Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thesis
Thesis
LAMINATED COMPOSITE
Thesis submitted for the degree of bachelor of
aeronautical engineering
by
Student Nguyen Duc Anh
Abstract
Impact behaviour of fibre-reinforced composite materials brings together for the first
time the most comprehensive and up-to-date work undertaken in leading research centres
worldwide. Impact response, damage tolerance and failure are extensively investigated
from a number of viewpoints. The low-energy impact on laminated composite is the
research topic in this thesis.
The main objective is to simulate the phenomenon of low-energy impact on laminated
composite. An integrated modelling for carbon/epoxy composite plates has been
developed to evaluate the impact damage initiation and propagation. Three failure modes:
resin crazing, delamination and fibre failure have been investigated and implemented for
the damage simulation. Resin crazing and fibre failure are studied based on Hashin
criterion. And delamination is studied based on cohesive zone model. Three-dimensional
dynamic finite element method was used to simulate the real impact events. The
simulation is based on Abaqus CAE package.
This thesis is divided into six chapters and appendix
Chapter 1: Introduction;
Chapter 2: An overview of the impact behaviour of fibre-reinforced composites;
Chapter 3: Contact mechanics;
Chapter 4: Modelling with Abaqus/CAE 6.9;
Chapter 5: Results;
Chapter 6: Conclusion and recommendation;
Appendix
Keywords
Composites; Impact damage; Failure modes; Delamination; Cohesive zone model
(CZM); Finite element analysis
ii
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Hoang, for his guidance. Since I
have been studing Aviation Engineering, I have become interested in structural numerical
computing. It was him who gave me the chance to approach it. I also want to thank
engineer Thao who has given me a great deal of advice and help at every stage of my
research. I may not finish this thesis without their kindness.
I wish to thank all teachers who was giving me instructions during my study at university,
especially the teachers in Aeronautical Department.
Finally, special thanks to my family and friends who have supported and encouraged me
throughout this work. I love all.
iii
List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Composite material ............................................................................................ 5
Figure 2.2 Fracture mechanisms observed in laminates ..................................................... 9
Figure 2.3 Fracture propagation in the case of poor fibre-matrix bonding ......................... 9
Figure 2.4 Fracture surface associated with poor fibre/matrix bonding in the case of a
carbon fibre composite (ONERA document) ................................................................... 11
Figure 2.5 Fracture surface associated with high fibre/matrix bonding in the case of a
carbon fibre composite (ONERA document) ................................................................... 12
Figure 2.6 X-ray observation of the fracture state of carbon fibre composites after fatigue
(105 cycles) in the case of impacted specimens (ONERA document) .............................. 12
Figure 2.7 The acoustic emission process......................................................................... 13
Figure 2.8 Acoustic emission signals recorded during bending tests on unidirectional
carbon fibre-epoxide composites ...................................................................................... 13
Figure 2.9 Delamination ................................................................................................... 17
Figure 2.10 Ultrasonic scanning images of the dlemination in cross-ply laminates after
impact: (a) after 1J impact; (b)after 2J impact; (c) after 3J impact (ELSEVIER document)
........................................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 3.4 indentation of glass-epoxy laminate from Yang and Sum (1982). (a) Loading;
(b) Unloading; (c) Reloading ............................................................................................ 22
Figure 3.5 (a) two-degree-of-freedom model. (b) single-degree-of-freedom model. ....... 25
Figure 3.6 Linear two-degree-of-freedom spring-mass impact model ............................. 26
Figure 3.7 Free vibrations of two-degree-of-freedom sustem: (a) first non-dimensional
frequency; (b) second non-dimensional frequency (solid line: exact; dashed line;
approximate); (c) Curve veering phenomenon for k2/k1=10 (solid line: exact; dashed line;
approximate). .................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 3.8 Apprpximate mode shapes of linear two-degree-of-freedom system.............. 29
Figure 5.1 Impact process at t=0.00ms; 0.08ms; 0.16ms; 0.24ms; 0.32ms; 0.40ms;
0.48ms; .............................................................................................................................. 45
Figure 5.2 Velocity of impactor during and after impact process .................................... 45
Figure 5.3 Impact force at right impact point during and after impact process. ............... 46
Figure 5.4 Contact stress at right impact point during and after impact process .............. 46
Figure 5.5 Relation between contact force and indentation during impact process
including loading and unloading, t=0 to t=0.28ms. .......................................................... 47
Figure 5.6 Delamination process at t=0.28ms; 0.52ms;.................................................... 48
Figure 5.7 Stress field in the surface of impact at t=0.36ms............................................. 48
Figure 5.8 Mises stress distributes along thickness at t=0.08ms, distance from centre of
impact is normalized by percent ....................................................................................... 49
Figure 5.9 Shear stress in-plane 1-0-2 at first interface, t=0.04ms; distance from centre of
impact to distance of 10mm is normalized by percentage. ............................................... 49
Figure 5.10 Shear stress in-plane 1-0-2 at second interface, t=0.04ms; distance from
centre of impact to distance of 10mm is normalized by percentage. ................................ 50
Figure 5.11 Status of elements after impact, t=0.8ms....................................................... 51
Figure 5.12 Tensile fibre damage initiation after impact, t=0.8ms. .................................. 52
Figure 5.13 Compressive fibre damage initiation after impact, t=0.8ms.......................... 52
Figure 5.14 Compressive fibre damage evolution after impact, t=0.8ms. ........................ 53
Figure 5.15 Tensile matrix damage initiation after impact, t=0.8ms. ............................... 53
Figure 5.16 Tensile matrix damage evolution after impact, t=0.8ms. .............................. 54
vi
Figure 5.17 Compressive matrix damage initiation after impact, t=0.8ms. ...................... 54
Figure 5.18 compressive matrix damage evolution after impact, t=0.8ms. ...................... 55
Figure 5.19 Delamination ................................................................................................. 55
Figure 5.20 Shear damage evolution after impact, t=0.8ms. ............................................ 56
Figure 5.21 Delamination at both two interlaminars at t=0.52ms .................................... 57
Figure 5.22 State of first interlaminar (left) and second interlaminar (right) after impact,
t=0.8ms ............................................................................................................................. 58
Figure 5.23 Traction damage initiation at first interlaminar (left) and second interlaminar
(right) after impact, t=0.8ms ............................................................................................. 58
Figure 5.24 Interlaminar delamination shaped a peanut at second interlaminar, t=0.04ms
........................................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 5.25 Interlaminar delamination at second interlaminar after impact, t=0.8ms ...... 60
vii
Contents
Abstract
ii
Acknowledgements
iii
List of Figures
iv
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1
Background ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2
1.3
2.1
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 4
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.5
18
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... 18
3.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 18
3.2
Contact mechanics.......................................................................................................... 19
viii
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.5.4
3.6
3.7
3.8
Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 32
33
4.1
Introduction .................................................................................................................... 33
4.2
4.2.1
Model ...................................................................................................................... 34
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
Mesh........................................................................................................................ 37
4.2.5
4.2.6
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
Chapter 5 Results
43
5.1
Overview ........................................................................................................................ 43
5.2
ix
5.3
5.4
Delamination .................................................................................................................. 57
61
6.1
Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 61
6.2
Recommendation ............................................................................................................ 62
References
63
Appendix
65
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1
Background
The last four decades have witnessed a steady increase in the use of light-weight
polymetric composites for structural applications. In addition to their excellent quasistatic mechanical properties such as high specific stiffness and strength, it has become
essential for these composite structures to perform well under various types of impact
loading. For example, fibre-reinforced composite materials are used in aircraft, modern
vehicles and light-weight structures. In the aerospace industry, the residual compressive
strength of an impact-damaged composite struture has become the design-limiting factor.
Major aspects of current damage-tolerant design philosophies in other industrial sectors
are similar to that of the aerospace industry.
There has been a significant increase in the application of composites in the aerospace
industry. Composite are being selected for their high stiffness, high strength to weight
ratio and energy absorbing properties. Composite offers significant weight savings
compared to metal. Reduced weight results in opportunities to improve fuel economy,
which subsequently helps to reduce emissions. However, their application remains
limited because of not only high material and production cost but also long
manufacturing cycle times.
Nowadays, finite element simulations are use extensively in airplane design. These tools
have allowed engineers to reduce design cycles and avoid the high costs associated with
experimental testing. Simulations of metallic structures are now well established;
however, advanced finite element methods for fibre-reinforced composites are just
emerging. In particular, the study of impact damage progression and failure in composite
structures has become one of the most researched areas over the last two decades.
However, in contrast to monolithic composite structures, composite sandwich structures
have received limited attention. The level of structural and material complexity of the
composite sandwich is greater than that of metallic and monolithic composite strutures
due to the inhomogeneous and anisotropic nature of the sandwich construction; in
addition to the more complex failure mechanisms of the composite skins and core
material. Advanced finite element composite material models can simulate damage
progression and fracture are emerging; however the development of a predictive
modelling methodology for composite sandwich structure is still in its infancy.
1.2
1.3
Develop an appropriate finite element modelling for the dynamic impact loading of
composite sandwich structures which predicts the damage and deformation behaviour
of these structures.
Determine the failure modes of composite sandwich structures under low-energy
dynamic impact.
Thesis layout
This thesis is divided into six chapter. Following this introduction (chapter 1), the thesis
is composed as follows:
Chapter 2 presents a comprehensive literature review of the composite material and its
impact behaviour.
Chapter 3 presents an overview of contact mechanics for understanding the principle of
the impact event.
Chapter 4 presents modelling using Abaqus for simulation the dynamic impact. This
modelling uses the Hashin criterion for prediction of damages; and uses the cohesive
zone model for simulation of interlaminar delamination.
2
Chapter 2
An overview of the impact behaviour of fibrereinforced composites
2.1
Introduction
Impact may be defined as the relatively sudden application of an impulsive force, to a
limited volume of material or part of a structure. The proviso is that relatively and limited
are capable of an extraordinarily wide range of interpretations. The effects of impact are
widely known and yet analysing the phenomenon and relating effects to the forces acting
and the materials properties, in order to predict the outcome of a particular event , can be
very difficult. The results of an impact can be largely elastic, with some energy dissipated
as heat, sound, internally in the material, ect. Alternatively there may be deformation,
permanent damage, complete penetration of the body struck or fragmentation of the
impacting or impacted body, or both.
For fibre composite materials it is permanent damage, possibly subsurface and barely
visible, penetration and fragmentation, that are of interest. There are various ways of
analysing the impact process; in terms of the energy deposited and gross damage
produced, micro energy dissipation or by considering the stresses acting on flaws in the
material and the effects that are generated. The latter method, which is known as fracture
mechanics.
2.2
Composite materials
What is composite material? As the term indicates, composite material reveals a material
that is different from common heterogeneous materials. Currently composite material
refers to materials having strong fiberscontinuous or noncontinuoussurrounded by a
weaker matrix material. The matrix serves to distribute the fibers and also to transmit the
load to the fibers.
m for certain types ( e,g boron), and a modulus and strength of the order of 70-800GPa
and 1000-7000MPa, respectively. The failure strain is ~0.27-5.0%. Carbon and aramid
fibres may exhibit an increasing modulus with increasing strain due to changes in their
internal structure during stressing. The resins, whether thermosets or thermoplastics, have
a modulus and strength of the order of 2-5GPa and 50-100 MPa, respectively, and a
strain to failure of ~1% upwards. It should be noted that resin failure strain is usually well
in excess of the minimum figure. Properties of resins are usually strain rate dependent
5
and markedly influenced by temperature. This occurs because the glass transition
temperature, Tg, which is indicative of the upper working temperature, is ~80-200oC for
most resins. This is much closer to room temperature than is the case for the melting or
degradation point of most structural materials. Hence creep can be a problem with
polymers at relatively low temperatures.
Some fibre and resin properties are summarised in table 2.1. It should be noted that these
are indicative of the property range for the materials. Individual grades/types of material,
the way the property is measured, etc., might cause variations outside the limits given.
Density
3
( Mgm )
2.49-2.55
1.7-2.0
1.39-1.45
2.0-3.97
1.0-1.35
1.1-1.23
1.2-1.2
Tensile modulus
Tensile strength
Material
(Gpa)
(Mpa)
Glass fibre
73-86
3400-4500
Carbon fibre
160-827
1400-7070
Aramid fibre
73-160
2400-3400
Inorganic fibre
152-462
1720-3900
Phenolic resin
3.0-4.0
60-80
Polyester resin
3.1-4.6
50-75
Epoxy resin
2.6-3.8
60-85
Bismaleimide
resin
1.2-1.32
3.2-5.0
48-110
Table 2.1 Some fibre and resin properties [1]
Strain to
failure (%)
3.5-5.4
0.27-1.9
1.4-4.6
~1.8
1.0-6.5
1.5-8.0
1.5-3.3
(Mg m-3)
1.8-2.0
1.54-1.66
1.36-1.4
Elt
(GPa)
37-53
125-330
66-107
G1c (J m-2)
125-3300
60-3300
1100
Ett
(GPa)
9.0-13.6
5.9-10
4.1
G2c (J m-2)
600-1200
154-2033
lt
(GPa)
1.2-1.9
1.76-2.9
1.29-1.5
tt
(GPa)
lc
(GPa)
30-80
27
0.78-1.6
0.19-0.28
(MPa)
53-83
70-127
38-69
Where is the density, Elt and Ett are the longitudinal tensile and transverse tensile
moduli, respectively, lt, tt, lc, are the longitudinal tensile, transverse tensile and
longitudinal compressive strengths, respectively, is the shear strength (also known as
the interlaminar shear strength or ILSS), G1c, G2c are the critical works of fracture for the
1 and 2 deformation modes and Imp st. l, and Imp st, t, are the longitudinal and transverse
Charpy impact strengths.
It is common to use Gc, the critical strain energy release rate, as a measure of toughness,
though some workers distinguish between initiation and propagation energies for this
quantity. Often Gc is equated to 2, where is the work of fracture or the energy required
to produce a new surface in a material. It is important to remember that both and Gc
refer to a specific model of deformation (a tensile type opening for G1c) and that the
direction of the fibres in relation to the sense of deformation must be clearly defined. In
table 2.2, G1c refers to the extension of a crack parallel to the fibre direction and is thus
analogous to the transverse Charpy impact energy. G1c defined in this way is also known
as the mode 1 interlaminar shear work of fracture. More information on the fibre, resin
and composite properties is available, for instance, as is a simple description of the
various deformation modes associated with G1c, G2c and G3c. A general account of
composites fracture mechanics and toughening mechanisms is given in Hancox and
Mayer. More details and descriptions of the experimental difficulties of determining the
critical strain energy release rates and the influence of materials and testing parameters
on the results have been recorded.
2.3
Failure processes
New situations and materials tend to be judged initially by comparison with existing
ones. Since the principle class of construction materials used in high performance
applications is metals, composites are usually compared with them. Generally, metals
tend to be dense, stiff, strong, good conductors of heat and electricity, isotropic and
inexpensive. In particular many show plastic behaviour before failure and it may be
possible to remove the effects of deformation/damage by annealing and/or reworking the
material. Unfortunately, at least on a significant scale, polymer matrix fibre composites
do not exhibit this type of behaviour-elastic deformation is followed by irreversuble
damage and failure. Another important influence on composite performance, especially in
failure, is the heterogeneous nature of the material on a micro/meso scale.
Composites are generally strong, and have a reasonable impact resistance, if the applied
stress is in the fibre direction. In other directions they tend to be weak and to have a low
impact resistance. Small secondary stresses in the transverse direction or unexpected
stresses due to an impact, in a weak direction, can easily cause damage. Bacause of the
ease with which localised permanent damage can be produced and the low values of or
G1c for failure parallel to the fibres, or between plies in a laminate, G1c is sometimes
regarded as critical and the focus of most attention in impact work. Fracture mechanics
methods of determining G1c are favoured over traditional measurements of impact
strength, from which and arguably G1c can be determined, because of their greater
accuracy and virtual elimination of extraneous energy absorption. However, the
assumptions implicit in fracture energy determinations may not be true for fibre
composites, where crack propagation may be dominated by crack blunting, fibre pull-out
and fibre/matrix delamination. It has been suggested that in such circumstances
conventional fracture toughness. Impact tests can be more useful, lathough no so readily
analysed as fracture toughness measurements, and can be conducted at strain rates more
representative of the deformation rates seen in service.
There are five basic machanical failure modes that can occur in a composite after initial
elastic deformation. These are:
Figure 2.3 Fracture propagation in the case of poor fibre-matrix bonding [3]
c V ( Ect )0.5
where Ect is the transverse compressive modulus and the density. Typical values of
these quantities are 10GPa and 2x103kg/m3, respectively, giving c=9MPa. In pratice,
compressive loading could cause localised bending and transverse failure in suitably
oriented plies and generate interlaminar shear stresses. The compressive stress will
continue to act until the impacting body rebounds. The stress wave will propagate into
the impacted material, with a decreasing amplitude, and be reflected at the back surface
as a tension wave.
It is possible to apply the theory of Hertzian contact stresses to the estimation of the
impact stress. This indicates that if the diameter of the contact area is 2a the maximum
shear stress appears below the point of contact at a depth of ~a/2. The maximum contact
stress, q0, for indentation on a plate surface is
q0 0.7aE / R
This assumes a common Poissons ratio of 0.3 and that the controling modulus is that of
the composite through its thickness ~10GPa. If a=0.25mm and R, the radius of the
impactor is 25mm as before, the maximum compressive stress is found to be ~70MPa
and the maximum shear stress, ~0.31q0, is 22MPa. Both approaches neglet, among other
10
points, the differences in the properties of the impacting and impacted bodies,
geometrical effects and the heterogeneous, anisotropic nature of the composite. In
addition, whether a static thoery of contact stresses can be applied to an impact situation
is open to debate. In view of all these factors the results are approximate but they do
indicate the potential for damage.
2.4
Figure 2.4 Fracture surface associated with poor fibre/matrix bonding in the case of
a carbon fibre composite (ONERA document) [3]
11
Figure 2.5 Fracture surface associated with high fibre/matrix bonding in the case of
a carbon fibre composite (ONERA document) [3]
Figure 2.6 X-ray observation of the fracture state of carbon fibre composites after
fatigue (105 cycles) in the case of impacted specimens (ONERA document) [3]
It is also possible to observe the fracture state of test specimens by radiography with a
medical scanner. The analysis of the density variations allows us to obtain information in
three dimensions.
12
Figure 2.8 Acoustic emission signals recorded during bending tests on unidirectional
carbon fibre-epoxide composites [3]
13
The processes of recording and analysis of the acoustic emission signals are greatly
improved by the numerical equipment which is available today for the engineer.
2.5
Failure criteria
The objective of the failure criteria is to allow the designer to have an evaluation of the
mechanical strength of laminates. Quite generally, the mechanical resistance of a material
is associated to an irreversible degradation. In fact, the definition of failure may change
from one application to another. In case of composite materials, the end of the elastic
domian is generally associated with the development of microcracking: matrix
microcracking, fibre-matrix debonding, etc,. In the initial stage of fracture process, the
initiated microcracks do not propagate, and their development changes the stiffness of the
material very gradually.
Failure criteria have been established in the case of a single layer of a laminate and may
be classified as:
In some applications, the maximum stress and strain criteria do not allow us to describe
the experimental results observed. Moreover, these criteria do not consider interactions
between the modes of fracture: longitudinal, transverse and shear fracture. So, the
different fracture mechanisms are assumed to occur independently. Thus, the interactive
criteria have been investigated, extending to the case of orthotropicmaterials the Von
Mises criterion introduced for the isotropic materials. Von Mises criterion is related to
the deformation energy stored per unit volume of the strained material. These interactive
criteria are
Hills criterion,
The Tsai-Hill criterion,
Hoffmans criterion,
Tsai-Wu criterion.
In this paper, we introduces the Hashin criterion which predicts anisotropic damage in
elastic-brittle materials. It is primarily intended for use with fiber-reinforced composite
materials and takes into account four different failure modes: fiber tension, fiber
compression, matrix tension, and matrix compression. According to the Hashin criterion
[14]:
The initiation criteria have the following general forms:
Fiber tension ( 11 0 ):
14
Fft 11T 12L
X
S
2
Fiber compression ( 11 0 ):
F 11C
X
c
f
Matrix tension ( 22 0 ):
12
Fmt 22
L
T
Y S
2
Matrix compression ( 22 0 ):
2
2
2
C
22 Y
12
F T T 1 22
L
C
2S 2S
S
Y
c
m
11 , 22 , 12 are components of the effective stress tensor, , that is used to evaluate the
initiation criteria and which is computed from: M , where is the nominal stress
and M is the damage operator:
1
1 d
f
M 0
0
1
1 dm
0
1 ds
15
d f , d m , and d s are internal (damage) variables that characterize fiber, matrix, and shear
t
, d m , and d m ,
d tf if 11 0
df c
d f if 11 0
d mt if 22 0
dm c
d m if 22 0
d s 1 (1 d tf )(1 d cf )(1 d mt )(1 d mc )
Prior to any damage initiation and evolution the damage operator, M, is equal to the
identity matrix, so . Once damage initiation and evolution has occurred for at least
one mode, the damage operator becomes significant in the criteria for damage initiation
of other modes. The effective stress, , is intended to represent the stress acting over the
damaged area that effectively resists the internal forces.
An output variable is associated with each initiation criterion (fiber tension, fiber
compression, matrix tension, matrix compression) to indicate whether the criterion has
been met. A value of 1.0 or higher indicates that the initiation criterion has been met.
In addition, we introduce an interlaminar delamination criterion to predict whether the
delamination occurred in the impact event. It is described below [6]:
Interlaminar delamination appears when the following criterion is reached:
2
33 13 23
1 ( 33 0)
33
This failure criterion includes all stress components ( 33 , 13 and 23 ) on a potential
fracture plane (1-0-2). Each component produces its own damage fraction in this failure
mode. Therefore there is an interaction between the tensile stress 33 normal to a layer
plane and the in_plane shear stresses 13 and 23 . The tensile stress 33 causes two
adjacent layers to move realtively along the thickness direction. The in-plane shear stress
13 and 23 cause the two adjacent layers to move relatively (parallel to the layer plane).
This interaction can lead to interlaminar delamination. This above equation describes an
ellipsoidal failure envelope (give a value of the right-hand side equal to unity). Any point
inside the envelope shows no failure in the material. The composite structure does not
16
support any load locally along these three directions when the failure occurs. Hence the
local stiffness matrix is modified to simulate the situation.
17
Chapter 3
Contact mechanics
[5]
Abstract
Impacts of foreign objects on composite structures can create internal damage that
reduces the strength of the structure significantly. The study of such impacts requires
understanding the dynamics of the event, predicting the extent of the induced damage,
and estimating the residual properties of the structure. The impact event involves the
motion of the target, the motion of the projectile, and the local indentation in the contact
zone. A large number of parameters affect the impact dynamics, many types of responses
can be obtained, and many models have been proposed in the literature. These models
can be classified into three categories: (1) energy-balance models that assume a quasistatic behavior of the structure; (2) spring-mass models that account for the dynamics of
the structure in a simplified manner; (3) complete models in which the dynamic behavior
of the structure is fully modeled. Simple models can bring insight into the problem and be
efficient but have limited applicability. Complex models may have wider applicability
but require significantly higher modeling and computational effort. There is a need for a
general understanding of the impact dynamics and for a method for developing efficient
and accurate models.
18
3.1
Introduction
A first step towards understanding the effect of impacts is to develop a model for
predicting the contact force history and the overall response of the structure. It involves
modeling the motion of the projectile, the dynamics of the structure, and the local
indentation of the structure by the projectile. Experimental modal analysis showed that
low velocity impact damage has only minor effects on the dynamic properties of
laminated plates. Small shifts in the natural frequencies of higher-order bending modes
are observed which confirms that damage needs not modeled in the impact dynamic
analysis. Some impacts produce deformations in a small zone surrounding the point of
impact while others involve deformations of the entire structure. In some cases, a major
portion of the impact energy is transferred to the plate and in other cases most the energy
is restituted to the projectile. For some problems, the indentation absorbs a significant
portion of the impact energy so that it must be modeled adequately in the analysis. In
other cases, the effect of indentation are negligible. Sorting out these different types of
behavior is necessary for the interpretation of experimental results and for the selection of
an appropriate mathematical model.
The objectives of this chapter are to study the various models available for analyzing the
impact dynamics and to present an approach for selecting an appropriate model for each
particular case. The many models used to study the impact dynamics are classified here
according to how the structure is modeled: spring-mass models, energy balance models,
complete models, and a model for impact on infinite plates.
3.2
Contact mechanics
Local elastic deformation properties have been considered as early as 1880 with the
Hertzian Theory of Elastic Deformation. This theory relates the circular contact area of a
sphere with a plane (or more general between two spheres) to the elastic deformation
properties of the materials. In the theory any surface interactions such as near contact
Van der Waals interactions, or contact Adhesive interactions are neglected.
An improvement over the Hertzian theory was provided by Johnson et al. (around 1970)
with the JKR (Johnson, Kendall, Roberts) Theory. In the JKR-Theory the contact is
considered to be adhesive. Hence the theory correlates the contact area to the elastic
material properties plus the interfacial interaction strength. Due to the adhesive contact,
contacts can be formed during the unloading cycle also in the negative loading (pulling)
regime. Such as the Hertzian theory, the JKR solution is also restricted to elastic spheresphere contacts.
A more involved theory (the DMT theory) also considers Van der Waals interactions
outside the elastic contact regime, which give rise to an additional load. The theory
simplifies to Bradley's Van der Waals model if the two surfaces are separated and
19
significantly appart. In Bradley's model any elastic material deformations due to the
effect of attractive interaction forces are neglected. Bradley's non-contact model and the
JKR contact model are very special limits explained by the Tabor coefficient.
P k 3/2 .
4 1/2
ER ,
3
(2)
20
1 1 1
1 1 12 1 22
and
,
R R1 R2
E
E1
E2
(3)
where R1 and R2 are the radii of curvature of the two bodies. The Youngs moduli and
Poissons ratios of the two bodies are E1, 1 and E2, 2, respectively. Subscripts 1 denotes
properties of the indentor, while subscript 2 identifies properties of the target. Eq. (1) is
usually referred to as the Hertzian law of contact.
Permanent indentation occur even at relatively low loading levels, and the unloading
phase of the process is significantly different from the loading phase. During unloading,
the contact law is
P Pm 0 / m 0 ,
2.5
(4)
where Pm is the maximum force reached before unloading, m the maximum indentation,
and 0 is the permanent indentation. 0 is zero then the maximum indentation remains
below a critical value cr. When m>cr,
0 m 1 ( cr / m )2/5 .
(5)
Typically , during impact the contact force increases to maximum value and then
decreases back to zero. In some cases, multiple impacts and reloading occurs. During
subsequent reloading, the reloading curve is distinct from the unloading curve but always
returns to the point where unloading began. The unloading curve is modelled by
P Pm 0 / m 0
3/2
(6)
21
Figure 3.4 indentation of glass-epoxy laminate from Yang and Sum (1982).
(a) Loading; (b) Unloading; (c) Reloading
In some cases, only a small fraction of the impact energy is used in the local indentation
process and therefore it it not necessary to distinguish between loading ang unloading
branches, and Eq.(1) is used throughout the indentation process. Sometimes the
indentation preocess need not be modeled at all.
3.3
Energy-balance models
One approach for analyzing the impact dynamics is to consider the balance of energy in
the system. The initial kinetic energy of the projectile is used to deform the structure
during impact. Assuming that the structure bahaves quasi-statically, when the structure
reaches its maximum deflection, the velocity of the projectile becomes zero and all the
initial kinetic energy has been used to deform the structure. Therefore, the energy balance
equation can be written as
1
MV 2 Eb Es Em Ec
2
(7)
where the subscrifts b, s, m refer to the bending, shear, and membrane components of the
overall structural deformation and Ec is the energy stored in the contact region during
indentation.
22
When the overall deflections of the structure are neglibible compared to the local
indentation, the problem is reduced to that of an impact on a half-space and the maximum
contact force, and the contact duration are given by
5
P
4
3/5
1/5
M 3V 6 k 2
(8a)
1/5
M2
Tc 3.2145 2
Vk
(8b)
These simple expressions show the effect of the projectile mass and velocity and the
contact stiffness on the contact force.
3.4
TV
, t
t
,
T
(9)
2/5
(10)
d 2
3
d
1/2
3/2 0
2
dt
2
dt
(11)
(12)
Called the inelasticity parameter. The equivalent bending rigidity in Eq. (12) is defined as
A 1
( D11 D22 )1/2
2
A=(D12 2 D66 ) / ( D11D22 )1/2
D*
(13)
(0) 0,
d (0)
1
dt
(14)
23
P k 2 M 3V 6 3/2
(15)
After contact ceases, the deflection at the point of impact remains constant while the
deformation propagates outward. During an impact on an infinite plate, the wavefront is
nearly elliptical. The distance a between the wavefront and the impact point in the xdirection, can be estimated using
1/4
D
a 2 11
m
2( A 1)
1/8
(16)
(17)
Eqs. (16) and (17) provide an estimate of the size of the deformed zone during impact.
3.5
Spring-mass models
3.5.1 General case
Spring-mass models are simple and provide accurate solutions for some types of impacts
often encountered during tests on small size specimens. The most complete model
consists of one spring representing the linear stiffness of the structure (Kbs), another
spring Km for the nonlinear membrane stiffness, a mass M2 representing the effective
mass of the structure, the nonlinear contact stiffness, and M1 the mass of the projectile. If
the effect of shear deformation is negligible, the spring constant Kbs is replaced by Kb
which account for bending deformations only. From the free body diagrams of the two
masses M1 and M2, the equations of motion of the system can be written as
..
M 1 x1 P 0
(18a)
..
M 2 x2 Kbs x2 K m x23 P 0
(18b)
where P is the contact force which is a highly nonlinear function of the indentation x1
x2.
24
(20&21)
where E is the elastic modulus, m the Poisson's ratio, h the thickness, and a is the radius
of the plate. The effective mass of the plate is taken as one-fourth of the total mass of the
plate [Olsson R. Impact response of orthotropic composite plates predicted from a oneparameter differential equation].
3.5.2 Linear two-degree-of-freedom model
In many cases, the transverse deflections are small and membrane-stiffening effects are
negligible and the stiffness of the structure can be represented by the linearspring k2. In
order to understand the dynamics of the impact, we also assume that the local indentation
can be represented by a linear spring k1 (see Figure 3.6). The motion of the linear twodegree-of-freedom system is governed by
25
..
m1 x1 k1 ( x1 x2 ) 0
(22)
..
m2 x 2 k2 x2 k1 ( x2 x1 ) 0
(23)
k1 / m1
V
(24)
(25)
m1
m k
y1 + 1 1 2 y 2 0
m2
m2 k1
(26)
The behavior of the system depends on the two non-densional parameters m1/m2 and
k2/k1.
The non-dimensional natural frequencies of the system are obtained by solving the biquadratic equation
m k m k
4 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 0
m2 k1 m2 k1
(27)
26
The mode shapes are shown in Figure 3.8(c). For case IV ((m1/m2)>>1, (k2/k1)>>1), the
stiffness of the target is much larger than the contact stiffness and
k1
k2
, 2
m1
m2
(31)
28
Figure 3.7 Free vibrations of two-degree-of-freedom sustem: (a) first nondimensional frequency; (b) second non-dimensional frequency (solid line: exact;
dashed line; approximate); (c) Curve veering phenomenon for k 2/k1=10 (solid line:
exact; dashed line; approximate). [5]
29
3.5.3
(32)
Eq. (32) predicts that the maximum contact force is directly proportional to the initial
velocity of the projectile. Similarly, the maximum contact force is proportional to the
square root of the kinetic energy. The contact force increases with the square root of the
stiffness of the structure and the square root of the mass of the impactor. A stiffer
structure will cause a harder impact and, for the same initial velocity, a larger mass will
have a larger kinetic energy which will also increase the contact force.
K bs M t
(33)
M 1 x kx13 / 2 0
The second situation for which nonlinear a SDOF model can yield accurate predictions of
the contact force history is when the local indentation is negligible but the deflections of
the structure becomes large and membrane stiffening is significant. The equation of
motion of the single-degree-of-freedom model is
..
M x kb x km x3 0
(34)
A numerical solution of these nonlinear equations of motion (Eqs. (33) and (34)) yields
the dynamic response and contact force histories.
3.6
Complete models
With a complete model, the dynamic behavior of the structure is described accurately.
This means that the appropriate structural theory is used. For example, in many cases the
classical plate theory can be used but, in some cases, transverse shear deformations
become significant and higher-order theories must be used. If the initial velocity of the
projectile is sufficiently large, damage can be introduced plate motion is established. In
that case, a three-dimensional analysis is required. Once an appropriate theory is selected,
all the vibration modes participating in the response have to be predicted accurately and
must be retained in the model. For a simply supported plate, for example, an analytical
solution can be found for the natural frequencies and mode shapes. The transient response
is then expressed in terms of these mode shapes and all participating modes can be
included. For other geometries or boundary conditions, variational or finite element
models must be used. With such approximate methods, a sufficiently large number of
degrees of freedom must be selected so that the participating modes are predicted
accurately.
30
If N equations are needed to describe the motion of the structure and one equation for the
projectile, the N + 1 differential equations can be written in matrix form as
M X K X F
..
(35)
and integrated using Newmark's step-by-step time integration method. The contact force
is unknown and is a nonlinear function of the indentation. Therefore, the force vector in
Eq. (35) is assumed to be known at the end to the nth time step but its value at the end of
step n + 1 is unknown. In order to determine the displacements at the end of step n . 1, we
start assuming that Pn1 Pn and solve equation (35) for a first estimate of X n1 . A
new estimate of Pn1 can be calculated from these displacements and a new iteration
can be performed. After several iterations, the solution converges so that both the
equations of motion and the contact law are satisfied and the process is repeated for the
following time steps.
3.7
31
3.8
Conclusions
This chapter presents an overview of mathematical models used for the analysis of the
dynamics of impacts between a foreign object and a composite structure. Currently
available models are classified into four categories: Spring-mass models, energy-balance
models, complete models, and an impact on infinite plate model. Simple models are easy
to use and efficient but have limitations due to the simplifying assumptions on which they
are based. Selecting an appropriate model requires on understanding of the effects the
many factors affecting the impact dynamics. In this chapter, a procedure is presented in
order to determine the type of impact to be expected and to select an appropriate model.
The process starts by assuming that the plate is infinite. In this case, a simple
approximate solution requiring to solve a single nonlinear ordinary differential equation
is available. This model predicts the contact force history and the overall deformation of
the plate. Then we can determine whether the deformation reached the plate boundaries
during the duration of the impact. If bending waves travel from the impact point to the
edge of the plate and back many times during the predicted contact duration, we have a
boundary controlled impact and a spring mass model or an energy balance approach
might be adequate because in that case, the plate behaves in a quasi-static manner. If the
deformation never reaches the edges of the plate, we have a wave-controlled impact and
the approximate solution provides very good results. For intermediate cases, the infinite
plate model might be adequate initially but reflected waves will affect the contact force
history. Then, a complete model taking into account the full dynamic behavior of the
plate and the boundary conditions will be necessary.
32
Chapter 4
Modelling with Abaqus/CAE 6.9
4.1
Introduction
The numerical simulation of impact damage to the composite plate was performed using
the finite element package Abaqus/CAE 6.9. There are two models in this simulation.
They are named as impact model and czm. The impact model is used to investigate the
stress field during and after impact process for prediction damage. The czm model is used
to simulate interlaminar delamination due to matrix cracking, which is the most common
damage of the laminated composite. The czm model is more exact because it is
implemented cohesive zone model to take into account the interaction between failure
modes. Both of them simulate the low-energy impact on laminated composite. Velocity
of impactor is 6.26m/s with mass of the impactor is 0.1kg, so the energy impact is 1.96J.
Experimental set-up
For the composite tests, 16-ply symmetric crossply composite plates (04/904)S, were used.
The laminated plates used were 2mm thick with circular plate specimens having an
effective diameter of 100mm could be cut from each fabricated plate. A controlled dropweight rig shown in Fig. 4.1 was employed to perform the impact test. A steel ring was
bolted on the platform of the test rig. The composite specimen was clamped using eight
equally spaced bolts through an upper ring into the fixed lower steel ring in order to
simulate fixed boundary conditions. The maximum height of the rig was 3.75 m which
can produce approximately 8.57 m/s initial velocity on impacting the target.
Dropping heigh (m)
Impact velocity (m/s)
Impact energy (J)
1.00
4.43
0.98
1.25
4.95
1.26
1.50
5.42
1.47
1.75
5.86
1.72
2.00
6.26
1.96
2.25
6.64
2.20
2.50
7.00
2.45
2.75
7.34
2.69
3.00
7.67
2.94
3.25
7.98
3.18
3.50
8.28
3.43
3.75
8.57
3.67
Table 4.1 Impact energy of projectile 0.1kg of mass
33
4.2
34
35
145Gpa
9.2Gpa
Assuming = E22
4.6GPa
5.2Gpa
3.0Gpa
0.3
Assuming = 12
Assuming = 13
To model the initiation and the propagation of the damage in the composite plate, we use
the Hashin criterion by identifying the strength of composite and the damage variables in
type fracture energy.
Strength of composite
3600MPa
1500MPa
72MPa
102MPa
41MPa
41MPa
Damage evolution
Longitudinal tensile fracture energy
Longitudinal compressive fracture energy
Transverse tensile fracture energy
Transverse compressive fracture energy
12.5N/mm
12.5N/mm
2.5N/mm
2.5N/mm
For analysis with Hashin criterion, we must assign shell section for the part composite
plate. Especially, to investige the shear stress field, Abaqus need to define thickness
integration points. As a result, in this analysis we set 5 integration points along the
thickness of shell element.
36
37
the surfaces transmit no contact pressure unless the nodes of the slave surface contact
the master surface;
penetration is not allowed at each constraint location (depending on the constraint
enforcement method used, this condition will either be strictly satisfied or
approximated);
there is no limit to the magnitude of contact pressure that can be transmitted when the
surfaces are in contact.
The hard contact is the most common contact pressure-overclosure relationship which is
shown in below figure. When surfaces are in contact, any contact pressures can be
38
transmitted between them. The surfaces separate if the contact pressure reduces to zero.
Separated surfaces come into contact when the clearance between them reduces to zero.
4.3
Adhesive joints two components connected by a glue which is like material having
a finite thiskness.
Fracture at bonded interfaces crack propagation in glue material that is very thin
and for all practical purposes may be considered to be of zero thickness.
The two main approaches that we can use to include cohesive elements in our model are:
We can model the connection at the interface between the cohesive layer and the
surrounding bulk material by sharing nodes or by defining a tie contraint. The tiecontraint approach allows you to model the cohesive layer using a finer discretization
than that of the bulk material and may be more desirable in certain modeling situations.
So in this analysis, we use creation of a model with cohesive elements using geometry
and mesh tools, and define tie contraints between the cohesive layer and the surrounding
bulk material.
39
tn K nn
ts
t
t
K ss
n
s
Ktt t
The quantities tn, ts, and tt respectively represent the nominal tractions in the normal and
the two local shear directions; while the quantities n, s, and t represent the
corresponding nominal strains. For coupled traction separation, behavior the stress-strain
relations are as follows:
tn K nn
ts K ns
t K
t nt
K ns
K ss
K st
K nt n
K st s
Ktt t
The stability criterion for uncoupled behavior requires that Knn>0, Kss>0, and Ktt>0. For
coupled behavior, the stability criterion requires that:
40
K nn 0, K ss 0, K tt 0;
K ns K nn K ss ;
K st K ss K tt ;
K nt K nn K tt ;
K nn
det K ns
K nt
K ns
K ss
K st
K nt
K st 0
K tt
The mesh of each cohesive layer includes 420 elements wich generated by 884 nodes.
These elements are 400 COH3D8 and 20 COH3D6.
To obtain a successful FEM simulation using CZM, two conditions must be met: (a) The
cohesive contribution to the global compliance before crack propagation should be small
enough to avoid the induction of a fictitious compliance to the model, and (b) the element
size must be less than the cohesive zone length. In this simulation, the parameters of
cohesive properties are set as follows (as per experience in the simulation process):
Elastic
106N/mm3
106N/mm3
106N/mm3
E/Knn
E/Kss
E/Ktt
Quads damage
Nominal stress normal-only mode
Nominal stress first direction
Nominal stress second direction
61MPa
68MPa
68MPa
Damage evolution
Normal mode fracture energy
Shear mode fracture energy first direction
Shear mode fracture energy second direction
42
0.02J/mm
0.2J/mm
0.2J/mm
Chapter 5
Results
5.1
Overview
Composites are generally strong, and have a reasonable impact resistance if the applied
stress is in the fibre direction. In other directions they tend to be weak and to have a low
impact resistance. Small secondary stresses in the transverse direction or unexpected
stresses due to an impact, in a weak direction, can easily cause damage. There are five
basic mechanical failure modes that can occur in a composite after initial elastic
deformation. They are:
In this analysis, low-velocity impact, the damages are mainly resin crazing and
interlaminar delamination. So this analysis focuses on investigating the stress field and
uses the Hashin criterion for prediction the resin crazing that may cause delamination
damage.
5.2
43
44
Figure 5.1 Impact process at t=0.00ms; 0.08ms; 0.16ms; 0.24ms; 0.32ms; 0.40ms;
0.48ms;
45
Figure 5.3 Impact force at right impact point during and after impact process.
Figure 5.4 Contact stress at right impact point during and after impact process
46
Relation between contact force and indentation is showed in Fig. 5.5. The maximum
indentation is about 0.55mm. The maximum contact force is 64.81N reached in loading
process. This relation one difference with contact mechanics theory which reveals that
contact force reaches the maximum value when maximum indentation occurs.
Figure 5.5 Relation between contact force and indentation during impact process
including loading and unloading, t=0 to t=0.28ms.
47
5.3
48
Figure 5.8 Mises stress distributes along thickness at t=0.08ms, distance from centre
of impact is normalized by percent
The Mises stress reached the maximum value at t=0.08ms, right after beginning of impact
event. The maximum value occurs at a point which is below impact point, not right
impact point. It is about 2.826GPa.
We investigates shear stress in-plane 1-0-2 at interfaces. The region investigated is
circular shape having 10mm of distance from centre of impact.
Figure 5.9 Shear stress in-plane 1-0-2 at first interface, t=0.04ms; distance from
centre of impact to distance of 10mm is normalized by percentage.
49
Figure 5.10 Shear stress in-plane 1-0-2 at second interface, t=0.04ms; distance from
centre of impact to distance of 10mm is normalized by percentage.
5.4
Viscosity
coefficient in the
transverse tensile
direction
10-3
Viscosity coefficient
in the transverse
compressive
direction
10-3
The results of the model using Hashin criteria shows that status of all the elements of the
composite plate are active. In Abaqus, the status of an element is 1.0 if the element is
active, 0.0 if the element is not, the value of this variable is set to 0.0 only if damage has
occurred in all the damage modes.
50
51
52
54
to the laminate. In this analysis, with 1.96J impact, there is small region that damaged of
fibre failure. Therefore, the interlaminar delamination is sure to have been occurred. For
this demonstration, this analysis investigates shear damage and the shear stress field in
the interlaminars.
33 13 23
1 ( 33 0)
33
Fig. 5.5 and Fig. 5.6 show that state of the shear stress field in the vicinity region of the
centre of impact overcomes the limited state of delamination, with 41MPa of interlaminar
shear strength (the same value with the transverse shear strength).
In conclusion, the damage has been identified as interlaminar delamination coupled with
matrix failure from the simulation. The damages have occurred dramatically. It also has
been revealed from the simulation that there is very small fiber failure at the impact point.
5.5
Delamination
According to the above conclusion, the interlaminar delaminations have occurred. So
here we use cohesive zone model to simulate these delaminations. Here is results of the
cohesive zone model. There are delaminations at both interlaminars. State of the
cohesive layer after impact shows shape of the interlaminar delamination. With the fine
mesh of the cohesive layer, we can see this shape and evaluate the length of delamination
quite accurately.
57
Figure 5.22 State of first interlaminar (left) and second interlaminar (right) after
impact, t=0.8ms
Figure 5.23 Traction damage initiation at first interlaminar (left) and second
interlaminar (right) after impact, t=0.8ms
58
59
The results show that shape of delamination at the second interlaminar is a peanut. This
shape of peanut is orientated along fibre-direction of the lower material layer, that is
validated by the above results of simulation. Besides, shape of delamination at the first
interlaminar is quite circular. This shape may be caused by the mesh, that is not fine
enough to demonstrate the peanut shape of the interlaminar delamination. In addition, the
delamination at the second interlaminar is stronger than the first one. The length of
delamination at the second interlaminar is about 9.34x2mm, and at the first one is about
6.40x2mm. These length-delaminations are accepted with the result of experiments which
have done by the others.
60
Chapter 6
Conclusion and recommendation
6.1
Conclusion
The main objective of this thesis is to simulate the phenomenon of low-energy impact on
laminated composite. An integrated modelling for carbon/epoxy composite plates has
been developed to evaluate the impact damage initiation and propagation. Three failure
modes: resin crazing, delamination and fibre failure have been investigated and
implemented for the damage simulation. Resin crazing and fibre failure are studied based
on Hashin criterion. And delamination is studied based on cohesive zone model. Threedimensional dynamic finite element method was used to simulate the real impact events.
The simulation is based on Abaqus CAE package.
The objectives obtained of this thesis can be summarised as follows:
61
6.2
Recommendation
The present research highlights a number of issues which require further investigation.
The following recommendations are therefore made:
62
References
1.
2.
Nguyen Tuan Anh. Graduate Thesis Dap ung cua tam composite hang khong duoi
tac dong va cham nang luong thap. 2007.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
63
12.
13.
14.
15.
Eric Qiuli Sun .Shear Locking and Hourglassing in MSC Nastran, Abaqus, and
Ansys.
64
Appendix
A. Flowchart of FEM program [13]
65
Figure 1. Shape change of the Material Block under the Moment in the Ideal Situation
To correctly model the ideal shape change, an element should have the ability to assume
the curved shape. The edges of the fully integrated first order element are, however, not
66
able to bend to curves. The linear element will develop a shape show in Fig. 2 under a
pure bending moment. The top surface experiences tensile stress, and the lower surface
experiences compressive stress. All dotted lines remain straight. But the angle A can no
longer stay at 90 degrees.
Figure 2. Shape change of the Fully Integrated First Order Element under the Moment
To cause the angle A to change under the pure moment, an incorrect artificial shear stress
has been introduced. This also means that the strain energy of the element is generating
shear deformation instead of bending deformation. The overall effect is that the linear
fully integrated element becomes locked or overly stiff under the bending moment.
Wrong displacements, false stresses, and spurious natural frequencies may be reported
bacause of the locking.
The fully integrated second order element behaves differently since its edges are able to
bend to curves. Under a bending moment, the shape change of the element will correctly
assume that of the material block (Fig. 3). The angle A continues to remain at 90 degrees
after the bending. No artificial shear stress is introduced and the element can correctly
simulate the behaviours of the material block. There is no shear locking associated with
this type of element,
Figure 3. Shape change of the Fully Integrated Second Order Element under the Moment
67
Hourglassing
To address the shear locking and to increase computational efficiency, a reduced
integration scheme is proposed and widely implement in FEA codes. For example, for the
reduced-integration first order 8-node brick element, a single integration point scheme is
used while its fully integrated version employs eight integration points. For the reducedintegration, second-order 20-node brick element, an 8-integration-point scheme is used
while its fully integrated version in Abaqus needs 27 integration points. In addition, the
reduced integration element is tolerant of shape distortions, which is significantly
beneficial in finite element modeling.
However, nothing is perfect. The reduced integration first order element suffers from its
own numerical difficulty called hourglassing since it tend to be excessively flexible. The
hourglassing has to be properly controlled. If not, the results from this type of element are
often not usable.
Figure 4 demonstrates the deformation of such an element under a bending moment. To
visualize the deformation, notice that vertical and horizontal dotted lines and the angle A
remain unchanged. This means that normal stresses and shear stresses are zero at the
integration point and that there is no strain anergy generated by the deformation. This
zero-energy mode is a nonphysical response, which may propagate when a coarse mesh is
used. The propagation of such a mode may therefore produce meaningless results. The
results often indicate that the structure is excessively flexible. In order to make the
reduced integration elements useful, the FEA codes provide default hourglassing control
internally. The user may be able to adjust control parameters.
Figure 4. Shape change og the Reduced Integration Element under the Moment
For the second order solid element with reduced integration, it may also suffer from
hourglassing when only one layer of elements is used. But this rarely causes numerical
problems because it virtually vanishes with two layers of elements. No special technique
is needed to control it.
68