Arkansas Tech University

MATH 4033: Elementary Modern Algebra

Dr. Marcel B. Finan

21

Homomorphisms and Normal Subgroups

Recall that an isomorphism is a function : G H such that is one-to-one,

onto and such that (ab) = (a)(b) for all a, b G. We shall see that an isomorphism is simply a special type of function called a group homomorphism. We will
also see a relationship between group homomorphisms and normal subgroups.
Definition 21.1
A function from a group G to a group H is said to be a homomorphism
provided that for all a, b G we have that
(ab) = (a)(b).
If : G H is a one-to-one homomorphism, we call a monomorphism
and if : G H is an onto homomorphism, then we call an epimorphism.
Of course, a bijective homomorphism is an isomorphism.
Example 21.1
Define : ZZ ZZn by (a) = [a]. Then
(a + b) = [a + b] = [a] [b] = (a) (b),
so that is a homomorphism. Note that (n) = (2n) with n 6= 2n so that is
not one-to-one. However, is onto.
Example 21.2
Define : ZZ ZZ by (a) = 2a. Then
(a + b) = 2(a + b) = 2a + 2b = (a) + (b),
so that is a homomorphism. Note that is not onto since there is no integer
n that satisfies (n) = 3. However, is one-to-one since (n) = (m) implies
2n = 2m and this in turn implies that n = m.
We have seen that the range of a homomorphism is a subgroup of the codomain.
(Theorem 18.2(iv)). The following subset determines a subgroup of the domain
of a homomorphism.
Definition 21.2
Let : G H be a group homomorphism. Then the kernel of is the set
Ker = {g G : (g) = eH }.

Example 21.3
In Example 21.1, a Ker iff [a] = (a) = [0], i.e iff a = nq for some q Z
Z>
Thus,Ker = {nq : q ZZ}. In Example 21.2, a Ker iff 2a = (a) = 0, i.e.
iff a = 0. Hence, Ker = {0}.
As point it out earlier the kernel is a subgroup of the domain.
Theorem 21.1
Let : G H be a homomorphism. Then
(i) Ker is a subgroup of G.
(ii) For any x Ker and g G we have gxg 1 Ker .
Proof.
(i) By Theorem 18.2(i), (eG ) = eH so that eG Ker . Hence, Ker 6= .
Now, let x, y Ker . Then
(xy 1 ) = (x)(y 1 ) = (x)((y))1 = eH e1
H = eH .
Thus, xy 1 Ker . By Theorem 7.5, Ker is a subgroup of G.
(ii) Let x Ker and g G. Then
(gxg1) = (g)(x)(g 1 ) = (g)eH ((g))1 = (g)((g))1 = eH .
Thus, gxg 1 Ker .
Theorem 21.1(ii) is one of the common properties that kernels share: They
are all normals in the sense of the following definition.
Definition 21.3
Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Then H is normal iff ghg 1 H for all
g G and h H. We write H / G.
Example 21.4
Let H be any subgroup of an Abelian group G. Since hg = gh for all g G and
all h H then ghg 1 = h H for all g G and h H. That is, H / G.
Example 21.5
Let G = S3 and H =< (12) >= {(1), (12)}. Since (123)(12)(123)1 = (23) 6 H
then H is not a normal subgroup of G.
Lemma 21.1
The following statements are equivalent:
(i) gng 1 N for all n N and g G;
(ii) g 1 ng N for all n N and g G;

Proof.
(i) (ii): Suppose that gng 1 N for all n N and g G. In particular,
g 1 n(g 1 )1 N since g 1 G. But (g 1 )1 = g so that g 1 ng N.
(ii) (i): Suppose that g 1 ng N for all n N and g G. Since (g 1 )1 = g
then gng 1 = (g 1 )1 ng 1 N.
The following lemma shows that the homomorphic image of a normal subgroup
is normal for onto maps.
Lemma 21.2
Let : G H be an epimorphism and N / G. Then (N ) / H.
Proof.
From Theorem 18.2 (iv), we know that (N ) is a subgroup of H. Let y (N )
and h H. Then y = (x) (N ) for some x N and h = (g) for some g G
(since is onto). But N / G so that gxg 1 N. Thus, (gxg 1 ) (N ). But
(gxg 1 ) = (g)(x)(g 1 ) = hyh1 (N ). Hence, (N ) / H.
The following theorem describes a commonly used way for testing whether a
homomorphism is one-to-one or not.
Theorem 21.2
Let : G H be a homomorphism. Then is one-to-one if and only if
Ker = {eG }.
Proof.
Suppose first that is one-to-one. Let x Ker . Then (x) = eH = (eG ).
Hence, x = eG . Thus, Ker {eG }. Since (eG ) = eH then {eG } Ker . It
follows that Ker = {eG }. Conversely, suppose that Ker = {eG }. Suppose
that (x) = (y). Then eH = (x)((y))1 = (x)(y 1 ) = (xy 1 ). Thus,
xy 1 Ker . But then xy 1 = eG so that x = y.

Review Problems
Exercise 21.1
Define : ZZ6 ZZ3 by ([a]6 ) = [a]3 .
(a) Prove that is well-defined.
(b) Prove that is a homomorphism.
(c) Find Ker .
Exercise 21.2
(a) Prove that : ZZ3 ZZ3 defined by ([a]3 ) = [a]6 is not well-defined.
(b) For which pairs m, n is : ZZn ZZm , given by ([a]n ) = [a]m , well-defined?
Exercise 21.3
(a) Prove that every homomorphic image of an Abelian group is Abelian.
(b) Prove that every homomorphic image of a cyclic group is cyclic.
3

Exercise 21.4
Let G denote the subgroup {1, 1, i, i} of complex numbers (operation multiplication). Define : ZZ G by (n) = in . Show that is a homomorphism and
determine Ker .
Exercise 21.5
There is a unique homomorphism : ZZ6 S3 such that ([1]) = (123). Determine ([k]) for each [k] ZZ6 . Which elements are in Ker ?
Exercise 21.6
Prove that N / G if and only if gN = N g for all g G.
Exercise 21.7
Prove that if N is a subgroup of G such that [G : N ] = 2 then N / G.
Exercise 21.8
Prove that An / Sn for all n 2.
Exercise 21.9
Consider the subgroup H = A3 = {(1), (123), (132)} of S3 . Let x = (12) and
h = (123). Show that xh 6= hx and xH = Hx. This shows that the equality
xH = Hx does not mean that xh = hx for all x G and h H.
Exercise 21.10
Prove that if C denote the collection of all normal subgroups of a group G. prove
that N = HC H is also a normal subgroup of G.
Exercise 21.11
Prove that if N / G then for any subgroup H of G, we have H N / H.
Exercise 21.12
Find all normal subgroups of S3 .
Exercise 21.13
Let H be a subgroup of G and K / G.
(a) Prove that HK is a subgroup of G, where HK = {hk : h H and k K}.
(b) Prove that HK = KH.
(c) Prove that K / HK.
Exercise 21.14
Prove that if H and K are normal subgroups of G then HK is a normal subgroup
of G.
Exercise 21.15
Prove that if H and K are normal subgroups of G such that H K = {eG } then
hk = kh for all h H and k K.

Exercise 21.16
The center of the group G is defined by
Z(G) = {g G : xg = gxx G}.
Prove that Z(G) / G.
Exercise 21.17
Let G and H be groups. Prove that G {eH } is a normal subgroup of G H.
Exercise 21.18
Let N be a normal subgroup of G, and let a, b, c, d G. prove that if aN = cN
and bN = dN then abN = cdN.
Exercise 21.19
Let G be a non-abelian group of order 8. Prove that G has at least one element
of order 4. Hence prove that G has a normal cyclic subgroup of order 4.
Exercise 21.20
Suppose that : G H is a homomorphism. Let K = Ker and a G. Prove
that aK = {x G : (x) = (a)}.
Exercise 21.21
Let S be any set, and let B be any proper subset of S. Let H = { Sym(S) :
(B) = B}. Prove that H is a subgroup of Sym(S) that is not normal.
Exercise 21.22
A group G is called simple if {eG } and G are the only normal subgroups of G.
Prove that a cyclic group of prime order is simple.
Exercise 21.23
Let U and V be nonabelian simple groups. Show that G = U V has precisely
four different normal subgroups.