Minor Project

Variation of Tensile Properties and Hardness

of Projectile Steel with Heat Treatment

By

Sagnik Das
Class Roll Number-002111201178

And

Soumyadip Pal
Class Roll Number-002111201208

Under the Supervision of

Prof. Sanjib Acharya
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
Jadavpur University
Kolkata-700032

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Declaration:

We hereby affirm and declare that the project entitled "Variation of Tensile Properties and
Hardness of Projectile Steel," represents the culmination of our project work conducted during
the 5th semester of the Mechanical Engineering program. This research endeavour was
conducted under the expert guidance and supervision of Prof. Sanjib Acharya.

It is imperative to emphasize that this project, its content, and findings have not been
concurrently undertaken or submitted elsewhere in association with any other academic course.
This declaration underscores the originality and exclusivity of the work presented herein,
reinforcing its integrity within the context of our academic pursuits during the specified semester.

We acknowledge and confirm that the intellectual contributions, methodologies, and outcomes
presented in this project are a genuine reflection of our efforts and the guidance provided by our
mentor, Prof. Sanjib Acharya. This declaration is a testament to the commitment to academic
honesty and the adherence to ethical standards throughout the research process.

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Acknowledgement:
We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to all the individuals and organizations that played
an integral role in the successful completion of this college project. The collaborative efforts and
contributions of everyone involved have truly made a significant impact.

First and foremost,we express our deepest appreciation to the project supervisors, whose
unwavering guidance, expertise, and consistent support were instrumental throughout the entire
duration of the project. Their mentorship played a pivotal role in shaping the project and
ensuring its successful execution.

We are also indebted to Prof. Sanjib Acharya, who generously shared his time and provided
invaluable insights that greatly enriched the findings of the project. The willingness to impart
knowledge and contribute to the project's academic depth is sincerely appreciated.

Moreover, We would like to acknowledge and express gratitude to Jadavpur University for
extending permission to conduct the research and for providing the necessary resources that
facilitated the smooth progress of the project. The university's support was crucial in ensuring the
project's adherence to academic standards and its successful realization.

Lastly, but certainly not least, we want to express heartfelt thanks to our friends and family for
their unwavering support and encouragement throughout this challenging yet rewarding journey.
Their constant belief in our abilities served as a driving force, motivating our to overcome
obstacles and strive for excellence.

In conclusion, the completion of this project stands as a collective achievement, and we are
genuinely thankful to each person and entity that has contributed to its success.

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 Contents

I. Abstract ………………………………………..Page 5

II.Introduction…………………………………….Page 6

III. Experiment Method………………………….. Page 18

IV. Observations……………………………………Page 20

V. Results and Discussion…………………….…Page 26

VI. Future Scope of Work………………………...Page 28

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ABSTRACT:
The effect of various heat treatment operations (annealing, normalizing and quenching) on
mechanical properties of medium carbon steel was investigated. The samples were prepared and
heat-treated at 460 ºC subsequently was cooled by different media. The mechanical properties of
the treated and untreated samples were determined using standard methods. Results showed that
the mechanical properties of projectile steel can be changed and improved by various heat
treatments. It was also found that the quenched samples has the lowest tensile strength and
hardness value and, while annealed samples has the highest tensile strength and hardness value.

INTRODUCTION:
HEAT TREATMENT

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Heat treatment is a process that involves a combination of time-controlled heating and cooling
operations of metal without changing the product shape that will produce desired mechanical
properties and to observe the microstructure after heat treatment. Heat treatment is used to
improve the mechanical properties of the metal alloys. It can be divided into four main processes
namely annealing, quenching and tempering,normalising. In general, the procedure of heat
treatment process consists of three stages. First stage is heating the material. Second, hold the
temperature for a period of time and third, cool down the metal to room temperature.
The treatment of medium carbon steel with heat can significantly changes the mechanical
properties, such as ductility, hardness and strength. The carbon and manganese content in
medium carbon steel make quenching and tempering the most common method of heat treatment
for this type of steel.
IRON-CARBON PHASE TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAM:

FIGURE 1: IRON CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM

The iron–carbon system may be divided into two parts: an iron-rich portion, and the other (not
shown) for compositions between 6.70 and 100 wt% C (pure graphite). In practice, all steels and
cast irons have carbon contents less than 6.70 wt% C; therefore, we consider only the iron–iron
carbide system. Pure iron, upon heating, experiences two changes in crystal structure before it
melts. At room temperature, the stable form, called ferrite, or 𝛼-iron, has a BCC crystal
structure. Ferrite experiences a polymorphic transformation to FCC austenite, or 𝛾-iron, at
912°C (1674°F). This austenite persists to 1394°C (2541°F), at which temperature the FCC
austenite reverts back to a BCC phase known as 𝛿-ferrite, which finally melts at 1538°C
(2800°F). All these changes are apparent along the left vertical axis of the phase diagram. The
composition axis extends only to 6.70 wt% C; at this concentration the intermediate compound
iron carbide, or cementite (Fe3C),is formed, which is represented by a vertical line on the phase
diagram.

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Phases in Iron Carbon Phase Diagram:

1) α-ferrite
Stable form of iron at room temperature to 912 C. It is ductile, highly magnetic and it has a low
tensile strength .

2) γ-austenite
It is stable above 727°C. This phase plays an important role in the phase transformations of
steels. It has High formability, most of heat treatments begin with this single phase.It is generally
soft, ductile, non- magnetic and it is denser than ferrite.

3) δ-ferrite
Stable only at high Temperature , above 1395 °C.

4) Cementite (Fe3C)
It is a hard, brittle, and high-carbon compound that contains 6.7% carbon. high carbon steel,
cementite can be present as a secondary phase, contributing to the overall hardness of the steel.It
has low tensile strength (approx. 5,000 psi), but high compressive strength.
5) Pearlite
Pearlite is a lamellar microstructure consisting of alternating layers of ferrite and cementite. It
forms when austenite transforms during slow cooling. Pearlite provides a good balance of
strength and ductility. The layered structure contributes to the material's toughness and improves
its machinability.
6) Martensite –
A hard, brittle, and crystalline phase that forms during rapid cooling (quenching) from the
austenite phase. It is supersaturated with carbon due to the fast cooling rate, and its crystal
structure is body-centered tetragonal (BCT). Martensite is responsible for the high hardness and
initial brittleness of quenched high carbon steel.

Note:
 Steel with 0.8% carbon is wholly pearlite phase only.
 Steel containing less than 0.8% carbon is ferrite + pearlite which is hard.
 Steel contains more than 0.8% carbon is pearlite + cementite.

DEVELOPMENT OF MICROSTRUCTURE IN IRON - CARBON ALLOYS

Microstructure depends on composition (carbon content) and heat treatment. In the discussion
below we consider slow cooling in which equilibrium is maintained.

1- Microstructure of eutectoid steel

0.76 wt% C, 727 °C γ(0.76 wt% C) ↔ α (0.022 wt% C) + Fe3C

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When alloy of eutectoid composition (0.76 wt % C) is cooled slowly it forms pearlite, a lamellar
or layered structure of two phases: α-ferrite and cementite (Fe3C). The layers of alternating
phases in pearlite are formed for the same reason as layered structure of eutectic structures:
redistribution C atoms between ferrite (0.022 wt%) and cementite (6.7 wt%) by atomic
diffusion. Mechanically, pearlite has properties intermediate to soft, ductile ferrite and hard,
brittle cementite. In the micrograph, the grey areas are Fe3C layers, the red phase is α-Ferrite

2- Microstructure of hypoeutectoid steel

Compositions to the left of eutectoid (0.022 - 0.76 wt % C) are hypoeutectoid (less than
eutectoid) alloys.
γ → α + γ → α + Fe3C

Hypoeutectoid alloys contain proeutectoid ferrite (formed above the eutectoid temperature)
and the eutectoid pearlite that contain eutectoid ferrite and cementite.

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3- Microstructure of hypereutectoid steel
Compositions to the right of eutectoid (0.76 - 2.14 wt % C) are Hypereutectoid(more than
eutectoid) alloys.
γ → γ + Fe3C → α + Fe3C
Hypereutectoid alloys contain proeutectoid cementite (formed above the eutectoid temperature)
and pearlite that contain eutectoid ferrite and cementite.

TIME TEMPERATURE TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAM OF STEEL

Pearlite
Consider the iron–iron carbide eutectoid reaction
𝛾 (0.76 wt.% C) ⇌ 𝛼 (0.022 wt.% C) + Fe3C (6.70 wt.% C)
Cooling/heating

As it cools, the intermediately concentrated carbon phase of austenite changes into the less
carbon-rich ferrite phase and the more carbon-rich cementite phase. One microstructural
byproduct of this process is pearlite. The bottom part of Figure 2 illustrates a more practical
method of depicting the transformation's temperature and time dependency. The temperature and
the logarithm of time are the vertical and horizontal axes in this case, respectively. There are two
solid curves plotted: one shows how long it takes for the transformation to begin at each
temperature, and the other shows how long it takes for the transformation to finish. 50% of the
transition is represented by the dashed curve. These curves were generated from a series of plots
of the percentage transformation versus the logarithm of time taken over a range of temperatures.
The S-shape curve [for 675°C (1247°F)] in the upper portion of Figure 2 illustrates how the data
transfer is made.

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 FIGURE 2 and 3

FIGURE 4:

This particular scheme is valid only

for iron-carbon alloys with eutectoid composition; for other compounds the curves are different.
Additionally, these plans are subject to changes only if the temperature of the metal remains
constant throughout the reaction. Constant temperatures are called isotherms; Therefore, the
diagram shown in Figure 2 is called an isothermal transition diagram, sometimes also called a
time-temperature-transition (or T-T-T) diagram.
True isothermal heat treatment curve (ABCD) superimposed on the isothermal transformation
diagram in Figure 5 for the eutectoid iron-carbon alloy. The rapid cooling of austenite to the test
temperature is represented by the almost vertical line AB, and the isothermal process at the test
temperature is represented by the horizontal section BCD. Time increases from left to right along
the line. The transition from austenite to pearlite begins at point C (after about 3.5 seconds) and
is completed in about 15 seconds, corresponding to point D. Figure 5 also shows the schematic
microstructure at different times during the reaction. The thickness ratio of the ferrite layer to the
cementite layer in pearlite is approximately 8:1, but the actual layer thickness depends on the
temperature that allows isothermal transformation. When the temperature is slightly lower than
the eutectoid, a thick 𝛼-ferrite layer and Fe3C phase is formed; This microstructure is called
coarse pearlite. At high temperatures, the difference between the two is high, allowing the carbon
atom to move along the length of the transition layer and form thick lamellae. As the temperature
increases, the carbon diffusion rate decreases and the layer becomes gradually thinner. The fine
structure layer formed around 540 °C is called fine pearlite; Figure 5 also shows this.
("Intermediate pearlite" is found in the thickness of the middle layer of coarse and fine pearlite.)
For iron-carbon alloys of other compositions, the proeutectoid phase (ferrite or cementite)
coexists with pearlite.

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 FIGURE 6:

Bainite
In addition to pearlite, austenite transformation products have other microconstituents; one of the
m is called bainite. The microstructure of bainite consists of ferrite
and cementite phases, so the diffusion process plays a role in its formation. Bainite
forms as needles or plates depending on temperature change.The microstructural
details of bainite are so fine that they can only be resolved using electron microscopy.
It has a ferrite matrix and long Fe3C particles.

FIGURE 7:

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The time-temperature dependence of the bainite transformation can also be illustrated in the
isothermal transformation diagram. Pearlite forms at a temperature lower than its formation
temperature; The starting, ending and half table curves are just extensions of the pearlite
conversion curve. It depended on temperature. All three curves are C-shaped, with a "nose" at
point N where the change is greatest. It may be noted that pearlite forms on the headland [i.e., at
a temperature of about 540°C to 727°C (1000°F to 1341°F)], at about 215°C to 540°C. 420 °F
and 1000 °F), bainite is a transitional material

Martensite
When the austenitized iron-carbon alloy is cooled (or quenched) very quickly to a relatively low
temperature (near ambient temperature), another micro-component or phase called martensite
materials is formed. Martensite is an unstable, single-phase structure formed by the diffusion-less
transformation of austenite. It can be considered as a substitute material competing with pearlite
and bainite. Martensitic transformation occurs when the quenching rate is fast enough to prevent
carbon diffusion. Any diffusion will lead to the formation of ferrite and cementite phases.
However, many atoms are coordinated because each atom is displaced slightly relative to its
neighbours. This results from a polymorphic transformation of FCC austenite into body-centered
tetragonal (BCT) martensite. The unit of this crystal structure is a spherical body extended along
only one of its lengths; This structure is different from BCC ferrite. All carbon atoms remain as
interstitial impurities in martensite; Therefore, they form a supersaturated solution that can
transform into another structure when heated to a temperature where the diffusion rate is high.
However, many steels retain their martensite structure almost indefinitely at room temperature.

VARIATION OF HARDNESS

Heat treatments are carried out to change the properties of materials by changing the
microstructure of materials. The primary aim of majority of heat treatments is to change the
mechanical properties of the given material; primarily, they are used either to harden
(precipitation hardening, quenching, carburising, nitriding, etc) or soften (tempering, annealing,
stress relieving, etc). Hence, in majority of cases, the success or failure of heat treatment is

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decided by the mechanical property measurements; more specifically, hardness is the typical
quantity that is measured.

It is seen that hardness of medium carbon steel after quenching is higher than the hardness of
sample after tempering. This happen because quench hardening is a mechanical process in which
steel are strengthened and hardened. That means the quenching is the process to improve the
hardness while tempering is the treatment to improve the toughness and ductility. Therefore
during tempering the hardness will decrease and the toughness improve and materials become
more ductile.
Besides that, the hardness of medium carbon steel after quench in water is higher than quench by
open air. This is because water is fast quenching rate and the best quenching media than air and
oil to produce the excellent tool performance. Water is one of the most efficient quenching media
where maximum hardness is acquired. However, there is a small chance that it may cause
distortion and tiny cracking. The variation of hardness of medium carbon steel at various
tempering temperatures in the range of 300 °C to 600 °sC is shown in Table 2.

TABLE 1:

The graph shows that hardness decreases as tempering temperature increase for both different
quenching media. This is because by tempering the process of quenched medium carbon steel
could be modified to decrease hardness and increase ductility and impact strength gradually.
Besides that, this happens also due to transformation of martensite to tempered martensite.

CONTROLLING PARAMETERS FOR HEAT TREATMENT:

1)ROLE OF TEMPERATURE:
Austenitizing Temperature: Austenitizing is the process of heating the medium carbon steel to
a temperature at which it transforms into austenite. The austenitizing temperature is typically
above the upper critical temperature (Ac3) on the iron-carbon phase diagram, which is around
910°C for a medium carbon steel. When the steel is heated to higher temperatures within the
austenitizing range, the time required for the transformation to complete decreases, resulting in
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larger austenite grain sizes, which may affect the subsequent transformation and the resulting
microstructure. Lower austenitizing temperatures can lead to finer austenite grain sizes. This can
promote the formation of a more refined microstructure during subsequent cooling and
transformation. Slower cooling rates within the transformation temperature range between the
upper critical temperature (Ac3) and the lower critical temperature (Ac1) promote the formation
of pearlite, a combination of ferrite and cementite. Cooling below Ac1 allows for the formation
of ferrite and pearlite. Heating above Ac3 ensures that the entire structure is transformed into
austenite. The resulting microstructure is relatively softer and exhibits improved toughness
compared to martensite. Intermediate cooling rates between those required for martensite and
pearlite formation can lead to the formation of bainite.
Tempering Temperature: After quenching to form martensite, a subsequent tempering process
is often performed. Tempering involves heating the material to a specific temperature below the
austenitizing temperature and holding it for a certain period, followed by cooling. tempering
temperatures result in the decomposition of martensite into a mixture of ferrite, cementite, and
other secondary phases. This leads to a reduction in hardness and an increase in toughness.
Tempering temperatures result in the retention of a higher fraction of martensite, which
maintains a higher hardness but may have reduced toughness.

2)ROLE OF DWELLING TEMPERATURE

The dwelling period, also known as the holding time or soak time, refers to the duration that the
material is kept at a specific temperature during the heat treatment process.
During the dwelling period, atoms within the material have more time to diffuse, facilitating the
transformation of phases. Diffusion allows carbon atoms to move and redistribute, affecting the
formation of different microstructures and helps in achieving a more uniform distribution of
carbon and other alloying elements
Longer dwelling periods: Longer holding times at elevated temperatures can promote the
diffusion of carbon atoms, allowing them to redistribute and form a more uniform distribution of
carbon within the material. This can contribute to the formation of fine-grained microstructures
and may affect the subsequent phase transformations during cooling. Longer holding times also
allow the material to approach a more thermodynamically stable state, promoting the completion
of phase transformations.
Shorter dwelling periods: Shorter holding times may result in less carbon diffusion, leading to
localized variations in carbon concentration within the material. This can influence the formation
of microstructures such as pearlite or bainite during subsequent cooling.
Here are some examples of specific dwelling periods and the resulting microstructures in
medium carbon steel during heat treatment:
Short dwelling period: 5 minutes.

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Resulting microstructure: Partially transformed microstructures, such as incomplete pearlite or
incomplete bainite
Moderate dwelling period: 30 minutes.
Resulting microstructure: Balanced pearlite and ferrite. A moderate dwelling period allows for
sufficient time for diffusion and phase transformations. In the case of medium carbon steel, this
can lead to the formation of a balanced microstructure consisting of pearlite (alternating layers of
ferrite and cementite) and ferrite. This microstructure combines strength and toughness.
Prolonged dwelling period: 2 hours.
Resulting microstructure: Coarse-grained pearlite.
In Step Quenching we may have varied dwelling periods at different temperatures,resulting in
Martensite with varying hardness. This approach can be used to achieve varying microstructures
within the same material. For example, a longer dwelling period at a higher temperature followed
by a rapid quench can result in the formation of martensite with relatively higher hardness, while
a shorter dwelling period at a lower temperature may yield martensite with lower hardness.
3)ROLE OF COOLING RATE:
The cooling rate determines the kinetics of phase transformations that occur during the cooling
process. Different cooling rates promote the formation of specific microstructures.
Quenching the material at a high cooling rate, such as by immersing it in a quenching medium
like oil or water, suppresses the diffusion of atoms and promotes the formation of the hard and
brittle martensite phase. Martensite formation occurs when the material is cooled rapidly enough
to bypass the formation of other microstructures like pearlite or bainite.High cooling rate can
lead to the formation of fine-grained microstructures. This occurs because rapid cooling restricts
the mobility of atoms, preventing significant grain growth. Rapid cooling rates during quenching
can create internal stresses as a result of non-uniform cooling and volume changes during phase
transformations. These residual stresses can affect the mechanical properties and dimensional
stability of the material.
Cooling between at intermediate rates, in a furnace or by air cooling, those required for
martensite and pearlite formation can result in the formation of bainite.
Slower cooling rates allow for more diffusion and the formation of microstructures such as
pearlite. The formation of pearlite occurs when the material is cooled slowly enough to permit
the diffusion of carbon atoms, leading to the transformation of austenite into a mixture of ferrite
and cementite. Cooling below room temperature after quenching will result in Martensite
transformation and reduction of retained austenite. This treatment helps transform retained
austenite into martensite, enhancing the hardness and dimensional stability of the material.

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EXPERIMENT METHOD:
Steel specimen is prepared for tensile test and cylindrical specimens are prepared for hardness.
Four sets out of five sets are subjected to four types of heat treatment namely annealing,
normalising and quenching and one set is left without heat treatment. All the four sets to be
subjected to heat treatment are first heated to 460°C (773 K) and held at that temperature for 3
hours. One set to be hardened is quenched in ice, second set to be normalised is cooled in air, the
set to be annealing is cooled in the furnace slowly after switching off the furnace. ,while the
fourth set was quenched in hydraulic oil.
Experimental Setup:
The various components of the experimental setup are as followed:

1.Muffle Furnace: A muffle furnace or muffle oven (sometimes retort furnace in historical
usage) is a furnace in which the subject material is isolated from the fuel and all of the products
of combustion, including gases and flying ash. After the development of high-temperature
heating elements and widespread electrification in developed countries, new muffle furnaces
quickly moved to electric designs.
Power :440v,3Ph,50Hz
Temperature:1723K

Figure 9:UTM
Figure 8:Muffle Furnace

2.Universal Testing Machine: A Universal testing machine (UTM) is used to test the
mechanical properties (tension, compression etc.) of a given test specimen by exerting tensile,
compressive or transverse stresses. The machine has been named so because of the wide range of

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tests it can perform over different kind of materials.Universal testing machines are used to
determine the physical and mechanical properties of raw materials and components by measuring
and analyzing their performance under varying tensile or compressive forces, in numerous test
methods.
Specifications: 100KN , Servo-hydraulic UTM.

Figure 10:Extensometer
Figure 11:Rockwell Hardness Tester

3.Extensometer: Instrument to measure deformation of a test piece, based on changes from an

initial reference geometry (typically with a fixed gauge length, such as 25mm or 50mm).
TRAVEL: +2.5mm,-2.5 mm
GAUGE LENGTH:12.5 mm

4.Rockwell Hardness Tester: The Rockwell hardness tester utilizes either a steel ball or a
conical diamond and indicates hardness by determining the depth of penetration of the indenter
under a known load.
Specifications: Model no. 3TR, sl.no. 5451

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OBSERVATION:
ORIGINAL SPECIMEN:

Temperature: 27°C
Area: 26.97 sq-mm
Gauge Length: 25 mm
Diameter: 5.86 mm
Rate: 0.0025 mm/s
1993.10
Peak Stress: MPa
3
53.7545
Peak Load: kN
1
1286.71
0.2% Offset Yield Stress: MPa
8
Modulus: 281.95 GPa

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SPECIMEN 1( Ice Quenching):
After performing the tensile test on the specimen, the following results were obtained

Stress Strain Curve:

Stress Vs Strain
1200

1000

800
Stress, MPa

600

400

200

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-200
Strain, %

Temperature: 24 °C
Area: 27.166 sq-mm
Gauge Length: 25 mm
Diameter: 5.88 mm
Rate: 0.0025 mm/s
Peak Stress: 1080.04 MPa
Peak Load: 29.34 kN
0.2% Offset Yield Stress: 989.835 MPa
Modulus: 179.222 GPa

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SPECIMEN 2(Furnace cooling):
STRESS STRAIN CURVE:

Stress Vs Strain
1400

1200

1000
Stress, MPa

800

600

400

200

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
-200
Strain, %

Temperature: 24°C
Area: 27.351 sq-mm
Gauge Length: 25 mm
Diameter: 5.9 mm
Rate: 0.0025 mm/s
Peak Stress: 1232.443 MPa
Peak Load: 33.708 kN
0.2% Offset Yield Stress: 1120.38 MPa
Modulus: 205.416 GPa

SPECIMEN 3 ( Air cooling):

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STRESS STRAIN CURVE:

Stress Vs Strain
1400
1200
1000
Stress, MPa

800
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
-200
Strain, %

Temperature: 27°C
Area: 26.889 sq-mm
Gauge Length: 25 mm
Diameter: 5.85 mm
Rate: 0.002 mm/s
1179.71
Peak Stress: 9 MPa
Peak Load: 31.722 kN
1074.36
0.2% Offset Yield Stress: 9 MPa
Modulus: 195.703 GPa

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SPECIMEN 4(Oil quenching):
STRESS STRAIN CURVE:

Stress Vs Strain
1200

1000

800
Stress, MPa

600

400

200

0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
-200
Strain, %

Temperature: 27°C
Area: 25.707 sq-mm
Gauge Length: 25 mm
Diameter: 5.72 mm
Rate: 0.002 mm/s
1125.55
Peak Stress: 4 MPa
Peak Load: 28.935 kN
1020.50
0.2% Offset Yield Stress: 3 MPa
Modulus: 190.615 GPa

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 SPECIMEN SPECIFICATIONS

FURNACE ICE AIR OIL UNTREATED

COOLING QUENCHING COOLING QUENCHING SAMPLE
GAUGE 25 mm 25 mm 25 mm 25 mm 25 mm
LENGTH
DIAMETER 5.9 mm 5.88 mm 5.85 mm 5.72 mm 5.86 mm
AREA 27.351mm2 27.166 mm2 26.889 25.707 mm2 26.97 mm2
mm2

FURNACE ICE AIR

Figure 12: Fractured Specimen OIL UNTREATED
COOLING QUENCHING COOLING QUENCHING SAMPLE
YIELD 1120.38 989.835 MPa 1074.369 1020.503 MPa 1286.718 MPa
STRENGTH MPa MPa
ULTIMATE 1232.443 1080.04 MPa 1179.719 1125.554 MPa 1993.103 MPa
TENSILE MPa MPa
STRENGTH
YOUNG’S 205.416 179. 222 GPa 195.703 190.615 GPa 281.95 GPa
MODULUS GPa GPa
ROCKWELL 112 108.5 111.5 108 118
HARDNESS
NUMBER

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

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 ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH(IN ROCKWELL HARDNESS
MPa) 120
NUMBER
118
2500 116
2000 114
112
1500
110
1000 108
500 106
104
0
G G G G E 102
IN IN LIN IN PL
OL CH O CH A M
CO E N CO UE
N S
CE QU R ED
AI LI Q T
NA IC
E
O EA
R TR
FU UN

Figure above shows the effect of heat treatment on the tensile strength and rockwell hardness
values of projectile steel. The tensile strength value for the annealed specimen was observed to
be greater than that of the specimens that were heat treated, while the normalized specimen also
has a greater value than that of the hardened specimen. This enhancement may be due to the fact
that the cooling process is influenced by the cooling rate used for these treatments. During the
subsequent quenching process, rapid cooling in the oil might have caused the steel to transform
into a different microstructure .This phase transformation might result in a decrease in Young's
modulus compared to the initial state. Hardening cooling rate compared to normalizing is faster,
because in hardening cooling process is done by ice/water/oil cooling and in normalizing this is
done by air cooling. Rapid quenching, such as in oil, induces significant thermal gradients and
non-uniform cooling rates within the steel. This rapid cooling can lead to the development of
residual stresses within the material. Residual stresses can affect the mechanical properties,
including Young's modulus. In this case, the quenching process might have introduced residual
stresses that contributed to the decrease in Young's modulus. Microstructural analysis might help
us to understand the reasons better.
It is clear from Figure that the hardness of the annealed sample is greater than those of other
types of samples. The value of the hardness were also observed to be in the order; Annealed>
Normalized > Quenched . Annealing has the lowest rate of cooling, while Quenching
experiences the highest rate of cooling. Annealing leads to the highest hardness. The hardness of
the steel was mainly influenced by the grain development. The thickness also playing a main role
in controlling the growth of the grain .The ranking of the importance of the process parameters
on the hardness of the armour steel was soaking time > temperature > quenchant. The untreated
sample however was found to have the highest hardness.

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Oil Quenching: Oil quenching involves rapid cooling, which promotes the formation of a higher
volume fraction of martensite. Martensite is a hard and brittle phase that exhibits limited plastic
deformation. Therefore, the strain hardening coefficient after oil quenching tends to be higher
compared to other tempering methods.
Furnace Cooling: Furnace cooling involves a slow cooling rate,that promotes the formation of
tempered martensite, which has a lower strain hardening coefficient compared to untempered
martensite. The slower cooling rate allows for some plastic deformation and relaxation of
internal stresses, resulting in a lower strain hardening coefficient compared to oil quenching.
Air Cooling: Air cooling is a relatively faster cooling process compared to furnace cooling. It
promotes the formation of a mixture of tempered martensite and other microstructural
constituents. The presence of tempered martensite contributes to lower strain hardening .
Ice Quenching: Ice quenching enhances the transformation of retained austenite to martensite,
resulting in a finer microstructure. The finer microstructure contributes to higher strength but
lower strain hardening coefficient compared to the other tempering methods.

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FUTURE SCOPE OF WORK:
The future scope of work on projectile steel can involve various areas of research and
development to enhance its performance and meet evolving requirements. Here are some
potential areas of focus:
Material Composition: Investigating and optimizing the composition of projectile steel can lead
to improved properties such as hardness, strength, and toughness. Researchers can explore
alloying elements, microalloying, and grain refinement techniques to enhance the material's
performance.
Heat Treatment and Processing Techniques: Developing advanced heat treatment and processing
techniques can further refine the microstructure and properties of projectile steel. This can
include studying the effects of different heat treatment parameters, such as temperatures, holding
times, and cooling rates, to achieve desired mechanical properties and minimize residual stresses.
Microstructural Control: Understanding and controlling the microstructure of projectile steel is
crucial for tailoring its properties. Research can focus on optimizing the phase transformations,
grain size, and distribution to enhance strength, hardness, and impact resistance. Techniques like
controlled rolling, controlled cooling, and thermo-mechanical treatments can be explored.
Modeling and Simulation: Utilizing computational modeling and simulation techniques, such as
finite element analysis (FEA) and molecular dynamics (MD), can provide insights into the
behavior of projectile steel under different conditions. These tools can aid in optimizing design,
predicting performance, and reducing the need for extensive experimental testing.
These areas represent potential avenues for future research and development in projectile steel,
aiming to enhance its performance, durability, and overall effectiveness in various applications.

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