Problem Solving from the History of Mathematics Frank J. Swetz The Pennsylvania State University “Where can I find some good problems to use in my class- room?" is a question I am often asked by mathematics teachers. My answer is simple: “The history of mathemat- ies.” Since earliest times. writen records of mathematical instruction have almost always included problems for the reader to solve, Mathematics instruction was certainly con- sidered an activity for self-involvement. The luxury of a writen discourse and speculation on the theory of mathe- matics appeared fairly late in the historical period with the rise of Greek science. Records from older civilizations such as Babylonia, Egypt. and China reveal that mathematics in- struction was usually incorporated into a list of problems whose solution scheme was then given. Quite simply, the earliest known mathematics instruction concerned problem solving—she doing of mathematics. Obviously, such prob- lems. as the primary source of instruction, were carefully chosen by their authors both to be useful and to demon- strate the state of their mathematical art* The utility of these problems was based on the immediate needs of the Societies in question and thus reflect aspects of daily life seldom recognized in formal history books. Such collec tions of problems are not limited to ancient societies but have appeared reguiariy throughout the history of mathe matics In this literature of mathematics, thousands of prob- Jems have been amassed and await as a ready reservoir for classroom exercises and assignments. The use of actual historical problems not only helps to demonstrate problem solving strategies and sharpen mathematical skills, but also: « impans a sense of the continuity of mathematical con- cems over the ages as the same problem or type of prob- Jem can often be found and appreciated in diverse soci- eties at different periods of time: « illustrates the evolution of solution processes—the way ‘we solve a problem may well be worth comparing with the original solution process, and ‘= supplies historical and cultural insights of the peoples and times involved. In the following discussion, I will survey 28 problems that readily lend themselves to classroom use. A Sample Problem Solving Situation ineservice workshop on problem solving co ducted for twenty experienced secondary school teachers, the participants were given the following homework exer= ‘A circle of radius 4 units is inscribed in a triangle, ‘A point of tangency of the circle with a side of 260 sing History t0 Teach Mathematics: An International Perspective ic 4 8 FIGURE 1 the triangle divides the side into lengths of 6 and 8 units. What are the lengths of the remaining 1 sides of the triangle? Further. they were constrained from using trigonomet- Hic techniques. (Am analysis of a diagram for the situation reveals three pairs of congruent right triangles upon which 4 repeated use of trigonometric functions would supply the correct answer.) See Figure I ‘The problem appears simple but without altemate problem solving strategies, the teachers were frustrated in their solution attempts, On the following day, only one teacher had solved the problem, Working with areas. she termined those of the known components of the triangle. two pairs of congruent right triangles 4 x 8 and 6 x 4, then let the length of the unknown segments of the required two sides of the triangle be and used! Heron's formula: Given a triangle with sides of length a. b, c, the area of the triangle will be given by A= Vals—as— Dee) Where s is the semi-perimeter of the triangle. Thus she ob- tained, (e+ TA)(G)(S)z = 22+ 24+ 4 and solving the ‘equation. she found z = 7 and the required sides are 15 and 19 units long. Upon demonstrating this solution process to the other workshop panicipants, several questions arose: initially, “What is Heron's formula?” as the majority of the teachers had never heard of it: second, “Who is Heron?” (Alexandrian mathematician, cirea 75 CE). Finally, some- ‘one asked where this particular problem origineted. All the teachers were amazed to find that it came from [Sth cen tury Italy. A follow-up assignment was the derivation of Heron's formula. In this instance much useful mathematical introspec- ‘ion and learning took place. A problem, usually considered fan exercise in trigonometry, was resolved through a con- sideration of area—a more concrete approach to a solution that was popular for hundreds of years, The issue of another formula or method for determining the area of a triangle ‘arose—most teachers and students only know the prescrip- tion that the area of a triangle is one-half the product of its base and altitude. In an applied problem, the measure of an altitude may remain elusive and, in itself, may be the subject of further investigation. Land surveyors deter- imine areas of triangular plots by working with the sides of the triangles in question and seldom consider altitudes, A problem-solving approach recognized from the history ‘of mathematics thus supplies relevance for contemporary needs. A Survey of Historical Problems, Some General Impressions Mathematical historians generally now concede that sev- «ral ancient peoples probably preceded the Greeks in ob- taining and using the correct mathematical relationships between the sides of a right tangle, the relationship com= monly known as the Pythagorean Theorem.? A concem ith right triangle theory and applications is evident in many old problems, A reed stands against a wal. If it moves down feet (at the top), the (lower) end slides away 27 feet. How long is the reed? How high is the wall? (Babylonia, 1600-1800 sce)! ‘An erect (vertical) pole of 30 feet has its base ‘moved out 18 feet, Determine the new height and ‘he distance the top of the poe is lowered, (Egypt, 100 BCE) ‘A bamboo shoot 10 feet tall has @ break near the top. The configuration of the main shoot and its broken portion forms a triangle. The top touches the ground 3 feet from the stem. What is the length of the stem left standing erect? (China, 300 BcE) A spear 20 feet long rests against a tower. If its fend is moved out 12 feet, how far up the tower does the spear reach? (Italy, 1300 CE) ‘While the information given is similar within this se- quence of problems, the required results are different. If, for each problem, z represents the desired unknown, the solution situations are quite different as shown in Figure 2 ‘The “bent bamboo" problem provides an example of ‘mathematical borrowing and transmission across cultures, It is known to have first appeared in China as the thireBabylonian Problem Ka 30 \Yy fj 0 safe} 7 10x | Ss > Chinese Prolem TAY LS — Egyptian Problem FIGURE 2 40———3}0 Mtoe jo Coo goo laradiredi~foo farslunga fe brac as — Htalian Problem ome ieee rimaferito 16 brae lat 74 braccia fone Calandri’s Problems FIGURE 3 Problem Solving from the History of Mathematics 61 teenth problem in the ninth chapter of the Jiuchang suan sh (Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art) (300 BCE 200 CE). Later it reappears in the Sanskrit mathematical classic Ganita—Sara [Compendium of Calculation] com- piled by Mahavira (c, 850 CE). Finally, it found its way to Europe in Philippi Calandris “Anthmetic™ of 1491.° See Figure 3. Such illustrations can be made into ovet- hhead transparencies and shown to a class. Students can be placed in the position of mathematical archeologists and asked to decipher the problems from the diagrams and the limited. recognizable, information given. Archaic units of measure, for example, braccia. can be converted to their ‘modern equivalents. Their findings can then be compared to the original problems. While these are simple applications of the “Pythag~ ‘orean” theorem, more complex and imaginative situations were also considered: A tree of height 20 feet has a circumference of 3 feet. There is a vine which winds seven times around the tree and reaches the top. What is the length of the vine? (China. 300 CE) (Given a vertical pole of height 12 feet.) The in- genious man who can compute the length of the pole’s shadows. the difference of which is known © be nineteen feet, and the ditlerence of the hy a\ le|a|e\ale z HZIZ| Ree aa\! Pardes iz alee 2 ala Fe | Rl | [a] > B| 38 \4\—| Bie |e $8) Bil AI TE) | | | TH] BRYA eI B/E 2/5 /BS ig] \Jesege B)£| a0 |B) | | Be LL |r| Be nia gl4lalEle mal BIZ |x geah2 segaH = Beles s lalzzlalall Bent Banboo62 Gsing History to Teach Mathematics: An International Perspective tenuses formed, 13 feet. I take tobe thoroughly Acquainted with the whole of algebra as well as arithmetic. (India, 1000 ce) ‘This second problem provides a true computational chal- lenge! Problem similarities are not only limited to mathemat- ical contexts. Societal concems also allow for comparisons Early societies’ concer with food. particulary grain, is ev. ident from the context of many problems. Ancient peoples used grain as a currency and paid wages and taxes with sain, Suppose a scribe says to thee, four overseers have ravn 100 great baskets of erain, their eangs con- sisting, respectively, of 12, 8, 6 and 4 men. How ‘uch does each overseer receive? (Eeypt, 1600 ce} From a certain field, 1 harvest 4 wagons of grain Per unit of area, From a second field. I harvest 3 Wagons of grain per unit area. The vield of the first field was 50 wagons more than that of the Second. The total area of both fields is known 10 'be 30 units. How large is each field” (Babylonia, 1500 acey The yield of 3 sheaves of superior grain, 2 sheaves of medium grain, and 1 sheaf of infe- tor grain is 39 baskets. The yield (from another field) of 2 sheaves of superior grain. 3 sheaves of medium grain, and 1 sheaf of inferior grain is 34 baskets. (From a thied field) the yield of | sheaf of superior grain, 2 sheaves of medium frain, and 3 sheaves of inferior grain is 26 bas- kets, What is the yield of superior. medium. and inferior grains? (China, 300 sce) Early society's concem with grain, its harvesting, stor- age and distribution reflects their agricultural status, Prob. {ems 41-60 of the Rhind papyrus (e. 1650 BCE) concer the eometry of grain storage.” One chapter of the Chinese i. chang suanshu is entitled “Millet and Rices.” It concerns the use of proportions in the distribution of these grains ‘The use of proportion was a powerful mathematical tool in carly problem solving, Throughout the ages, the division and pricing of food- stuffs has provided the basis for many problems. Fibonacei, writing for a 13th century Italian audience, demonstrates chat, mathematically speaking, “things are not what they ‘may seem,” ‘Thete were two men, of whom the frst had 3 small loaves of bread and the other 2: they ‘walked to a spring, where they sat down and ate A soldier joined them and shared their meal, each of the three men eating the same amount. When All the bread was eaten the soldier departed, leay. ing 5 bezants to pay for his meal. The first man accepted 3 of the bezants. since he had three loaves: the other took the remaining 2 bezants for his 2 loaves. Was the division fait? (Italy, 1202), Tnsights into the use and rewards for labor can be found in ‘many cultures: Iti known that the digging of a canal becomes ‘more difficult the deeper one goes. In ofder to compensate for this fact. differential work allot. ‘ents were computed: a laborer working at the top level was expected to remove 1/3 sar of earth inone day, while a laborer atthe middle level re. ‘moved 1/6 sar and at the botom level. 1/9 sar. If 2 fixed amount of earth is to be removed from a anal in one day, how much digging time should be spent at each level? (Babylonia. 1500 Bce) Now there is a city wall of upper width 2 chang, lower width of 5 zhang. 4 chi. eight 3 zhang. 8 chi, and length $.550 chi to be constructed. The ‘work capacity of a person in autumn is 300 chi Find the manpower needed. (China. c, 200 ce)* Wamer receives $2.50 a day for his labor and pays $.50 a day for his board: at the finish of 40 Gays, he has saved $50. How many days did he Work and how many days was he idle? (United States. 1873), Compensation for work performed reveal social in- dustices. societal inequities andthe fact that our forefathers Worked with indeterminate situations 1f 100 bushels of com be distributed among 100 People in such a manner that each man receives 3 bushels, each woman 2, and each child 1/2 bushel, how many men, women and children ‘were there? (England, 800 cE) If 20 men, 40 women and 50 children receive ‘5350 for seven weeks work, and 2 men receive os ‘much as 3 women or 5 children, what sum does 4 woman receive for a week's work? (England, 1880) Im 1000 years, has the status of a woman’ labor rally improved? Alcuin of York compiling problems in about the year 800, notes the need for military conscription A king recruiting his army, conscripts | man in the frst town, 2 in the second, 4 in the third, #in the fourth. and so on until he has taken men from 30 towns. How many men does he collect in all? “Apparently in Victorian England the practice was still tak- ing place, although at a less dramatic level ‘The number of disposable seamen at Portsmouth is 800; at Plymouth 756: and at Sheemess 404. A ship is commissioned whose complement is 490 seamen. How many must be drafted from each place so as to take an equal proportion? Hamblins Treatise of Arithmetic (1880). Military needs have been a persistent theme in historical problem solving.* Geometric sifuations also provided a challenging set- ting for problems:f Given a triangblar piece of land having two sides 10 yards in length and its base 12 yards, what is the largest squate that can be constructed within this piece of land so that one side lies along the base of the triangle? (AI-Khwarizmi’s Algebra. c. 820 ce) A circular field of land can contain an equilateral Iwiangle of side 36 feet. What is the size of the field? (Egypt, 300 Bce) Given a right triangle with legs 8 and 15 feet, respectively. What is the largest circle that can be inscribed in this tangle? (China, 300 ace) In examining collections oF old problems itis inter~ esting to note that there have always existed purely intel- lectual. riddle-type, problems such as the “three sisters” problem from ancient China: Now there are three sisters. The eldest returns every § days, the second returns once every four days and the youngest retums once every three days. Find the number of days before dhe three sisters meet together. (c. 200 CE) for the famous “goat, wolf and cabbage” problem from Western mathematics A wolf, a goat and a cabbage must be transported seroxs river in a boat holding only one besides the ferryman, How must he carry them across so that the goat shall not cat the cabbage, nor the wolf the goat? (800 cEV Mathematical authors have always provided both chal- lenges and fun in their problem selections, Problem Solving from the History of Mathematics 63, Problems as a Mathematical Testament ‘While problems can supply much information about the so- cietes and times in question. they also illustrate the math= ematical needs and ingenuity of our ancestors. From ex- mining a problems contents, students are often amazed to discover that before the Christian era, people were solv- ing systems of linear equations and applying iterative al- gorithms to compute square and cube roots of numbers 0 a good degree of accuracy. At various periods of history certain problems dominate the mathematical environment. While ancient Chinese and Egyptian mathematics focused ‘on utilitarian needs. Greek mathematicians were busy with such non-utilitarian concems as 1. The duplication of the cube 2. The tisection of an angle 3. The quadrature of the eirele ‘These problems were to be solved with the use of a straightedge and compass alone. It was over two thousand years before this feat was proved impossible. but yet. in the intern search for solutions. many useful mathematical discoveries were made. including a theory of conic sections and the development of cubic. quadratic, and transcenden- tal curves. Out of this particular legacy emerged a series of| geometric problems that can challenge and fascinate mod- cm students. In the search 10 athieve a quadrature of the circle. a theory of lunes developed and problems like those that follow resulted.!? Given a semicircle with diameter AB. are ADB (a quadrant) is inscribed in the semicircle. The region bounded between the semicircle and the are is called a lune. Show that the area of the lune ACBD is equal to the area of the inscribed tangle ACB where AC = CB. (See Figure 4.) Problems become more complex and further removed from reality. as shown by a consideration of the arbelos and its properties, a curve studied by Archimedes.12 c al 2 Figure 464 Using History to Teach Mathematics: An International Perspective G 4 c B FIGURE 5 Let A, C. and B be three points on a straight line. Construct semicircles on the same side of the line with AB. AC. and CB as diameters. The region bounded by these three semicircles is called an arbelos. At C construct a perpendicular line to AB intersecting the largest semiciscle at point G. Show that the area of the circle constructed with CG as a diameter equals the area of the arbelos. (See Figure 5.) Given an arbelos packed with circles Cy. Cp Cs..... as indicated. show that the perpendic- lular distance from the center of the nth circle to the line ACB is 1 times the diameter of the nth circle. (See Figure 6,) During the Edo period of Japanese history (1603 1867). Japan remained isolated from the Western world. Little Westem knowledge entered the island empire. How- ever. it was a period of strong mathematical activity with 8 broad spectrum of common people posing and solving ‘ater intricate problems involving geometric figures. Most of these problems concemied the packing of citeles into cer- tain specified plane figures." Two elementary problems of this genre are: y 4 c B FIGURE 6 FIGURE 7 Given three circles C). C2, C3 with radii of Tis Tas and ry respectively. The circles are in- scribed in an ellipse with major axis of length @ and minor axis of length b. Circles C; and C2 touch each other extemally, and each also touches the ellipse at two distinet points. The circle Cy touches the ellipse intemally and also touches each of the other two circles externally. Find ry in terms of a, 8, and ry. (See Figure 7.) Given triangle ABC with sides of known lengths 4, b, © respectively. Three circles of radii rs. ro. "9 are in mutual contact and are inscribed in the Iriangle. What are the radii of the cireles in terms of the given sides? (See Figure 8.) Such problems, when solved. were inscribed on wooden tablets and presented at the local Shinto temple. Today they are known as “Japanese Temple Problems. Both the classical problems of ancient Greece and the temple problems of a reclusive seventeenth century Japan. possess a certain aesthetic that while different is also strangely similar. Geometric relations and perceptions ‘of space have always fascinated people across time and ‘cultures. It was well into the nineteenth century before the Greek classical problems were shown to be unsolvable us- ing straightedge and compass, but their legacy has left us with much interesting mathematics. The temple problems © LA AN LI FIGURE &‘of Japan sill remain litle known outside their country of origin—they wait to be explored! Conclusion ‘The history of mathematics contains a wealth of material that can be used to inform and instruct in today’s class- rooms. Among these materials are historical problems and ‘problem solving situations, While for some teachers. histor- ical problem solving can be a focus of a lesson. itis proba- bly a better pedagogical practice to disperse such problems throughout the instructional process. Teachers who like 0 ‘assign a “problem of the week" will find that historical problems nicely suit the task. Ample supplies of historical problems can be found in old mathematics books and in ‘many survey bool on the history of mathematics. These problems let us tough the past but they also enhance the present. Their contents reveal the mathematical traditions that we all share. Questions originating hundreds or even thousands of years ago can te understood, appreciated. and answered in today’s classrooms. What a dramatic realiza- tion that is! Notes and References 2 The emphases of textual problems have varied for different peri- cds of time and have reflected the insructional intent of theie au thors, Texts written inthe bureaucratic contexts of ancient EBypt and China considered contemporary societal problems and em- ployed contemporary data. Their problems discussed and reflected ‘he needs of the times and thus provide valid historia! insights. Similarly the abaei manuseripts of the late middle ages reflect the feconomic and commercial climate of southern Europe. See. for example, Warren Van Egmond. Tie Commercial Revolution and the Beginnings of Western Mathematics in Renaissance Florence 15300-1500 (PhD. thesis, Department of History and Philosophy ‘of Science, Indiana University, 1976). Other textbook authors, pie marily interested in the theorescal aspects of mathemati. have {devised problems whose realistic application is open to question. * The workshop was given in 1995 by the author toa select group ‘of teachers from Southeast Asia, > See discussion in Victor Katz, A History of Mathematics (New ‘York: Harper Collins. 1993) pp. 25-31: R.C. Buck. “Sherlock Holmes in Babylon,” American Mathematical Monthly 87 (1980) pp. 335-345. “Assume thatthe reed intially stands even sith the top of the wal ® or a more complete discussion and analysis of this problem see Frank Swetz and TA Kao. Was Psthagoras Chinese? An Ex- tamination of Right Triangle Theory in Anctent China (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press. 1997) pp. 44-45, Problem Solving from the History of Mathematics 65 ©The migration of this problem is discussed in Vera Sanford The History and Significance of Certain Standard Problems in ‘Algebra (New York: Teachers College Press. 1977) p. 77. The problems illestrated tom Calangsts Arithmetic are: [A tower is 40 braccia high and at its base runs a river whieh is 30 braccia wide. I want to know how long a ope which rans fromthe top of the tower fo the ther side of the ever will he? ‘There is a tree on the bank of a river which is 60 braccia high and the river is 30 braccia wide. The tee breaks at point such that the top ofthe tee touches, the opposite bank of the river. I want 10 know how ‘many braccia broke off and how high the stump was? * as given in the translation: A.B, Chace, The Rhind Marhemat cal Papyrus (Washington, DC: The National Council of Teachers ‘of Mathematics, 1978 [reprint of 1927. 1929 editions), The units of measure employed are the chi. the Chinese “oot” land the zhang, where | zhane = 10 chi. See Lam Lay Yong tnd Ang Tian Se, Fleeting Footsteps: Tracing the Conception of Arithmetic and Algebra in Arilent China (Singapore: World Sci- entific, 1992) p, 84. The unit cis a measure of both length and Volume depending on context. Thus the work capacity of 300 chi Should be understood to mean 300 cubic chi, The aecompany= ing answer determines the volume to be constructed as 7.803.300, (cubic) chi for which 26.011 men ill be required Books were devoted to military problem solving, for exam- ple, Leonard and Thomas Disges. Arihmerical Miltare Treas. famed Siraioricas (Londen. 1373.) The concept of “érumbead tmgonometty” owes its origins to military needs. See D.E. Smith, History of Mathemaics vel. IL (New York Dover Publication. 1958) p. 385. 20 -The problem apparently crsinated in Alcuin of Yorks Propo- sitiones ad acuendosjuvenes (800 CE) See anslaton and discus sion in David Singmaster and John Hadley, “Problems ro Sharpen the Young.” The Mathemarical Gazetve 76 (1992) pp. 102 siscussion of the same problem in different contexts and cultures is given in Mareia Ascher. Exhnomarhematics (Pacific Grove. CA ‘Brooks Cole Publishing Company, 1991) pp. 109112. 2 am analysis of Yale Babylonian Collection tablet 7289 re ‘vals that its ancient scribes calculated V2 = 1.414213502. See Giseussion in HLL. Resnikotf and R.O. Wells. Marhemanics in Civilization (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973) pp. 16-78. 1 Leonatdo da Vinei experimented with the mathematics of lunes. See Herbert Wills. Leonardo’ Dessert (Reston, VA: Na tional Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1985). 9 For fuller discussion of the arbelos see L. Raphael, “The Shoemaker’ Knife." Mathematics Teacher (Apni, 1973) pp. 319- 34 These problems are considered in Yoshio Mikami, The Devel- lopment of Mathematics i China and Fapan (New York: Chelsea Publishing Company. 1974 [reprint of 1913 edition)). Am exten- sive discussion of problems and their solution s given in . Fuk agawa and D. Ped. Japanese Temple Geomerry Problems (Wine ripeg, Canada: The Charles Babbage Research Centre. 1989). 4