Chapter 5

Antennas
Antennas for
for
Wireless
Wireless Systems
Systems
Dipole

Isotropic
Typical Wireless
Omni Antenna

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5-1

Chapter 5 Section A

Introduction
Introduction to
to
Antennas
Antennas for
for Wireless
Wireless

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5-2

Understanding Antenna Radiation

The Principle Of Current Moments

An antenna is just a passive

conductor carrying RF current

Zero current
at each end
each tiny
imaginary slice
of the antenna
does its share
of radiating

TX

RX
Maximum current
at the middle
Current induced in
receiving antenna
is vector sum of
contribution of every
tiny slice of
radiating antenna
Width of band
denotes current
magnitude

July, 1998

RF power causes the current

flow
Current flowing radiates
electromagnetic fields
Electromagnetic fields cause
current in receiving antennas
The effect of the total antenna is the
sum of what every tiny slice of the
antenna is doing

Radiation of a tiny slice is

proportional to its length times
the current in it
remember, the current has a
magnitude and a phase!
RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5-3

Different Radiation In Different Directions

Each slice of the antenna produces
a definite amount of radiation at a
specific phase angle
Strength of signal received varies,
depending on direction of departure
from radiating antenna

Minimum
Radiation:

contributions
out of phase,
cancel

Maximum
Radiation:

TX

contributions
in phase,
reinforce

Minimum
Radiation:

contributions
out of phase,
cancel

July, 1998

In some directions, the

components add up in phase
to a strong signal level
In other directions, due to the
different distances the various
components must travel to
reach the receiver, they are
out of phase and cancel,
leaving a much weaker signal
An antennas directivity is the same
for transmission & reception

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5-4

Antenna Polarization
Antenna 1
Vertically
Polarized
Electromagnetic
Field

Antenna 2
Horizontally
Polarized

TX
current

RX
almost
no
current

RF current in a conductor causes

electromagnetic fields that seek to
induce current flowing in the same
direction in other conductors.
The orientation of the antenna is
called its polarization.
Coupling between two antennas is
proportional to the cosine of the
angle of their relative orientation

To intercept significant energy, a receiving antenna must be oriented

parallel to the transmitting antenna
A receiving antenna oriented at right angles to the transmitting
antenna is cross-polarized; will have very little current induced
Vertical polarization is the default convention in wireless telephony
In the cluttered urban environment, energy becomes scattered and
de-polarized during propagation, so polarization is not as critical
Handset users hold the antennas at seemingly random angles..
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5-5

Antenna Gain
Antennas are passive devices: they do not produce
power

Can only receive power in one form and pass

it on in another, minus incidental losses
Cannot generate power or amplify

Omni-directional
Antenna

However, an antenna can appear to have gain

compared against another antenna or condition. This
gain can be expressed in dB or as a power ratio. It
applies both to radiating and receiving
A directional antenna, in its direction of maximum
radiation, appears to have gain compared against a
non-directional antenna
Gain in one direction comes at the expense of less
radiation in other directions
Antenna Gain is RELATIVE, not ABSOLUTE

When describing antenna gain, the

comparison condition must be stated or
implied
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

Directional
Antenna
5-6

Reference Antennas
Isotropic Radiator

Truly non-directional -- in 3 dimensions

Difficult to build or approximate physically,
but mathematically very simple to describe
A popular reference: 1000 MHz and above

Isotropic
Antenna

PCS, microwave, etc.

Dipole Antenna

Non-directional in 2-dimensional plane only

Can be easily constructed, physically
practical
A popular reference: below 1000 MHz
800 MHz. cellular, land mobile, TV & FM
Quantity

Units

Gain above Isotropic radiator

dBi

Gain above Dipole reference

dBd

Effective Radiated Power Vs. Isotropic

(watts or dBm) EIRP

Effective Radiated Power Vs. Dipole

(watts or dBm) ERP

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

Dipole Antenna
Notice that a dipole
has 2.15 dB gain
compared to an
isotropic antenna.
5-7

Effective Radiated Power

Reference
Antenna

An antenna radiates all power fed to it from the

transmitter, minus any incidental losses.
Every direction gets some amount of power
Effective Radiated Power (ERP) is the apparent
power in a particular direction

100 W

Equal to actual transmitter power times

antenna gain in that direction
Effective Radiated Power is expressed in
comparison to a standard radiator

ERP: compared with dipole antenna

EIRP: compared with Isotropic antenna
Example: Antennas A and B each radiate 100 watts from
their own transmitters. Antenna A is our reference, it
happens to be isotropic.
Antenna B is directional. In its maximum direction, its
signal seems 2.75 stronger than the signal from antenna
A. Antenna Bs EIRP in this case is 275 watts.
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

TX

B
Directional
Antenna

TX

100 W

ERP B A (ref)

A
B
275w

100w

5-8

Antenna Gain And ERP

Examples

Many wireless systems at 1900 & 800 MHz use omni

antennas like the one shown in this figure
These patterns are drawn to scale in E-field radiation
units, based on equal power to each antenna
Notice the typical wireless omni antenna concentrates
most of its radiation toward the horizon, where users
are, at the expense of sending less radiation sharply
upward or downward
The wireless antennas maximum radiation is 12.1 dB
stronger than the isotropic (thus 12.1 dBi gain), and
10 dB stronger than the dipole (so 10 dBd gain).

Gain Comparison
12.1 dBi

Isotropic

10dBd

Dipole

Isotropic

Dipole

Typical Wireless
Omni Antenna

Gain 12.1 dBi or 10 dBd

Omni

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5-9

Radiation Patterns

Key Features And Terminology

An antennas directivity is
expressed as a series of patterns
The Horizontal Plane Pattern graphs
the radiation as a function of azimuth
(i.e..,direction N-E-S-W)
The Vertical Plane Pattern graphs the
radiation as a function of elevation (i.e..,
up, down, horizontal)
Antennas are often compared by noting
specific landmark points on their
patterns:

-3 dB (HPBW), -6 dB, -10 dB

points
Front-to-back ratio
Angles of nulls, minor lobes, etc.

Typical Example

Horizontal Plane Pattern

Notice -3 dB points
0 (N)
0
-10
-20
-30 dB
270
(W)

10 dB
points
Main
Lobe

nulls or
a Minor
minima
Lobe
Front-to-back Ratio

180 (S)

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 10

90
(E)

How Antennas Achieve Their Gain

Quasi-Optical Techniques (reflection, focusing)

Reflectors can be used to concentrate

radiation
technique works best at microwave frequencies,
where reflectors are small

Examples:
corner reflector used at cellular or higher
frequencies
parabolic reflector used at microwave
frequencies
grid or single pipe reflector for cellular

Array techniques (discrete elements)

Power is fed or coupled to multiple

antenna elements; each element radiates
Elements radiation in phase in some
directions
In other directions, a phase delay for each
element creates pattern lobes and nulls
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

In phase

Out of
phase

5 - 11

Types Of Arrays
Collinear
Vertical
Array

Collinear vertical arrays

Essentially omnidirectional in
horizontal plane
Power gain approximately
equal to the number of
elements
Nulls exist in vertical pattern,
unless deliberately filled

Arrays in horizontal plane

Directional in horizontal
plane: useful for sectorization
Yagi

RF
power

Yagi

one driven element, parasitic

coupling to others

Log-periodic

RF
power

all elements driven

wide bandwidth

All of these types of antennas are

used in wireless
July, 1998

Log-Periodic

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 12

Omni Antennas

Collinear Vertical Arrays

The family of omni-directional wireless
antennas:
Number of elements determines

Typical Collinear Arrays

Number of
Elements
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Physical size
Gain
Beamwidth, first null angle

Models with many elements have

very narrow beamwidths

Require stable mounting and

careful alignment
Watch out: be sure nulls do
not fall in important coverage
areas
Rod and grid reflectors are
sometimes added for mild directivity
Examples: 800 MHz.: dB803, PD10017,
BCR-10O, Kathrein 740-198
1900 MHz.: dB-910, ASPP2933
July, 1998

Power
Gain
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

Gain,
dB
0.00
3.01
4.77
6.02
6.99
7.78
8.45
9.03
9.54
10.00
10.41
10.79
11.14
11.46

Angle

n/a
26.57
18.43
14.04
11.31
9.46
8.13
7.13
6.34
5.71
5.19
4.76
4.40
4.09

Vertical Plane Pattern

beamwidth
-3

d
B

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

Angle
of
first
null

5 - 13

Sector Antennas

Reflectors And Vertical Arrays

Typical commercial sector
antennas are vertical combinations
of dipoles, yagis, or log-periodic
elements with reflector (panel or
grid) backing

Vertical plane pattern is

determined by number of
vertically-separated
elements
varies from 1 to 8, affecting
mainly gain and vertical plane
beamwidth

Horizontal plane pattern is

determined by:
number of horizontally-spaced
elements
shape of reflectors (is reflector
folded?)

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

Vertical Plane Pattern

Up

Down
Horizontal Plane Pattern
N

5 - 14

Example Of Antenna Catalog Specifications

Electrical Data
ASPP2933
1850-1990
3/5.1
<1.5:1
32
Vertical
400
50
Direct Ground
N-Female
Order Sep.

ASPP2936
1850-1990
6/8.1
<1.5:1
15
Vertical
400
50
Direct Ground
N-Female
Order Sep.

dB910C-M
1850-1970
10/12.1
<1.5:1
5
Vertical
400
50
Direct Ground
N-Female
Order Sep.

Mechanical Data
Antenna Model
ASPP2933
Overall length - in (mm)
24 (610)
Radome OD - in (mm)
1.1 (25.4)
Wind area - ft2 (m2)
.17 (.0155)
Wind load @ 125 mph/201 kph lb-f (n)
4 (17)
Maximum wind speed - mph (kph)
140 (225)

ASPP2936
36 (915)
1.0 (25.4)
.25 (.0233)
6 (26)
140 (225)

dB910C-M
77 (1955)
1.5 (38)
.54 (.05)
14 (61)
125 (201)

6 (2.7)
13 (5.9)
ASPA320

5.2 (2.4)
9 (4.1)
Integral

Antenna Model
Frequency Range, MHz.
Gain - dBd/dBi
VSWR
Beamwidth (3 dB from maximum)
Polarization
Maximum power input - Watts
Input Impedance - Ohms
Lightning Protection
Termination - Standard
Jumper Cable

Weight - lbs (kg)

Shipping Weight - lbs (kg)
Clamps (steel)

July, 1998

4 (1.8)
11 (4.9)
ASPA320

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 15

Example Of Antenna Catalog Radiation Pattern

Vertical Plane Pattern

E-Plane (elevation plane)

Gain: 10 dBd
Dipole pattern is superimposed at
scale for comparison (not often
shown in commercial catalogs)
Frequency is shown
Pattern values shown in dBd
Note 1-degree indices through
region of main lobe for most
accurate reading
Notice minor lobe and null detail!

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 16

Chapter 5 Section B

Other
Other RF
RF Elements
Elements

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 17

Antenna Systems
Antenna

Directional
Coupler
Jumper

Transmission Line

F R
Jumpers

D
u
p
l
e
x
e
r

Combiner

BPF

TX
TX
RX

Antenna systems include more than just antennas

Transmission Lines
Necessary to connect transmitting and receiving equipment
Other Components necessary to achieve desired system function
Filters, Combiners, Duplexers - to achieve desired connections
Directional Couplers, wattmeters - for measurement of performance
Manufacturers system may include some or all of these items
Remaining items are added individually as needed by system operator
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 18

Characteristics Of Transmission Lines

Typical coaxial cables

Physical Characteristics
Type of line

Used as feeders in wireless applications

Coaxial, stripline, openwire

Balanced, unbalanced

Physical configuration

Dielectric:
air
foam

Outside surface
unjacketed
jacketed

Size (nominal outer diameter)

1/4,1/2, 7/8, 1-1/4,

1-5/8, 2-1/4, 3

July, 1998

Foam
Dielectric

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

Air
Dielectric

5 - 19

Transmission Lines

Some Practical Considerations

Transmission lines practical considerations

Periodicity of inner conductor

supporting structure can cause
VSWR peaks at some frequencies,
so specify the frequency band
when ordering
Air dielectric lines
lower loss than foam-dielectric; dry air
is excellent insulator
shipped pressurized; do not accept
delivery if pressure leak

Foam dielectric lines

simple, low maintenance; despite
slightly higher loss
small pinholes and leaks can allow
water penetration and gradual
attenuation increases

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

Air
Dielectric

Foam
Dielectric

5 - 20

Characteristics Of Transmission Lines, Continued

Electrical Characteristics
Attenuation
Varies with frequency, size, dielectric
D
d
characteristics of insulation
Usually specified in dB/100 ft and/or
dB/100 m
Characteristic impedance Z0 (50 ohms is the
Impedance
usual standard; 75 ohms is sometimes used) Characteristic
of a Coaxial Line
Value set by inner/outer diameter ratio
Zo = ( 138 / ( 1/2 ) ) Log10 ( D / d )
and dielectric characteristics of
= Dielectric Constant
insulation
= 1 for vacuum or dry air
Connectors must preserve constant
impedance (see figure at right)
Velocity factor
Determined by dielectric characteristics
of insulation.
Power-handling capability
Varies with size, conductor materials,
dielectric characteristics
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 21

Transmission Lines

Special Electrical Properties

Transmission lines have impedancetransforming properties

When terminated with same

impedance as Zo, input to line
appears as impedance Zo
When terminated with
impedance different from Zo,
input to line is a complex
function of frequency and line
length. Use Smith Chart or
formulae to compute
Special case of interest: Line section
one-quarter wavelength long has
convenient properties useful in
matching networks

Matched condition
ZIN = 50

ZLOAD=
50

Mismatched condition
ZIN =

Zo=50

ZLOAD=
83
-j22

Deliberate mismatch
for impedance transformation
/4

ZIN=25

ZIN = (Zo2)/(ZLOAD)
July, 1998

Zo=50

Zo=50

ZLOAD=
100

ZIN= ZO2/ ZLOAD

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 22

Transmission Lines

Important Installation Practices

Respect specified minimum
bending radius!

Inner conductor must

remain concentric,
otherwise Zo changes
Dents, kinks in outer
conductor change Zo
Dont bend large, stiff lines (15/8 or larger) to make direct
connection with antennas
Use appropriate jumpers,
weatherproofed properly.
Secure jumpers against wind
vibration.

July, 1998

Observe
Minimum
Bending
Radius!

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 23

Transmission Lines

Important Installation Practices, Continued

During hoisting
Allow line to support its own
weight only for distances
approved by manufacturer
Deformation and stretching
may result, changing the Zo
Use hoisting grips,
messenger cable
After mounting
Support the line with proper
mounting clamps at
manufacturers
recommended spacing
intervals
Strong winds will set up
damaging metal-fatigueinducing vibrations
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

200 ft 3-6 ft
~60 m
Max.

5 - 24

RF Filters

Basic Characteristics And Specifications

Typical RF bandpass filter
insertion
loss
0

Types of Filters

Attenuation, dB

Single-pole:
pass
reject (notch)

Multi-pole:
band-pass
band-reject

Key electrical characteristics

Insertion loss
Passband ripple
Passband width
upper, lower cutoff frequencies

Attenuation slope at band edge

Ultimate out-of-band attenuation
July, 1998

-3 dB

passband ripple
passband
width

Frequency, megaHertz

Typical bandpass filters have

insertion loss of 1-3 dB. and
passband ripple of 2-6 dB.
Bandwidth is typically 1-20% of
center frequency, depending on
application. Attenuation slope
and out-of-band attenuation
depend on # of poles & design

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 25

RF Filters

Types And Applications

Filters are the basic building
blocks of duplexers and more
complex devices
Most manufacturers network
equipment includes internal
bandpass filters at receiver input
and transmitter output
Filters are also available for
special applications
Number of poles (filter elements)
and other design variables
determine filters electrical
characteristics

Bandwidth rejection
Insertion loss
Slopes
Ripple, etc.

July, 1998

Typical RF Bandpass Filter

/4

Notice construction: RF input

excites one quarter-wave
element and electromagnet
fields propagate from element
to element, finally exciting the
last element which is directly
coupled to the output.
Each element is individually set
and forms a pole in the filters
overall response curve.

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 26

Basics Of Transmitting Combiners

Allows multiple transmitters to feed single
antenna, providing

Minimum power loss from

transmitter to antenna
Maximum isolation between
transmitters
Combiner types

Tuned

low insertion loss ~1-3 dB

transmitter frequencies must be
significantly separated

Typical tuned combiner

application
Antenna

TX TX TX TX TX TX TX TX

Typical hybrid combiner

application
Antenna

Hybrid
insertion loss -3 dB per stage
no restriction on transmitter
frequencies

Linear amplifier
linearity and intermodulation are
major design and operation issues

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

~-3 dB
~-3 dB
~-3 dB
TX TX TX TX TX TX TX TX

5 - 27

Duplexer Basics
Duplexer allows simultaneous
transmitting and receiving on one
antenna
Nortel 1900 MHz BTS RFFEs
include internal duplexer
Nortel 800 MHz BTS does not
include duplexer but commercial
units can be used if desired
Important duplexer specifications
TX pass-through insertion loss
RX pass-through insertion loss
TX-to-RX isolation at TX
frequency (RX intermodulation
issue)
TX-to-RX isolation at RX
frequency (TX noise floor issue)
Internally-generated IMP limit
specification
July, 1998

Antenna

Duplexer
fR

fT

RX

TX

Principle of operation
Duplexer is composed of individual
bandpass filters to isolate TX from
RX while allowing access to antenna
for both. Filter design determines
actual isolation between TX and RX,
and insertion loss TX-to-Antenna
and RX-to-Antenna.

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 28

Directional Couplers
Couplers are used to measure
forward and reflected energy in a
transmission line; it has 4 ports:
Input (from TX),
Output (to load)
Forward and Reverse Samples
Sensing loops probe E& I in line
Equal sensitivity to E & H fields
Terminations absorb induced
current in one direction,
leaving only sample of other
direction
Typical performance specifications
Coupling factor ~20, ~30,
~40 dB., order as appropriate
for application
Directivity ~30-~40 dB., f($)
defined as relative
attenuation of unwanted
direction in each sample
July, 1998

Typical directional coupler

Principle of operation
RT

Reverse Sample

Input

Forward Sample

RT

ZLOAD=
50

Main lines E & I induce equal signals in

sense loops. E is direction-independent,
but Is polarity depends on direction and
cancels sample induced in one direction.
Thus sense loop signals are directional.
One end is used, the other terminated.

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 29

Return Loss And VSWR Measurement

Directional
coupler
RF
Power
Refl

Antenna

Fwd

Transmission
line

A perfect antenna will absorb and radiate all the power fed to it
Real antennas absorb most of the power, but reflect a portion
back down the line
A Directional Coupler or Directional Wattmeter can be used to
measure the magnitude of the energy in both forward and
reflected directions
Antenna specs give maximum reflection over a specific frequency
range
Reflection magnitude can be expressed in the forms VSWR,
Return Loss, or reflection coefficient
VSWR = Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 30

Return Loss and VSWR

VSWR vs. Return Loss

50
40
30
20
10
0
1

1.5

2.5

VSWR

Return
Loss, dB = 10 x Log10
July, 1998

Reflected Power
Forward Power

Forward Power, Reflected Power,

Return Loss, and VSWR can
be related by these equations
and the graph.
Typical antenna VSWR
specifications are 1.5:1
maximum over a specified
band.
VSWR 1.5 : 1
= 14 db return loss
= 4.0% reflected power

1+

Reflected Power
Forward Power

1-

Reflected Power
Forward Power

VSWR =

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 31

Swept Return Loss Measurements

Its a good idea to take swept or TDR
Antenna
Directional
return loss measurements of a new
Fwd
Coupler
antenna at installation and to
recheck periodically
Transmission
maintain a printed or
Line
Refl
electronically stored copy of the
Network Analyzer
analyzer output for comparison
-10
A Network Analyzer can also
display polar plots, Smith
most types of antenna or
Charts, phase response
-20
A Spectrum Analyzer and
transmission line failures are
tracking generator can be
easily detectable by comparison
used if Network Analyzer not
available
-30
with stored data
f
f
1

What is the maximum acceptable value of return loss as seen in sketch above?
Given:
Antenna VSWR max spec is 1.5 : 1 between f1 and f2
Transmission line loss = 3 dB.
Consideration & Solution:
From chart, VSWR of 1.5 : 1 is a return loss of -14 dB, measured at the antenna
Power goes through the line loss of -3 db to reach the antenna, and -3 db to return
Therefore, maximum acceptable observation on the ground is -14 -3 -3 = - 20 dB.
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 32

Chapter 5 Section C

Some
Some Antenna
Antenna
Application
Application Considerations
Considerations

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 33

Near-Field/Far-Field Considerations
Antenna behavior is very different close-in and far out
Near-field region: the area within about 10 times the
spacing between antennas internal elements

Inside this region, the signal behaves as

independent fields from each element of the
antenna, with their individual directivity

Near-field

Far-field region: the area beyond roughly 10 times the

spacing between the antennas internal elements

In this region, the antenna seems to be a

point-source and the contributions of the
individual elements are indistinguishable
The pattern is the composite of the array
Obstructions in the near-field can dramatically alter the
antenna performance

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

Far-field

5 - 34

Local Obstruction at a Site

Obstructions near the site are
sometimes unavoidable
Near-field obstructions can
seriously alter pattern shape
More distant local
obstructions can cause
severe blockage, as for
example roof edge in the
figure at right
Knife-edge diffraction
analysis can help
estimate diffraction loss in
these situations
Explore other antenna
mounting positions
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

Local obstruction example

Diffraction
over
obstructing
edge

5 - 35

Estimating Isolation Between Antennas

Often multiple antennas are needed at a
site and interaction is troublesome
Electrical isolation between antennas

Coupling loss between isotropic

antennas one wavelength apart is
22 dB
6 dB additional coupling loss with
each doubling of separation
Add gain or loss referenced from
horizontal plane patterns
Measure vertical separation
between centers of the antennas
vertical separation usually is very
effective

One antenna should not be mounted in

main lobe and near-field of another

Typically within 10 feet @ 800 MHz

Typically 5-10 feet @ 1900 MHz
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 36

Visually Estimating Depression Angles

in the field
Before considering downtilt,
beamwidths, and depression
angles, do some personal
experimentation at a high site
to gain a sense of the angles
involved
Visible width of fingers, etc. can
be useful approximate
benchmark for visual
evaluation
Measure and remember width
of your own chosen references
Standing at a site, correlate
your sightings of objects you
want to cover with angles in
degrees and the antenna
pattern
July, 1998

Visually estimating angles

with tools always at hand
distance
width

angle = arctangent (width / distance)

Typical Angles
Thumb width

~2 degrees

Nail of forefinger

~1 degree

All knuckles

~10 degrees

Calibrate yourself using the formula!

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 37

Antenna Downtilt
Whats the goal?

Scenario 1
Cell A
Cell B

Downtilt is commonly used for two

reasons
1. Reduce Interference

Reduce radiation toward a

distant co-channel cell
Concentrate radiation within
the serving cell

Scenario 2

2. Prevent Overshoot

Improve coverage of
nearby targets far below the
antenna
otherwise within null of
antenna pattern

Are these good strategies?

How is downtilt applied?

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 38

Consider Vertical Depression Angles

Basic principle: important to match
vertical pattern against intended
coverage targets

Compare the angles toward

objects against the antenna
vertical pattern -- whats radiating

Depression
angle

toward the target?

Dont position a null of the

antenna toward an important
coverage target!
Sketch and formula

Vertical
distance

Horizontal
distance

Notice the height and horizontal

distance must be expressed in
the same units before dividing
(both in feet, both in miles, etc.)

= ArcTAN ( Vertical distance / Horizontal distance )

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

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Types Of Downtilt
Mechanical downtilt
Physically tilt the antenna
The pattern in front goes
down, and behind goes up
Popular for sectorization
and special omni
applications
Electrical downtilt
Incremental phase shift is
applied in the feed network
The pattern droops all
around, like an inverted
saucer
Common technique when
downtilting omni cells
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 40

Reduce Interference
Scenario 1

Concept

Cell A

Cell B

weak

strong

Reality
2
1

height
difference
150 ft
4

12 miles

1
2

= ArcTAN ( 150 / ( 4 * 5280 ) )

= -0.4 degrees
= ArcTAN ( 150 / ( 12 * 5280 ) )
= -0.1 degrees

July, 1998

The Concept:
Radiate a strong signal toward
everything within the serving
cell, but significantly reduce
the radiation toward the area
of Cell B
The Reality:
When actually calculated, its
surprising how small the
difference in angle is between
the far edge of cell A and the
near edge of Cell B
Delta in the example is
only 0.3 degrees!!
Lets look at antenna
patterns

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

5 - 41

Reduce Interference
Scenario 1 , Continued

1
2

= -0.4 degrees

Its an attractive idea, but usually the

angle between edge of serving cell
and nearest edge of distant cell is
just too small to exploit
Downtilt or not, cant get much
difference in antenna radiation
between 1 and 2
-0.1
Even if the pattern were sharp
-0.4
enough, alignment accuracy and
wind-flexing would be problems
delta in this example
is less than one degree!
Also, if downtilting -- watch out
for excessive RSSI and IM
involving mobiles near cell!
Soft handoff and good CDMA power
control is more important

= -0.1 degrees

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

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Avoid Overshoot
Scenario 2

Scenario 2

Application concern: too little radiation

toward low, close-in coverage targets
The solution is common-sense matching
of the antenna vertical pattern to the
angles where radiation is needed
Calculate vertical angles to targets!!
Watch the pattern nulls -- where do
they fall on the ground?
Choose a low-gain antenna with a
fat vertical pattern if you have a
wide range of vertical angles to hit
Downtilt if appropriate
If needed, investigate special nullfilled antennas with smooth
patterns

July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

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Other Antenna Selection Considerations

Before choosing an antenna for widespread deployment, investigate:
Manufacturers measured patterns
Observe pattern at low end of band, mid-band, and high end of band
Any troublesome back lobes or minor lobes in H or V patterns?
Watch out for nulls which would fall toward populated areas
Be suspicious of extremely symmetrical, clean measured patterns
Obtain Intermod Specifications and test results (-130 or better)
Inspect return loss measurements across the band
Inspect a sample unit
Physical integrity? weatherproof?
Dissimilar metals in contact anywhere?
Collinear vertical antennas: feed method?
End (compromise) or center-fed (best)?
Complete your own return loss measurements, if possible
Ideally, do your own limited pattern verification
Check with other users for their experiences
July, 1998

RF100 (c) 1998 Scott Baxter

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