Group 3 Grid: Waves of distance education

Group 3 Grid Contributors: Brenda Bratton, Kristin Byerly, Meridith Davis, Ashley
Harmon, Cassandra Jones, Bradford Poetter, Brian Terrill
Correspondence / Independent Study

Forces Dominant Driving Development

- Advancements in a reliable delivery
system - eg Mail delivery (2001)
- World War II Veterans using the GI Bill older students with outside commitments
(2015)
- Division of labor requiring more
specialized job market (1967)

Wave 1
(1840 1960)

- Women's Suffrage Movement (2009)

Theories/Ways of Understanding

Institutional/Organizational Development

Teacher Learning Methodologies

Predominant Technologies

- Holmberg's Empathy approach to distance

education (didactic conversations) is the
utilization of pre-planned simulated dialogue
attempting to anticipate student questions in
a situation where actual conversational
dialogue isn't possible (2005)

- 1840 Sir Isaac Pitman invented

correspondence courses (single mode
entrepreneurial for-profit school)
- 1892 University of Chicago offers first
distance learning program
- 1911 U of Queensland/Australia establishes
external studies for distance learning program
- 1920s U.S. Government offers first
educational radio licenses for distance education
programs. Russia offers distance teaching in its
universities
- 1933 University of Iowa offers the worlds
first televised educational programs
- 1950 Iowa State University becomes the
worlds first educational television broadcaster
in the world

- Self directed learning packages sent through post mail

- Structured didactic dialogue
- Teaching is done through posing a question to the
student who must then respond demonstrating mastery
of the content
- Students responsible for mailing completed work back
- Teacher feedback on completed work is only direct
teacher-student dialogue
- Students must be self-motivated

- Mail system to send and receive

correspondence (delivery via railway)
- Postcards, Letters, Instructional materials
& texts
- Printing press to create printed materials
(textbooks, course documents, etc.)
- Radio communication/Educational radio
programs (emerging toward the end of the
wave and largely used in wave 2)
- Telephone interaction
- Educational television/telecourses
(emerging toward the end of the wave and
largely used in wave 2)

- Peter's Sui Generis theory of DE based on

industrialization is the basis for a new model
of teaching that leverages advances in
technology and communication to produce
distance education course materials and
transport them at an industrial scale (2010)

Key Authors
- Sir Isaac Pitman (Pitman Shorthand 1837)
- Gustav Langenscheidt (developed a self-learning method 1856)
-Thomas Jefferson Foster (Home study courses)
-Otto Peters (Sui Generis)
-Lev Vygotsky's (Social Development Theory)
-Brje Holmberg (Empathy approach to distance education)
-Desmond Keegan (time synchronous technology)
-Charles Wedemeyer (Theory of Independent Study)

Organizational development early on took the

form of for-profit single mode schools run by
entrepreneurs. Additionally, traditional higher
education institutions joined in distance
education by forming extension
programs/schools and becoming dual-mode
institutions. In a typical institution there would
be content creators, instructional staff,
administrators, and support sections that would
work together to provide the educational
experience for the distance student.
References
Garrison, D. R. & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2010). Foundations of distance education. In M. F. Cleveland-Innes & D. R. Garrison (Eds.), An introduction to distance education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era (pp. 13-45). New York and London: Routledge.
Haughey, M. (2010). Teaching and learning in distance education before the digital age. In M. F. Cleveland-Innes & D. R. Garrison (Eds.), An introduction to distance education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era (pp. 46-66). New York and London: Routledge.
History.com. (2009). The fight for women's suffrage. History.com. Retireved from http://www.history.com/topics/womens-history/the-fight-for-womens-suffrage
History of Distance Education. (2016). Retrieved from http://mysite.du.edu/~kkeairns/doc/history.html
Holmberg, B. (2004, September). The empathy approach to distance education. [Lecture video] Retrieved from www.youtube.com
Holmberg, B. (2005). The Evolution of Distance Education. The evolution, principles, and practice of distance education. Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg (pp. 13-26).
Jolly, J. L. (2013). Historical perspectives: The servicemen's readjustment act of 1944. Gifted Child Today, 36(4), 266-268.
Peters, O. (1967). Distance education and industrial production: A comparative interpretation in outline. Retrieved from http://www.c3l.uni-oldenburg.de/cde/found/peters67.htm.
Peters, O. (2001). Learning & teaching in distance education. New York: Routledge.
Peters, O. (2010). The theory of the "most industrialized education". In O. Peters, Distance education in transition: Developments and issues (5th edition) (pp. 11-32). Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg.
Tracey, M. W., & Richey, R. C. (2005). The evolution of distance education. Distance Learning, 2(6), 17-21.
University of Maryland University College. (n.d.). Strategic plan 2015 - 2018. UMUC Achiever. Retrieved from http://www.umuc.edu/globalmedia/achiever.cfm

Systems Approach to Education / Distance Teaching Institutions

Forces Dominant Driving Development

Wave 2
(1960 1995)

Theories/Ways of Understanding

Institutional/Organizational Development

- Advancements in radio
- Otto Peters' Theory of Industrialization: is - 1969 UKs Open University is founded and
- Advancements in television
the basis for a new model of teaching that
uses mixed-media to teach distance learning
- Use of Satellites in the 1970's
leverages advances in technology and
courses
- Increased demand for post secondary
communication to produce distance
- 1971 PEACENET is founded and the first
education to modernize the workforce with education course materials and transport
entity to use satellites to deliver distance
necessary skills via national mandates to
them at an industrial scale (2010)
education classes
extend education to underserved groups (ie
open universities)
- Jonassen's Constructivist learning theory:
In Wave 2 of THE community colleges begin to
- Federal regulations stating television
new knowledge is constructed through
offer distance education and the emergence of
licenses only authorized with open channel experiences
open universities as a way to bring education to
for education
the underserved and ignored masses. Both
- Simonson's Equivalency theory: the
extend education to a population that would
outcomes of educational experience for
otherwise not have access to higher education
students is tied to how equivalent the
or training. The community colleges are
learning experiences are for distance
organized as dual mode educational institutions
education students versus traditional students while open universities follow the single mode
(1999)
approach
- Moore's Theory of Transactional Distance:
there may exist a distance between the
material understanding of the instructor and
the student created by implementing the
mechanisms autonomy, structure, and
dialogue. The proper mix of the three
mechanisms reduces this relative distance
-Knowles Theory of Andragogy: describes the
five characteristics common to adult learners
(self direction, development of learning
resources, readiness to learn, problem
centered learning, internal motivation to
learn) (1984)

Teacher Learning Methodologies

- Introduction of collaboration through regional tutoring
centers
- Courses designed by large development teams but
instructed by other faculty
- Multimedia approaches introduced to expand diversity
of content
- Experimentation with different approaches in student
autonomy that included student involvement in setting
learning objectives and learning materials

Predominant Technologies
- Printed materials mailed via the postal
system (continued from Wave 1)
- Television/telecourses (continued from
Wave 1) using cable television and
satellites to deliver content
- Teleconferencing
- Computers (offline) - multimedia
opportunities for content delivery
- Computers with basic Internet
technology (ARPANet)/Networked
computers
- Compact Discs/Audio recordings

Key Authors
-Otto Peters (Industrialized Education)
-Holmberg (Empathy in distance learning)
-Tony Bates (UK Open University 1969)
-William Harper (First extension courses at the University level in US 1892)
-David Jonassen (Constructivism learning theory- modeling & coaching)
-Malcolm Knowles (Theory of Andragogy)
-Michael Moore (Theory of Transactional Distance 1972-1993)

References
Bullen, M. (1995, June). Andragogy and university distance education. Paper presented to the 17th conference on the International Council for Open and Distance Education, Birmingham, UK.
Freeman, K. (n.d.). Distance education: A timeline. [powerpoint slides] Retrieved from http://www.ualr.edu/kafreeman/distanceeducationtimeline.html
Garrison, D. R. & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2010). Foundations of distance education. In M. F. Cleveland-Innes & D. R. Garrison (Eds.), An introduction to distance education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era (pp. 13-45). New York and London: Routledge.
Holmberg, B. (2005). The Evolution of Distance Education The evolution, principles, and practice of distance education. Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg (pp. 13-26).
History of Distance Education. (2016). Retrieved from http://mysite.du.edu/~kkeairns/doc/history.html
Jonassen, D., Davidson, M., Collins, M., Campbell, J., & Bannan Haag, B. (1995). Constructivism and computer-mediated communication in distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 9(2), 7-26.
Knowles, M. (1984). The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species (3rd Ed.). Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.
Miller, G.E. (2010). Organization and technology of distance education. In M. F. Cleveland-Innes & D. R. Garrison (Eds.), An introduction to distance education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era (pp. 29). New York, NY: Routledge.
Miller, G. (2014). History of distance education. WorldWide Learn. Retrieved from http://www.worldwidelearn.com/education-articles/history-of-distance-learning.html
Peters, O. (2001). Learning and teaching in distance education. New York: Routledge.
Peters, O. (2004). Learning and teaching in distance education: Analysis and interpretations from an international perspective (pp. 28-54). London & New York: Routledge.
Peters, O. (2010). The theory of the "most industrialized education". In O. Peters, Distance education in transition: Developments and issues (5th edition) (pp. 11-32). Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg.
Shale, D. (2010). Organization and technology of distance education. In M. Cleveland-Innes, & D. R. Garrison (Eds.), An introduction to distance education: understanding teaching and learning in a new era (pp. 91 - 107). New York & London: Routledge.
Simonson, M., Schlosser, C., & Hanson, D. (1999). Theory and distance education: A new discussion. The American Journal of Distance Education, 13(1), 60-75 .

Internet & Web Based

Wave 3
(1995 2000)

Forces Dominant Driving Development

Theories/Ways of Understanding

- Globalization
- Post Industrial Era - Need for increase in
educated workers
- Growing"Information Superhighway" in
1991 causing need for increased regulation
- Increased costs of higher education

- Community of Inquiry (Garrison, Anderson,

and Archer): Learning occurs through
interaction. Emphasis on social and network
presence
- Anderson's Interaction Equivalency
Theorem: The effect of interaction and a
review of which type is more important for
meaningful learning
- Salmon's Five Stage Model: Provides a
structured program to guide learners through
the online learning process
- Peters 10 Virtual Learning Space Model:
Reviews the use of virtual spaces to develop a
learning space for online learners
- Connectivism (George Siemens): Learning is
the process of making connections to real life
practices

Institutional/Organizational Development
- 1995: Universidad Aberta (AV) in Portugal
- 1995: Virtual University Catalonia (VOC) in
Spain
- 1997: India Open University in Kota and
Nalanda
- Online Learning
- Blended Learning
- Single Mode Universities
- Computers Saturation
- Rapid, current and lower costs
- ICT methods to distance education

Teacher Learning Methodologies

Predominant Technologies

- Guided reading and technology

- Individual study
- Teacher Sympathy
- Collaboration
- Computer communications
- Synchronous and synchronous learning environments
- Learner control

- Internet
- Online Learning Management Systems
- Email
- Multimedia Presentations
- The combined use of audio, video, and
graphic information
- Synchronous and asynchronous
communication technologies -discussion
boards, chat rooms
- Digitized learning environments
- Tools for communication, collaboration,
online searching, and file storage

Key Authors
Otto Peters - 10 Virtual Learning Space Model
Randy Garrison, Anderson & Archer - Community of Inquiry
Karen Swan - Increased access to internet, Various Learning Environments: LearnerCentered, Knowledge-Centered, Assessment-Centered,
Community-Centered
Terry Anderson - Interaction Equivalency Theorem & Connectivism
Gilly Salmon - Five Stage Model
George Siemens - connectivism
Norman Graves-Learning to Learn

References
Anderson, T. (2003). Getting the mix right again: An updated and theoretical rationale for interaction. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning (IRRODL), 4 (2). Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/149/230
Anderson, T., & Dron, J. (2011). Three generations of distance education pedagogy. International Review of Research in Online and Distance Learning (IRRODL), 12(3), 80-97. Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/890
Chanda, N (2008). Modern Globalisation: Historical interconnections between communities worldwide have multiplied manifold in recent times. Yale Global Online. Retrieved from http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/modern-globalisation
Garrison, D. R. (1995). Constructivism and the role of self-instructional course materials. Distance Education, 16(1), 136-140
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2-3), 87-105. Retrieved from https://app.box.com/s/67om2ndxj5zgk2wii99z
Garrison, R. (2009). Implications of online learning for the conceptual development and practice of distance education. Journal of Distance Education, 23(2), 93-104. Retrieved from http://www.jofde.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/471/889
Garrison, D.R., & Akyol, Z. (2013). The Community of Inquiry theoretical framework. In M.G.Moore (Ed.), The handbook of distance education. New York, NY: Routledge.
Holmberg, B. (2005). The evolution, principles, and practices of distance education. Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg. Available from http://www.box.com/shared/y97qyc7m0t
Peters, O. (2010). The greatest achievement of industrialized education: Open universities. In O. Peters, Distance education in transition: Developments and issues (5th edition) (pp. 57-81). Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl
Peters, O. (2010). A pedagogical model for using virtual learning spaces. In O. Peters, Distance education in transition: Developments and issues (5th edition) (pp. 119-139). Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg. Available from http://www.box.com/shared/ktx7ipccetotqrr11mct
Peters, O. (2010). Digitized learning environments: New chances and opportunities. In O. Peters, Distance education in transition: Developments and issues (5th edition) (pp. 141-153). Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universitt Oldenburg. Available from http://www.box.com/shared/ktx7ipccetotqrr11mct
Salmon, G. (2011). E-moderating: The key to teaching and learning online (3rd ed.) (pp. 26-60). New York & London: Routledge
Swan, K. (2010). Teaching and learning in post-industrial distance education. In M. F. Cleveland-Innes & D.R. Garrison (Eds.), An introduction to distance education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era (pp. 108-134). New York & London: Routledge.
Timeline of computer history (n.d.) Computer History Museum. Retrieved from http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/networking-the-web/
Trends in higher education (Retrieved April 10, 2016). College Board. http://trends.collegeboard.org/college-pricing/figures-tables/tuition-and-fees-and-room-and-board-over-time-1975-76-2015-16-selected-years

Wave 4
(2000 -

New theories, new roles, new applications of technology

Forces Dominant Driving Development

Theories/Ways of Understanding

Institutional/Organizational Development

Teacher Learning Methodologies

Predominant Technologies

Key Authors

- Web 2.0
- Connectivism: learning through developing - 2002: Arab Open University Branches (AOU) in
- increased demand for connecting via
connections to knowledge
Egypt, Lebanon, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and
social media
- Heutagogy: concept of self-determined
Bahrain
- Economic Crisis and Recession 2007 learning
- 2005: University of Maryland University College
2008 - includes collapse of the auto
- Concept of Capability: the notion that
(UMUC) U.S.A.
industry and the mortgage bailout
people who know how to learn will create
- 2009: African Virtual University (AVU) - Kenya
- Stock market crash, 2008
more competent workers
and nine more African Universities
- Post-9/11 Veterans Educational Assistance - Social Network Knowledge Construction:
- 2016: MIT releases a study on DE and Future of
Act of 2008
allows instructors to bring in social network Blended and Online Education. In online courses,
- Employer tax benefits for Education
technologies into their classrooms
each video lecture or reading assignment is
Assistance after 2001
- Emergent Theory: technologies not created often followed by a formative test. This
specifically for education find themselves
effectively implements retrieval learning and
being used for educational purposes and
mastery learning. Interpolated testing further
being to influence educational practices
mitigates mind wandering. Different pathways
themselves
can be established in an online course
- Pedagogy of Nearness: net-infused learning depending on whether a student succeeds at or
helps to facilitate communication and
fails a given test. This could facilitate mastery
learning and reduce the physical distance of learning and differentiated instruction at scale.
distance education
In an online course, it is possible to space out
- Net-Aware Theories of Learning: involves the assessments so that a student is asked about a
use of evolving communication tools with
topic she covered several days, weeks or months
have led to an abundance of information
ago. This is a form of spaced learning. Topics can
- Constructivism: learning must be authentic be mixed more effectively in online settings,
and meaningful
enabling interleaved learning. More generally
- Complexity Theory: social structures are
online tools can keep track of, and adjust,
created in order to manage and incorporate desirable difficulties to match the capabilities of
new learning
the student. Online tools can also offer
graduated tasks of increasing complexity,
challenging students to address more and more
open-ended problems as the students
capabilities mature. These learning components
may seem at odds with the notions of active
learning and constructivism espoused earlier in
this report, but research clearly shows that there
is a time and place for such instruction in the
ecology of learning. Through integration with
research from other disciplines, we can combine
approaches to create truly great learning
opportunities. For example, a challenging
prompt grounded in a real problem may
energize students and provide them with
context, satisfying two principles of effective
instruction. But those students still need
learning resources to help them meet their
challenge, and we can use online methodologies
to provide those resources in the most effective
way possible. This suggests a synthesis of online
and offline learning modalities and also of
pedagogies. We refer to this as a dynamic digital
scaffolda model for blended learning that
leverages technology and online programs to
help teachers improve instruction at scale by
personalizing the students learning experiences.
Technology will not replace the unique
contributions teachers make to education
through their perception, judgment, creativity,
expertise, situational awareness, and
personality.

- Flipped Classrooms
- Khan Academy Models of Instruction
- Heutagogy
- Virtual Classrooms
- Double Loop Learning
- Constructivism Theory

- Internet (continued from Wave 3)

- Online Learning Management Systems
(continued from Wave 3)
- Cloud computing
- Mobile Apps
- Social Media
- Wikis, blogs, podcasts
- Smartphones, e-readers, tablets
- Web 3.0 (Semantic Web) tools

George Siemens - Connectivism

Richard Schwier - Connectivism
Terry Anderson - Pedagogy of Nearness
Donald Clark - -Open Source Learning
-Clay Shirky - Social and economic effects of Internet technologies
-Stewart Hase - Architects of Heutagogy
Chris Kenyon- Architects of Heutagogy
Stephen Downes - Connectivism Theory

References
Anderson, T. (2010). Theories for learning with emerging technologies. In G. Veletsianos (Ed.), Emerging technologies in distance education (pp. 23-40). Canada: Athabasca University Press. Retrieved from http://www.aupress.ca/books/120177/ebook/99Z_Veletsianos_2010-Emerging_Technologies_in_Distance_Education.pdf
Bernath, B., & Vidal, M. (2007) The theories and the theorists: Why theory is important for research. Distance et saviors, 5(3), 427-458. Available from: http://www.box.com/s/fsgilnj1zxsnlbjqzi0b
Blaschke, L.M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 13(1), 56-71. Retrieved from: http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/1076/2113
Clark, D. (2011). More pedagogic change in 10 years than last 1000 years all driven by 10 technology innovations. [Blog post.] Retrieved from http://donaldclarkplanb.blogspot.com/2011/12/more-pedagogic-change-in-last-10-years.html
Cormier, D. (2011). What is a MOOC? [5 minute YouTube video.] Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eW3gMGqcZQc
Costa, P., Ponder C., (n.d.) How Fed moves affect mortgage rates. Bankrate. Retrieved from http://www.bankrate.com/finance/federal-reserve/financial-crisis-timeline.aspx
Dictionary.com - The world's favorite online English dictionary! (n.d.). Retrieved April 06, 2016, from http://www.dictionary.com/browse/web-2-0
Effing, R, Spil, T. (2016). The social strategy cone: Towards a framework for evaluating social media strategies. International Journal of Information Management. 36, 1-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2015.07.009
Evans, T., & Nathans, D. (1992). Theorising open and distance education. Open Learning, 7(2), 3-13.
Fenton, D. (2004). Employer provided educational benefits. Journal of Accountancy. Retrieved from http://www.journalofaccountancy.com/issues/2004/sep/employerprovidededucationbenefits.html
Hase, S., & Kenyon, C. (2000). From andragogy to heutagogy. In Ulti Base Articles. Retrieved from http://pandora.nla.gov.au/nph-wb/20010220130000/http://ultibase.rmit.edu.au/Articles/dec00/hase2.htm
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Kamenetz, A. (2010). Edupunks, edupreneurs, and the coming transformation of higher education. Canada: Chelsea Green Publishing Company
Peters, O. (2010). The greatest achievement of industrialized education: Open universities. In O. Peters, Distance education in transition: Developments and issues (5th edition) (pp. 57-81). Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl
Peters, O. (2011). Two preparatory explanations on theory and pedagogy. [Course content]. OMDE 601. University of Maryland University College, College Park, Maryland.
Schwier, R. (2011). Connectivism. 30 minute video interview with George Siemens. Retrieved from http://rickscafe.wordpress.com/2011/08/05/interview-with-george-siemens-about-connectivism/
Shinkle, K. (2008, October 17). US News and World Report Money. Retrieved from US News and World Report: http://money.usnews.com/money/personal-finance/investing/articles/2008/10/17/the-crash-of-2008
Sparks, S. D. (2011). Schools 'Flip' for Lesson Model Promoted by Khan Academy. (cover story). Education Week, 31(5), 1
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