water nuclear reactors, 155
Bow thrusters
design details, 597
effect of submergence, 598
performance characteristics, 598
types, 597
Bracket fans, 639
Brakes, electric, 632
Brayton cycle, 206
Brine coolers, 767
Brine cooling systems, 745
Brines, 715
Bushnell, David, 3
Cable ship Long Lines, 348
Cables, see Wiring
Campbell diagram, 186, 233
Canberra, passenger ship, 355
Capstans
arrangements, 594
electric details, 595
mechgnical
boom rigging
details,namenclature,
594
588
Cargo
Cargo handling systems, 23
Cargo pumps, 420,705
Cargo-oil systems
automation, 808
piping systems, 705-709
Cargo winches
electrical details, 590
hydraulic detaila, 592
mechanical details, 589
ratings, 589
tmes, 589
860
INDEX
MARINE ENGINEERING
Cathodic protection, 533,645,646,811-813,816,817,835

Centrifugal pumps; see Pumps, centrifugal
Chilled-water system, 740
Chyssi, tanker, 371
CZermont, steamhip, 2, 78
Clutches, 327
Combined main propulsion cycles, 11
CODAG (combined diesel and gas), 211
CODOG (combined diesel or gas), 211
COGAG (combined gas and gas), 211
COCAS (combined gas and steam), 75,173,211
COGOG (combined gas or gas), 211
COSAG (combined steam and gas), 173, 211
STAG (combined steam and gas), 173, 211
Combustion constants, 96
Compressors
centrifugal, 444
fundamentals, 441
liquid sealing ring, 434, 561
performance, 441
reciprocating, 443
rotary, 443
types, 440
Condensers
air cooler design, 460
air inleakage, 455, 460
air removal, 455, 460
arrangements, 450
auxiliary, 450
bypass systems, 464
condensate deaeration, 462
condensate purity control, 470
condensate reheating, 462
condensate removal, 455
condensate returns, 463
condensate storage, 456
condensing pressure, 454
condensing space, 456
condensing surface arrangement, 457
cooling water passes, 465
cooling water system pressure losses, 467
corrosion, 471
design conditions, 455
design examples, 476478
divided circulation;466
establishment of size, 476
feedwater makeup, 464
heat transfer
condensing, 478
conduction, 479
convection, 479
overall, 480
heat-transfer coefficient, 475, 480, 486
heat-transfer equations, 475
logarithmic mean temperature difference, 474, 475
main, 22, 450
materials of construction, 471, 829
nomenclature, 473
Condensers (continued)
performance determination, 477
performance evaluation, 486
performance prediction, 478,486
performance standards, 476
piping, 675
piping systems, 690
pressure around tube banks, 482
pressure losses, 467, 480
pressure losses in tube banks, 485
shell expansion, 469
shell structure, 453, 470
steam distribution, 458, 464
steam dump, 464
steam flow distribution, 458
steam space pressure losses, 480
steam velocities, 456
supporting arrangements, 453
surface, 450
temperature distribution, 452
terms, 473
tube drag coefficient,459
tube expansion, 469
tube sheets, 467
tube spacing, 467
tube support plates, 468
tube-to-tube-sheet joints, 468
tube vibration, 458
tube water velocities, 473
waterboxes, 466
Constant-tension mooring winches
arrangements, 595, 596
Contaminated drain inspection tank, 526
Contaminated evaporators, 491, 524
Contaminated steam system, 524
Control systems
command input, 793
configurations, 791
control medium, 793
design of, 794
hardware, 793
operation, 792
proportional band, 793
%
types of, 791
Corrosion
crevice, 814, 836
galvanic, 472, 488, 811-813, 837, 828,
in seawater, 811-817, 827, 829
of metals, 810
types of, 811
Cost effectiveness, 5
Couplings
electrical, 360
reduction gear, 326
shafting, 377
Creep, of materials, 821-823, 836
Deaerating feedwater heaters, 21, 27, 70, 519, 690

Dealurninisation, 815
Deck machinery; see Hull machinery
Deepwell pumpa, 420, 708
Desuperheaters, 111
Dezincification, 815, 836
Diesel, Dr. Rudolf, 3
Diesel engines
acceleration characteristics, 254
accessories, 275, 306
.
air-cooled, 247
air filters, 272
air intake silencers, 272
arrangement aboard ship, 14, 258, 308
attached pumps, 253
automation, 276, 307,804
bore, 246, 280
bottom dead center, 246
brake mean effective pressure (BMEP), 246, 281
compression ratio, 246
connecting rod, 291
controls, 274, 307
cooling systems, 268, 294
cooling water treatment, 269
crankcase explosions, 277
crankshaft, 292
crankshaft bearings, 292
crosshead, 291
cylinder arrangements, 247
cylinder design, 286
cylinder ratings, 280
defined, 246
direct reversing, 249
displacement, 246
dual-fuel operation, 305
exhaust mufflers, 273
exljaust system, 272
fishook curves, 252
four-stroke, 247
fuel coalescer, 264
fuel consumption, 252, 281
fuel filters, 264
fuel injection, 297-299
fuel oil system, 263
fuel purifier, 264
fuels, 261, 854
gaseous fuel operation, 305
governors, 274
heat balance, 281
heat losses, 268
heavy fuel operation, 303-305
idling speed, 253
ignition delay, 246
inner dead center, 246
installation items, 277
instrumentation, 275, 306
intake system, 272
light-load operation, 253
liquid-cooled, 247
Diesel engines (continued)

lubricating oil consumption, 267, 281
lubricating oil coolers, 268
lubricating oil filters, 267
lubricating oil system, 265
lubricating oils, 265
lubrication, 296
maintenance, 256, 264, 269, 269, 272, 277, 306-307
marine requirements, 250
naturally mphated, 248
number of, 259
opposed piston, 247, 282, 284
physical characteristics, 256, 281
piston and piston rod, 288-291
piston speed, 247, 280
power output, 251
principal structure, 281-283
propulsion plants; see Propulsion plants
ratings, 255
repair parts, 306
reversing, 257, 299-303, 308, 807
safety features, 277
scavenged, 248, 282
scavenging systems, 283,285-287, 293
selection of, 258
shipboard applications, 257
shipboard installation, 308
speed classifications, 250
starting, 249, 254, 273, 299, 301-302, 307
stroke, 246, 280
stroke-to-bore ratio, 280
supercharged, 248, 292
tests, 256
top dead center, 246
torque characteristics, 251
torsional vibration, 277
two-stroke, 247
types of, 247
unidirectional, 249
waste heat utilization, 73-75, 270, 281, 555
weights, 16, 280
Diesel-generator sets, 611
Distilling plants
'
acid cleaning, 558
air eduptors, 561
air ejectors, 533, 559
automation, 561,801
basket evaporators, 510, 543
brine recirculation systems, 536
chemical feed treatment, 557
cold shocking, 530, 540, 541
condensate-cooled plant, 538 .
design calculations, 552
distillate purity, 530
early designs, 530
economy, 555
electrodialysis, 549
feedwater heater, 533
1 I'
862
Distilling plants (continued)

,
flash evaporators, 531,552
fouling resistance, 550, 552
for harbor duty, 536
heat sources, 555
heat transfer, 550
heat-transfer coefficient, 551
instrumentation, 536
logarithmic mean temperature difference, 550,551
membrane processes, 547
once-through systems, 537
overall heat-transfer coefficient, 553
scale control, 557
spray-film evaporators, 538, 542, 544
submerged tube, 530
temperature losses, 552
thin-film evaporators, 538
vacuum equipment, 558
vacuum pumps, 561
Drinking water cooling, 734
Economizers, 22, 85, 108, 109, 125
for distilling plants, 533, 559

performance, 444
Electric generators
accessories, 610, 611
electrical characteristics, 613
emergency generators, 613
gas turbine driven, 612
installation, 607
special arrangements, 613

steam turbine driven, 201,607
INDEX
MARINE ENGINEERING
Electric plants (continued)

generating capacity, 607
generating plants, 201
lighting; see Lighting
list of motors and controls, 622-624
motor control equipment; see Motor control equipment
motor-generator sets, 634
motors; see Motors
panels; see Panels
power; see Electric power
switchboards; see Switchboards
rules and regulations, 605
wiring, see Wiring
Electric power
branch circuits, 645
circuit proteotixe devices, 652
circuit selectivity, 652
circuits, 649
distribution, 643-646, 648-653
emergency, 646-648
equipment, 621
fault-current analysis, 652
feeders, 643
list of feeders and mains, 651, 652
panels, 645
short-circuit analysis, 652
special features, 645
voltage drop, 648-649
wire current capacity, 649
wire size, 648
wiring, 664
Electric propulsion drives
a-c, d-c systems, 337
alternating-current drives, 336
amperage, 335
applications, 334,343,348, 355, 356
cable ship Long Lines, 348
design features, 341, 353
diesel a-c systems, 356
diesel d-c systems, 339
direct-current drives, 335
efficiency,337,338,341,353,355
icebreaker Glacier, 335,346
icebreaker Lenin, 335
insulation, 341, 354
oceanographic survey ship Wilkeg 343
passenger ship, Canberra, 355
physical characteristics, 342,349,355
power rating, 335, 336, 337, 353
reversing characteristics, 349,351,357-359
significant features, 334
submarine tender Hunley, 356
T2 tankers, 355
turbine a-c systems, 348
turbine d-c systems, 347
types of systems, 335
voltage, 335, 337,338,341, 353
Electrodialysis, 549
Evaporators; see Distilling plants
1
Fans, 756
Fatigue
data presentation, 818-820
factors affecting fatigue life, 820
of metals, 817
stress-strain relationships, 817
Feedwater heaters
high pressure, 490, 521
low pressure, 490, 518
Feedwater system, 21,688
Final design, development of, 33
Fire hose, 703, 705
Fire hydrants, 703
Fire protection, 703
Flash evaporators, 531, 552
Flue gas
conductivity, 39
sensible heat, 39
specific heat, 39
fundamentals, 436
laws of similitude, 438
performance, 438
combustion constants, 96
ash content, 13, 804,850
bunker fuels, 848
carbon residue, 850
cetane number, 261,849
cetane index, 850
corrosion test, 858
diesel engine, 261, 854
diesel index, 850
distillation processes, 842
distillation test, 847
distribution systems, 854
flash point, 262,847
fuel specifications, 852, 854, 855
gas turbine, 850,852
heat of combustion, 95-97,261,304,848,849
lurninometer number, 848
names for, 856
pour point, 262, 845
properties, 13, 844
Fuels, petroleum (continued)

Ramsbottom carbon residue test, 850
sediment, 853
specific gravity, 304, 845
sulfur content, 14, 262, 304, 853
test methods, 845
types, 13
,
'
viscosity, 262, 304, 846-848
Galvanic corrosion, 472,488, 811413,837, 828,830
Gas turbine generator sets, 612
Gas turbines
accessories, 218
air bleed, 212
air inlet, 213
arrangement, 213
arrangement aboard ship, 15
automation, 808
axial-flow compressors
blading, 226
performance, 225
rotor design, 227
stator design, 228
basic considerations, 206
bearings, 239
centrifugal compressors
diffuser design, 223
impeller design, 223
,
performance, 222
rotor design, 224
combined cycles, 75, 173, 211
combustion systems
configurations, 235
design objectives, 236
design parameters, 236
,
fuel n o z z l ~237
ignition systems, 239
compression ratio, 207
controls, 219
cycle performance, 206
effect of ambient conditions on performance, 209
effect of duct losses on performance, 209
exhaust collector, 214
exhaust silencers, 219
fuel consumption, 207
fuel control, 221
fuel nozzles, 237
fuels, 212, 850, 852, 854
ignition system, 239
inlet air filters, 218
inlet silencers, 219
installation, 212
intercooling cycle, 207
lubrication systems, 241
maintenance, 213
INDEX
MARINE ENGINEERING
Gas turbines (continued)

nozzle construction, 231
nozzle design, 231
operation, 213
overspeed protection, 222
power control, 221
recuperator, 216
reduction gearing, 217
regenerative cycle, 207
regenerator, 216
reheat cycle, 207
reversing considerations, 217
simple cycle, 207
single shaft, 213
specific horsepower, 208
specific speed, 229
specific weight, 208
speed measurement and control, 219
starting, 212, 218, 239
structural arrangement, 216
temperature control, 221
thrust bearings, 240
turbine aerodynamic design, 230
turbine rotor design, 233
turbine velocity diagrams, 230
Governors, 184, 201

Great Eastern, steamship, 2
Heat balance calculations, 19, 61-73, 76, 90
Heat exchangers
applications, 490, 514
bpiler feedwater test sample coolers, 491, 517
characteristics, 490,491
construction details, 495
contaminated drain inspection tank, 526
contaminated evaporators, 491, 524
deaerating feedwater heaters, 21,27,70,519,690
design calculations, 504, 506, 508, 511
design considerations, 488
design data requirements, 496
design features, 490, 491
desuperheater test sample cooler, 517
double-tube, double-tube-sheet, 328
double-tube-sheet, 528
effective flow area, 501, 502, 504
fin-tube designs, 510-514
flow arrangements, 498
flow b a e s , 493, 495
fuel-oil heaters, 491,514
,/
Heat exchangers (continued)

gland leak-off condensers, 491,524
head joint, 492, 493, 524, 526, 528, 529
heat-transfer calculations, 504, 506, 511
heat-transfer fdm coefficient,498-500, 503, 510, 511
heat-transfer relationships, 496
high-pressure feedwater heaters, 490, 521
logarithmic mean temperature difference, 497
low-pressure feedwater heaters, '490, 518
lubricating-oil coolers, 490, 514
lubricating-oil purifier heaters, 517
overall heat-transfer coefficient, 497, 504, 511
materials of construction, 490, 491, 829
pressure drops, 505-509,512-514
shell, 493
tank cleaning system drain coolers, 490, 518
tank cleaning system heaters, 490,518
thermal expansion provisions, 495, 496
tube pitch, 494,495
tube sheet, 493, 528, 529
tube-to-tube-sheet joint, 489, 528, 529
unfired steam generators, 491, 524
water heaters, 491, 526
Heat transfer, 39
conduction, 40
convection, 41
overall, 42
radiation, 41
Heating equipment
direct radiation heaters, 765
electric heating, 763
heating coils, 763
unit heaters, 765
Heating and ventilation systems
'
heating equipment; see Heating equipment
heating loads, 728
overall consideratione, 23
piping systems, 734-740
types of, 721
Hot-water heating systems, 735, 740
Hull machinery
active fin stabilizers; see Active fin stabilizers
anchor windlasses; see Anchor windlasses
bearings, 565
bow thrusters; see Bow thrusters
capstans, 594
cargo winches; see Cargo winches
centralized hydraulic systems, 568
constant-tension mooping winches, 595
gears, 565
hydraulic details, 566
procurement of, 34
special thrust devices, 597
steering gears; see Steering gears
topping winches, 593
%
Hull machinery (continued)

types of drives, 564
vang winches, 593
warping winches, 595
Human engineering, 795
Hunley, submarine tender, 356
Hydraulic systems, 566
I
I
Ice-making load, 734

IZe-&-France, passenger liner, 310
Insulation, thermal, 715
Interior communications
alarm systems, 655456
communication systems, 656-657
control system, 657
indicating systems, 654-655
Jarnestown, tanker, 371
Lubricating-oil systems (continued)

lubricating-oil purifier, 27, 517, 788
piping, 692, 785-790
pumps, 787
reduction .gear, 326, 692,785-790
steam turbines, 196,692,785-790
strainers, 787
tanks, 786
types, 785
valves, 788
Lubricating-ail viscosity index, 265,775
Lubrication
boundary, 772
fluid film, 770
lubricant characteristics, 265, 775-777
lubricants, 265, 774
mixed film, 772
pressure formation, 770
/
Machinery space
access, 675
hrangement, 13, 33, 670
Labyrinth seals, 53, 54, 194, 241
Latent heat, 713
Main feed pumps, 22, 28, 403, 417, 688
Main propulsion system requirements, 8
Maintainability, 5, 12
Marine engineering
branch circuits, 642
distribution, 640
defined, 1
emergency, 646-648
early history, 2
emergency distribution, 647
Materials
applications, 824
creep, 821423,836
high temperature, 821
low temperature, 834
metallurgical terms, 835
of construction, 810
of various spaces, 636, 637
Membrane processes, 547
Memrmmac,
ironclad, 3,78
searchlights, 639
Mollier chart, 164
signal lights, 638
voltage drop, 648449
Monitor, ironclad, 3, 78
Mooring winches, 595
wire size, 648
Motor control equipment
a-c electrical characteristics, 628
controller panels, 627
Logarithmic mean temperature
difference, 42,474,475,497, 550, 551
d-c motor starters, 629-632
Logistic support, 5
master switches, 628
protection features, 628, 629
Long Lines, cable ship, 348
Longitudinal vibration; see Shafting, longitudinal vibraspeed-regulating rheostats, 628
starter panels, 627
Lubricant characteristics, 265, 775-777
Motor-generator sets, 634
Lubricant properties, 265, 774
Motors
a-c electrical characterisltics, 626
Lubricants, 265, 774
ambient temperature, 625
Lubricating-oil coolers, 27, 490, 514, 788
alternating current, 626
Lubricating-oil purifier heaters, 27, 517,788
Lubricating-oil systems
bearings, 625
condition monitoring, 789
d-c electrical characteristics, 627
designs, 626
direct current, 627
duty ratings, 626
enclosures, 621
MARINE ENGINEERING
INDEX
list of, 622-624

mechanical characteristics, 621
space heaters, 625
speed reduction, 626
terminal boxes, 625
ventilation, 621
wound-rotor, 626, 627
Navigation lights, 638
Navigational systems
applications, 660
air conditioning, 718

Nuclear reactors
applications, 149
basic fundamentals, 130
boiling-water reactors, 155
Consolidated Nuclear Steam Generator, 151
gas-cooled reactors, 140, 156

Geiger counters, 138
health physics, 146
ionization chambers, 137, 147
materials of cdnstruction, 826
neutron detection, 138
nodssionable material conversion, 136
organic-moderated reactor, 157
radidactive waste disposal, 146, 151

radiological safety, 145
reactor arrangement, 138
reactor controls, 138, 142, 150, 153
Nuclear reactors (continued)

reactor coolants, 140
reflector, 138
safety, 144, 153
SavanncJ1,146, 148, 149
shielding, 139, 143, 145, 150, 153
UNIMOD pressurized-water reactor, 153
Obiapo, tanker, 371
Observation Island, cargo ship, 371
Operability, 5
Operations research, 5
Otto Hahn, nuclear ship, 151
controller, 627
distribution, 620
emergency, 647-648
lighting, 641
power, 645
starter, 627
test, 621
types of, 620
Parametric studies, 7
Perfect gaa laws, 38
Petroleum fuels; see Fuels, petroleum
Piping
arrangements, 676
design details, 676
design velocities, 678, 679
determination of pipe sizes, 678
diagrams, 34
fittings, 681
flange attachments, 681
flexibility, 679
pressure losses, 678, 679
safety valves, 688
sea connections, 682
valves, 68'1
wall thickness, 679
working plans, 34
Piping systems
air escapes, 700
auxiliary exhaust systems, 686 =
auxiliary steam, 825
ballast systems, 696,703,705
bilge and ballast systems, 696
boiler pressure auxiliary steam systems, 683
brine cooling systems, 745
cargo-oil systems, 705
chilled-water systems, 740
condensate systems, 690
contaminated steam system, 524
drain systems, 690
fire main systems, 703
Propulsion plants (continued)

fuel consumption, 16
fuel types, 13
machinery arrangement, 13,33, 670
maintainability, 13
operating personnel, 17
rating limitations, 18
reliability, 12, 22
reversing capability, 17
selection of, 41
space and pangement requirements, 13
steam conditions, 19-20, 90, 159
weight requirements, 13, 16
Propulsors
efficiency of, 10
selection of, 9
Psychrometric chart, 711-712
Psychrometry, 711
Pumps
ballast, 421, 696
basic fundamentals, 401
bilge, 28, 421, 696
cargo, 420,705
centrifugal
cavitation, 413
clearances, 365
contrarotating, 10,385
efficiency, 408,411
head, 4Q3
controllable and reversible pitch, 10, 11, 217, 260, 385,
head-capacity curves, 406
laws of similitude, 408410
detachable blade, 385
losses, 408
efficiency of, 10
net positive suction head, 413-421
fixed pitch, 385
performance curves, 410
fully cavitating, 10, 386
specific capacity, 409
specific speed, 409,412,413
suction lift, 413 .
suction specific speed, 413
type% 401
velocity diagrams, 405
viscosity effects, 412
condensate, 28,415417,455,690
condenser circulating, 28,415, 690
deepwell, 420, 708
rpm-torque curves, 351
drain, 415-417
selection of number of blades, 369, 386
feed, 22, 28, 403, 417, 688
feed booster, 419
general service,.421
thrust eccentricity, 367, 368, 371, 373
jet propulsion, 421
Troost B Series, 9, 10
liquid ring, 434, 561
main feed, 22, 28, 403, 417, 688
materials, 421
power
axial piston, 431
arrangement, 14, 15, 20
fixed-stroke, 428
automation, 797, 804, 808
radial piston, 429
Piping systems (continued)

freshwater systems, 698, 827
fuel-oil filling, transfer, and oily ballast systems, 694
fuel-oil service systems, 694
hot-water heating systems, 735, 740
lubricating-oil systems, 692, 785-790
main feed systems, 688
main steam systems, 682, 825
materids of construction, 825,827
plumbing vents, 701
overflows, 702
refrigeration systems, 740-745
safety valve and escape piping, 687
seawater systems, 690, 827
sounding arrangements, 702
steam heating systems, 734
turbine bleed systems, 684
vents, 700,701
Preliminary design considerations, 18
Preliminary design spiral, 8
Pressurized-water nuclear reactor, 149,151,153,171
Producibility analyses, 5
establishment of rating, 10
fractional power performance, 17
variable stroke, 429

primary coolant, 421
INDEX
MARINE ENGINEERING
Pumps (continued)
reciprocating steam
steam consumption, 422
internal gear, 433

liquid piston, 434, 561
Radio communication, 659

Recuperator, 216
Reduction gears
accessories, 330
applications, 331
for contrarotating propellers, 332

for hull machinery, 565
gear wheels, 323
involute geometry, 314
journal bearings, 325
K factor, 314,324
locked-train, 311, 331
lubrication, 317, 325, 326, 329
lubricating-oil systems, 326, 692, 785-790
manufacturing methods, 311
nested gears, 311
nodal drive, 321, 389, 390
pinion deflection, 318, 319
pinion wheels, 323
planetary, 311, 332
reversing, 327, 332
size approximations, 317
slow-speed gear misalignment, 320
Reduction gears (continued)

timing, 311
tooth
bending strength, 315
contact, 319
contact prwure, 313
design factors, 313
diagonal loading factors, 316
pitch, 311, 318
scoring, 316
stresses, 313
unit loading, 316
turning gear, 199, 200, 330
weight estimates, 331
Refrigerants, 715
Refrigerated cargo, 724
Refrigerated cargo containers, 724
Refrigerated compartment cooling loads, 730
Refrigerated compartment design criteria, 730-734
Refrigerated stores, 723, 740
Refrigeration
absorption cycle, 714
compression cycle, 713-715
procem of, 713
Refrigeration equipment
absorption systems, 768
brine coolers, 767
centrifugal compressors, 767
condensers, 766
defrosting facilities, 767
evaporators, 766
liquid chilling systems, 767
receivers, 766
reciprocating compressors, 766
steam-jet systems, 768
Refrigeration piping systems, 740-745
Regeqerators, 216
Reheat turbines
arrangement, 72, 170
gas reheat, 167
state line, 72
steam reheat, 170
turbine performance, 73, 166
Reliability, 5, 12, 22
Resonance changers, 394, 783
-.
Reverie, steam yacht, 78
Reverse osmosis, 547
Reynolds number, 409
Robinson, victory ship, 371
Safety, 5, 797
Savannah, nuclear ship, 146, 148, 149, 171
Savannah, steamer, 2
Scoops, 690
Sea trials, 35
Searchlights, 639
Sensible heat, 713

Sensible heat factor, 711-713
Sensible heat of g a s , 39
Sensitivity analyses, 7
Series 60 (model tests), 9
balance, 378
bearing locations, 373
bearing reaction iduence numbers, 374, 378
bearing reaction locations, 370
bearings, 379
bending stresses, 370
bent shafts, 379
cold rolling, 372, 377
computation of diameter, 372
line shaft bearings, 379

location of main engines, 365
longitudinal vibration
acceptable limits, 397
damping, 395
determination of natural frequencies, 393
excitation changer,
factors, 395
resonance
394,783
vibratory torque calculations, 396
nodal drives, 321, 389, 390
number of bearings, 373
propeller-to-shaft interface, 375
protection from seawater, 377
radial loads, 372
shaft rake, 366, 675
shaft withdrawal, 366
thrust load, 369
torsional loads, 369
torsional vibration, 321
analysis models, 389
damping, 391
excitation, 390
mode shapes, 389, 390
modes of, 388
natural frequencies, 389
nodal drives, 321, 389, 390
vibratory torque calculations, 392
vibratory loads, 367
weighing bearing reactions, 376, 378
Shafting (continued)
whirling vibration
determination of natural frequencies, 397
mode shapes, 397
Ship requirements, 7
Ship resistance, 9
Ships service air compressor4 27,440-444
Ship system constraints, 6
Shock resistance, 24
Signal lights, 638
Silicon controlled rectifiers, 335, 337, 339, 343, 614
Similitude, laws of, 408-410
Solar heat gain, 726-728
Sonar, 662
Sound conditioning, 718
Specific power, for vehicles, 6
Specific speed, 229, 409, 412, 413
Specifications
preparation of, 31
ship, 31
Spray-film evaporators, 538, 542, 544
Steam
cycles
high-performance
cycles, 72
regenerative cycle, 65
simple cycle, 61
Steam heating systems, 734
Steam turbines
arrangement aboard ship, 14
astern operation, 200
astern turbine losses, 56 '
automation, 800
bar-lift control valves, 182
blade design, 185
blade erosion, 171, 187
blade fastenings, 187, 189
blade material, 186
blade shrouds, 188
blade vibration, 185
blading,
51 684-686
bleed
steam,
boiler pressure control, 183
bypass valves, 183
casings, 193
choked flow, 165
conditiqn curve, 164
cross-compound,
178 159
design considerations,
diaphragms, 191
double-flow, 180
emergency operation, 200
erosion, 171, 187
exhaust losses, 55, 56, 63, 164, 165
exhaust vacuum, 160
external moisture separation, 172
external thermodynamics, 55
extraction of steam, 163
extraction pressures, 58
!r
INDEX
MARINE ENGINEERING
Steam turbines (continued)

gland leakage, 55, 63
for nuclear cyoles, 171
gland seal system, 195, 524
governors, 184, ?01,610
hand control valves, 180
low oil pressure protection, 184

lubricating-oil systems, 196, 692, 785-790
piping, 682487
reaction blading, 189
reaction stages, 174
.
reduced-pder operation, 59
reheat turbines; see Reheat turbines
rotor balance, 189,190
rotor critical speed, 189
rotor design, 189, 190
rotor m a t e d , 190
single-cylinder, 178
single-stage auxiliary, 203
stage efficiencyp54
stage pressures, 163
state line, 54,. 55,56,63,72,164
steam induction, 164
steam rate, 55, 59, 63, 161, 164, 165, 610
throttle valve, 180
torque and speed characteristics, 165
turbine control, 180
valve design, 184
vector diagrams, 51
Steering gears (continued)

types, 570
vane type, 571
Steering system, 23
Stern tube bearings, 382
Stress corrosion, 816
Strouhsl number, 459
Strut bearings, 382
Superheaters, 105-108
Sustained sea speed, 10
Switchboards
applications, 615
arrangement of, 615,640
circuit protective devices, 619
emergency, 616, 640, 647-648
load-center, 619, 641
main generator and distribution, 615, 616
one-line diagram, 617-619
ratings, 615
requirements, 614
selectivity, 619
types, 615
Systems analysis, 3, 4, 5
Systems engineering, 4
T2 tankers, ,355
Tank cleaning system drain coolers, 490, 518
Tank cleaning system heaters, 490, 518
Taylor power coefficient, 9
Taylor's gtandard Series, 9
Tests, 35
Thermal insulation, 715
Thermodynamic fundamentals, 38
Thermodynamics of steam cycles, 61
Thrust bearings, 197, 240, 325, 379
resonance changers, 783
thrust meters, 783
types, 781-783
Thrust devices
jet type, 600
trainable type, 597, 599
tunnel type, 597
types, 597
Thrust meters, 783
Topping winches, 593
Torsional vibration; see Shafting, tossional vibration
Transformers, 633
Turbine-generator sets, 26,59-61,201,607, 610
Turbines, auxiliary; see Auxiliary turbines
Turbines, early history, 310
Turbinia, gunboat, 3
Turtle, submaxine, 3
power units, 575

ram group design, 573
Rapson-slide type, 573
rudder torque rating, 571
Vacuum pumps, 434,547, 561

Vang winches, 593
Vapor-compression distilling plants, 542-547
Vapor migration, 716

Ventilation systems
Vespasian, turbine ship, 310

Virginia, ironclad, 78
Viscosity of lubricants, 265, 775
Voltage drop, 648-649
Wampanoag, cruiser, 78
Warping winches, 595
Waste heat
from diesels, 73-75, 270, 281, 555
Waste heat (continued)

from gas turbines, 75
Water consumption rates, 700
Water heaters, 491, 526
m i l i n g vibration; see Shafting, whirling vibration
Wilkes, oceanographic survey ship, 343
Wiring
applications, 663
connections, 669
determination of lengths, 668
grounding, 669
installation of, 664
methods, 663
s t f i g tubes, 665
terminals, 669
Wiring appliances, 639
Work study, 5
Working plans, 33,34

Marine Engineering Roy L Harrington 1971

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Marine Engineering Roy L Harrington 1971

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I

ROY L. HARRl NGTON

Engineering Technical Pepartmelit

Since 1942 and 1944 when the two volumes of MARINEENGINEERING

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS I N MARINE ENGINEERING

Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company

THERMODYNAMICS AND B E A T ENGINEERING

1. Review of Fundamentals. ..............

BOILERS AND COMBUSTION

NUCLEAR MARINE PROPULSION

Turbine Control.. ....................

1. Nonreheat Main Propulsion Turbines. ..

ELECTRIC PROPULSION DRIVES

4. The Turbine Alternating-Current Drive

5. The Diesel Alternating-Current Drive

System. ........................... 356

PROPELLERS, SHAFTING, AND

Basic Considerations.. ..................

Axial-Flow Compreseor Design. . . . . . . . .

Introduction.. ........................ 362 b5.

1. Introdrtction. ......................... 246

9. Whirling Vibration.. ................... 397

MEDIUM AND HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES

PUMPS, FORCED-DRAFT BLOWERS,

3. Marine Uses for Diesel Engines. . . . . . . . . 257

1. Centrifugal Pumps.. ................... 401 4. Rotary Pumps.. ...................... 432

7. Ejectors.. ............................ 444

LOWSPEED DIRECT-COUPLED DIESEL ENGINES

3. Overall Considerations. ................ 303

MAIN AND AUXILIARY CONDENSERS

1. General C~aracterhtics................. 450

3. Surface Condenser Performanm. . . . . . . . . 473

1. Introduction.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 3. Gear Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

1. . Introduction. ......................... 488

3. Heat Exchanger Applications. .......... 514

C ~ I D.WROBE,Vice President, AqueChem, Incorporqted

1. Distilling Plant Designs. ............... 530

2. Distilling Plant Design Considerations. .. 550

1. General Design Consideratioqs. .........

Hull Machinery Installations.. ..........

1. Machinery Space Arrangement.. ........ 670

'2. Piping Design Details.. ................ 676

5. Applications of Materiala.. .............. 824

Manager, Piping Design '~epartment,Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry

6. Lighting and Power Distribution. ... :... 640

W. 0. NICHOLS,Chief Engineer, Central Technical Division, Shipbuilding Department, Bethlehem

1. Review of Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770 ""2. Bearings.. ............................ 778

BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION

Air Handling System Resign.. ..........

Manager, Technical Services, Marine Sales Department, Mobil Sales and

1. Fuel Manufactureand Characteristics. ... 842

2. Fuel Procurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853

The division of responsibilities between the naval

services, and numerous other such aspects of ship design

consider a larger number of factors, the computer makes

and France, and a t least seven reasonably practical

c o w o n fuel. The steam turbine and diesel engine were

longer. After the war, oil found preference either as

Fig. 1 - Functional processes in a systems analysis

warships, Bushnell's submarine is of special interest

intuitive perception and upon chance. Today, in this

the term for such a process when limited to basic

expression denotes a measure of the degree to which the

Developmetof Main Propulsion System Requiremets