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Chapter10.PhaseTransformationsinMetals

Chapter10:PhaseTransformationsinMetals
[Home][Up][Chapter1.Introduction][Chapter2.AtomicStructureandBonding]
[Chapter3.StructureofCrystals][Chapter4.Imperfections][Chapter5.Diffusion]
[Chapter6.MechanicalPropertiesofMetals][Chapter7.DislocationsandStrengtheningMechanisms]
[Chapter8.Failure][Chapter9.PhaseDiagrams][Chapter10:PhaseTransformationsinMetals]
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[Chapter16.Polymers.Characteristics,ApplicationsandProcessing][Chapter17.Composites]
[Chapter19.ElectricalProperties]

10.1Introduction
Thegoalistoobtainspecificmicrostructuresthatwillimprovethemechanicalpropertiesofametal,in
additiontograinsizerefinement,solidsolutionstrengthening,andstrainhardening.

10.2BasicConcepts
Phasetransformationsthatinvolveachangeinthemicrostructurecanoccurthrough:
Diffusion
Maintainingthetypeandnumberofphases(e.g.,solidificationofapuremetal,allotropic
transformation,recrystallization,graingrowth.
Alterationofphasecomposition(e.g.,eutectoidreactions,see10.5)
Diffusionless
Productionofmetastablephases(e.g.,martensitictransformation,see10.5)

10.3TheKineticsofSolidStateReactions
Changeincompositionimpliesatomicrearrangement,whichrequiresdiffusion.Atomsaredisplacedby
randomwalk.Thedisplacementofagivenatom,d,isnotlinearintimet(aswouldbeforastraight
trajectory)butisproportionaltothesquarerootoftime,duetothetortuouspath:d=c(Dt)1/2wherecis
aconstantandDthediffusionconstant.Thistimedependenceoftherateatwhichthereaction(phase
transformation)occursiswhatismeantbythetermreactionkinetics.
Discalledaconstantbecauseitdoesnotdependontime,butitdependsontemperatureaswehaveseen
inCh.5.Diffusionoccursfasterathightemperatures.
Phasetransformationrequirestwoprocesses:nucleationandgrowth.Nucleationinvolvestheformation
ofverysmallparticles,ornuclei(e.g.,grainboundaries,defects).Thisissimilartorainhappeningwhen
watermoleculescondensedarounddustparticles.Duringgrowth,thenucleigrowinsizeattheexpense
ofthesurroundingmaterial.
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ThekineticbehavioroftenhastheSshapeformofFig.10.1,whenplottingpercentofmaterial
transformedvs.thelogarithmoftime.Thenucleationphaseisseenasanincubationperiod,where
nothingseemstohappen.Usuallythetransformationratehastheformr=AeQ/RT(similartothe
temperaturedependenceofthediffusionconstant),inwhichcaseitissaidtobethermallyactivated.

10.4MultiphaseTransformations
Todescribephasetransformationsthatoccurduringcooling,equilibriumphasediagramsareinadequate
ifthetransformationrateisslowcomparedtothecoolingrate.Thisisusuallythecaseinpractice,sothat
equilibriummicrostructuresareseldomobtained.Thismeansthatthetransformationsaredelayed(e.g.,
caseofsupercooling),andmetastablestatesareformed.Wethenneedtoknowtheeffectoftimeon
phasetransformations.

MicrostructuralandPropertyChangesinFeCAlloys
10.5IsothermalTransformationDiagrams
Weuseasanexamplethecoolingofaneutectoidalloy(0.76wt%C)fromtheaustenite(phase)to
pearlite,thatcontainsferrite()pluscementite(Fe3Corironcarbide).Whencoolingproceedsbelowthe
eutectoidtemperature(727oC)nucleationofpearlitestarts.TheSshapedcurves(fractionofpearlitevs.
log.time,fig.10.3)aredisplacedtolongertimesathighertemperaturesshowingthatthetransformation
isdominatedbynucleation(thenucleationperiodislongerathighertemperatures)andnotbydiffusion
(whichoccursfasterathighertemperatures).
ThefamilyofSshapedcurvesatdifferenttemperaturescanbeusedtoconstructtheTTT(Time
TemperatureTransformation)diagrams(e.g.,fig.10.4.)Forthesediagramstoapply,oneneedstocool
thematerialquicklytoagiventemperatureTobeforethetransformationoccurs,andkeepitatthat
temperatureovertime.ThehorizontallinethatindicatesconstanttemperatureTointerceptstheTTT
curvesontheleft(beginningofthetransformation)andtheright(endofthetransformation)thusone
canreadfromthediagramswhenthetransformationoccurs.Theformationofpearliteshowninfig.10.4
alsoindicatesthatthetransformationoccurssooneratlowtemperatures,whichisanindicationthatitis
controlledbytherateofnucleation.Atlowtemperatures,nucleationoccursfastandgraingrowthis
reduced(sinceitoccursbydiffusion,whichishinderedatlowtemperatures).Thisreducedgraingrowth
leadstofinegrainedmicrostructure(finepearlite).Athighertemperatures,diffusionallowsforlarger
graingrowth,thusleadingtocoarsepearlite.
Atlowertemperaturesnucleationstartstobecomeslower,andanewphaseisformed,bainite.Since
diffusionislowatlowtemperatures,thisphasehasaveryfine(microscopic)microstructure.
Spheroiditeisacoarsephasethatformsattemperaturesclosetotheeutectoidtemperature.Therelatively
hightemperaturescausedaslownucleationbutenhancesthegrowthofthenucleileadingtolargegrains.
Averyimportantstructureismartensite,whichformswhencoolingausteniteveryfast(quenching)to
belowamaximumtemperaturethatisrequiredforthetransformation.Itformsnearlyinstantaneously
whentherequiredlowtemperatureisreachedsincenothermalactivationisneeded,thisiscalledan
athermaltransformation.Martensiteisadifferentphase,abodycenteredtetragonal(BCT)structurewith
interstitialCatoms.Martensiteismetastableanddecomposesintoferriteandpearlitebutthisis
extremelyslow(andnotnoticeable)atroomtemperature.
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Intheexamples,weusedaneutectoidcomposition.Forhypoandhypereutectoidalloys,theanalysisis
thesame,buttheproeutectoidphasethatformsbeforecoolingthroughtheeutectoidtemperatureisalso
partofthefinalmicrostructure.

10.6ContinuousCoolingTransformationDiagramsnotcovered
10.7MechanicalBehaviorofFeCAlloys
Thestrengthandhardnessofthedifferentmicrostructuresisinverselyrelatedtothesizeofthe
microstructures.Thus,spheroiditeissoftest,finepearliteisstrongerthancoarsepearlite,bainiteis
strongerthanpearliteandmartensiteisthestrongestofall.Thestrongerandharderthephasethemore
brittleitbecomes.

10.8TemperedMartensite
Martensiteissobrittlethatitneedstobemodifiedinmanypracticalcases.Thisisdonebyheatingitto
250650oCforsometime(tempering)whichproducestemperedmartensite,anextremelyfinegrained
andwelldispersedcementitegrainsinaferritematrix.
Terms:
Alloysteel
Athermaltransformation
Bainite
Coarsepearlite
Finepearlite
Isothermaltransformationdiagram
Kinetics
Martensite
Nucleation
Phasetransformation
Plaincarbonsteel
Spheroidite
Supercooling
Superheating
Temperedmartensite
Thermallyactivatedtransformation
Transformationrate

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